YEAR 8 BASIC SCIENCE

LIVING THINGS AND THE

ENVIRONMENT MATTER

ENERGY EARTH AND BEYOND

 Copyright Ministry of Education, Fiji
All Rights reserved
No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or is transmitted in any form or means,
electronic, mechanical photocopying, recording or
Otherwise without the permission of the
Curriculum Development Unit of the
Ministry of Education.

2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The Year 8 Basic Science Text Book has been produced to be used by the students in this
level and used as a reference by the Basic Science Curriculum Unit of the Ministry of
Education.

The following teachers and officers are to be acknowledged for their contribution and
time on the development of this textbook: Mrs. Sainiana Satala, Mrs. Sarote Raboiliku,
Mrs. Kelera Waiwalu and Mrs. Newa Cabealawa.

Mr. Johnson Rura and Mrs. Sisilia Bale for editing and layout of the book and Ms. Melaia
Ratu for the graphic design.

Mrs. Finau Nanovo, SEO Science Primary for her invaluable advice, additional notes to
the text books and to the final compilation of the book.

Furthermore, the Curriculum Work Group Committee is also acknowledged at this time
for their unwavering support in scrutinizing the materials and the CDU Primary as well
as Secondary Officers for their support and collaboration.

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INTRODUCTION TO SCIENCE

What is Science?

Science is the derived from the Latin word Scientia that means Knowledge or learning.
Today Science is defined as the field of study concerned with discovering and describing the
world around us by observing and experimenting. It helps us to answer many critical
questions on how, what, where and why of our familiar surroundings. It is the growth
in the direction of searching for the truth, so it is a Science Problem solving journey and
experience.

BRANCHES OF SCIENCE

PHYSICS-
CHEMISTRY Energy and
matter BIOLOGY- Living things
Matter, its investigation and the Environment
materials, reactions

SCIENCE

EARTH SCIENCE

Earth and Beyond

It is important to learn about important skills and tools one will use as Scientists to help
one solve problems. Science encourages, analytical and creative skills in solving
problems and to promote research.

(Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=)

4
AIMS OF THE COURSE:

The broad aims of the teaching Science are:

to provide the opportunities for the children to make Scientific observations in

the Natural and Physical Sciences.

to develop an enquiring minds and a Scientific approach to solving problems

to develop students who can learn and become independent learners

The above aims can be seen in terms of the following in the students journey and
Learning Outcome.

Becomes an Active STUDENT

Communicates
Learner
effectively

Conducts
Investigation
Selects and uses
information

Applies
learning
Understands Makes responsible
change, balance decisions
and relationships

The diagram indicates the learning journey of each student in his or her major learning
outcomes.

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 ATTRIBUTES OF LEARNING YEAR 8 BASIC SCIENCE.

STRAND AT THE END OF YEAR 8 THE STUDENTS

Become responsible lifelong learners and communicate effectively and critically

AND THE
ENVIRONMENT
LIVING THINGS

the basic structures and functions of plants and animals in their investigations.
They also acquire team work skills through collaboration of ideas and information
on the connectivity of flow of energy and mineral cycles. Furthermore through
investigation, research of endemic plants and animal species that have become
endangered through loss of ecosystems and they may create solutions and
become problem solvers to human impacts on the ecosystems.

Apply their learning in separating fresh water from tainted water through
MATTER

evaporation and distillation. Describe through effective communication and

critical thinking the changes in states of matter individually or in collaboration of
team work. Become responsible and reflective in their investigations in chemical
reactions between different materials which may change physically and
chemically and indicate their honest views on the effects it may have on the
environment.

Believe in themselves and actively participate in the investigations and description

ENERGY

of the heat and effects of heat in objects and systems. Work in safe and overall
health safety conditions while using energy appliance in homes and schools.
Understand change, its effect on balance especially with forces that will cause
changes in the speed or direction of an objects motion.

Work in collaboration or individually constructing and using models to show

BEYOND
EARTH AND

illumination as the earth rotates; the earth and moon reflect light and with
confidence explain the effect of moon/sun on plants and physical changes in the
environment.
Select resources, research, collect information on the atmospheric layers, their
importance, effect of human activities and their influence on the changing
weather patterns.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

1.0 STRAND 1: LIVING THINGS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Structure and Life Processes 8

1.2 Living Together 24
1.3 Biodiversity, Change and sustainability 33

2.0 STRAND 2: MATTER

2.1 Investigating Matter 52

2.2 Materials 64

2.3 Reactions 75

3.0 STRAND 3: ENERGY

3.1 Energy Source and Transfer 80

3.2 Energy Transformation, use and Conservation 87

3.3 Forces 105

4.0 STRAND 4: EARTH AND BEYOND--

4.1 The earth and our solar system 126

4.2 Our changing Earth. 153

5.0 GLOSSARY 169

6.0 REFERENCES 183

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 STRAND 1
LIVING THINGS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

YEAR 8 BASIC SCIENCE

8
Contents

SUB STRAND 1.1 STRUCTURE AND LIFE PROCESSES

Lesson 1.1.1 The Adaptive Features or Structures of Organisms.

Lesson 1.1.2 The Relationship between Adaptive Features and Habitats

Lesson 1.1.3 Structure and Processes of the Human Digestive System

SUB-STRAND 1.2 LIVING TOGETHER

Lesson 1.2.1 Feeding Patterns in an Ecosystem

Lesson 1.2.2 Food preference in an Ecosystem

Lesson 1.2.3 Conditions needed for Decomposition

SUB-STRAND 1.3 BIODIVERSITY, CHANGE AND SUSTAINABILITY

Lesson 1.3.1 Human Activity and its impact on Species

Lesson 1.3.2 Importance and Protection of Species

Lesson 1.3.3 Conservation of the Species and Sustainability

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INTRODUCTION

In Year 7, you were introduced to the seven features (MRS GREN) of how living things
were different from non-living things and how the structures that the organisms were
related to these features. These features, as discussed are important for the survival of
the organism, and also help to maintain the biodiversity of living things. Man and human
activities can help but also disrupt the biodiversity in an ecosystem.

In Year 8, structures, features, and life processes will be studied in a more detailed way
with regards to living things.
The structures learnt in Year 7 can now in Year 8 be specifically termed as adaptive
features, or adaptations, which enable the organisms to successfully live or adapt and
survive in its habitat and ecosystem. Organisms have adaptive features to successfully
carry out the seven MRS GREN features of, movement, respiration, sensitivity, growth,
reproduction, excretion and nutrition.

Each of the seven features requires the organism to possess adaptive features for
survival.
In recent years, humans have invaded ecosystems for human satisfaction, through
issues like deforestation, or reclamation of land and oil extraction, without realising the
negative effects on the ecosystem and the biodiversity as a whole.

One of the obvious ways of observing how organisms interact and survive is by
observing their feeding patterns. In any ecosystem, the organism can eat or be a source
of food for another organism, as we had discussed in Year 7. In relation to these feeding
patterns, food chains can be drawn. A number of food chains can be drawn in any
ecosystem that may form links or a network. This network of food chains is called a food
web, which will be discussed further in this book. Since feeding or nutrition is an
important feature, the Human digestive system will be studied in a detailed way to help
us understand how it works and how the other MRS GREN features relate to the human
digestive system.

The activities of man have an impact on the feeding patterns that exist in an ecosystem
and can have extreme negative effects on endemic species (native species) and
endangered species. Similarly, exotic species (non-native species) too, can have negative
effects on the biodiversity of species in a country. In most instances exotic species are
introduced for a good reason, or as biological control but when not monitored closely,
they thrive and become pests itself.
In instances of low biodiversity, or an increase in the population of invasive species,
conservation of native species is vital. Even though, modern conservation methods
are widespread today, Pacific Islanders, including Fijians, have traditional and effective
conservation methods as well.

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SUB STRAND 1.1 STRUCTURE AND LIFE PROCESSES

Lesson 1.1.1 The Adaptive Features or Structures of Organisms.

Lesson 1.1.2 The Relationship between Adaptive Features and Habitats

Lesson 1.1.3 Structure and Features of the Human Digestive System

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Identify the adaptive features for
feeding, movement, breathing and
protection
Identify and observe adaptive
features for survival in habitats
Dissect and observe and draw the
internal structures of a toad
Relate the digestive system of a toad
to a human digestive system and
relate its organ functions
Appreciate the importance of
respecting habitats while visiting it.
List Safety Rules of a Field Study.
(Source: Kelera Waiwalu)

Introduction

The exact place where an organism lives is called a HABITAT and the surrounding
of an organism is called its ENVIRONMENT. Different habitats have different
environments which require organisms to have different adaptive features or
adaptations to help them survive.

A useful way to understand how organisms live and are adapted to their habitats
is to actually go to where the organism lives and observe it in its habitat, which
could be a forest or flower garden for a caterpillar or creek nearby. Observation
of organisms in their natural habitats is called a field study. It is important to note
that a field study is to observe organisms in their homes and should not be
disturbed or destroyed.
Imagine if you were at home and someone entered your home and started damaging your
property and things, how you would feel

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Lesson 1.1.1 The Adaptive Features or Structures of Organisms.

What are ADAPTIVE FEATURES or ADAPTATIONS?

Organisms are affected by their environment in many ways. An organism needs food,
water, air, shelter, suitable temperature and protection from predators in order to
survive. The non-living environment includes such things as temperature, light,
humidity, air, water and soil which are all important factors for the survival of any
organism. The survival of an organism also depends on the characters of the organism
itself. Each organism has characters, both behavioural and physical, which enable it to
survive in its own particular habitat. These characters are called adaptive features or
adaptations.

Adaptations

An adaptation can be defined as a characteristic of an organism that makes it suited to

its environment or its particular way of life. It is a structural, physiological (concerned
with the body and how a body functions) or behavioral characteristic that enables the
organism to survive and reproduce. The shape of a bird's beak, for example, will
determine what food it can eat. The colour of an animal's fur may provide an effective
camouflage against predators; or an animal may have learnt the best way to catch food.

Anything that helps an organism to survive and successfully reproduce in an

ecosystem is regarded as an adaptation or adaptive feature.

Types of adaptations of living organisms

An adaptation is a set of changes in an organism's structure, body functioning or habits
that allow the organism to adjust to its surroundings. Adaptations can be structural,
physiological or behavioural. All adaptations are the result of evolution, which is a
change in a species over long periods of time.
The table below describes the types of adaptations of living things:
Structural or Physical Behavioural Physiological or
Functional
A physical adaption is A Behavioral Adaptation is Physiological
some type of structural something an animal does - adaptations relate to the
Definition modification made to a how it acts in response to general functioning of
part of the body. some type of external the body and the
stimulus. chemical processes of
the organism.
Webbed feet, Sharp What an animal is able to The way an animal
Claws, Large beaks, eat; How an animal moves; digests food or the
Wings/Flying, Feathers How an animal or plant biochemistry reactions
Examples Fur, Scales Long legs of may protect itself. E.g. like making venom,
wading birds, the sharp Migration, Dormancy, secreting slime, ability
teeth of carnivorous Hibernation, Camouflage. to keep a constant body
animals, the bright temperature and
fragrant blooms of producing less urine to
flowering plants. survive in its habitat.

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Table 1.1: Types and Examples of Adaptations

Plants also do have special adaptations to help them survive in their habitats as
described in the table below.

Some Plant adaptations:

(a) Ivi Tree buttress (b) Prop roots Liana Epiphytes

(Source: Kelera Waiwalu) (Source: K.Waiwalu) (Source: K.Waiwalu)

Buttresses and prop roots help hold Some plants climb on Some plants grow on
up plants in the shallow soil. other plants. other plants to reach
sunlight.
(a) Pitcher plant (b)Venus Cactus Lily Mangrove
fly trap

Some plants serve as traps for unsuspecting
insects, luring them in with promises of
nectar. The pitcher plant exists as one of
the most versatile carnivorous plants.
Pitcher plants and the Venus fly trap are
herbs that trap insects and digest them for
their nutrients. While these plants fertilize
themselves with insects, they still get the
majority of their food from the sun, like
with other plants. The pitchers fill
themselves with rainwater either fully or
partially .Read more:
(Source:http://www.ehow.com/info_80058
51_adaptations-features-pitcher-
plants.html )
Some plants, called Some plants produce seeds
succulents, store water in that can float. e.g. ivi, i cibi
their stems or leaves. mangrove plants, coconut,
Modified their leaf into In floating plants chlorophyll
thorns which not only is restricted to upper surface
reduces moisture loss but of leaves (part that the
also protects them from sunlight will hit) and the
predators. e.g. cactus upper surface is waxy to
Spines discourage animals repel water e.g. water lilies.
from eating plants for (Source: Kelera Waiwalu)
water.
(Source: K.Waiwalu)

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Figure 1.1 Some plant adaptations.

Activity
(a) Observe the pictures in Figure 1.1 and identify what type of adaptation
(structural, behavioural or functional) is shown: Give a reason for the type of
adaptation you have chosen. A suggested table is drawn below:

Plant Type of Adaptation Reason

e.g. Mangrove prop roots Structural Modified root to support
stem and hold on to
shallow soil.

(b) Exercise and Research

Choose a local plant and animal you are familiar with and identify an example of
the three types of adaptation it may have. You can write your answers in a
similar table, as shown below.
Name of Organism Type of Adaptation

Picture/Drawing of plant Structural Behavioural Functional

Picture/Drawing of Animal

14
Lesson 1.1.2 The Relationship between Adaptive Features and Habitats
Activity
(a) With a partner, write as many things you already know about a Habitat?
Recap Complete the diagram below:
p

Habitats

(b) Write as many things you already know about adaptive features or
adaptations.

Adaptations

Some Questions:
1. Are there similarities or differences between habitats and adaptive features?
2. Are habitats and adaptive features related? If Yes, how are they related?
3. Do habitats determine adaptations or vice versa??
4. From your findings above, combine the two diagrams to form a Concept Map
by showing links:
Concept map of Habitat and Adaptive Features

Habitats Adaptations

15
Adaptations and Habitats
Organisms need to have special adaptations to survive in their habitats so adaptations
are related to the organisms habitats.
Organisms which lack appropriate adaptations may die and then become extinct, or in
other situations migrate to other suitable habitats in order to survive.
Nature trails or Field Studies are carried out to observe organisms in their natural
ecosystem. This helps students to understand the way organisms behave and interact
with each other, especially how they are adapted for their habitats.

Which of the two habitats below would be for a crab?

(a) (b)

Figure 1.2 Examples of Habitats (Source: Kelera Waiwalu)

Adaptation Activity: What is the function of each adaptation?

Large feet = ? To swim in water

Deep roots = ? To prevent heat loss

Thick eyelashes = ? To prevent water loss

Thick fur = ? To protect eyes from dust

Spiny leaves = ? To detect sound echoes

Large ears = ? To prevent sinking into the ground

Ground = ? To obtain water webbed feet

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 Nature Trail (Field Study)

A field trip is important to connect the textbook learning to the real world. Field
studies are important for the following reasons:
a) To reinforce information gathered in the classroom
b) To clarify ideas that might not be clear during lessons taught in the classroom
c) To actually observe organisms in their natural habitats and observe the
adaptations they use to survive successfully.
d) To realise that different habitats require different adaptations for survival.
e) To respect the organisms in their natural habitats and appreciate their
importance in the biodiversity of the ecosystem.

What basically happens on an Ecology field trip!!!!!

