Class N#7 - Complete Chapter PDF

Chapter 7
Air Data and Air Data Systems

Alejandro Cabrera Garca 1544828
Sugei Montserrat Lpez Gonzlez 1568515
Oscar Alberto Gmez Snchez 1568274
Ingeniera Aeronutica: Avinica
Index
Topic 1: 7.1 Introduction
Topic 2: 7.2 Air Data Information and its use
Subtopic 2.1: 7.2.1 Air Data Measurement
Subtopic 2.2: 7.2.2 The Air Data Quantities and Their importance
Subtopic 2.3: 7.2.2.1 Air Data Information for the Pilot
Subtopic 2.4: 7.2.2.2 Air Data for Key Subs-ystems
Topic 3: 7.3 Derivation of Air Data Laws and Relationships
Subtopic 3.1: 7.3.1 Altitude-Static Pressure Relationship
Subtopic 3.2: 7.3.2 Variation of Ground Pressure
Subtopic 3.3: 7.3.3 Air Density versus Altitude Relationship
Subtopic 3.4: 7.3.4 Speed of Sound
Subtopic 3.5: 7.3.5 Pressure-Speed Relantionships
Ingeniera Aeronutica: Avinica 2
Index
Subtopic 3.6: 7.3.6 Mach number
Subtopic 3.7: 7.3.7 Calibrated Airspeed
Subtipic 3.8: 7.3.8 Static Air Temperature
Subtopic 3.9: 7.3.9 True Airspeed
Subtopic 3.10: 7.3.10 Pressure Error
Topic 4: 7.4 Air Data Sensors
Subtopic 4.1: 7.4.1 Introduction
Subtopic 4.2: 7.4.2 Air Data System Pressure Sensors
-7.4.2.2 Pressure Sensor Technology
Subtopic 4.3: 7.4.3 Air Data Computation
Subtopic 4.4: 7.4.4 Angle of Incidence Sensors

Topic 1: 7.1 Introduction
As it has been mentioned several times over the
course, precise data about the conditions in which
an aircraft is traveling is crucial information for a
pilot to fly safely and its also required by avionic
systems to carry out with a mission.

Such data includes:
Pressure
Altitude
Vertical Speed, CAS, TAS
Mach Number
Static air temperature
Air Density ratio

Topic 2: 7.2.1 Air Data Measurement
Air data quantities altitude, vertical speed, CAS, TAS,
Mach number and others, are obtained by deriving
data from three basic measurements:
Pitot pressure
Static pressure
Indicated Air Temperature

Total Pressure (PT)
It is measured by means of an absolute pressure
sensor connected to a Pitot tube facing the
moving airstream. This measures the impact
pressure (Qc), that is the pressure exerted to
bring the moving airstream rest relative to the
pitot tube plus the static pressure (Ps), of the
free airstream.
PT = Qc + Ps
The static pressure (Ps)
Its measured by an absolute pressure
transducer connected to a suitable orifice
located where the surface pressure is nearly the
same as the pressure of the surrounding
atmosphere.

High performance military aircraft generally
have a combined Pitot/static probe which
extends out in front of the aircraft so as to be
as far away as practicable from aerodynamic
interference effects and shock waves
generated by the aircraft structure.
Fig. 1 F-16 Pitot tube

Some civil transport aircraft have Pitot probes
with separate static pressure orifices located
in the fuselage generally somewhere between
the nose and the wing. The exact location of
the static pressure orifices (and the Pitot
tubes or probes) is determined by experience
and experimentation.
Ingeniera Aeronutica: Avinica Fig. 2 Nose-located pitot 10

tube
The practicality of a Pitot tube
Even while invented 250 years ago, the pitot
tube can gives us sufficient information to
obtain:
1. Pressure altitude, derived from the static
pressure measurement and assuming a
standard atmosphere
2. Vertical speed, derived by differentiating the
static pressure

3. Calibrated Airspeed (CAS), directly derived
from the impact pressure, which is derived from
the difference between the total and static
pressures
4. Mach number (M), it is the ration of the TAS,
to the local speed of sound (A): VT/A, it is
derived directly from the ratio of the total
pressure to the static pressure (PT/Ps)

Indicated Air temperature
It is made by means of a temperature sensor
installed in a probe in the airstream. This gives:
Free airstream temperature (Ts)
Kinetic rise in temperature due to the air
brought to rest relative to the sensor probe

The computing of M with the known recovery
ratio of the probe enables the correction
factor for the kinetic heating effect to be
derived to convert the measured air free
temperature to the free airstream or static air
temperature.

