Chapter 3 SFRA Basics

Chapter 3
SFRA Basics

3.1 Introduction
Sweep Frequency Response Analysis (SFRA) testing has become a valuable tool for
verifying the geometric integrity of transformers. SFRA provides internal diagnostic
information using nonintrusive procedures. The SFRA test method has been proven to
provide accurate and repeatable measurements.

Power Transformers are specified to withstand the mechanical forces arising from
both shipping and subsequent in-service events, such as faults and lightning.
Transportation damage can occur if the clamping and restraints are inadequate; such
damage may lead to core and winding movement. The most severe in-service forces
arise from system faults and are axial and radial in nature. If the forces are excessive,
radial buckling or axial deformation can occur. With a core form design, the principal
forces are radially directed, whereas in a shell-form unit, they are axially directed.
This difference is likely to influence the types of damage found.

Once a transformer is damaged, even if only slightly, its ability to withstand further
short circuits is reduced. Utility personnel need to effectively identify such damage. A
visual inspection is costly and does not always produce the desired results or the
correct conclusion. Since so little of the winding is visible, little damage can be seen,
other than displaced support blocks. Often a complete teardown is required to
identify the problem. An alternative method is to implement field-diagnostic
techniques capable of detecting damage.

Sweep Frequency Response Analysis (SFRA) is a tool that can give an indication of
core or winding movement in transformers. The transformer is considered to be a
complex network of RLC components as shown in Fig. 3.1

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Fig. 3.1 Equivalent Geometry of Transformer

Any form of physical damage to the transformer results in the changes of this RLC
network. These changes are what we are looking for and employ frequency response
to highlight these small changes in the RLC network within the transformer. For
different frequencies the RLC network offers different impedance paths. Hence, the
transfer function at each frequency is a measure of the effective impedance of the
RLC network of the transformer. Any geometrical deformation changes the RLC
network, which in turn changes the transfer function at different frequencies and
hence highlights the area of concern [46]. The frequency response of such a network
is unique and, therefore, it can be considered as a fingerprint as shown in Fig. 3.2

Fig. 3.2 Principles of SFRA

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3.2 SFRA Theory

The primary objective of SFRA is to determine how the impedance of a test specimen
behaves over a specified range of frequencies. The impedance is a distributive
network of real and reactive electrical components. The components are passive and
can be modeled by resistors, inductors and capacitors. The reactive properties of a
given test specimen depend on, and are sensitive to, changes in frequency. The change
in impedance versus frequency can be dramatic in many cases. This behavior
becomes apparent when we model impedance as a function of frequency. The result is
a transfer function representation of the RLC network in the frequency domain.
When a transformer is subject to SFRA testing, the leads are configured to use four
terminals. These four terminals can be divided into two unique pairs one pair each
for the input and output. These terminals can be modeled in a two terminal pair or a
two port network configuration as shown in Fig. 3.3.

Fig. 3.3 Two Port Network

Solving for the open-circuit impedance for each lumped element forms the
impedances Z11, Z22, Z12 and Z21. It should be noted that the negative terminals are
short circuited when transformers are tested. The transformer tank is common for both
negative and lower terminals. The transformer tank and lead ground shields must be
connected together to achieve a common mode measurement. This assures that no
external impedance is measured. Applying the connection in this manner helps reduce
the effects of noise. It is important to obtain a zero impedance between the lower or
negative terminals to assure a repeatable measurement.

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The transfer function of an RLC network is the ratio of the output and input frequency
responses when the initial conditions of the network are zero. Both magnitude and
phase relationship can be extracted from the transfer function.

The transfer function is represented in the frequency domain and is denoted by

Fourier variable H(j) where (j) denotes the presence of a frequency dependent
function, and w=2f. The Fourier relationship for the input/output transfer function is
given by :
H(j) = Voutput (j)
Vinput (j)

When a transfer function is reduced to its simplest form, it generates a ratio of two
polynomials. The main characteristics, such as half-power and resonance, of a transfer
function occur at the roots of the polynomials.