Field trip Identifying

bus organisms

Recording data
Observing an organism in its natural
habitat
Figure 1.3 Activities during a Field Study (Source: Kelera Waiwalu)

Just as we have classroom rules to follow, there are also rules for going on a Nature trail.
The area or ecosystem to be visited is a natural classroom which also has its set of
rules that should be followed.
Exercise: List any three rules that need to be followed when going on a Nature trail or
Field Study.
Discuss rules with other members of the class in order to have a set of
rules for the whole class before going out on the trip. These rules
can be pinned up on the notice board or written in your field study book.
[Discuss rules with teacher before the final list is done].

17
During an Ecology field study, one of the most important materials to take is an
IDENTICATION CHART, which shows the possible organisms that will be found in that
ecosystem. Identification charts will vary depending on the ecosystem that is be studied.

Below is an example of an IDENTIFICATION CHART of ANIMALS for a Forest Field

Study.

Snail Cockroach Bee locust

Earthworm Moth Butterfly dragonfly

House fly Ant Fruit fly Mantis

Millipede Centipede Lady bug Preying Mantis

Figure 1.4 An Example of an Identification Chart. (Source: Kelera Waiwalu)

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Field Study or Nature Trail.
1. Organise a field study with the help of your teacher to an area close to
your school to observe the organisms in the area.
Recap....Some Rules for a Field Study
1. Respect the area of study by approaching it quietly.
2. Identify organisms using your Identification Chart
3. Do not kill or throw at the organisms that you see.
4. If logs are turned over or moved, return to original position after observing.
5. Keep the noise level as low as possible to avoid disturbing the organisms or
plants.
6. Organisms will always defend their habitats and off springs, so be alert and aware
of possible dangers.
7. Wear proper footwear to avoid accidents.
2. Draw a map of the area of study and use keys to represent the main
elements of the area that stand out .e,g creek or river, big vaivai tree, or
mangroves, small bridge etc

3. Draw up a Results Sheet, use your own ideas to try and combine all the
data recorded in one table. The main columns could have the following
headings,

Name and picture of organism, plant or animal, habitat of organism,

special adaptations with functions, food it eats, estimated number of
organisms, any other special observation ( e.g., pregnant, nursing its
young, injured, defense mechanism) and the non-living conditions (
abiotic factors... refer to Year 7 Notes).

4. For organisms that are not easily seen, careful observation will needed.
Some parts of the study area to look at include, under leaves, beneath
rocks or logs, rotting tree trunks, inside of flowers, base of tree trunk or
leaf petioles, next to flower buds etc. Make sure the organisms habitat is
not damaged during the search/study.

5. For organisms that are difficult to identify, take a photo of them and then
use the internet or Science books to identify its name and explanations for
adaptations. Do not collect the organisms.

6. On returning to school, discuss results with group members and your

teacher. In instances where photos are taken, research on them first and
then paste picture with details in results table.

7. Reflect on the actual field study and list down three to four reasons as to
how the study can be improved the next time you have a field study or
nature trail.

19
All organisms are well adapted for their habitats by having special adaptations to help
survive successfully. Most organisms have defense mechanisms, which help protect it
from enemies or predators.

A defense mechanism is simply a behavioural adaptation that the organism has to

scare away enemies or protect it from predators. Defense mechanisms are very
important to all animal life.

Animals must eat to survive. With predators being high on the food chain and always on
the lookout for a meal, prey must constantly avoid being eaten. Any adaptation the prey
uses adds to the chances of survival for the species.

These defense mechanisms can give the prey an advantage against enemies.

Some examples of local organisms with defense mechanisms are shown below:

A millipede coiling up when Camouflaging or protective Toads produce large

touched. colouration, where organism numbers of eggs to increase
Some play dead until it is has the same colour as chances of survival.
safe to uncoil. habitat, so it is difficult to
detect.

Ants sting and paralyse A Butterfly has a pattern on Protective shell for snail,
enemies. Ants too, work as a wings that look like a pair of which helps it to withdraw
team to transport catch to eyes, called eye spots, to trick into when in danger.
habitat. predators.
Figure 1.5 Examples of Defense Mechanisms (Source: Kelera Waiwalu)

20
 Exercise/Research
Use Science textbooks or the Internet to research on the following organisms. For each
organism find out how it protects itself from its predators or the types of defense
mechanisms it may have.

a) Octopus e) Skunk
b) Pygmy sperm whale f) Star fish
c) Northern fulnar ( a white bird) g) leopard sea cucumber
d) Chameleon h) hedgehogs
As a suggestion, little fact cards, (refer to page 30) can be made with a picture of the
organism and its defense mechanism explanation.
Lesson 1.1.3 Structure and Processes of the Human Digestive System
A useful way of understanding the adaptive features of organisms is to observe how and
what they eat. The human digestive system is difficult to observe, so toads in particular
are dissected to help students observe the arrangemet of the organs of the Digestive
System. The diagrams below show the digestive systems of both the human and toad.
The observation of the arrangement of the organs of the toad is a useful way to
understand the arrangement of the human digestive sysytem.

Figure 1.6 The Human Digestive System [Source: www.tophealthnewstips.info ]

Figure 1.7 The Digestive System of a Toad. [Source: www.kids.brittanica.com ]

21
 Exercise/Homework

State the Parts and Functions of the Human Digestive System in a table. [Refer to
Figure 1.7 above.]

Activity: With the help of your teacher, dissect a toad or any organism that is readily
available in your area, to better understand its digestive system. Use the Figure 1. to
guide you on the identification of parts.

A Guide for a Toad Dissection. [Read through the guide and pick out the materials you
need.]
1. Prepare the dissection tray and get your frog.
2. Wear the proper safety equipment. The use of latex or rubber gloves, safety
glasses, as cleanliness is important.
3. Place the unconscious frog in the dissection tray ventral side up and pin down
the four limbs.
4. Use the forceps and scissors to lift a piece of skin where the hind legs meet the
body. Insert the scissors and cut just the skin along the midline to the level of the
lower jaw, as shown below

[Source: www.biologycorner.com]
5. Pin the skin on to the dissection tray at a right angles to the incision.
6. Cut the layers of muscle that has been exposed. Make this incision a little to the
right of center to avoid cutting a major vein. The sex of the frog is readily noticed
once the internal organs are exposed. If there is a mass of black and yellow eggs
in the transparent ovaries, the frog is a female. If the ovaries prevent the view of
the other organs, the ovaries may be cut out of the body and removed. Use a
probe or ice block stick to gently lift obvious organs to expose inner organs.
7. Once the internal organs are exposed, the dissection should be similar to Figure
1.8 below.

22
 Activity: Identify and draw the digestive system of the toad you have dissected.

E
D

Figure 1..8 Toad Dissection [ Source: www.flickr.com ]

[Note :A toad can be made unconscious by prolonged exposure to carbon dioxide (3-
4 hours before dissection) and Pithing. [The use of chloroform has been banned for
safety reasons.

23
 SUBSTRAND 1.2 LIVING TOGETHER

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Identify and classify
feeding patterns of
organisms
Identify and construct food
chains in a habitat
Explain the flow of energy
in food chains
Explain why animals have
food preferences
Appreciate the importance
of decomposers
Appreciate the conditions
needed for decomposition

Lesson 1.2.1 Feeding Patterns in an Ecosystem

Lesson 1.2.2 Food preference in an Ecosystem

Conditions needed for Decomposition

Introduction
Organisms that live in the same ecosystem depend on each other mostly for food,
protection, mates and shelter. With regards to food, there are feeding patterns or food
chains and feeding relationships, to allow for all organism to survive. Organisms have
their special adaptations to assist them to obtain their food. All of these foods that
plants and animals eat have energy that originated from the sun. This energy then flows
to the producers and then to the consumers through the food chains.
In situations where there is an abundance of food, organisms may have food
preferences. However, when resources are scare, competition of food or shelter may
arise and in extreme situations may result in the death of an individual.
In any ecosystem, decomposers are important as they break down dead matter and
return nutrients to the soil. Decomposers play an important role and are worth studying
in a detailed way as they are usually overlooked in discussions because they are not as
bright and pleasant to see like plants or animals When decomposition conditions are
favourable, the decomposition activity is high. If decomposers did not exist, the earth
will be overcrowded with non -decaying plants and animals. Imagine how it would be
like.

24
Lesson 1.2.1 Feeding Patterns in an Ecosystem

The ultimate source of energy for most living organisms is the sun. Green plants are able
to trap energy from the sun and use it to convert carbon dioxide and water into food
energy in the form of sugar in a process known as photosynthesis. Plants are said to
make their own food and are known as producers. Animals all depend either directly or
indirectly on green plants for their food and are therefore known as consumers.

Herbivores which feed directly on plants are known as primary consumers

Carnivores which feed on other animals are known as secondary consumers.

A simple food chain shows how energy is transferred from the sun through living
organisms. The carnivore at the end of the food chain is known as the top carnivore or
tertiary consumer.

As learnt in Year 7, the general feeding pattern or food chain, in any ecosystem is as
shown below:

Producer Herbivore Carnivore

Decomposers

Figure 1.9 General Feeding Pattern

Below are some examples of food chains

1. Sun grass grasshopper toad

2. Sun grass cow man

3. Sun cabbage caterpillar chicken hawk

4. Sun seaweed parrotfish barracuda shark

The organisms in the above food chains can be grouped as follows:

Herbivore/ Carnivore/ Top Carnivore

Food Chain Producer Primary Secondary or
Consumer Consumer Tertiary
Consumer
1 grass grasshopper toad toad
2 grass cow man man
3 cabbage caterpillar chicken hawk
4 seaweed Parrot fish barracuda shark
Table 1.2 Groupings of Organisms in a Food Chain

25
Activity: Refer to the organisms in each ecosystem below and construct as many food
chains as possible: Similar to the food chains 1 to 4 above.

Ecosystem One (Forest) Ecosystem Two (Marine)

Parrot, chilies, man, nectar, grass,
caterpillar, lizard, ants, cabbage, snail,
earthworm, bird, butterfly, mushroom.
Seaweed, algae, shark, crabs, mangrove
leaves
Sting ray, oyster, turtle, man, goat fish,
parrot fish, seashells, sea worms, sea
cucumber.

Note: Always begin the food chain with a Producer (a plant).

Summary of a Food Chain or Feeding Pattern

Figure 1.10 Summary of a Food Chain [Source: www.biologycorner.com ]

In any ecosystem, there are many food chains, and most are linked to each other. This
linking of food chains results in a food web. A food web is similar to food chain in that
the energy flows in the same way following the feeding pattern. A food chain is linear
(one line only) while a food web can be drawn in different directions but still starting
from a producer or group of producers.

26
An example of a food web in a Mangrove Ecosystem is drawn below:

Figure 1.11 Example of a Food Web [Source: www.galleryhip.com ]

Example of Food Web for the Food Chains in Table 1.2

Hawk

Toad
Man snail

Chicken

Grasshopper cow caterpillar

Grass Cabbage

Figure 1.12 A Food Web

27
Food Web Activity: Fill in the food web, similar to the one above by using the food
chains you had drawn earlier for Ecosystems One (Forest) and Two (Marine).

Note: You may increase the number of yellow boxes and arrows depending
on the number of consumers in the food chain.

Energy Flow in Food Chains of the Ecosystem

Figure 1.13 Energy Flow in Ecosystem

[ Source: www.marieta.edu ]

28
In the flow of energy and inorganic nutrients through the ecosystem, a few
generalisations can be made:

1. The ultimate source of energy (for most ecosystems) is the sun.

2. The ultimate fate of energy in ecosystems is for it to be lost as heat.
3. Energy and nutrients are passed from organism to organism through the food
chain as one organism eats another.
4. Decomposers remove the last energy from the remains of organisms.
5. Inorganic nutrients are cycled, energy is not recycled. Energy is lost as heat.

Figure 1.14 Summary of Energy flow in Ecosystems [Source: www.marieta.com]

Conditions needed for Decomposition

Decomposition is the breakdown of dead organic material into smaller particles, which
helps release nutrients and carbon for plant and microbial production. Decomposition
converts these dead materials into organic materials, inorganic nutrients, and CO2. The
process involves a series of physical and chemical reactions that are performed by many
soil organisms, enzymes, chemicals, and physical processes.

Activity/Project: Decomposition at Home

Figure 1.14 Decaying old loaf of bread

29
 Study the decomposition progress at home or school lab.
What You Need:
Two jars/ice cream containers Bits of old food (fruits and bread work best)
Camera Pental pen
Poster board/chart
Scissors Glue
Notebook and pen Magnifying glass
What to do:
1. Place a piece of old bread/fruit in a damp container, close it with lid and label the
container, DAMP.
2. Place a similar piece of bread in another dry container, close it with a lid and
label the container DRY. Place both containers in a cool, dry place where it will
not be disturbed.
3. Observe the progress of decomposition for one to two weeks
4. Every other day, take a picture/photo of what's inside the containers to record
the progression. Also, record observations by date in a notebook.
5. At the end of two weeks, look carefully at the food in the jar. If the food isn't too
smelly (and you think you have the stomach to handle it) you can remove it and
have your child look at it with a magnifying glass. Then discard the food safely,
making sure that no one eats it.
6. Then, develop the pictures/photo or if you have a digital camera, print the
pictures.
7. Once the pictures are developed, glue them in sequence onto the poster board
with the date clearly written underneath each photo.
8. Write a brief conclusion of what was learnt at the end of the two weeks beneath
the pictures. In the conclusion, also explain which condition was decomposition
faster, the damp or dry condition.

Lesson 1.2.2 Food Preference in an Ecosystem

Why do Organisms have food preferences?

The food preferences are based on a factor or combination of factors. These may include the
following:
a. the speed with which they can ingest food to obtain energy
b. the ability to digest of the food eaten.
c. the non-living factors in the ecosystem
d. the time of the day, (morning/day/night/dusk/dawn)
e. the adaptations it has to capture the food source
f. the availability of potential competitors for the same food source
g. the availability of the food source, whether there is an abundant or a limited supply.
Individuals can compete for food, water, space, light, mates or any other resource which
is required for survival. The resource must be limited for competition to occur; if every
member of the species can obtain a sufficient amount of every resource then individuals
do not compete and the population grows normally. But this is very rare in nature
because resources are finite and so not every individual in a population can survive,
leading to intra specific (within the species) competition for the scarce resources.

30
When resources are limited, an increase in population size reduces the quantity of
resources available for each individual, so only the strongest organisms survive. As a
result, the growth rate of a population slows as intra specific competition becomes more
intense.

Intra specific competition doesn't just involve direct interactions between members of
the same species but can also include indirect interactions where an individual depletes
a shared resource.

Competition can be reduced using the following behavioural adaptations:

a. Eating different parts or at different times of the same food source. This is
usually referred to as resource partitioning. For example, the owl and the hawk
both eat rats, but the owl eats at night while the hawk eats during the day.
b. Organisms can rely on the same food but eat different parts of the food source.
For example, the very simple, Bulbuls eat the pawpaw seed while humans eat the
flesh (ovary) of the pawpaw.

31
Apart from Competition for food, organisms can have other feeding / sheltering
relationships while living together. These are summarised below:

Type of Description Example

Relationship

Mutualism A mutualistic
relationship is when
two organisms of
different species "work
together," each Bee gets nectar and the flower gets
benefiting from the pollinated
relationship.