The static air temperature so derived enables
the local speed of sound to be calculated. TAS
can then be computed since: VT = M*A. Air
density ratio can then be computed from the
static pressure and the static air temperature.

Fig. 3 Basic air data system [1]

Activity 1: POP QUIZ
Name the data that a pilot in a civil/military aircraft
needs to know:
Pressure altitude, vertical speed, CAS, M, etc
Which are the three basic measurements used to
obtain all the air data?
Pitot pressure, static pressure, Indicated air
temperature

Subtopic 2.2: 7.2.2 The Air Data Quantities and Their
importance
7.2.2.1 Air Data information for the pilot
Even while the pilot has displays with all the air data
already mentioned, the two most important
quantities are:
1. Pressure altitude
2. Calibrated airspeed

Pressure altitude
It is the height of the
aircraft above sea level
derived from the
measurement of the
static pressure assuming
a standard atmosphere.
It is shown in the
altimeter.
Fig. 4 The International Atmosphere [2]

Calibrated airspeed
It is the speed which, under standard level
conditions, would give the same impact pressure as
the measured on the aircraft.
It is basically the indicated airspeed corrected for
the position of the static and pitot tube in the
airplane, since it is impossible to find a position
where the static pressure is always the same.
It is located in the T of basic principal
instruments.
The importance of the CAS
The importance of the CAS resides in the fact
that it can tell the pilot the ability of the
aircraft to fly and to maneuver since it
provides a direct measurement of the impact
pressure.
1 2
=
2

The importance of the Pressure
altitude
An accurate measurement of the aircrafts altitude is
essential for the control in the vertical plane.
Also, it is used to maintain adequate distance from
topographic obstacles.
Fig. 5 Basic altimeter

Important data required by the ATC
There are also other important quantities
required by the ATC for air traffic control
purposes:
1. True Airspeed
2. Mach Number
3. Vertical speed/rate of climb
4. Angle of incidence

7.2.2.2 Air Data for key sub-systems
Air traffic control transponder

Pressure altitude is supplied to the ATC
transponder for automatic reporting to the air
ground control system.
ATC authorities specify the flight levels which

aircraft must maintain in controlled airspace.
(The vertical separation between one aircraft
and another must be at least of 1000ft)
True altitude and pressure altitude
The real altitude of an aircraft can vary from a
day to another due to atmospheric changes,
however this does not matter in the ground
control of air traffic due to this statement:
Real Altitude = H(ATC) + H
Where the difference in altitude is due to the
changes in the atmosphere.

Air data in avionic systems
Air data are also extremely important for
different avionc systems, apart for the pilot:
1. Flight control systems
2. Autopilot systems
3. Navigation systems
4. Flight management systems
5. Engine control systems

Fig. 6 Flow of air data to key avionic sub-systems [1]

Topic 3: 7.3 Derivation of air data laws and relationships
Subtopic 3.1: 7.3.1 Altitude-static pressure
relationship
The altitude-static pressure relationship derives:
=
Where g is the constant of gravity. From the gas
law:
=
Where T is the air temperature an is the gas
constant for unit of dry air.
Combining the above mentioned equations:

=

T can be expressed as a function of H only:
The law relating T at altitude (H) in the tropopause is:
=
Where L is the temperature lapse rate.
In the chemosphere, the temperature begins to increase
linearly, and it can be described as:
= + ( )

The gravitational acceleration differs at an
altitude different from Earths surface and it is
described as:
02
= 2
0
(0 + )
R is the radius of the earth
In the troposphere region = 0
Substituting for T and assuming g is constant
and equal to 0 :

1 0 1
=
0 0 0
Ps0 is the value of p at sea level, H = 0 and Ps is the value
of p at altitude H.
0 ()
=
0 0
Hence:
0/
= 0(1 )
0
And:
0 /0
= 1( )
0
In the stratosphere region T=TT*

1 0
=

Where PST is the pressure at tropopause altitude,
0
( )( )
=
And:

= +
0
In the chemosphere region the static pressure versus altitude
relationship can be derived by a similar process by substituting
= + ( ) and g = g0

0/

= 1 + ( )

And:

= + ( ) 0 1

The formulae relating Ps and H are set out and are derived by substituting the
appropiate values in the table and Hp for H.