The goal of SFRA is to measure the impedance model of the test specimen. When we
measure the transfer function H(j), it does not isolate the true specimen impedance
Z(j). The true specimen impedance Z(j) is the RLC network, which is positioned
between the instrument leads, and it does not include any impedance supplied by the
test instrument.

It must be noted that when using the voltage relationship, H(j) is not always directly
related to Z(j). For Z(j) to be directly related to H(j), a current must be
substituted for the output voltage and then Ohms law can be realized. However,
SFRA uses the voltage ratio relationship to determine H(j). Since SFRA uses a 50
ohm impedance match measuring system, the 50 ohm impedance must be
incorporated into H(j). The next equation shows the relationship of Z(j) to H(j) :
H(jw) = 50___
Z(jw) + 50

It is often useful to plot the magnitude and phase relationship of the transfer function
in logarithmic format. The units of magnitude and phase are in decibles (dB) and
degrees, respectively. Magnitude and phase are represented as follows :
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A(dB)=20 log10 (H(jw))

A()= tan-1 (H(jw))
This format takes advantage of the asymptotic symmetry by using a logarithmic scale
for frequency. Plotting the phase relationship with the magnitude data helps determine
whether the system is resistive, inductive or capacitive. It is often useful to compare
resonance in the magnitude plots with the zero crossings in the phase relationship.
[46]

3.3 SFRA History

1960 Low Voltage Impulse Method (LVI) First proposed by W. Lech & L.
Tyminski in Poland for detecting transformer winding deformation.
1966 Result Published: W. Lech & L. Tyminski Detecting transformer winding
damage the low voltage impulse method , Electric Review, no. 18, ERA, UK.
The method was used by Dr. Alexandr Dobishevsky in former USSR and within
Bonneville Power Administration, United States (Eldon Rogers)
1976 Frequency Domain Analysis of Responses from L.V.I. Testing of Power
Transformers Presented by A.G. Richenbacher at the 43rd Doble Intl Client
Conference.
1980 In the 1980s the Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB) in the UK took
up the measurement technique and applied it transmission transformers. The French
also began to pursue measurements at the same time.
1990 On the breakup of the CEGB in the early 1990s work in FRA was taken by
National Grid in the UK and resulted in several papers at Doble Client Conferences.
The technique has been spread further through Euro Doble Conferences and client
meetings and several utilities took up the technique.[16]

Many early practitioners tried impulse systems, and have continued to try them up to
the 2003. Though appealing in terms of speed, they have never been able to match the
range, resolution or repeatability of sweep methods and continue to reject such
methods.
As the basic technique developed by early users required laboratory based equipment
such as HP network analyzers, which were robust, but not field hardened and required
specialist operators. Upon a successful program of product development and field
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trials, Doble stepped in to provide field engineers and staff with a reliable and robust
tool for transformer analysis the M5100. This outperforms the HP in terms of
measurement characteristics and field usability. [9]

3.4 SFRA Today

SFRA is today an established technology to investigate the mechanical and electrical
integrity of a transformer.

Before the 1990s no designated SFRA equipment for transformer analysis existed.
Since then several specialized products have been introduced.

The value that SFRA provides to its users is quite easily established, by research of
published material and customer experience.

The international community, such as CIGRE, IEC and the IEEE has widely accepted
its use and is now providing guide lines.

CIGRE : CIGRE working group A2-26 Mechanical Condition Assessment of

Transformer Windings created in 2004. The CIGRE WG A2-26 main objective is
to develop a guide on the Mechanical Condition Assessment of Transformer
Windings using the Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) method. The WG has
delivered a final report end 2007 for a publication before the group session in
August 2008. The WG is disbanded. UK will check with IEC TC 14 for a
possibility to have a part of this document publish as an IEC document. [11]

A new work item proposal 14/597/NP has been issued by IEC TC 14 on December
2008 based on the work done within WG A2-26 Mechanical Condition Assessment
of Transformer Windings and finalized with the publication of the TB 342 in April
2008. [12]

IEC : IEC published the FRA Standard, 60076-18, Power Transformers

Part 18 : Measurement of Frequency Response in July, 2012.