Commensalism is a class
of relationships
between two organisms
Commensalism where one organism
benefits from the other
without affecting it.
Remora fish (bakewa)
Remora sticks on to shark and gets a
free ride
A predator is an
organism that eats
another organism. The
Predation prey is the organism
which the predator
eats..
Cat (predator) eating a mynah (prey)
Parasitism is a non-
mutual symbiotic
relationship between
species, where one
Parasitism species, the parasite,
benefits at the expense
of the other, the host.
Traditionally parasite
referred primarily to Mosquito sucking blood of a human
organisms visible to the (Source: https://www.youtube.com)
naked eye
Table 1.3 Some examples that exist amongst living things

32
SUB-STRAND 1.3 BIODIVERSITY,
CHANGE AND SUSTAINABILITY LEARNING OUTCOMES

Lesson 1.3.1 Identify human

Human Activity and its impact on Species activities that impact
the distribution of
Lesson 1.3.2 species
Importance and Protection of Species Identify endemic,
endangered and
Lesson 1.3.3 extinct species
Conservation of the Species and Explain the
Sustainability importance of
protecting species
Explain the need to
conserve species

(Source: Kelera Waiwalu)

33
Introduction

Humans have reclaimed land, cut down forests and dumped wastes in the sea or forests
without realising its impact on other existing organisms which share the same planet.
The biodiversity has changed and could, if not, assisted be altered for good. Species of
organisms, as a result, have become endangered because of the imbalance that now
exists in most ecosystems. Habitats have been disturbed and then destroyed, by man,
without proper planning for a sustainable environment.

Today, man is trying very hard to plan projects that and eco-friendly to ensure that
there is very little damage to the biodiversity of organisms.

Lesson 1.3.1 Human Activity and its Impact on Species

The negative effects of human activity have drastically affected the survival and
existence of species.
Some common activities carried out by man are described below.

Land reclamation is the gain of land Deforestation of mangrove ecosystems

from the sea, or wetlands, or other water for firewood.
bodies,

Deforestation is the clearing of trees,
transforming a forest into cleared land..
e.g. Turning the wilderness into a
shopping center.
[Source: www.fijitimes.online.fj ]
Deforestation, clearance or clearing is the
removal of a forest or stand of trees where the
land is thereafter converted to a non-forest
use e.g. bauxite extraction in Vanua Levu.

34
Figure 1.14 Examples of Human Activities that result in the Destruction of
Habitats

Impact of Human Activities

Every living thing has an impact on its environment. Therefore a human impact on the
environment is evident. By simply existing, all species, including ourselves, will have an
impact on the world around them.

The most obvious examples of a negative human impact on the environment are water
and land pollution. It's obvious we need water to survive but few people realize how
much we need and just how much is available.

Land pollution, the degradation of the Earth's surfaces and soil, is caused by human
activity and a misuse of natural resources. Causes of land pollution and degradation
include:

Urban sprawl: Natural habitats are removed to make room for communities,
usually with inefficient or irresponsible planning. Urban sprawl generally results
in a waste of land area for unused development (such as excessive roads,
decorative and unused areas, etc.).
Poor agricultural practices: Animal manure runoff , the use of chemical
fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides, the practice of growing monocultures (only
one crop season after season) and the deforestation required to expand farm
land all contribute to degradation and pollution.
Personal consumption: Our modern culture's desire to have more, bigger and
better "things", as well as our relationship to and habit of waste, has lead to
stripping of the land, excessive mining and pollution from industrial activities.
Industrial activities: The production of chemical-laden plastics, poor quality of
products, unethical practices (such as illegal dumping), and extreme emissions
affect both surrounding and far-reaching areas.
Over production of synthetic materials like plastics and metals.

Climate Change, a change in global or regional climate patterns, in particular a change

apparent from the mid to late 20th century onwards and attributed largely to the
increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide produced by the use of fossil fuels.

Impact of Climate Change on Pacific Island Countries.

The Pacific island states are especially vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate
change. Today inhabitants of many islands are already enduring extreme weather
conditions such as hurricanes, droughts or heavy rainfall and floods, coastal erosion and
especially in atolls water shortages. The predicted rise in sea levels, altered
precipitation patterns, hotter temperatures and acidification of the ocean will aggravate
these environmental dangers in coming decades. The majority of the population
depends on the natural resources from farming, forestry and fisheries, which are
susceptible to the effects of climate change.

35
[Source: www.giz.de/en/worldwide/14200.html ]

Figure 1.15a Effects of Rise in Sea level Figure 15b. Exposed roots of a Coconut tree

Rise in sea level washes away sediments which expose the roots of seaside plants.

Activity. A Question Wheel similar to the one shown below can be drawn
and coloured to allow students to discuss about issues relating to climate
change. Answer the questions and create a story or poster to display your
answers.

Figure 16. Question Wheel for Climate Change [Source www.climatekids.nasa.gov ]

This idea of a Question Wheel can also be used for other concepts relating to
human impacts on the ecosystem.

36
Lesson 1.3.2 Importance and Protection of Species

Due to human activities, species of organisms have become endangered. Listed below
are some species of organisms that are endangered. According to researches done by
Nature Fiji, a Conservation group, the number of endangered species, a species that is at
risk of extinction, is listed in the table below:

Amphibians Fish Mammals Reptiles Birds Invertebrates Plants

2 2 3 9 13 5 16

Pictured below are some examples of endangered species:

Source:http://www.naturefiji.org Source: http://www.naturefiji.org

The Fiji tree frog is, as the name The Fijian ground frog, is, as the name describes,
describes, a tree dwelling frog. a ground dwelling frog. The body size (SVL ) of a
Fijian ground frog ranges from 8mm as a
hatchling to 107mm in adult females.

Source: http://www.naturefiji.org Source: http://www.naturefiji.org

he Fiji Blossom bat is quite small, with body The Fiji petrel or Kacau ni Gau, is a small, all
size (nose-tip to anus) ranging from 98-110 black-brown petrel with a short neck and stout
mm in males; 95-107 mm in females. black bill giving it a chunky, thickset appearance.

Source: http://www.naturefiji.org Source: http://www.naturefiji.org

Yasi is a small shrub or tree that grows up This palm is the stoutest of all Balaka growing to
to a height of 4-7 m with a trunk up to 10cm in
8-10 m in height. diameter.

37
Figure 1.17 Some Examples of Endangered Species

Activity: With the help of your teacher, choose two other common endangered
species of Fiji and research about it using the following guiding questions:

a. What is the habitat of the endangered species?

b. What are two ways in which its habitat is being destroyed?
c. Why are there fewer numbers today when compared to before?
d. What can be done to prevent the numbers decreasing any further?

All information gathered can be pasted on a chart next to the picture of the
endangered organism. For more information, and for those that have access to
the internet can log into the Nature Fiji website of www.naturefiji.org or
www.ehow.com and search on Endangered species of Fiji.

Fijis crested iguana

Figure 1.18 The Crested Iguana [ Source : www.archive.org ]

Endemic Species

An 'Endemic Species' is one that is only found in that region and nowhere else
in the world. As such they are of conservation concern because they are not
widespread and may be confined to only one or two protected areas

KADAVU has been recognised as home to the highest number of endemic birds
per land area in the entire world. This puts Fiji's southernmost island on the
international map and holds the nation accountable to the livelihoods and
survival of her endemic creatures.

As a group of oceanic islands, Fiji does not have a large number of bird species,
but many of those that can be observed here can be found nowhere else in the
world. "Their conservation is therefore Fiji's responsibility.

[Source: httpwww.fijitimes.com ]

38
 Some Endemic species of Fiji

[Source: www.fiji-bird- [Source: www.pinterest.com ] Source: www.arkive.org ]

watching.com ]
Orange Dove, found only in Kadavu Golden fruit dove, found only on Masiratu found in Viti Levu,
and Taveuni Taveuni Vanua Levu and Taveuni.

Source: www.beautiybirds.com [Source: www.ryanphotographic.com ] Source: www.en.wikipedia.org

The Red Shinning Parrot, found in Tagimoucia,, a liana, found only on Lacy Rabbit Foot Fern
Taveuni and parts of Vanua Levu Taveuni species that grows on Lakeba.

[
Source: www.naturefiji.org ] Source: www.wetwebmedia.com [Source: www.palmworld.org ]
Fiji Petrel or Kacau , found only in Gau
Bi colour Rabbitfish, in pristine Balaka palm species found in
reefs of Fiji ( Nuqa roro) Fiji forests
Figure 1.19 Some examples of species endemic to Fiji

39
Activity: Design your own little fact cards about Endemic species. Below is an example
of a fact card

Name of Organism: species is endemic.

Picture of
Organism

Habitat: _______________________________

Special Adaptation(s):

Names of Place(s) in Fiji it is found in:

Summary

Term Endangered Endemic Species Extinct Species

Species

A species of animal or A species which is A species that is no

plant that is seriously only found in a given longer in existence;
at risk of extinction. region or location and that has ended or
Definition nowhere else in the died
world.

Some examples

(List examples)

40
CORAL REEFS: Fiji is blessed and known t have the third largest Coral reef System in the world. The
coral reefs also are homes to diverse plants and animal species in the Oceans. Fiji is blessed with the
third largest coral reef system in the world and the iTaukei and indigenous peoples of Fiji have
passed on the tradition of procuring these resources with their kinsfolk. The Gonedau who are the
traditional fishermen and who are knowledgeable of the fishing ground areas and availability of the
resources have used these resources sustainably. However, with the advent of commercial fishing,
tourism and overharvesting some of these resources have been exploited and destroyed. Fiji is still
coming to grips with the invasion of human activities and their impacts on these natural resources and
coral reef habitats. Below are maps showing these delicate systems in Fiji.

The Barrier and Great Sea Reef near Vanua Levu and The location of Reefs in Fiji as stated by the
Viti Levu.(source: https://www.google.com) ) Key. (source: https://www.google.com)

The Great Astrolabe Reef in Kadavu

The Vuna and Rainbow reef in Taveuni and Vanua (source: https://www.google.com)
Levu.(Source: https://www.google.com)

41
REEFS IN FIJI AND THEIR INHABITANTS - AN ARRAY OF UNDERWORLD ECOSYSTEM.

The Great white wall in the Rainbow reef Clown fish guarding its colourful, shiny green eggs
displaying the clown fish and hidden in the while being protected by the sea anemone.
tentacles of the sea anemone. (source: National Geographic)
(source: National Geographic)

Delicate rose coloured soft coral found in a Pelagic fish of the reefs along the Somosomo
cave in the Astrolabe Reef in Kadavu.(source: Straight (Rainbow reef)(source: (source:
(source: https://www.google.com/search?)
https://www.google.com/search?)

The Great White wall of the Rainbow reef in

Mandarin fish in the Rainbow Reef. Taveuni. The inhabitants of the Rainbow reef
(Source: http://www.mantaray.com) longfin banner fish.
(Source:https://www.google.com/search?)

42
HUMAN IMPACT ON THE CORAL REEFS IN FIJI
The coral reefs have become bleached and smothered by the rapid development and
extraction of resources through felling of trees and mining of Bauxite for two cases in
points.

The Nawailevu, Bua Bauxite mining by the Aurum Exploration Fiji Limited had left some
repercussions on the community of the vicinity. The first signs are exposed areas of red
soils left by the mining company due to the felling of Pine trees. Some earliest findings
by Ms. Filomena Tuivanualevu (source: https://fijitoday.wordpress.com) that during
heavy rain downpour the women of these areas find that they are collecting dead shell
fish and seaweed due to the impact of Bauxite mining. The harvest of pine trees
harvested for was the prominent feature that left the red soil exposed to Aeolian, water
and other forms of soil erosion. Also the S1 million dollar pay off to Fiji Pine
commission does not equal the amount loss by the indigenous people with a payout of
$101,930:00 to the mataqali Nalatu for the premium lease and $275,000 for the Vanua
Naivakasiga and Lekutu for the compensation and loss of fishing grounds for the
contract of the new wharf. The Bua people are losing much in terms of their land and
healthy ocean resources for a meager compensation for the excavation of their bauxite.
However with the promised amount of $22milion dollars a year is not equivalent to
sustainable levels of excavation which will proceed for the next 22 years (China Daily,
21st January, 2015 and http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/2012-
10/12/content_15814026.htm). The people of Bua will not be working but will be only
selling their produce to the workers as contrary to employment to locals.

Some of these run off and soil erosion may smother and asphyxiate the corals which
house animals living in a symbiotic relationship with zoozanthelia and the Bua villages
for the source of food. Other organisms live in association with these organisms for
protection and habitation.

Furthermore, Climate Change has also affected these corals due to changing
temperatures, where corals have died in temperatures greater than 37C and so do the
other life forms. These experiences have been exacerbated by the greenhouse gases
(CHGs) and the notorious one is Carbon dioxide. These gases occur naturally and trap
heat in the atmosphere and constant felling of trees and burning. The temperature of
the oceans may increase and consequently affect the life forms in the oceans, especially
the coral reef systems.

FORESTS IN FIJI- The Impact of Humans in the Environment.

Forests are lungs of the nations such as Colo-i-Suva in Fiji and likewise the Amazon forests
were once the lungs of the world. The felling of trees to make way for development has
undermined the need to cater for the worlds volume of greenhouse gases that are
bellowed from the industrialised and developed countries. Fiji is no exception and at the
receiving end of Greenhouse gases and Climate change. For example, the felling of trees in
Bua for the mining of Bauxite has been given a green light of 22 years lease and a minimal
amount of return in minerals and a $1 billion dollars bond for the rehabilitation process will
not change the livelihood of the people and creation of employment. However, the
damages pertaining to the extraction of the bauxite will cost them heavily and likewise the
impacts are going to unfold if the corrective measures to the impacts are not carried out
accurately.

43
 BAUXITE MINING IN BUA -NAWAILEVU

(a) Bauxite mining (b) Ocean in the background.

Mining of Bauxite in Nalatu-Bua, in the background is the sea which can be heavily impacted
by the degradation of the landforms and silt will flow into the sea, therefore the decimation
of coral reefs and sources of food.

Bauxite extraction Felling of Pine trees. Planting of food and fruits.

Mr. Samuela Lagataki, the Conservator of Forests, also voiced his concern on land
degradation. This a concern since 2009 as raised in his interview with TV one (source: March
23, 2014 http://fijione.tv/forest-degradation-a-serious-concern)
Some collaterals that have come up as solutions to the problem are:
Compensation to the land owners of Nalatu @ $101, 390 as premium lease and to
the vanua Naivakasiga and Lekutu for the compensation of the loss of fishing rights
which amounted to $275, 000 and 22 years lease of land.
$1 billion dollars bond held by the government for the 20 years of replanting of Pine
trees programme to reduce climate change.
S1 million dollars paid to Fiji Pine for the removal of pine trees ( these are owned by
the indigenous population)
Building of jetty which is 600m wide, roads and other amenities, planting fruits and
food.

The mining of resources and the removal of top soil needs to be carefully monitored with
the Environment Impact Assessments statements and Economic benefits fairly distributed to
the landowners, because this can build up to a billion dollar trade with environmental
repercussions left for the people to mete out the issues of land degradation, loss of fishing
grounds, income of families and resources as well as poisoning of water ways.
ACTIVITY:
1. Write an essay to discuss the benefits of forests and coral reef systems and how
development and human impact affected the survival of the organisms.

2. Explain what is Climate change, its causes, effects and solutions.

3. Is this investment venture beneficial to the indigenous people of Fiji? Discuss.

44
Lesson 1.3.3 Conservation of the Species and Sustainability

Why is Conservation important?