Fig. 7 Static pressure versus altitude

Subtopic 3.2: 7.3.2 Variation of ground pressure
Errors due to the variation in the ground

pressure from the assumed standard value are
taken out of the altimeter reading by setting a
scale to a given pressure.
This action affects the zero point and so alters
the altimeter reading over the whole of its
range by a height corresponding to the
pressure set as determined by the altitude
pressure law.

Fig. 8 Altimeter ground pressure adjustments [1]

Activity 2: Quiz
Which is the formula for Qc?
Name avionic systems that use Air data:
If the atmospheric pressure in a certain day
varies a lot from the standard value, will it
affect how the ATC gives indications to the air
traffic? If so, why or why not?

Subtopic 3.3: 7.3.3 Air Density versus
Altitude Relationship
0
1
= (1 )
0 0
Where 0 = density at standard sea level conditions = 0 / 0
L = Troposhpere lapse rate (C/m), H = height, = gas constant for
unit mass of dry air.
Example. Compute the air density at an altitude of 10,000 m

(30,480ft) given 0 =1.225 kg/3 (0 =5.255879)
6.5 10000 5.2558791
Density at 10,000 m = 1.225(1 - )
1000 288.15
=0.4127 /3
Activity
Compute the air density at an altitude of 8,500 m (27,887.14 ft)

given 0 =1.225 kg/3 , 0=5.255879, L= 6.5103 C/m,
0 =288.15K
6.5 8500 5.2558791

Density at 8,500m = 1.225(1 - )
1000 288.15
Density at 8,500m = 0.4950 /3

Subtopic 3.4: 7.3.4 Speed of Sound
Equating mass flows at A and B
= + + (1)
Neglecting second order terms

= (2)
Force acting on stream tube of air between sections A and B

= Mass per secondchange in velocity
+ = (3)
Hence
= (4)
Combinig equations (2) and (4) yields

= 2 (5)
Fig. 9 Pressure vs Distance
The transmission of a pressure wave approximates and
adiabatic process
= 1.4 for air and K = constant

= 1 = (6)

Equating (5) and (6) and letting A be speed of sound (= V)

= (7)

Substitute = in (7)
= (8)
The speed of sound only depends on the temperature of the air
So, the speed of sound at sea level, 0 , under standard conditions is:
1.4 287.0529 288.15
0 = 340.294
The speed of sound reduces with increasing altitude until the tropopause
height is reached. Then in the stratosphere the speed stays constant as the
temperaturature is constant.
The variations in the troposphere region is derived from the relationship

= 0 1 (9)
0
Subtopic 3.5: 7.3.5 Pressure-Speed
Relationships
(a) Subsonic speeds
At airspeeds below M = 0.3, the air can be considered to be
incompressible and density constant
The momentum equation for the air flow is

+ = 0
In free airstream = and = . At the probe face = and

=0
Integrating between these limits
0
+ = 0 (10)

Hence
1
= 2 (11)
2
2
= (12)

Fig. 10 Impact pressure
Study Case
AeroPer 603 Crash
Description:
Flight 603 took off from Lima for a flight to Santiago.
After five minutes the crew reported problems with
their instruments and stated that they wanted to
return to the airpoirt. While returning, the captains
altitude and airspeed indications were too high and
the co-pilots airspeed indications were too low.

Study Case
AeroPer 603 Crash
The aircraft kept descendind and impacted the water
with its left wing at 260 knots. Then the aircraft
pulled up to 200 ft and crashed inverted. The
captains indications were 450 knots and 9500 ft of
altitude.

Study Case
AeroPer 603 Crash
Cause:
The three static ports on the left side of the aircraft were
obstructed by masking tape, the tape was applied before
washing and polishing the aircraft. None of the maintenance or
flight crew noticed this in the walk-around and pre-flight check.
Comments:
The loss of one reading, like static pressure in this case, can
cause a huge accident and the loss of many people. It can be
stated the importance of the pressure sensors in an aircraft.