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The Scope of the IEC 60076 series covers the measurement technique and measuring
equipment to be used when a frequency response measurement is required either on-
site or in the factory either when the test object is new or at a later stage.
Interpretation of the result is not part of the normative text but some guidance is given
in Annex B. This standard is applicable to power transformers, reactors, phase
shifting transformers and similar equipment. [28]
IEEE : IEEE C57.149 Working Group published the Guide for the Application
and Interpretation of Frequency Response Analysis for Oil immersed
Transformers in March 2013.
IEEE C57.149 Working Group focused on the 3 failure modes, namely
Radial Deformation
Axial Deformation and
Bulk Movement from Transportation.

3.5 Purpose of FRA Measurements

The main interest of FRA measurements on transformers is to detect winding
deformations that may result from the very large electromagnetic forces arising from
over-currents during through faults, tap-changer faults, faulty synchronization, etc.

Winding deformation eventually results in a transformer failure by damaging the

inter-turn insulation, resulting eventually in shorted turns, which means the immediate
end of service life. Transformers are expected to survive a number of short circuits
without failure but, once any significant winding deformation is produced, the
likelihood of surviving further short circuits is greatly reduced because of locally
increased electromagnetic stresses. Furthermore, any reduction in winding clamping
due to insulation shrinkage caused by ageing will also increase the likelihood of
failure by reducing the mechanical strength of the winding assemblies.

In addition to diagnosing failures after a short-circuit event, there is increasing interest

in detecting winding deformation damage prior to eventual failure during planned
outages, i.e. mechanical-condition assessments to assess the expected reliability of

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transformers in terms of any suspected increased susceptibility to failure under further

short circuits.

There is also an interest in using FRA measurements to detect any other problems that
result in changes to the inductance or capacitance distribution in transformers, e.g.
core faults or faulty grounding of cores or screens.

Another application for FRA measurements is to check the mechanical integrity of a

transformer after transportation, which usually means providing a reliable means of
confirming that the core and winding assembly have not suffered any mechanical
damage despite sustaining jolts during transportation. Note that for this application it
may be necessary to have reference results without oil and bushings, if that is how the
transformer is transported. Since transportation shocks are more likely to cause
damage to the core structure than to the windings, there is a slightly different focus for
this application. Because FRA measurements can provide information about the
consistency of geometric structures of windings and core, such tests are increasingly
being used as quality assurance checks. [15]

3.6 Definitions
Frequency Response Analysis (FRA)
Any measurements of the frequency dependency (to high frequencies, e.g. MHz) of
the electrical responses (transfer functions) of transformer windings to applied signals
which are made with the primary intention of detecting winding deformation through
the effects of resulting changes to capacitance or inductance distributions.
Sweep Frequency Method
A frequency response measured directly by injecting a signal of a variable frequency
at one terminal and measuring the response at another.
Impulse Voltage Method
A frequency response measured indirectly by injecting an impulse signal of a
particular shape at one terminal and measuring the response at another, and then
transforming the time domain measurements into frequency domain results.

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FRA Amplitude
The magnitude of the response relative to that of the injected signal, usually expressed
in dB calculated as 20*log 10(Vresponse/Vinjection).
FRA Phase Angle
The phase angle shift of the response relative to that of the injected signal.
Resonance Frequency
The frequencies corresponding to any local maxima or minima in the measured
amplitude response. [15]

3.7 Development and Variations in FRA Practices

It is important to realize that a great variety of FRA measurement techniques are
currently being used, not all of which have produced good results. Most of the
variations in the FRA technique can be traced to how the technique developed from
LVI. Differences in FRA practices arise from two main aspects:

How the measurement is made

Which measurement is made

The main variation in how FRA measurements are made concerns whether a sweep
frequency method (referred to as SFRA) or an impulse method (referred to as
IFRA) is used. The first IFRA techniques used an impulse method with the same
double exponential type of impulse signal as used by LVI, with appropriate rise and
fall times to include components of the range of frequencies of interest. The impulse
is applied to one terminal and the form of the applied and the transmitted signal at
another terminal are recorded by a dual channel digital data acquisition system. One
key development from time domain LVI is that the two measured impulses are then
transformed into the frequency domain using the Fast Fourier Transform algorithm,
and then the calculated amplitudes of frequency components of the transmitted signal
are divided by the corresponding amplitudes of the applied signal to derive the
frequency response indirectly. This frequency response has the advantage over the
LVI time response that it is independent of the shape of the applied impulse, so that
the result is more closely related to the test object and less to the test set-up, thereby
simplifying interpretation and improving repeatability. The impulse method of
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performing FRA measurements being a development of traditional high-voltage

impulse testing, some transformer manufacturers use their modern digital impulse
testing recorders to perform FRA measurements but recently purpose-built
transformer test instruments have become available to perform IFRA measurements.
Since the objective of FRA measurements is to obtain the frequency response of
windings, an alternative technique was proposed [28] to measure this directly using a
sweep frequency technique. A sine wave signal is applied to one terminal and the
amplitude and phase of the transmitted signal at another terminal are measured
relative to the applied signal for various frequencies over the frequency range of
interest. Early practitioners had to use general-purpose laboratory Network/Spectrum
Analyzer instruments, but more recently purpose-built transformer test instruments
have become available to perform SFRA measurements.

In principle, everything else being equal, the sweep frequency and impulse techniques
should be capable of producing the same result, and this has been demonstrated on
several occasions. For sweep frequency measurements, the accuracy depends on the
ability of the equipment to perform over the frequency range of interest, and to reject
noise at frequencies away from the measurement frequency. In order to obtain an
accurate derivation of the frequency response using the impulse technique, the
sampling frequency and record length of the digitizing equipment must be adequate to
faithfully record all frequency components of interest in both input and output
impulses, which must both return to zero at the end of the sampling period for the
FFT algorithm to be valid (in case no window function is applied), and the applied
impulse amplitude must be large enough to ensure that all noise components in the
output frequency distribution are insignificant. The introduction of Spectral Density
Estimates to the impulse technique helped to overcome the influence of noise in the
output signal and the result of the FRA measurement.

The other main way that variations in FRA results can be introduced by how the
measurement is made concerns practices involving test leads. A three-lead system
(separate leads for applying and measuring the signal at the input terminal) as shown
in Fig. 3.4 is recommended to avoid including the input lead in the measurement.

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Fig. 3.4 Color codes of leads at test set

When making high-frequency measurements, it is good practice to use coaxial test

leads with a good high-frequency bandwidth, and to ensure that the test leads are
terminated in their characteristic impedance, usually 50 ohms, to avoid reflections.
Good practice for grounding the shields of the coaxial cables is of primary importance
to achieve good repeatability.
The most basic and important variation in FRA results is introduced by which type of
measurement is made. Most SFRA users perform an end-to-end measurement in
which the input signal is applied to one end of every winding and the transmitted
signal at the other end is measured, as for a simple resistance measurement. For some
impulse users, following traditional impulse measurement practice, it is more usual to
inject a voltage at one terminal (usually an HV terminal) and measure the transferred
voltages to other windings, or currents in the injected winding (usually at the HV
neutral) to derive self or transferred impedances (or admittances). Variation can also
be introduced by different values of measuring impedances (50/10/1M etc.)
and/or by the way other untested terminals are terminated. Some users prefer a
practice of grounding untested windings while others prefer to leave all other
terminals floating. Not surprisingly, these different measurements are not necessarily
equally effective in detecting mechanical displacement. Some recent work has been
done to compare the relative sensitivities of different connection techniques.