Many animals like the cod, the dodo and the American passenger pigeon used to be
plentiful. But now two of these are extinct and the cod is much endangered. This can
only be explained by human actions. Humans would use or eat these animals without
being worried about conserving them. Numbers declined until they became extinct or
endangered. If people had a stronger sense of conservation and the importance of these
animals in their ecosystems and in their importance to us as people, then maybe we
would still be able to have these animals around us.

Conservation is not just important for animals but to all living things.
Conservation is also very important
a. to prevent floods, fires, new deserts and drought.
b. to protect habitats and natural areas like rainforests, marine and desert
ecosystems.

If we allow the destruction of rainforests it will increase the production of greenhouse

gases which make the world warm up. This results in melting of Arctic and Antarctic ice
caps, rising sea levels and flooding of low lands. Another thing that can happen is that
new deserts are formed. This happens when the warming earth results in less water and
less vegetation like trees and things stop growing and land becomes barren (and by the
way, a desert isnt just sandy like a beach, it is usually too hot and dry for peoples
comfort, but it is mainly about being dry so you can get deserts in cold areas without
sand too).

Conservation needs to be done by humans to prevent damage to the world caused by

humans themselves. But what humans dont think about is how without conservation
our lives will change. Resources, such as water, oil, natural gas, wood and food, become
less available as we dont protect our planet. When these become less available,
countries may get so desperate for it wars can start over who gets the resource. This can
also lead to people accidently making that resource even rarer and less plentiful.

Conservation and Sustainability

Conservation, Preservation and Sustainability

The two terms conservation and preservation are often confused and are used to
mean the same thing, although differences exist.

In Conservation, change and progress is accepted for a better future, but only when the
changes take place in ways that are not wasteful. Conservationists have warned us
that if we continue to be wasteful and pollute the environment, then it wont just
be our generation that suffers, but future generations too.

Preservation, on the other hand, involves attempts to maintain, in their present

condition, areas of the Earth that are so far untouched by humans. Preservationists
are concerned that mankind is encroaching onto the environment at such a rate that
many untamed landscapes are being given over to farming, industry, housing, tourism
and other human developments, and that we our losing too much of what is natural.
Some preservationists also argue that wildlife and ecosystems should be preserved,
45
whatever the cost, regardless of the economic benefits they may have for humans. This
follows from the belief that every living thing has a right to exist.

For Fiji, both Conservation and Preservation activities are carried out to ensure that
sustainability is achieved

Local Examples of Conservation and Preservation Activities or Initiatives:

a. New Fiji Coins and Notes

One of the most outstanding national conservation milestones that took place in
2012 was when the new Fiji coins and notes were changed and imprinted with
our endemic and endangered species to remind us of our National heritage.
Previously, endemic species were pictured on stamps. The President at that time,
Ratu Epeli Nailatikau in the official launch reminded the public that "The designs
have been deliberately selected by a team of eminent Fijians to firmly remind us
our entire beautiful national heritage that can all be too easily lost, if we fail to
protect and treasure them.[ www.fijitimes.com ]. This statement clearly
indicates that the nation is concerned about conservation.

Figure 1.19 Newly designed coins of Fiji showing the endemic species.

Coin Local Name Common Name

$2 Ga ni Vatu Peregrine falcon
$1 Vokai Banded Iguana
50c Varivoce Hump head Wrasse
20c Kaka Kadavu Red Shining Parrot
10c Beka Mirimiri Fiji Flying fox
5c Nuqa roro Bi coloured fox faced
rabbit fish
Table 1.3. Table of the Endemic organisms featured on the new Fiji coins.
[Source: www.fijilive.com ]

46
 Activity;
There have new designs too on the Bank Notes.

Identify the endemic species printed on the new Fijian notes and draw a
similar table as shown in Table 1.3 above. Collect pictures of the notes too,
so that you are aware of them or ask your parents to show you the real
notes.

b. Establishments of Nature Reserves like Parks, Forest Reserves and Marine

Reserves.
In such projects, the reserves are established by the government and or the
landowners or companies that are concerned about conservation.

Some examples are:

1. Bouma National Heritage Park project aimed at conserving the
rainforest of Taveuni and the Vanua Bouma (the land, the sea and
people of Bouma). The Park was established in 1990 not only to protect
the forest but also as a means of generating an income for the four villages
whose land is bounded by the park.

(Source:www.island-spirit.com)

4. Colo I Suva Forest Park

Established in 1872, Colo-i-Suva Forest National Park in Fiji is a two and a
half square kilometres of verdant rain-forests renowned for tropical flora
and birds. There are about four and a half kilometers of natural trails
ploughing through the forests and natural water bodies to swim in. This is
an example of a Government owned Forest Reserve

(Source: www.fiji-budget-vacations.com)

The Namena Marine Reserve, located between the principal islands of

Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, is part of the traditional fishing grounds, or
Qoliqoli, of the Kubulau Community. Surrounding the tiny island of
Namenalala, the approximately 70 square kilometer Namena Marine
Reserve was established in 1997.This community had the foresight some

47
 years ago to better manage and conserve their natural marine resources.
They sought to not only protect their fisheries from over-exploitation due
to poaching and poor management, but also to develop the tourism sector
as a means of providing sustainable livelihoods and benefits to the
community.

Fisheries marine-habitat Reef I Qoliqoli

National Parks Nature Reserves
Lower Vunivia Catchment Draunibota and Labiko Island
Mount Tomanivi Garrick Memorial
Nadrau Plateau (Western Sector) Nadarivatu
Sigatoka Sand Dunes Naqarabuluti
Sovi Basin Ravilevu
Rokosalase
Tomaniivi
Vunimoli
Vuo Island
Wabu Forest
Marine Protected Areas Forest Reserves
Bukatatanoa Barrier Reef Vunia Forest Conservation
Fulaga Wailevu
Great Astrolobe Lagoon
Makogai Island Forest Parks
Malolo Project Bouma National
Manava Island Colo-I-Suva
Namenalala Resort Marine Reserve Mount Evans Forest Park
Sawaieke Waikatakata Cultural
Tavarua Island
Vuata Ono Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar)
Vuna (Waitabu) Upper Navua Conservation Area
Yanuca Marine Park
Cloud Forest Sites
Marine Parks Kadavu
Koroyanitu National Gau
Taveuni
Marine Sanctuaries Vanua Levu
Treasure Island Viti Levu

Reserved Forests
Buretolu
Colo-i-Suva
Kalobo Water Catchment
Korotari
Maranisaga and Wainiveiota
Naboro
Nadarivatu/Nadala
Naitasiri
Rewa
Savura Forest

48
Fiji and its people have realised the importance of Conserving and Preserving Resources.
This is evident in the establishment of the various parks and reserved listed below.
Table 1.4. Examples of Existing Conservation Areas in Fiji.
[Source: www.namena.org ]

Faunal Reserves

Bird Island, Beqa Lagoon

Gau Nukutolu Islets
Moturiki Ogea Levu
Mount Washington, Kadavu Selala Mangrove Reserve
Mubulau Island Silktail Reserve
Namena Lala Island Sovu Islands
Nanuku Islet Taqua Rocks
Naulu-Lokia Swamps Vatu-i-Lami Island
Navua Swamp Vatu-i-Ra Island
Neoveitchia Storckii Palm Reserve White Rock
Nukubasaga and Bukubalati Yabu Island

Table 1.4b. More examples of locations of Animal (Faunal) Reserve. Source: Fiji Visitors Bureau

Activity: Read through Tables 1.4 a and 1.4b, and write down the

1. (a) meanings of the main headings.

(b) similarity and difference between these Conservation Initiatives:

I. Marine Protected Areas, Marine Park and Marine Sanctuary

II. Nature Reserve, Forest Reserve and Reserved Forests
III. Cloud Forest Site and Faunal Reserves.

2. Choose any two places mentioned above which you are familiar with and
describe what type of Conservation or Preservation Activity is carried out
there.
[You may be a part of the landowning or qoliqoli owning unit that is promoting this
conservation activity, share your experiences with the class.]

Nature Trail: Organise a Tour to a Reserve nearby and observe how this
Reserve or park is managed [Note: The main aim of this tour is to observe
the conservation practices carried out in this reserve.]

There are a few recent organisations that are promoting and assisting Fijians to
conserve and preserve for the main purpose of SUSTAINABILITY include:
Nature Fiji-Mareqeti Viti
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)-Fiji
The University of the South Pacific
Fiji Marine Conservation and Diving

49
CAREERS

Environmentalist

Veterinary

Doctor

50
 STRAND 2: MATTER

2.1 Investigating

Matter

2.2 Materials

2.3 Reactions

SEPARATING MIXTURES

INTRODUCTION

We live in a world full of mixtures. In your teapot you have a mixture of tea leaves and tea; your
garden soil contains a mixture of clay, sand, humus and stones; curry powder is a mixture of
spices; air is a mixture of gases. Can you name some more.

Scientists also come across mixture and they often have to separate parts of a mixture just as
you separate tea from tea leaves. In this chapter we will be trying out some of the methods
scientists use to separate mixtures. You will discover that their methods are similar to the
methods used in everyday life.

Outcomes
After completing this chapter you will be able to :
Account for the changes and processes involved
when matter changes from one state to another.
Appreciate the interchangeability of the three
states of matter.
Account for the different properties of mixture and
compounds and discuss the different methods of
separating their components.
Appreciate the use of separation processes in
everyday life.
Investigate the changes that accompany a chemical
reaction and identify reactants and products in
everyday life.
Recognize the various chemical reactions that are
encountered daily

51
 UNIT 2.1 INVESTIGATING MATTER
2.1.1 Changing States of Matter
All matter moves from one state to another .I t may require extreme temperature or pressures.
Phase change happen when certain points are reached.

Matter has mass ( all can be weighed)and occupy space (all have volume). Some have fixed
shape and cannot be changed easily these are solids. The examples are the desks, books, chairs,
blackboard and cups.

Water, soft drinks, orange juice are all liquids and have some solutes (solids suspended in them.
Volume of liquids, remains the same unless heated, its shape can change. The liquid takes up
the shape of a container, for example juice poured into a glass tumbler will take up the shape of
the tumbler.

Gases are not seen but it is made up of several gases such as Oxygen, Carbon dioxide, Nitrogen,
Water vapour, and several other gases. However, gases have weight and occupy space. Unlike
solids and liquids, gases can be compressed and squeezed into smaller containers. For example,
in China some are selling Oxygen in volumes due to pollution in the atmosphere. (Shadwick
and Barlow, 2003)

Copy and complete the table and write T (True ) or F (false) in the appropriate grid cells.

State of Have mass Takes up Have fixed Have fixed Can be Can be
Matter space shape volume compressed poured

Solid

Liquid

Gas

52
EXPERIMENT SEPARATING A SOLUTION BY EVAPORATION

AIM

To separate the solute (salt) from the 3. Boil the water in the beaker
solvent (water) in a salt solution. to heat the solution in the
evaporating dish.
MATERIALS

o Beaker (half filled with

water)

o Evaporating dish Safety: Wear safety glasses whenever

you are heating substances and do not
o Bunsen burner get too close. When the water is almost
o Tripod and gauze mat evaporated turn off the gas as the
remaining solution might start to spit.
o Salt solution

o Safety glasses.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Record your observation as you are

doing the experiment.

1. What substance did you

evaporate from the solution?
METHOD 2. What substance do you think
is left on the evaporating
1. Set up your equipment as
dish?
shown in figure above.
3. Why did you use a water
2. You will be using the beaker
bath in this experiment?
of water as a water bath. This
will heat the solution in the
evaporating dish gently to
prevent it spitting.

53
In your exercise book;

1. Write the heading: Separating a Solution by Evaporating

2. Record your observations.
3. In complete sentences, answer questions 1-3
4. Put in correct labels of the processes below.

Something to Read: Evaporating and Distilling

Mixtures are very important part of

our world. Nature is always mixing
substances up. Rain mixes with
rock and dissolves them,
earthworm mix the leaves with
earth. They contain two or more
different substances mixed
together.
Mixtures are often separated when pure substances are needed from them. In some
cases the pure substances obtained from mixtures are more useful than the mixtures in
which they are found. For example, gold is useful than the rocks in which it is found.

Evaporation was used to separate salt from the salt solution. This process removed
solvent from a solution and leaves behind the solute. The solution must be heated to
drive away the solvent. You may have read about how the sun is used to get salt from
sea water.

In evaporation, the solvent is usually lost into the atmosphere. Sometimes this does not
matter, especially if the solvent is water. But at other times the solvent might be too
expensive or too dangerous to let it go into the air.

The solvent evaporates as a gas, so to get it back the gas must first be changed into a
liquid. Do you remember what this process is called? The liquid solvent is trapped and
used again. So these two processes, evaporation and condensation will separate the
solvent from a solution. This is the process of distillation.

54
 Water evaporates in the hot sun at these
salt pans. People can then collect the salt
that is left behind.

The apparatus used for distilling water

The salt crystallisers at Vunitogoloa. Salt water is
pumped into the crystallisers where salt is
formed.
In your exercise book
and other solvents is called a still.
Alcohol can be prepared from treated
sugar cane juice by distilling in a still.
Distillation is also used in oil refineries to
separate petrol, kerosene, motor oil and
other products from petroleum, the
mixture which comes from the ground.

1. Write the heading: Evaporation and Distilling

2. Copy and complete
a) In evaporation a liquid changes to a _____________________________.
b) The process of ___________________ is used to obtain salt from sea water.
c) In distillation a liquid is first ________________________ then ____________________. The
___________________ is left behind.
d) Some substances obtained by distillation are ____________________________

Words you should know

Condensation separate sublimation

Distillation solute Deposition
Evaporation solution Solidification
Mixture solvent Crystallisation
still

What are the Safety Dos and Donts for Students?

Life threatening injuries can happen in the laboratory. For that reason, students need to
be informed of the correct way to act and things to do in the laboratory. The following is
a safety checklist that can be used as handout to students to acquaint them with the
safety dos and donts in the laboratory.

Conduct

1. Do not engage in practical jokes or boisterous conduct in the laboratory.

2. Never run in the laboratory.
3. The performance of unauthorized experiments is strictly forbidden.
4. Do not sit on laboratory benches.

55
General Work Procedure

1. Know emergency procedures.

2. Never work in the laboratory without the supervision of a teacher.
a. Always perform the experiments or work precisely as directed by the
b. teacher.
3. Immediately report any spills, accidents, or injuries to a teacher.
4. Never leave experiments while in progress.
5. Never attempt to catch a falling object.
6. Be careful when handling hot glassware and apparatus in the laboratory.
7. Hot glassware looks just like cold glassware.
8. Never point the open end of a test tube containing a substance at yourself or
others.
9. Never fill a pipette using mouth suction. Always use a pipetting device.
10. Make sure no flammable solvents are in the surrounding area when lighting a
flame.
11. Do not leave lit Bunsen burners unattended. Turn off all heating apparatus, gas
valves, and water faucets when not in use.
12. Do not remove any equipment or chemicals from the laboratory.
13. Coats, bags, and other personal items must be stored in designated areas, not on
the bench tops or in the aisle ways.
14. Notify your teacher of any sensitivity that you may have to particular chemicals if
known.
15. Keep the floor clear of all objects (e.g., ice, small objects, and spilled liquids).