The change in density due to the high impact pressures resulting from high airspeeds must
therefore be taking into account. Assuming adiabatic flow, the relationship between pressure
and density is:
=
1 1
= 1 (13)

Substituting for in the momentun equation + = 0
1 1
+ 1 = 0 (14)

1 1 0
+ 1 = 0 (15)

1 1
1 2
= 1 (16)
1 2
From (13)
1

1
=

1
Substituting for in eq (16) and rearranging gives
(1)
= [1 + 2 ] (1)
2
= 2 and putting = 1.4 in the previous eq gives

2 3.5
= [1 + 0.2 2 ] (17)

and
2 3.5
= [(1 + 0.2 2 ) 1] (18)

(b) Supersonic speeds

(1)
+1 2
2
= 1 (19)
2 2 1 (1)

+1 +1
Substituting = 1.4 in (19) becomes
7
166.92

= 2 2.5 (20)

7 1

7
166.92

= 2 2.5 1 (21)

7 1

Subtopic 3.6: 7.3.6 Mach Number
Mach number can be obtained from equations (17) for
subsonic speeds and from equation (20) for supersonic
speeds by substituting =
(a) Subsonic speeds from equation (17)

= (1 + 0.22 )3.5 (22)

(b) Supersonic speeds from equation (20)
166.922
= (23)
(72 1)2.5
Fig. 11 Pt/Ps vs Mach Number

Subtopic 3.7: 7.3.7 Calibrated Airspeed
Vc, can be derived from equations (18) and (21) for subsonic and
supersonic cases by substituting for sea level conditions, that is
= 0 and =
(a) Subsonic speeds 0 , from eq (18)
2 3.5
= [(1 + 0.2 ) 1] (24)
0
A simpler expression relationg and can be obtained by applying
2
binomial expansin to the inner factor 1 + 0.2 and noting that
0
20 = ( )/0
The expression obtained is
1 2 1 2
2 0 1+ (25)
4 0
When in low airspeeds, it can be seen that

12 0 2
(b) Supersonic speeds > 0 , from eq (21)
7
166.92
0
= 2.5 1 (26)
2
7 1
0
Fig. 12 Qc vs Vc
Subtopic 3.8: 7.3.8 Static Air
Temperature
The temperature sensed by a thermometer probe in the airstream is the free
airstream temperature plus the kinetic rise in temperature.
The kinetic rise in temperature can be obtained by application of Bernouillis
For unit mass of air
1 1 2 1
+ 12 + 1 = + 22 + 2 (27)
1 2 2 2
Where 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 and 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 represent pressure, density, velocity,
temperature and internal energy at two points in a streamline ow, free
airstream and at the probe
At free airstream 1 = and 1 = . At stagnation point 2 = 0 and
2 =
Substituting these values in eq (27)
1 2
= 2 1 + ( ) (28)
2
Change in internal energy becomes heat
2 1 = ( ) (29)
where J is the Joule constant and is the specific heat of air at constant
volume
1 2
= ( + ) ( ) (30)
2
Thermodynamic theory
= ( ) (31)
Combining (30) and (31)
1 2
= ( )
2

Rearringing and substituting =
(1) 1
= 2 (32)
2
2
Substituting for and putting = 1.4

= (33)
(1+0.22 )

= (34)
(1+0.22 )
Subtopic 3.9: 7.3.9 True Airspeed
True airspeed, can be obtained from Mach number
= =

= (35)
1+0.22

= 20.0468 / (36)
1+0.22
Subtopic 3.10: 7.3.10 Pressure error
The pressures measured at the Pitot head and the static
orice are not exactly equal to the true values.
The error of the total pressure measured by the pitot
probe is usually small.
The error in the static pressure measurement, however,
can be signicant, and is due to disturbance of the airow
near the detecting orices by the pressure head itself and
by the aircraft structure.
To minimize the latter effect, the Pitot static probe is
often mounted in front of the foremost part of the
aircraft.
Topic 4: 7.4 Air Data Sensors
Subtopic 4.1: 7.4.1 Introduction
The key air data sensors comprise two pressure
sensors and a temperature sensor.
The temperature sensor generally comprises a