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Lately, a technique has been demonstrated where a complete transformer fingerprint

is measured such that subsequently any type of FRA curve can be calculated on
demand. A device connects to all the transformer terminals at the same time and
automatically measures all the linear properties of the transformer, i.e. the full
admittance matrix, without requiring any reconnection. In addition, this technique
allows the automated generation of high frequency terminal models of transformers
for network simulation purposes.
In view of the wide variety of FRA practices in use, there would obviously be benefit
in carefully examining these with a view to standardizing those that have been shown
to be most effective, while allowing variety where this does not impact on
performance. [15]

3.8 Measurements on Different Winding Types

Most people immediately think of winding measurements as being only associated
with the high-voltage and the low-voltage windings. When considering SFRA
measurements, winding measurements realistically consist of five categories and not
just two. The winding categories are high-voltage, low-voltage, inter, series, and
common.

Short circuit measurements made on one winding while short circuiting another
winding are a variation on inter winding measurements.
It should be noted that inter-winding measurement is not a true winding measurement,
but rather the transfer impedance between two windings. The series and common
winding measurements describe the SFRA application as it is applied to auto
transformers. Regardless, certain expectations can be made for each.

These measurement types produce some predictable characteristics and properties.

Understanding these properties will minimize testing error and may help identify
problems. The following expectations exist for each of the following categories. [39]

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3.8.1 High-Voltage Winding

High-voltage winding measurements have greatest attenuation as compared to low
voltage and tertiary windings. Most traces start between 30 dB and 50 dB and are
initially inductive. High-voltage windings are much larger in overall size, which
contributes to greater complexity in its distributive network. High-voltage winding
measurements generally produce steeper resonances and more of them as compared to
its low-voltage counterpart. Fig. 3.5 illustrates these features.

Fig. 3.5 High Voltage winding

The traces shown in Fig. 3.5 are from different test specimens. Both traces are from
230 kV core-forms transformers, however one trace is from a delta connected
configuration and the other is from a wye connected configuration. [39]

3.8.2 Low-Voltage Winding

Low-voltage winding measurements have least attenuation as compared to the other
categories. Most traces start between 5 dB and 15 dB and are also initially
inductive This characteristic is due to the low impedance property of the high current
side of the transformer. The first peak after the core resonance generally approaches
5 dB to 0 dB and is concave and smooth. As compared to the high-voltage winding
response, the low voltage winding fewer fluctuations and is slight smoother. Fig. 3.6
illustrates these features. Again, both traces in this figure are from different
transformers. [39]

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Fig. 3.6 Low-Voltage Winding

3.8.3 Inter-Winding
Inter-winding measurements always start with high attenuation, between 60 dB and
90 dB, and are capacitive. If electrostatic interference is present, it will show up at
60 Hz and at the associated harmonics of 60 Hz during this measurement. Fig. 3.7
illustrates these features. These traces are very common; most inter-winding traces
adhere to one of the basic shapes shown below.

Fig. 3.7 Inter-Winding

Fig. 3.8 presents a high-voltage winding trace, a low-voltage winding trace, and an
inter-winding trace together from a common test specimen. This illustrates their
general relationship. It can be seen that the low-voltage winding has consistently
lower attenuation then the high-voltage winding. Also, low-voltage winding is much

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smoother at higher frequencies. This example was taken from a 10 MVA auxiliary
transformer. [39]

Fig. 3.8 Trace Relationship

3.8.4 Series and Common Winding

The series and common winding measurements are grouped together because of their
similarities. These measurements are associated with auto transformer. The naturally
low turns ratio of an auto transformer causes the series and common measurements to
be similar. However, if an LTC is present on either winding, the similarities will be
somewhat affected by the tap windings. Fig. 3.9 illustrate these features, and were
obtained from a General Electric 440MVA 345 kV auto-transformer. Electrostatic
interference was present during testing and is seen at 60 Hz. [39]

Fig. 3.9 Series and Common Winding

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3.9 Conclusion
Sweep Frequency Response Analysis (SFRA) is a tool that can give an indication of
core or winding movement in transformers. This is done by performing a
measurement, a simple one, looking at how well a transformer winding transmits a
low voltage signal that varies in frequency. Just how well a transformer does this is
related to its impedance, the capacitive and inductive elements of which are intimately
related to the physical construction of the transformer. Changes in frequency response
as measured by SFRA techniques may indicate a physical change inside the
transformer, the cause of which then needs to be identified and investigated.

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