Housekeeping

1. Keep work area neat and free of any unnecessary objects.

2. Thoroughly clean your laboratory work space at the end of the laboratory
session.
3. Do not block the sink drains with debris.
4. Never block access to exits or emergency equipment.
5. Inspect all equipment for damage (cracks, defects, etc.) prior to use; do not use
damaged equipment.
6. Never pour chemical waste into the sink drains or wastebaskets.
7. Place chemical waste in appropriately labeled waste containers.
8. Properly dispose of broken glassware and other sharp objects (e.g., syringe
needles) immediately in designated containers.
9. Properly dispose of weigh boats, gloves, filter paper, and paper towels in the
laboratory.

Apparel in the Laboratory

1. Always wear appropriate eye protection (i.e., chemical splash goggles) in the
laboratory.
2. Wear disposable gloves, as provided in the laboratory, when handling hazardous
materials. Remove the gloves before exiting the laboratory.
3. Wear a full-length, long-sleeved laboratory coat or chemical-resistant apron.
4. Wear shoes that adequately cover the whole foot; low-heeled shoes with non-slip
soles are preferable. Do not wear sandals, open-toed shoes, open-backed shoes,
or high-heeled shoes in the laboratory.

56
 5. Avoid wearing shirts exposing the torso, shorts, or short skirts; long pants that
completely cover the legs are preferable.
6. Secure long hair and loose clothing (especially loose long sleeves, neck ties, or
scarves).
7. Remove jewelry (especially dangling jewelry).

Hygiene Practices
1. Keep your hands away from your face, eyes, mouth, and body while using
chemicals.
2. Food and drink, open or closed, should never be brought into the laboratory or
chemical storage area.
3. Never use laboratory glassware for eating or drinking purposes.
4. Do not apply cosmetics while in the laboratory or storage area.
5. Wash hands after removing gloves, and before leaving the laboratory.
6. Remove any protective equipment (i.e., gloves, lab coat or apron, chemical splash
goggles) before leaving the laboratory.
Emergency Procedure
1. Know the location of all the exits in the laboratory and building.
2. Know the location of the emergency phone.
3. Know the location of and know how to operate the following:
Fire extinguishers
Alarm systems with pull stations
Fire blankets
Eye washes
First-aid kits
Deluge safety showers
4. In case of an emergency or accident, follow the established emergency plan as
explained by the teacher and evacuate the building via the nearest exit.

Chemical Handling
1. Check the label to verify it is the correct substance before using it.
2. Wear appropriate chemical resistant gloves before handling chemicals. Gloves
are not universally protective against all chemicals.
3. If you transfer chemicals from their original containers, label chemical
containers as to the contents, concentration, hazard, date, and your initials.

What are the Safety Dos and Donts for Students?

1. Always use a spatula or scoopula to remove a solid reagent from a container.

2. Do not directly touch any chemical with your hands.
3. Never use a metal spatula when working with peroxides. Metals will decompose
explosively with peroxides.
4. Hold containers away from the body when transferring a chemical or solution
from one container to another.
5. Use a hot water bath to heat flammable liquids. Never heat directly with a flame.
6. Add concentrated acid to water slowly. Never add water to a concentrated acid.
7. Weigh out or remove only the amount of chemical you will need. Do not return
the excess to its original container, but properly dispose of it in the appropriate
waste container.
8. Never touch, taste, or smell any reagents.
9. Never place the container directly under your nose and inhale the vapors.
10. Never mix or use chemicals not called for in the laboratory exercise.

57
 11. Use the laboratory chemical hood, if available, when there is a possibility of
release of toxic chemical vapors, dust, or gases. When using a hood, the sash
opening should be kept at a minimum to protect the user and to ensure efficient
operation of the hood. Keep your head and body outside of the hood face.
Chemicals and equipment should be placed at least six inches within the hood to
ensure proper air flow.
12. Clean up all spills properly and promptly as instructed by the teacher.
13. Dispose of chemicals as instructed by the teacher.
14. When transporting chemicals (especially 250 mL or more), place the
immediate container in a secondary container or bucket (rubber, metal or
plastic) designed to be carried and large enough to hold the entire contents of
the chemical.
15. Never handle bottles that are wet or too heavy for you.
16. Use equipment (glassware, Bunsen burner, etc.) in the correct way, as
indicated by the teacher.
(Source: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/)
S2.1.2 Study the Reversibility of the three states of Matter
There are six major phase changes in the three states of matter.

MELTING EVAPORATION
SOLID LIQUID GAS

FREEZING CONDENSATION
SOLID LIQUID GAS

SUBLIMATION DEPOSITION

SOLID GAS SOLID GAS

From the previous lesson one learnt of the different processes or stages in the changes
of states of matter. There are six stages and some of these changes are reversible while
others are irreversible (capture Year 7 Basic Science).

What are reversible and irreversible changes in states of Matter? Give some specific
examples.

Some of the changes in states of Matter are Reversible while others are Irreversible.

58
Some examples are given below.

1. The Melting of ice as temperature increases and liquid is formed.

2. Liquid changes to gas through Evaporation as the temperature further rises to

higher temperatures.

3. The reversibility of this change in state of matter can be achieved through

Condensation where the warm gases rise and meets with cooler surfaces and
changes back to liquid.

4. Another reverse reaction can be achieved when heat is further removed and
liquid is freezed to its solid to become solid ice again. Freezing is the phase that
changes liquid to solid ice.

Sublimation: In fact, any solid that turns into a vapor without going through the liquid
phase can be said to sublime or "sublimate." The process is called Sublimation.

Examples:

1. Carbon dioxide is frozen into dry ice and when it is left at room temperature it
sublimes directly into CO2 without changing into its liquid form. This known as
Sublimation.(irreversible)

Carbon dioxide sublimation

(Source: http://www.edupic.net/sci_pics.htm)

59
 2. Iodine when burnt changes directly into its gaseous form via Sublimation. These
fumes can be used to reveal finger prints in Forensic research. (irreversible
reaction)

(Source: http://int.search.tb.ask.com)

Revealing Latent Fingerprints Using Iodine Fuming.

3. Naphthalene is an organic compound that is primarily known to the average

person as the main ingredient in mothballs. These are used to keep freshness in
clothes packed in drawers and suitcases. (irreversible reaction)

Mothballs and its main

Moth balls contain constituent is Naphthalene
Naphthalene which keeps
clothes fresh and aired.

(Source: http://int.search.tb.ask.com)

Deposition occurs when a gas becomes a solid without going through the liquid state of
matter. A good example would be the water vapour changing from its gaseous state to
solid ice in the Northern and Southern poles. This is not experienced in the Equatorial
regions since it is always warm all year round.

60
 (Source: http://www.chem4kids.com)

Activity: 1

AIM: To study the changes in the states of Matter from Solid, liquid to Gas.

Materials

Test tube

Thermometer ice cubes

Spirit Burner with Methylated Spirit

Balloon

Method

1. Place the ice in a beaker and take its temperature when it is constant or remains
the same.

2. Then once it is in the liquid state measure the temperature and take note of it.

3. Measure 20 ml of water and fill it into a test tube. Attach the balloon at the end of
the Test tube and gently hold it over the Spirit burner with a test tube holder.

4. Measure the temperature at which the balloon expanded and become swollen or
imbibe.

5. Cool the balloon and tap the balloon against you your hand to feel the water that
has formed after cooling.

6. Note down any observations you have seen during the experiment.

61
Results

1. What was the temperature of the ice?

2. What was the temperature of the liquid formed after the Ice changed to liquid?

3. What process enables the change of state from ice to liquid?

4. Do you notice the change in Temperature?

5. Explain what had taken place to allow for the change in the State of Matter.

6. Describe clearly the change of state from liquid to gas when the 20ml of water
was gently heated over the Methylated Spirit.

7. What is the process is involved when liquid was changed to gas?

8. Is the change of state from liquid to gas reversible in this experiment? Explain.

9. What is an irreversible reaction? Give three examples.

10. Write your Conclusion based on the results you have obtained.

ACTIVITY 2:

Study the graph carefully and answer the following questions below. The
experiment was done in a laboratory and the students findings were plotted onto
a graph. The graph shows the amount of energy used and the temperature at
which the transition phase or changes of state took place from the liquid to gas
stage.

(Source: http://www.visionlearning.com)

1. What was the initial temperature of water?

2. At which temperature is water undergoing the liquid/gas phase transition/change?

3. Is the temperature Constant for the liquid/gas phase transition?

4. What temperature is the gaseous water heat energy is added?

62
5. What is the Energy in calories supplied to water at 80C?

6. Is energy added or removed as Water changes into the gaseous form?

7. Name the phase transition or process that changes liquid to gas.

63
 UNIT 2.2 MATERIALS
2.2.1 Mixtures and Compounds
MIXTURE
DEFINITION Is made up of two or more different
substances which are mixed and not
combined chemically.
PROPERTIES Composition of mixture is
variable
Each components retains its
characteristic properties
Components are easily
separated
EXAMPLES Soil, ocean water, air
ACTIVITY 1. Provide students with yellow
and blue modeling clay.
2. Make small balls of size to
represent iron atoms and
sulphur atoms.
3. Place a random number of
yellow coloured and blue
coloured balls on a sheet of
white paper.
This is analogous to a mixture of iron
and sulphur.
Note:
Its components (yellow
coloured and blue coloured
balls) are in random
properties.
Can be physically separated
to components (i.e. Balls
separated by colour)
Each component retains its
property.
64
COMPOUND
A substance made up of two
or more different elements
chemically joined together.
Relative properties of
the elements are fixed
Do not retain
individual properties
E.g. both sodium and
chlorine are poisonous
but their compound
NaCl (table salt) is
essential to life.
Take a lot of energy to
separate components
of compound
Water, table salt, sugar
1. Mix together a yellow
coloured ball and a
blue coloured ball.
(that is. 1:1
proportion)
A green ball should be
formed and is
analogous to a new
chemical compound.
Note:
Its components (
yellow and blue
coloured balls) are in
fixed proportions (1:1)
Cannot be physically
separated
The properties of
components are not
retained; a new colour,
green is formed.
EXPERIMENT1 MAKING A COMPOUND
Caution: Work in a well-ventilated room or
use a fume cupboard. 2. Heat the mixture as shown below;

In this experiment, you will prepare iron

sulphide by combining the elements iron
and sulphur and causing a chemical
reaction between them. You will also make
a mixture of iron and sulphur. You will need
the following equipment:
Bunsen Heat proof
burner mat
Pipe clay Crucible with
triangle lids
Matches Tongs
Spatula Powdered
Iron filings sulphur
Safety glasses

3. Heat the mixture for a few

minutes, lifting the lid of the
crucible with the tong occasionally
to observe any changes.
METHOD.
4. Continue to heat the mixture till it
1. Place two spatula measures of
glows a dull red.
powdered sulphur in the crucible
5. Allow it to cool completely before
along with one spatula measures of
examining the compound you have
iron filings. Stir the solids around to
made.
make a mixture.
Has a chemical reaction occurred?
How can you tell? Could the mixture
be separated? If so, how? (Hint; think
of one of the properties of iron.)

65
66
In your exercise book.

1. Write the heading: Making a compound

2. Write your answers to the questions in no. 1 of the method.
3. Write a paragraph to explain what has happened. Use the following words to
help you: element, iron, sulphur, mixed, heated, chemical reaction, change,
compound, properties, new.

2.2.2 Methods of Separating Mixtures

I. SIEVING
In this activity we shall be doing filtration using sieves. Sieves are filters with large
holes in them.

E X PE R I M E N T 1 SEPARATING SAND WITH SIEVES AND OBSERVING THE SAND

GRAINS
MATERIALS

3 pieces of
mosquito
netting
3 rubber
bands
4 sheets of
paper
Sand
1 tin with its
bottom
removed
1hand lens

METHOD

1. Use a rubber band to hold one layer of netting over

the tin. Shake the sand through the netting onto the
paper. Pour the grains that collect on top of the net
onto another piece of paper. Label these piles of
grains grade 1 and keep aside.
2. Hold another layer of netting over the tin with a
rubber band. Shake the sand through the double
netting. Collect the grains that do not pass through
on another piece of paper. Label this pile of grains
Grade 2 and keep it aside.
3. Attach the third layer of netting to the can and repeat
the process to get Grade 3 grains. Sand which passes
through the tree layers will be the finest. Label this
pile Grade 4. Keep the 4 piles separate.
4. Label the piles of sand as coarse, medium, fine, and
very fine.
5. Use your hand lens to observe each pile in turn.
Write down your observations of the grains and the
spaces between them.

67
 In your exercise book
1. Write the heading: Separating Sand With Sieves and Observing the Sand
Grains
2. Copy and complete
We made a _____________ using layers of mosquito netting. Using this sieve we
graded the _____________ into ___________ grades. We used a ___________ __________ to
observe sand grains.

3. Questions (answer in complete sentences)

a) What colours are the grains?
b) What can you say about their sizes?
c) Are their edges smooth or rough?
d) What size are the spaces between the grains (small, medium, and large)?
4. Copy the table below. Fill it as you make observations.
GRADE Description of Diagram of grains Size of spaces
OF grains (small, medium,
SAND large)
1
2
3
4

Something to read Filters Around Us

The process of separating mixtures by sieving or filtering is important both in our

homes and in other places such as factories and laboratories. We use a filtering process
in our homes when we use a tea strainer or when we sieve the flour to make cakes,
puddings and roti.

Filters are not found in the kitchen only. If

you have a motor mower or outboard
motor you may have seen the sieve inside
the funnel used for pouring in the petrol.
This removes small pieces of dirt. If the
particles are not removed off the car will
not run properly. The oil going into the
car engine has to be very clean, so it is
first forced through a filter which holds
back any dirt. Air going into the engine is
also filtered by a special filter which traps
dust so that the air is clean.

Our nostrils are lined with hairs which filter out dust so it will not irritate our wind pipe
making us cough and sneeze. In this way we are able to take clean air into our lungs.

Another filter in our body is the kidney. It removes impurities from the blood, but it
works in a more complicated way than the other filters we have studied.

68
 In your exercise book

1. Write the heading: Filters Around Us

2. Copy the table below. Complete it by making a list of all the filters and sieves
which are mentioned in this lesson. Beside each one, write down the things they
separate. Add others to your list.
Filter Substances removed Mixture it is removed
from
Tea strainer Tea leaves Tea

Do you know?

Sedimentation tanks
Why is alum added to water in a
treatment station? Sometimes the
water is cloudy, which means that
there is silt or tiny bits of mud in it.
The alum helps to bind the tiny bits
of silt together so that they fall to
the bottom. The bits that fall to the
bottom are called sediment. As you
might have guessed alum comes
from the metal aluminum.
Words you should know
Alum
impurities
Coarse grade
Filter grains
Filter bed purify
Fine sieve
Smooth rough

II. DECANTING

Sometimes you may want to separate an insoluble solid substance which is mixed with a
liquid, for example a pot of uncooked rice which has just been thoroughly washed.
Decanting is a method you can use to roughly separate the liquid from the solid. To do
this allow the solids to settle to the bottom of the pot then gently pour the liquid off the
top trying not to shake the pot. This will leave the rice in the bottom of the pot.

69
 E X P E R I M E N T 2 SEPARATING SAND FROM A MIXTURE OF SAND AND SOIL.
MATERIALS
2 beakers
1 stirring rod
Sand and soil
Water

METHOD
1. Place the sand and soil mixture in a
beaker. Half fill it with water and
stir it well. Let it stand for about
minute.

2. Now hold the stirring rod half way

down the second beaker and pour
the liquid from the mixture down
the rod (the glass rod is simply
used for directing the liquid into
the second beaker) this process is
called decantation. When we
poured out the muddy water from
the mixture of sand soil and water,
we used the process of decantation.