simple resistance bridge with one arm of the
bridge consisting of a resistive element exposed
to the airstream, the resistance of this element
being a function of temperature.
Air data pressure sensors require an extremely high accuracy and
involve a long expensive development to establish and qualify a
producible, competitive device.
They can be affected by:
Temperature changes
Vibration
Shock
Acceleration
Humidity, etc.
The art of sensor design is to minimize and if possible eliminate

these effects on the sensor.
Subtopic 4.2: 7.4.2 Air Data System
Pressure Sensors
7.4.2.1 Accuracy Requirements
(a) Static pressure sensor
These sensors have a typical full scale pressure range of 0 to 130
kPa (0-1,300 mb). And theyre required to work over a temperature
range of -60C to +90C (or higher).
The error in static pressure can be measured with the following
equations
In the troposphere In the stratosphere
0 1 1
= (1 ) (37) =
0 0 0
(38)
The effect of a 100 Pa (1 mb) error in static pressure
measurement at sea level is thus equal to
287.0529288.15 1
1 = 8.32 (27.3)
9.80665 1013.25
However, the effect of a 100 Pa (1 mb) error in static

pressure measurement at an altitude of 13,000 m (42,650
ft) when the static pressure is 16.5 kPa (165 mb) is equal to
287.0529216.65 1
1 = 39.43 (126)
9.80665 165
A major part of the error budget in the static pressure
measurement is the inherent pressure error due to the
installation and location of the static pressure orices.
This pressure error, or position error as it is sometimes

called, has to be determined experimentally and is a
function of Mach number and incidence.
The errors in static pressure measurement over the low

altitude pressure range should also be less than 30 Pa
(0.3mb). This ensures the altimeter will read the true
altitude on landing within 3.3 m (error of 0.1mb)
(b) Total pressure sensor
A typical total pressure sensor has a full scale pressure range of 0 to
260 kPa (0 to 2,600 mb).
The effect of errors in measuring the impact pressure at low
airspeeds can be derived as follows:
= 12 2
=
Consider the requirement for the measurement of airspeed to an
accuracy of 0.5 m/s (approx.1 knot) at an approach speed of 50 m/s
= 1.225 50 0.5 = 30.6

Activity
The speed of sound only temperature of the air

depends on the: Because the temperature is
Why the speed of sound remains constant
constant in the stratosphere? the free airstream temperature
The temperature sensed by a plus the kinetic rise in
thermometer probe in the temperature.
airstream is
Comprise two pressure sensors Key air data sensors
and a temperature sensor.
Activity
Mention 5 factors that affect the readings of a pressure sensor
Temperature changes
Vibration
Shock
Acceleration
Humidity
7.4.2.2 Pressure Sensor Technology
Although there are other types of pressure
sensor in service, attention has been
concentrated on these two types as they
account for most of the modern systems. The
two main types can be divided into:
(a) Vibrating pressure sensors.

(b) Solid state capsule pressure sensors.
(a)Vibrating pressure sensors.
The basic concept of this family of sensors is

to sense the input pressure by the change it
produces in the natural resonant frequency of
a vibrating mechanical system.
The output of the sensor is thus a frequency
which is directly related to the pressure being
measured.
and with the outside at zero
vacuum reference pressure.
The cylinder is maintained in a

hoop mode of vibration by
making it part of a feedback
oscillator by sensing the
The pressure sensing element cylinder wall displacement,
consists of a thin walled processing and amplifying the
cylinder with the input signal and feeding it back to a
pressure acting on the inside of suitable force producing
the cylinder device.
Electromagnetic drive and pick-
off coils are used so that there
is no contact with the vibrating
cylinder.
Fig. 13 Vibrating pressure sensor