3. If there is still some soil mixed with

the sand, repeat steps 2 and 3 until
the sand is clean.

In your exercise book

1. Write the heading Separating Sand from a Mixture of Sand and Soil
2. Copy and complete:
We separated water from sand by a method called ___________________________.
We did this in the following way:
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
The sand was left in the beaker because it was too ______________________ to be
carried in the water.

Draw a diagram to show the correct way to decant.

ACTIVITY : GROUP RESEARCH

Find out about the following processes; panning, sluicing and
floatation.
Describe how it works and state the mixtures that are separated
in this way.

70
III SEPARATING BY SPINNING

Sometimes it is not possible to separate the

heavier particles in a mixture. A centrifuge
separates a mixture by spinning. Cream is
separated from milk by this method and in
medicine a centrifuge is used to separate red
blood cells from the blood plasma.

The spin dryer in a washing machine is a form of Test tubes containing

centrifuge and the same method is used to
blood are placed in a
separate sugar crystals from liquid sugar in our
sugar mills. Of course this Centrifuge in the mill centrifuge. The lid is
is a lot bigger. closed and the centre
part spins very
After centrifuging, can you
quickly.
see the dark coloured blood
cells at the bottom of the test
tube, and the clear liquid
above them.

In your exercise book;

1. Write the heading: Making a Separating Funnel

2. Draw your separating funnel
3. Copy and complete
We held the ____________ over a ________________. We put a glass ______________________
in the funnel. We poured in the ______________
and ____________________ mixture.
4. Questions ( Answer in complete sentences)
How do you use a separating funnel? What happens?

A separating funnel like this is used in laboratories.

5. Why is a filter of no use if you want to separate two liquids?

6. What type of liquids can be separated by using separating funnels?

71
IV SOME SPECIAL SEPARATIONS

Some substances have special properties which can be used to separate them from a
mixture. Iron is attracted to magnets which can help to separate it from sand.

EXPERIMENT 4 SEPARATING WITH A MAGNET

METHOD
Caution: Do not try to pick up the iron
filings directly with the magnet. Always
have a piece of paper or plastic between
the magnet and the iron or put the
magnet in a small clear plastic bag.
1. Place a sheet of newspaper on the
bench and pour the mixture of iron
filings and sand evenly on to the
paper.
2. Wrapping the magnet with a piece
of paper, stroke it slowly over the
mixture.
3. Lift it over to a third piece of paper.
Take the magnet out and let the
iron filings fall on the paper.
4. Repeat until no more filings collect
on the paper under the magnet.

In your exercise book;

1. Write the heading; Separating With A Magnet

2. Write a paragraph about how you used a magnet to separate iron filings from
sand.
3. Draw a diagram to show how you carried out the activity.
4. Answer in complete sentences
(a) Why is the magnet wrapped in paper?
(b) What property of a magnet separates iron from other substances?
(c) Where else are magnets used to separate iron?

72
E X P E R I M E N T 5: SEPARATING COLOURS WITH PAPER

73
In your exercise books

1. Write the heading: Separating Colours With Paper

2. Use the words below in a paragraph explaining how you took the green colour
out of the leaves.
Cut, sand, spirit, ground, grinder, dark green

3. Questions.
(a) How did the sand help you to get the green colour from the leaves?
(b) Why did you use spirit to take the green colour out of the leaves?
4. Copy and complete
We put a drop of the green solution onto ________________ paper. We saw
____________.
Then we added two drops of pure _________________. A wide circle was formed. We
could see rings of _______________________________ (which colours?) in the circle. This
shows that green leaves contain a ________________ of colours.
5. Draw a diagram of the rings of colours that are on the filter paper. You may stick
the paper into your book.

74
 Unit 2.3
REACTIONS

2.3.1Chemical Reactions

When a chemical reaction takes

place, new substances are
produced. When atoms react with
other atoms, new materials are
formed. The substances at the
beginning of a chemical reaction are
called the reactants. The new
materials made after the chemical
reaction has finished are called the
products. Chemical reactions occur A fireworks display is an example of a
all around us all the time. chemical reaction that occurs very quickly.

During a chemical reaction, changes can be observed including possibly;

Colour changes
Production of gas
Production of heat
Loss of heat
Production of light
Production of a solid (precipitate)

EXPERIMENT 1: OBSERVING CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Each of the chemical reactions described
below involves a noticeable change. Your
job is to identify the changes that occur and
record your observations.
1. Collect the following equipment:
Test tubes
Test tube rack
Test tube brush
Test tube holder
Magnesium ribbon
0.2M copper sulphate in a
dropping bottle
0.1M lead nitrate in a
dropping bottle
0.1M potassium iodide in a
dropping bottle
4M hydrochloric acid
10ml measuring cylinder
2. Put a 2cm strip of magnesium in a
test tube and then add 20- 30
drops of hydrochloric acid. Repeat
using the copper sulphate solution.
State whether magnesium ribbon is
more reactive in hydrochloric acid
than in copper sulphate. How could
you tell?
3. Put about 5ml of lead nitrate into a
test tube.
Be careful: do not allow the lead
nitrate solution to touch your
skin. It is poisonous.
Now add 5ml of potassium iodide
solution. What happens?

75
In your exercise books:

1. Write a heading: Observing Chemical Reactions

2. Draw a diagram of what you did.
3. Write down your observations for the changes taking place for each reaction.

1. 2. 3.

Rusting of a bicycle A bush fire burning Cooking roti

4. 5. 6.

Rotting- a piece of stick The rotting of leaves Kids enjoying eating their
decaying oranges.
Digestion brings about
changes.
(Source: Sainiana Satala)

2.3.2 Examples of Chemical Reactions:

In your exercise books:

1. Write your heading; Chemical Reactions

2. List down four chemical reactions that you experience in your daily life.
3. Decide which chemical reactions are and which are not.
a) You shampoo your hair to remove excess oil.
b) You then perm your hair to make it frizzy.
c) Your father is outside mixing cement and using glue on a chair.

WORDS YOU KNOW

Chemical reaction
Reactant
Product
Precipitate

76
 REVIEW QUESTIONS

LESSON 2.1:

1. What is the difference between filtering and evaporation?

2. State how distillation is different from evaporation.

3. Below is a representation of models of different states of matter changing

phases. Identify the relevant processes taking place.

A B

C D

LESSON 2.2

4. Some of the following sentences are true and some are false. Write true for
those that are true, and change the others to make them true.

a) We should taste things in a science class only if the teacher tells us to.
b) Always hold a hand lens close to the object you are observing.
c) Allow a mixture to stand before you decant it.
d) Use a very strong liquid if you want to separate it on paper.
e) Very fast spinning separates more quickly than slow spinning.

77
5.

i) Which of the diagram show pure substances?

ii) Which of the diagrams could show a solution?
iii) Which shows an insoluble solid?
iv) Which could be separated by sieving
v) Which could be separated by a separating funnel?
vi) Which could be separated by decanting?

6. Match the mixture from List A with the best way to separate it from List B (some
may be used more than once, others not at all)
LIST A LIST B
i) Milk and cream a) Sieving
ii) Yellow and red dyes b) Spinning
iii) Gold and soil c) Using a magnet
iv) Blood cells from blood d) Using solvent and paper
v) Iron filings and sugar e) Washing
vi) Weevils and flour f) Using a separating funnel
vii) Water and oil g) Decanting
viii) Spirit and water h) Distillation.

78
 7. How would you prove to someone that a chemical reaction has occurred?
8. Sodium suphate and barium chloride are mixed to form barium suphate
(a precipitate) and sodium chloride.
i) What are the reactants?
ii) What are the products?

CAREERS

Scientist Engineers Lab Technician

79
 STRAND 3 ENERGY

Sub Strand 1: ENERGY SOURCE AND TRANSFER

Sub Strand 2: ENERGY TRANSFORMATION, USE AND CONSERVATION
Sub Strand 3: FORCES

Sub Strand 3.1: ENERGY SOURCE AND TRANSFER

ENERGY

Introduction

Today, energy is a very important issue. Our fossil fuel (oil, coal and gas) use has grown
so large that its emissions are affecting the natural systems of the earth. We know that
the fossil fuels we use will one day run out, but emerging technologies and conservation
could help us to overcome these problems.

Today, our energy options are being reviewed. World oil production seems unlikely to
increase much beyond todays levels, before slowly declining. Even though large coal
resources remain, pollution problems may restrict its use. Natural gas is a clean and
convenient fuel whose advantages over other fossil fuels are being recognized.

But it is a non-renewable source, and it still contributes to the greenhouse effect.

However a new understanding is emerging. Energy experts are beginning to look much
more closely at what we use energy for, and how we might achieve the same, or even
better results in other, less energy consuming ways. Modern electronics, new materials,
telecommunications, and common sense are working together to give us a much wider
range of energy options with lower environmental impacts. Often sending a fax, or
making a phone call may replace driving somewhere in a car.

An energy efficient house can be warm without using energy. A super-efficient

refrigerator can keep food cold using one-tenth as much energy as an ordinary
refrigerator.

The energy sources that we will learn in this unit are as follows:
i. Solar [sun]
ii. Wind
iii. Water [hydropower]
iv. Geothermal
v. Biomass [organic matter]
vi. Fossil fuels

80
3.1.1 FORMS OF ENERGY
Energy can be found in different forms. Some forms of energy are as follows:
i. Heat
ii. Electrical
iii. Sound
iv. Solar

I. Heat Energy
Heat is a form of energy that is transferred from a region of higher temperature to one
of lower temperature. A cold object placed in a warm place will absorb heat from its
surroundings, causing its temperature to rise. On the other hand, a warm object will lose
heat to its surroundings causing its temperature to fall.

There are three different ways of heat transfer:

i. Conduction
ii. Convection
iii. Radiation

i. Conduction
Conduction transfers heat within a body or between two bodies that are touching. It is a
point-by-point process of heat transfer. Conduction occurs in solids, liquids, or gases
that are at rest. Energy flows, but the substance through which the heat is being
transferred does not itself flow.

A metal spoon taken out of a cup of hot drink has a

hot handle. Why?

81
Atoms in the handle of the spoon
move faster and bump on to each
other as they heat up. The hotter
the spoon becomes, the faster the
atoms vibrate. Soon all the atoms in
the spoon are vibrating.

A material that allows heat to travel

through it is called a conductor.
Some materials are better conductors than others. Metals like iron, steel and copper are
good conductors.
Other materials like rubber, wood and some plastics are bad conductors. A material that
does not conduct heat or electricity easily is called an insulator.

Fire fighters wear insulated clothing to protect them

from the heat of the fire.

ii. Convection is the transfer of heat from one fluid to

another by the movement of the fluid itself. A fluid is a
substance which can flow. Liquids and gases are fluids
It is usually a fairly rapid process. It depends upon the movement of the material that is
heated. The motion is a result of changes in density (mass per unit volume) that
accompany the heating process. Water in a tea kettle is heated by convection. A hot
stove also heats the air in a room by convection.

When a fluid is heated, its density decreases. The particles of the fluid speed up and
spread out. The fluid expands, becoming more buoyant. A warmer volume of fluid will
rise, while a colder and thus more compacted volume of
fluid will descend.

A pot of water being heated over a burner, the water in

contact with the hot bottom of the pot is heated by
conduction. However, the heat spreads through the water
by convection. The water at the bottom of the pot becomes hotter, more energetic, and
less dense than the rest of the water. Currents of the hot water rise up, pushing aside
the colder water at the top of the pot. This colder water sinks to the bottom, where it is
then heated. This water then rises up, and the process is repeated. Convection transmits
heat via such circulation currents of rising and descending fluid.

(Top) heat flows from the hot end to the cool end of the rod. As the distance from the
burner flame increases, the temperature of the rod falls by a proportional amount. In a
pot (bottom left), hot water rises and cold water descends until all the water is at the
same temperature. A home heating lamp (bottom right) produces its heating effect by
direct transfer of radiant energy.

82
Source: http://kids.britannica.com/Comptons/art-53415>. 2013 Encyclopedia
Britannica, Inc.

iii. Radiation
All objects radiate energy and heat, even your own body. However, the radiation coming from
hotter objects is more intense than that coming from cooler objects. Radiation leaves an object
in the form of waves. The hotter an object, the shorter the wavelength of this radiation.

As you stand in front of a camp fire holding your

cold fingertips out in front of you, what do you
feel? Slowly your fingers begin to warm up as they
absorb the radiation coming from the fire. The
infrared waves, or heat rays, leave the hot fire, and
radiate out towards your hands.

An object that is especially good at radiating heat is referred to as a blackbody. Both the
Sun and the Earth are excellent radiators, and as a result, both are considered
blackbodies
Exercise:

1. Write down three ways of heat transfer.

2. List two good conductors and two insulators of heat in the table below.
Conductors Insulators
1.
2.
3. For each of the diagrams given below,
state the type of heat transfer used.
C.
A.
B.

Heater

II. Electrical Energy

Electricity is one of the basic forms of energy associated

with electric charge, a property of atomic particles such as
electrons or protons. Electric charges can be stationary as
in static charges or moving as in electric current. Electricity can be generated from
many different sources. It can be sent almost instantly over long distances and can also
be stored. Moreover, it can be converted efficiently to other forms of energy.
83
Because of this versatility electricity is an integral part of our modern lives.

Electricity is one of the convenient forms of energy because it can easily be changed into
other forms of energy such as light and heat. To use electricity connected to your home,
all you have to do is to switch it on or plug an appliance into your electrical socket.
Source: 2012 Neo K 12

Today, inside the home, electricity powers computers, televisions, telephones, lights,
refrigerators, heaters, air conditioning, healthcare-related devices, video games,
rechargeable toys, stereos, alarm systems, garage doors, ovens, stovetops, dishwashers,
clothes washers, routers, can openers, DVD players, DVRs, and countless rechargeable
devices like phones and electronic tablets.
Source: BURN an energy journal

Exercise:
Electrical energy cannot be destroyed but it can change to other forms.
Copy and complete the table below. The first one is done for you.
Items What form of energy is electricity changed into for
the following items?
1. iron heat energy

Complete the table with the following items:

2. 3.
4. 5.

III Sound Energy

84
Sound is a type of energy. Sounds are produced when an object vibrates. When this
happens, the air around the object also vibrates. These vibrations in the air travel as
sound waves. The sound waves move sound energy from one place to another.
Example: A jet engine sounds loud when it is close, but when you can sometimes hear the
noise when you are several kilometers away.

Activity:

Materials:
a piece of clear plastic film
a rubber band
a spoon
some rice
an empty jar or bottle
a thin tray

Method:

Source: 1994, 1990 World Book Inc. Young Scientist: Volume 9, Using Energy.

85
IV. Solar Energy

Solar is the Latin word for sun and its a powerful source of energy. In fact, the
sunlight that shines on the Earth in just one hour could meet world energy demand for
an entire year!
We can use solar power in two different ways: as a heat source, and as an energy source.
People have used the sun as a heat source for thousands of years. Families in ancient
Greece built their homes to get the most sunlight during the cold winter months.
www.kids.esdb.bg/solar.html

Where does solar come from?

In the 1830s, the British astronomer John Herschel

famously used a solar thermal collector box
(A device that absorbs sunlight to collect heat) to cook
food during an expedition to Africa. Today, people use
the sun's energy for lots of things.

Radiant energy from the

sun has powered
life on Earth for many
millions of years. (Source: NA SA)
Solar Energy Can Be Used for Heat
And Electricity
When converted to thermal (or heat)Energy, solar energy can be used to:

Radiant energy from the sun has powered

Life on Earth for many millions of years.
Heat water for use in homes, buildings or swimming pools
Heat spaces inside homes, greenhouses, and other buildings

Solar cells
Solar cells are devices that convert light energy directly into electrical energy. You may
have seen small solar cells on calculators. Larger arrays of solar cells are used to power
road signs, and even larger arrays are used to power satellites in orbit around Earth.

Solar panels
Solar panels are different to solar
cells. Solar panels do not generate
electricity. Instead they heat up
water directly. A pump pushes
cold water from a storage tank
through pipes in the solar panel.
The water is heated by heat
energy from the Sun and returns
to the tank. They are often located
on the roofs of buildings where
they can receive the most sunlight.

86
STRAND 3.2: ENERGY TRANSFORMATION, USE AND CONSERVATION
3.2.1 ENERGY TRANSFORMATION

Energy is one of the most important things humans use. We need it for heat, light and
for protection. We use energy all the time, probably without even noticing it. Energy
may change in form but it cant be made out of nothing and neither can it be destroyed.
A power station does not create the electrical energy we use in our homes. The power
station changes the chemical energy of the fuel into electrical energy. Instead we change
this energy into another form of energy, such as heat or light.

Activity 1: A solar panel at work

You can see how a solar panel works by making your own. Do this on a bright sunny
day.
Materials:
A sheet of clear plastic or glass
water
Thermometer
A baking tray(with black inside)
If you do not have a black baking tray, line the tray with black plastic.
1. Fill the baking tray with cold 3. Remove the plastic and
water one centimeter deep. put the thermometer or
Use the thermometer to find your finger in the water.
out the water temperature. If You will feel the water
you dont have one, test the Warmer than
water with your finger. before.

2. Place the glass or clear

plastic over the tray. Leave it in
the sunshine for an hour

87
Exercise: A Solar Panel at Work

1. Copy and complete.

a. The ______________ water was ______________ deep in the baking tray.
b. We used a _______________ to find out the water temperature.
c. The tray of water was then covered with _____________ and it was left out in the
_________ for __________ hour.
d. After ________ hour we took the ______________ off the tray and put the ________________
back in the water.
e. We found that the water was ________________.

2. Answer the questions in complete sentences.

a. Why did we use a thermometer to find out the temperature of water before and
after the experiment?
b. What do you think would happen if we did not cover the water tray?
c. What do you think would have happened if we did the experiment on a cloudy
day?

3. Conclusion:
a. At the end of our experiment, the water in the tray had turned _______________.
b. Where does the energy come from?
c. What form of energy can you observe?

88
Top 10 Rules for Electric Safety: To play it safe around your home, just remember the
rules for using electricity the right way.
Illustration Safety tips
1. DON'T plug a bunch of stuff or overload into one outlet or extension
cord.

It could damage the electrical system in your house or even cause a fire.

2. Make sure all electric cords are tucked away, neat and tidy to avoid
accidents.

Pets and rats might chew on electrical cords, and people might trip and fall.

3. DON'T ever climb the fence around an electrical substation due to

high voltage and electrocution.

If a ball or pet gets inside the fence, ask a grown-up to call the electric
company - they'll come and get it out for you.

4. DON'T pull an electrical cord from the wall and use phones while
lightning is taking place.

Pulling on a cord can damage the appliance, the plug or the outlet.

5. DO look up and look out for power lines before you climb a tree.

The electricity can go right through the tree branch - and right through you

6. Fly your kite far away from power lines or substations.

The kite and the string may conduct electricity - sending it right through you
to the ground.

7. Ask a grown-up for help and guide when you need to use something that
uses electricity.

8. Have a grown-up put safety caps on all unused electrical outlets.

Covering outlets will also help save energy by stopping cold drafts.
9. Remind friends and family members to watch out for power lines
when they're using a ladder, chainsaw or other outdoor equipment.

10. Keep electrical stuff far away from water.

Most electrical accidents around the house happen when people use
electricity near water.

89
3.2.2 ENERGY FROM ONE FORM TO ANOTHER

Machines use one form of energy to convert another form of energy like heat, light,
sound and movement. Modern science is now giving us a much wider range of energy
options that we can use in machines, with lower environmental impact and more
efficiency. Many home appliances that we use today need energy for proper functioning.
A lot of this energy can be saved with enormous environmental and financial benefits if
we use them wisely.

90
Exercise: Energy from One Form to Another

1. Copy and complete.

a.) Energy can ____________ into many _____________.

b.) The _______________ _________________ inside coal changes into _______________ when
it burns.
c.) An electric bulb converts _____________ ____________ into ____________ and
______________ ________________.

2. Answer questions in complete sentences.

a.) i.) Where does the energy that moves a car

come from?
ii.) What form of energy can you observe?

b.) i.) Where does the energy that moves a fan

come from?
ii.) What form of energy can you observe?

c.) i.) Where does the energy in a solar water

heater come from?
ii.) What form of energy can you observe?

d.) i.) Where does the energy to transmit pictures

in television come from?
ii.) What form of energy can you observe?

3. Conclusion:

a.) Chemical energy can be found in ________________, ________________, _________________

and ______________.
b.) Electric energy can be found in any machine that is powered by
_____________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________.

4. In your groups, design an activity which shows that energy changes from one form
to another.
91
Activity 2: Being Energy Wise
Materials:
Being Energy-Wise Activity sheet.

Method:
1. Discuss ways of conserving energy in the home.
Compile a list of these ideas e.g. Turn off the lights when not in use, walk or ride a
bike instead of driving a car.

2. Based on the above list, prepare a record sheet. Your teacher will help you.

Exercise: Being Energy Wise

1. Copy and complete.
If your table is different from the recorded table given below, then include them on
your table.
Ways of conserving Sun Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri Sat
energy
1 Turn off the light when not
in use
2 Turn down the fan
3 Turn off the water tap to
stop the drip
4 Take a short shower
5 Walk to the shops
6 Pull the curtains across
windows to prevent heat
from sunlight
7 Close the fridge door
quickly
Your teacher will make a copy of this table for you.
2. Take the record a sheet home and fill it in over a week. Place a tick if an action is
done.
3. Questions: At the end of the week answer the questions below.
a.) Did you save energy in your home?
b.) Did other members of your family save energy at home?
c.) If you answered yes to b.) how would you know they are saving energy?
d.) Will your family be saving money if they use energy wisely?
e.) If you answered yes to (d) name ways in which you would know that money is
being saved in your family?
Conclusion: Explain in approximately five sentences the importance of saving energy in
your home and school.

Words You Should Know

Power station chemical energy
Electrical energy conserving energy
Solar power

92
3.2.3 TECHNOLOGY AND THE DEMAND FOR ENERGY

The increasing world population has brought an increasing demand for energy. The
amount of fuel needed for cooking, heating and lighting has increased. More machines in
use have also meant greater fuel consumption.

In this lesson, you will look at reasons why there is an increasing demand for energy;
how new technologies have helped reduce energy costs for consumers; and the
advantages of using alternative sources of energy.

We Need More Energy

Different appliances utilize different sources of energy. The appliances therefore can be
classified according to the sources of energy they use. Some of the appliances that were
used in the past are still being used today, while some of them were not available in the
past.

Activity 1: We Need More energy

This activity is aimed at making you aware of all the appliances used at school,
their energy sources and energy consumption.

You will have to find out from your parents or from older people in your
community the appliances that were in use long time ago.

You will need to discover why there is an increasing demand for energy now.

Method:
1. Discuss all the examples of appliances that are used at home for cooking,
entertainment, cooling, transport, cleaning, lighting and heating.

2. Classify the appliances according to their sources of energy e.g. Electricity, gas oil.

3. Find out from your parents and elders the appliances that were most common 40
to 60 years ago.

93
Exercise: We Need More Energy

1. Copy and complete the table below, by writing examples of appliances that we use
under each heading. Some examples are already given.
Cooking Entertainment Cooling Transport Lighting Cleaning Heating
Gas stove Fan Vacuum
cleaner

2. Classify the appliances in 1 above, according to their sources of energy.

Copy and complete the table.

Electricity Gas Solar Biomass Petrol

Fan Stove

3. Copy and complete the table.

Under each heading write the names of appliances used more often now and the ones
that were used more than 50 years ago.

Appliances used more than fifty years ago Appliances used more now
Charcoal iron Electric iron

4. Copy and complete the table below.

Electric Is it in your Was it there when If not, what was
Appliance house? you were a child? there instead?
Television
Radio
Computer
Air conditioner
Fans
Hot water heater
Ceiling lights
Lamps
Toaster
Electric kettle
Microwaves
Refrigerator
Vacuum cleaner
Iron
Clothes drier
Others
Total number

94
Activity 2: New Technologies and Energy Saving
In this activity we will look at how technology is helping to reduce the cost of
energy for consumers.

Materials:
2 beakers
40ml of water
A concave mirror or curved surface covered in aluminum foil
2 thermometers
Method:
1. fill each beaker with 20m of water
2. Take both beakers out in the sun.
3. Hold the curved mirror under one beaker so that
Sunlight is focused on the water.
Leave the second beaker in the sun as control.
4. Leave these for about 5 minutes.
5. Use the thermometer to record the temperature
of water in each beaker.

95
Exercise: New Technologies and Energy Saving

1. Record the temperature of each beaker of water.

2. Answer the following questions.

3.2.4 RENEWABLE AND NON- RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
a.) Is there any temperature difference in the two beakers?
b.) Which is warmer?
c.) Can solar energy be used to heat water?
d.) How would this technology help to reduce the energy cost for consumers?

Non-Renewable Sources (Fossil Fuels)

Coal, oil and gas are referred to as fossil fuels because they are made from dead and
decayed plants and animals. This process takes place over millions of years as layers of
mud and sand build up over the animal and plant matter. Time and the pressure of the
weight above change it to coal, oil or gas. Fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of
energy because when they are used up they cannot be replaced.

1. Coal: This is the worlds most plentiful fossil fuel. Although less important than
oil, coal still supplies almost 30% of the worlds commercially traded energy.
Coal is mainly burnt in power stations to make electricity and in giant furnaces to
make iron and steel. It can also be converted into gas or liquid fuels. South Africa
produces its gasoline, and diesel oil from coal.

2. Oil: The technical name for the oil that comes from under the ground is crude
oil. By heating, crude oil can be separated into a number of different products,
such as petrol, kerosene, diesel fuel, lubricating oils and bitumen. This process
also produces substances which are used to make plastics, paints and glues.

3. Gas: Gas is formed in the same way as crude oil, and trapped between layers of
rock. Natural gas is a colourless, odorless mixture of gases made up mainly of
methane (CH4). Other gases include small amounts of ethane, propane and
butane. Gas is also available in bottles as LPG (liquid petroleum gas). It is non-

96
 toxic, non-corrosive, free of lead and heavier than air. LPG is produced when oil
is refined. The main chemical species of those fuels are C, H, O and small
quantities of S, N and other elements.

Note: Burning of coal, oil and gas releases carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxides of
Sulphur (S) and Nitrogen (N) into the atmosphere and contributes to the
greenhouse effect.

Renewable Sources of Energy

1. Solar Energy:

Ultimately most energy comes from the Sun. The food we eat and the wood
which is the main fuel for over half the worlds population comes from solar
energy. The sun keeps the earths temperature warm enough for life to exist.
Even the fossil fuels that energize industrial society are forms of stored solar
energy, concentrated over millions of years.

Solar energy is described as an alternative source of energy that might one day
play a significant role in the energy scene. The reality is far from this, although
the natural flow of solar energy on the earth is far larger than the amounts of
fossil fuel used by humans. This is because using solar energy is still in many
cases too expensive.

2. Hydropower:

Hydropower stations have turbines which are connected by pipes below the
dam, the higher the altitude difference between the dam and the turbine, the
more water pressure in the dam pipes. When the pipes are opened, water rushes
past the turbines which start spinning the generators. The more the water
pressure the faster the turbines spin and the more electricity is produced.

As the water runs down pipes it loses potential energy and gains kinetic energy
and therefore increases speed. Water rushes past the turbines at a high speed
and pressure spins the turbines which spins the generators. So the energy is
converted to rotational mechanical energy. When the generator spin, the energy
is converted to electrical energy. The energy conversion taking place is:

Potential Kinetic + Heat Rotational + Heat Electrical +

Heat

It should be emphasized that the heat that is generated when going from one
form of energy to the next, is wasted.

3. Wind Energy:

Wind Energy has been used for centuries as an energy source for sailing ships,
pumping water and grinding grain. More recently, wind has become an
important energy source for generating electricity, especially in remote areas. In
many parts of the world it is also part of national electricity supply systems

97
 (girds). The use of wind energy is increasing because electricity can be generated
at the same cost as from conventional power plants. Large wind generators have
been developed in many countries, including U.S.A, Sweden, Denmark, West
Germany, Netherlands and Canada. These generators with power outputs mainly
in the 50kW to 600kW range supplement existing electricity supplies.

Like solar energy, wind can be considered to be free. However, special

equipment is needed to extract the energy from the wind. Therefore although the
energy supply may be free, the cost of using wind energy isnt. The amount of
energy that can be commercially extracted from the wind depends on the
efficiency and setting of wind machines.

Wind-driven systems consist of a tower to support the wind generator, devices

regulating generator voltage, propeller and hub system and tail vane. Very small
wind turbines, as seen on sailing boats, store electricity they generate in a car
battery for further use.

4. Biomass:

Biomass is defined as any organic matter, available on a renewable basis, a steam

turbine can be as simple as cutting or chipping wood for direct combustion for
conversion to energy. Forest residues, agricultural crops and waste, wood and
wood waste, animal wastes and aquatic plants are all biomass.

Biofuels such as ethanol are derived from these biomass feed stocks. Conversion
of the chemical energy in biomass to drive a steam turbine can be as simple as
cutting or chipping wood for direct combustion as in ethanol production.

5. Geothermal

Geothermal energy is the heat generated by natural processes beneath the

earths surface. These natural processes include radioactive decay, chemical
reactions, friction from the movement of crystal plates and heat present from the
earths formation.

Geothermal energy is recovered as steam and hot water. The steam is harnessed
to run generators

98
Exercise: Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy Sources

1. Copy and complete the following.

a.) Energy which is irreplaceable is called ______________________________.

b.) Energy which is replaceable is called ________________________________.
c.) the unit of energy is ___________________ and the unit of power is _______________.
d.) _____________________ is a pollution free and renewable source of energy.

2. Copy the following table. Complete it by naming some renewable and non-
renewable energy sources.
Renewable Energy Sources Non- Renewable Energy Sources

3. Answer the following questions:

a.) What will happen to fossil fuel resources if we keep using them?
b.) If there is sufficient fossil fuel, how will we cope?

4.

For each source of energy list:

a.) some uses
b.) advantages
c.) disadvantages

99
3.2.5 USING ENERGY WISELY

Introduction

The flow of electrons or electricity through a wire is called electric current. Electrons
are very small. Watts are the units in which electric power is measured.

Effective lighting in the home makes a big difference to its look, comfort and energy use.
It may be possible to reduce your lighting bill by as much as 20% or more by observing
some simple housekeeping rules.