Type 3088 pressure sensor.
Schlumberger Industries
have developed the
vibrating cylinder type of
pressure sensor to an
outstanding performance
and reliability level. Their
pressure sensors have
achieved very wide scale
usage in air data systems
manufactured by several
major avionics companies
for large numbers of
military and civil aircraft
worldwide. Fig. 14 Vibrating pressure sensor
QUIZ
Vibrating pressure sensors: The output of the
sensor is thus a frequency which is directly
related to the pressure being measured.
(b) Solid State capsule pressure sensors
This type of pressure sensor consists

essentially of a capsule with a relatively thin
diaphragm which deflects under the input
pressure. They are fabricated from materials
such as silicon, quartz, fused silica, or special
ceramics.
Fig. 15 Solid state capsule pressure

transducer
The deflection of the diaphragm is linear with
input pressure but is also very small and a
number of techniques are used to measure this
deflection.
The deflection of the solid state capsule under

pressure is typically only 25 to 50 m full scale, or
less. The techniques which have been adopted to
measure this very small deflection are briefly
described next.
(i) Integral strain gauges Smart sensor
technology
Piezo-resistive networks (or bridges) are ion implanted at the
edge of a thin silicon diaphragm. Application of pressure
causes the diaphragm to deflect thereby deforming the crystal
lattice structure of the silicon which in turn causes the
resistance of the piezo-resistive elements to change.
The output of the bridge is proportional to both pressure and

temperature as the modulus of elasticity of silicon is
temperature dependent. A temperature sensitive resistive
element is therefore incorporated into the diaphragm to
Fig. 16 Smart sensor measure the temperature so that the temperature dependent
errors can be corrected in the subsequent processing of the
sensor output
A precision analogue to digital (A to D) conversion circuit is required to convert the sensor analogue voltage output to a digital
output.
(ii) Capacitive pick off An alternative technique is to deposit a

metallic film on an area at the centre of
the diaphragm to form a capacitive
element (or pick-off) whose capacitance
changes as the diaphragm deflects under
pressure. This forms part of a capacitance
bridge network. A correctly designed
capacitive pick off bridge combination can
have extremely high resolution and can
detect the incredibly small changes in
capacitance resulting from minute
deflections of the diaphragm.
Fig. 17 Capacitive pick off
A precision A to D conversion is required to provide the required digital output.

Quiz
Name the parts of a solid state pressure
sensor
Quiz
Name the parts of a solid state pressure
sensor
Subtopic 4.3: 7.4.3 Air Data
Computation
Fig. 18 Air data computation flow diagram

PRESSURE ALTITUDE Ps
The static pressure can be computed at suitable increments of altitude
from 914.4 m (3,000 ft) to 32,004 m (105,000 ft approx.) and the
data stored in a table look-up store using the appropriate formulae
relating static pressure and altitude.
(a) Troposphere 914 m to 11,000 m (3,000 ft to 36,089 ft)

PS = 1,013.25(1 2.25577 105HP )5.255879
(b) Stratosphere 11,000 m to 20,000 m (36,089 ft to 65,617 ft)
PS = 226.32 e1.576885104(HP11,000)
(c) Chemosphere 20,000 m to 32,000 m (65,617 ft to 105,000 ft)
PS = 54.7482[1+ 4.61574 106(HP 20, 000)]34.163215
VERTICAL SPEED
The vertical speed or rate of change of altitude,
, is derived from the rate of change of static
p
pressure, , using the basic formula relating
the differentials dH and dPs
1
=

0
7.4.3 Air Data Computation
This can be computed from the actual measurment and corrected air temperatura value or
from the standard atmosphere temperatura. The latter is
the usual case so that is purely a function of .
(a) Troposphere
1
= 8434.51(1 2.25577 105 )

(a) Stratosphere
1
= 6341.62

Deriving by the first differentiating to generate and then multipltiying essentially
1
by enables a better resolution to be obtained with fewer computational delays.

MACH NUMBER, M
The pressure ratio, can be computed at suitable increments of

Mach Num and he results stored in a table look-up store using the
appropiate formulae.
(a) Subsonic speeds

= (1 + 0.22 )3,5

(a) Supersonic speeds
166.922
=
(72 1)2.5

(a) 340.3 (661.5 )
Calibrated Airspeed
3.5

The impact pressure, can be = 101.325 1 + .2 1 /2
computed at suitable increments 340.294
overthe range of calibrated airspeeds,

say 25m/s (50 knots) to 400 m/s (800 (a) 340.3 661.5

knots) and the results stored in a table
look-up store using the appropiate 7
formulae. 166.92 340.294
= 101.325 2.5 1
2

7 340.294 1
Static Air Temperature and True Airspeed
The statis air temperatur is derivade by
computing the correction factor 1/(1 +
0.22 )And multiplying the measured
(indicated) air temperature , by this
correction factor, viz.

=
(1 + 0.22 )
True airspeed
The true airspeed , is derived from the

computed Mach number and the computed
static air temperature, viz.
= 20.0468
Subtopic 4.4: 7.4.4 Angle of Incidence
Sensors
Knowledge of the angle of incidence can become
particularly important at the extremes of the
flight envelope when high values of incidence are
reached and the limiting conditions approached.
Many aircraft have incidence sensors installed so

that the pilot can ensure the aircraft does not
exceed the maximum permissible angle of
incidence.
Incidence sensors are also essential sensors
for a fly-by-wire (FBW) flight control system,
as mentioned earlier, and a redundant, failure
survival system of sensors is required. It may
also be necessary to measure the sideslip
incidence angle, .
A typical incidence sensor comprises a small pivoted
vane suitably located on the aircraft fuselage near the
nose of the aircraft. The vane is supported in low
friction bearings so that it can align itself with the
incident airflow under the action of the aerodynamic
forces acting on it.
It should be noted that an incidence sensor measures

indicated angle of incidence which can be converted
true angle of incidence by an appropriate correction
formula which is a function of Mach number.
It is also possible to locate the Pitot probe on the
vane together with the static pressure orifices to
form an integrated unit which together with the
appropriate sensors measures angle of incidence,
total pressure and static pressure. Also known as
integrated ADT (Air Data System)
Fig. 19 Integrated ADT

Quiz
Conclusions
As it has been read in this chapter, air data turns out to be critically
necesary not only for the pilot to fulfill its flight, but also for the avionics
systems that aid the aircraft to continue on flight. Air data is not
neglectable and it won't become, at least as future technology isn't
developed. Regarding the pitot tube, it is very practical and it's
maintenance is very simple, that's why it will continue to be the prefered
and most common way to obtain the basic data for the pilot and the
avionics systems of an aircraft
It can be stated that concepts that arent that complex like speed of
sound, mach number, density with height and so on, are directly related to
avionic systems of huge importance like those that sense the speed, the
altitude, and other parameters that without them the aircrafts will not be
able to have safe flights
There are some new technologies that help us to measure different values
that are key to flight avionics, computation and different sensors define
the different values of real air data to have better performance in the
flight control systems.
References
[1] R.P.G Collinson, et al. Introduction to avionics
systems, Chapter 7, pages: 377-413
[2] A.C. Kermode, Mechanics of flight, 11th edition,
chapter 2: Air and airflow subsonic speeds, pages: 32-
44
[3] AeroPeru 603 crash, Aviations Safety Network, Flight
Safety Foundation, available online at: [https://aviation-
safety.net/database/record.php?id=19961002-
0&lang=es]

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Chapter 7

Air Data and Air Data Systems

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Fig. 1 F-16 Pitot tube

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Fig. 5 Basic altimeter

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Air traffic control transponder

ATC authorities specify the flight levels which

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Errors due to the variation in the ground

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Example. Compute the air density at an altitude of 10,000 m

Compute the air density at an altitude of 8,500 m (27,887.14 ft)

6.5 8500 5.2558791

Density at 8,500m = 0.4950 /3

Neglecting second order terms

Force acting on stream tube of air between sections A and B

Combinig equations (2) and (4) yields

Equating (5) and (6) and letting A be speed of sound (= V)

The variations in the troposphere region is derived from the relationship

The momentum equation for the air flow is

In free airstream = and = . At the probe face = and

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= 2 and putting = 1.4 in the previous eq gives

Substituting = 1.4 in (19) becomes

(a) Subsonic speeds from equation (17)

Fig. 11 Pt/Ps vs Mach Number

When in low airspeeds, it can be seen that

(b) Supersonic speeds > 0 , from eq (21)

The temperature sensor generally comprises a

The art of sensor design is to minimize and if possible eliminate

However, the effect of a 100 Pa (1 mb) error in static

This pressure error, or position error as it is sometimes

The errors in static pressure measurement over the low

= 1.225 50 0.5 = 30.6

The speed of sound only temperature of the air

Mention 5 factors that affect the readings of a pressure sensor

(a) Vibrating pressure sensors.