Fluorescent lights (tube lights) and compact fluorescent lamps are three to five times
more efficient than incandescent lights (bulbs or flood lights) and should be used in all
areas where the lights are used more than a few hours per day (living areas, kitchen,
and security lights).

Remove or replace inefficient lamps and fittings with energy-efficient fluorescent lights
in high use areas.

For night light security lights and other lights that are left on for a long time, investing in
energy efficient lights is very cost-effective. Lighting systems should use correctly sized
lamps and light fittings.

100
Something to Read. USING ENERGY WISELY

101
Activity 1: Strike a light

Materials:
Watches
Clocks
Pencil and paper

Method:
1. Check the rooms in your school to see if the lighting is being used wisely.

Exercise: Strike a Light

1. Copy the table below.

Report your findings in the table. Make sure you record the time you checked the
rooms and place the correct symbol in the table.
Lights off
Lights on but used wisely
Lights on but waste of electricity

Rooms Checked Checked Checked Specify tube

Date ___/___/____ Date ___/___/____ Date ___/___/____ Or bulb
Time Time Time light
___/___/____ ___/___/____ ___/___/____
Corridor
Hall
Office
Classroom

2. Conclusion

To help save energy used by lights, I think we should..

_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

102
Activity 2: Energy Saver

Materials: paper, pencil

IS YOUR FAMILY AN ENERGY SAVER OR ENERGY WASTE ONE?

Answer the following questions with your family. Tick one box for each questions.

LIGHTS YES SOMETIMES NO

When you leave a room, do you turn the lights off?

Do you have fluorescent lights?
If you are working at your desk, do you only use the desk
lamp, rather than lights for the whole room?

HEATING/COOLING
Air conditioning system
Can the cold air from outside get in under your doors?
Do you turn the water heater off when you go to bed?
Do you only cool the rooms that you use and not the whole
house?
Do you turn the electric fan off when you go to sleep?
COOLING

Do you use a microwave oven whenever you can?

Do you keep the lids on pots and pans when cooking?
Do you try not to stand at the fridge with the door open?
Do you let the food cool down before putting it in the
fridge?
Do you defrost the freezer regularly?
WASHING

Do you wash the clothes in cold water?

Do you have a shower nozzle that doesnt use much water?
Do you turn the iron off when youre not using it?
Do you wring out wet clothes before they go in the dryer?
Do all the taps in your house turn off without dripping?
Do you take the shortest possible showers?
Method:
Discuss and get information for the work sheet.

Exercise: Using Energy Wisely

Copy and complete the worksheet.

103
Activity: How Lightning Influences Electricity Bills

Materials:
July August
Unit consumption 100 130
Cost per unit 21c 21c
Total amount $21.00 $27.30
Method:
1. Compare the two bills

2. Discuss the difference in line:

a.) consumption of electricity per month
b.) the cost of electricity

Exercise: How Lighting Influences Electricity Bills

1. Write a paragraph.
To help save energy used by lights, I think we should

2. Copy and complete.

Another name for bulb or flood light is ________________________. Turn off
_______________
when _______ using them. _______________________ light uses less energy.

3. Conclusion:
List four ways of saving energy in homes and schools.

Words You Should Know

fluorescent nozzle
incandescent air conditioning
electrons awnings
compact microwave

104
STRAND 3.3: FORCES

3.3.1 Investigate and identify how different mediums such as oil,

water, air affect the weight of mass of objects.
What are forces?
A force can be a push or a pull. For example, when you push open a door you have to
apply a force to the door. You also have to apply a force to pull open a drawer.
You cannot see a force but often you can see what it does. Forces can change the speed
of something, the direction it is moving in or its shape. For example, an elastic band gets
longer if you pull it.

Measuring forces
A force meter is used to measure forces.
Forces can be measured using a force meter. Force meters
contain a spring connected to a metal hook. The spring
stretches when a force is applied to the hook. The bigger the
force applied, the longer the spring stretches and the bigger
the reading.
The unit of force is called the newton, and it has the symbol
N. So 100 N is a bigger force than 5 N.

Weight, Mass and Gravity

People often confuse mass and weight. Remember that weight is a force, and is
measured in newtons. Mass is measured in kilograms (kg).

Mass
The mass of an object is the amount of matter or "stuff" it contains. The more matter
an object contains, the greater its mass. An elephant contains more matter than a
mouse, so it has a greater mass. Mass is measured in kilograms, kg, or grams, g.
A 100 kg object has a greater mass than a 5 kg object. Remember an object's mass stays
the same wherever it is.

Gravity
All objects have a force that attracts them towards each other. This is called gravity.
Even you attract other objects to you because of gravity, but you have too little mass for
the force to be very strong.
Gravitational force increases when:

the masses are bigger

the objects are closer

Gravity only becomes noticeable when there is a really massive object like a moon,
planet or star. We are pulled down towards the ground because of gravity. The
gravitational force pulls in the direction towards the centre of the Earth.

105
 Weight
Weight is a force caused by gravity. The weight of an object is the gravitational force
between the object and the Earth. The more mass the object has the greater its weight
will be.

Weight is a force, so it's measured in newtons. On the surface of the Earth an object
with a mass of 1 kg has a weight of about 10 N.

3.3.2 FRICTIONAL FORCES

Whenever an object moves against another object, it feels frictional forces. These forces
act in the opposite direction to the movement. Friction makes it harder for things to
move.
Helpful frictional forces
Friction can be useful:
friction between our shoes and the floor stop us from slipping
friction between tyres and the road stop cars from skidding
friction between the brakes and wheel help bikes and cars slow down
friction between the parachute and the air resistance slows down the prchute for
safe landing.

Frictional forces are much smaller on smooth surfaces than on rough surfaces, which is
why we slide on ice.

Unhelpful frictional forces

Friction can also be unhelpful. If you don't lubricate your bike regularly with oil, the
friction in the chain and axles increases. Your bike will be noisy and difficult to pedal.

When there is a lot of friction between moving parts, energy is lost to the surroundings
as heat. Think of what happens when you rub your hands together quickly. The friction
warms them up.

Air resistance
Bikes, cars and other vehicles experience air resistance as they move. Air resistance is
caused by the frictional forces of the air against the vehicle. The faster the vehicle
moves, the bigger the air resistance becomes. The top speed of a vehicle is reached
when the force from the cyclist or engine is balanced by air resistance.

Streamlining
Racing cyclists crouch down low on their bikes to reduce the air resistance on them.
This helps them to cycle faster. They also wear
streamlined helmets. These have special, smooth
shapes that allow the air to flow over the cyclist more
easily.

Modern cars are also streamlined. Their smooth shapes

make the air resistance smaller, which allows them to
travel further on the same amount of fuel.
A streamlined racing
cyclist
106
Activity: Air Resistance
Materials:
two sheets of paper the same size, pens and paper
Method:
1. Collect two identical pieces of paper and roll one into a ball.
2. Predict which one will reach the ground in the shortest amount of time if they are
both dropped from the same height.
3. Have a volunteer climb to a high point on playground equipment and drop both
pieces of paper simultaneously.
4. Other children either observe or time what happens. Repeat it several times to
illustrate the principle of accurate testing.
Why does the ball of paper reach the ground first?
What forces are involved here?
Ask children to fold the paper so that it reaches the ground as quickly as possible.
Time the results.
Take the original ball. Without changing its shape in any way, how can we make it
reach the ground more quickly?

Teachers notes: Air resistance is acting against gravity. The amount of a

resistance at an object experiences is affected by its surface area and the
angle at which it moves through the air. The ball has less surface area and
so falls at a faster speed. A smaller ball will fall faster than a larger one,
assuming they both have the same weight. You can make the original ball
fall faster by throwing it i.e. exerting force that is acting in the same
direction as gravity.

107
 Exercise: Air Resistance
1. The table below shows the distance which a stone has fallen at three different time
a.) Plot the measurements on a graph; join them with a smooth curve. Your teacher
will help you plot the graph. 20

Distance in meters
Time in seconds 1 2 3 15
Distance in meters 5 10 20 10
5

1 2 3 4

b.) Use your graph to find out how long it Time(s)

will take a stone to reach the water if it is dropped from a height of 5m.
3.1.1 FLOATING AND SINKING
3. Conclusion:
Two identical pieces of paper were dropped from the same ______________. The paper
rolled into a ball reached the ground first. The two forces acting on the falling paper
are _______________ and ___________________ _____________________.

The Up-thrust Force in Liquids

There are different types of forces liquids exert on solids. One such force is the upward
push of the liquid (i.e. up-thrust). Brine, being a strong solution of salt water, has more
up-thrust than fresh water. Different liquids exert different amounts of up-thrust.

Activity: Up-thrust Force in Liquids

Materials:
3 beakers
Brine water, brine and water
3 eggs

Method:
1. Fill one beaker with water and label it B1
2. Fill the second beaker with brine and label it B2.
3. Fill the third beaker with brine and water and label it B3.
4. Put one egg into each of the three beakers.

Observe what happens to the each egg.

108
Exercise: Up-thrust Force in Liquids

1. Draw the diagrams of the three eggs in water, another in brine and the third
between water and brine. Label the liquids.
Write down what you noticed or observed in each beaker.

2. What do you think makes the egg float in brine but sink in water?
(Answer in complete sentence)

3. Conclusion:
In this activity we have found that water is _____________ dense than brine. Because
the egg _________ in water and ___________ in brine. This shows that brine is more
____________ than water.

109
Hydrometers
Hydrometers are used to measure the pushing-up power or up- thrust of liquids.
Hydrometers are usually made of glass. They are made heavier at the bottom to keep
them floating upright in liquids.

Activity: Hydrometers

Materials:
16cm pencil
Cellotape
Small stone (just the same diameter as of the pencil) or plastercine
Strip of paper (3cm in width and 16cm in length)
3 test tubes
Water, oil, acid (vinegar)

Method:
1. First, make a hydrometer by following steps 2 4.

2. Cut a strip of paper 3cm in width and 16cm in length.

3. Roll the pencil length wise on the strip of paper than cellotape it with the pencil so
that it wont come out. Graduate the paper on the pencil.

4. tie the stone on to one end of the pencil or cellotape it together with the pencil. OR
stick the ball of the plastercine on one end of the pencil.
That is your hydrometer.

5. Fill one test tube with water and label it T1.

6. Fill another test tube with acid (vinegar) and label it T2.
7. Fill the 3rd test tube with oil and label it T3.

8. Insert the hydrometer you have into each test tube and make a note of what you
see.

110
 Exercise: Hydrometers

1. Questions (Answer in complete sentences.)

a.) What does a hydrometer measure?

b.) Is the use of the hydrometer in different liquids a good way of identifying
which liquids is more dense than another?
c.) In the activity there are liquids, water, oil, and acid. Put them in order of their
pushing-up power or up-thrust from lowest to the highest.

More on Hydrometers
Hydrometers are very useful instruments. Milk inspectors use them to test milk. If a
farmer adds water to milk before sending it to the factory, he can be caught out because
adding water to milk changes its pushing up power. A hydrometer will tell the
difference between up-thrust in pure milk and diluted milk.
You may have seen hydrometers used in testing the acid in car batteries. As the battery
gets old, the acid changes and its pushing- up power gets less. A hydrometer can show
whether the battery needs to be re-charged or not. Recharging brings the acid back to
normal again. The battery tester takes the acid out of the car battery then tests its
pushing up power. The hydrometer is floating in the acid inside the glass.

Exercise: More on Hydrometers

1. Questions (Answer in complete sentences.)

a.) How does a hydrometer show the difference between pure milk, and
diluted milk?
b.) What does a battery hydrometer show?

2. Conclusion:
The _________ _____________ _____________ of acid is ________________ than water.
Oil has ________________ pushing-up power or up-thrust than water and acid.
A hydrometer is used to measure _______________ force of a liquid.

Words You Should Know

Brine hydrometer upward force up-thrust

111
3.2.2 LIQUIDS HAVE DENSITIES

If you want to compare the weights of substances, it is important that we use equal
volumes. When we compare the weights of equal volumes of different liquids, we are
really thinking about how dense they were. We say that brine is denser than water
because brine weighs more than an equal volume of water. Brine is denser than water,
water is denser than oil and oil is denser than kerosene. Interestingly, the weight of
equal volume order is the same as the pushing up order. This shows that more dense
liquids can push more strongly than less dense ones.

Activity: Weighing Liquids on a Balance

Materials:
elastic thread(1/2 meter)
1 drawing pin
1 paper clip or piece of wire
4 test tubes
1 dropper
1 ruler
Liquids: kerosene, water, brine, cooking oil

Method :
1. Fill the liquid to the same height in all the test-tubes.
Put a ruler across in front of all the test-tubes to check
this. Use a dropper to make the levels equal.

2. Make a loop at each of the elastic thread.

Press a drawing pin into a wall. Bend the paper
clip so that one part of it will reach around a test tube.
Hang the elastic thread on the drawing pin.
Hang the paper clip on the other end of the thread.

3. Hang each test-tube, one at a time, on the thread using

paper clip as a holder.
Put a pencil mark lightly on the wall where the bottom
of each test-tube reaches.
Put the test-tubes in order from the heaviest to the lightest.
Have you ever seen this same order anywhere else?

112
Exercise: Weighing Liquids on a Balance

1. Copy and complete.

We weighed the liquids on an ___________ ___________. The heaviest test-tube
stretched the thread most/least. We put marks on the wall to show how far the
thread stretched.

2. What two things did you do to make the volume of each liquid the same?

3. Copy and complete the table below.

Name of liquid Order(1, 2, 3, 4)

4. Draw a diagram of the balance you used to weigh the liquids.

5. Draw a ladder and write in the weight-order of the four liquids.

6. Copy and complete.

The weight order of liquids seems to be the same as the ___________ order.

113
3.2.3 PUTTING SOLIDS IN ORDER

Liquids could be put in order in two ways: one is according to weights of equal volume
and the other is with relation to their pushing up order. Solids can also be put in order
according to their densities and this could determine why some solids sink and why
others float in liquids.

Activity: Putting Solids in Order

Materials:
1 cm cube of wood
1 knife or razor blade
1 balance
Samples of substances

Method:
1. Cut cubes of each substance the same size as the wooden cube.
Take one cube in your left hand and another in your right.
Which is heavier?
Repeat using different cubes.
Try to put the cubes in order of weight.
Write down the order by answering question 1 of your Exercise.

2. Weigh the cubes using a beam balance or spring balance. Write down the weight of
each cube. Put them on the bench in order of weight, heaviest first. Compare this
with the order you wrote in question 1.
Are the orders the same?
If not, which is the correct one?

114
 Exercise: Putting Solids in Order

1. Copy and complete.

We took cubes of different substances. We tried to find their weight order by holding
them and my guess of the order was
1._______________(heaviest) 2. _________________ 3. _________________ 4.___________________(lightest)

2. We used a balance to weigh the cubes.

Substance Balance reading Order (1, 2, 3, 4,)

3. My order for weighing the cubes was (the same as/ different from) the order I got
by holding them in my hands. This was because
________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

3.2.4 FLOATING AND SINKING

Have you learned to swim? Even if learning to swim was easy, you probably found it
more difficult to learn how to float. Your body is denser than water, but because your
lungs are full of air, you can float. Also the water is pushing you upwards

Activity: Sink or Float

Materials:
1 bowl of water (basin)
Pebbles, eraser, piece of wood, marbles, keys or coins,
Corks, ice cube, soap, bottle tops, modeling clay,
Ping pong ball, etc.

Method:
1. Fill the bowl or basin with water.
2. Place the objects in the bowl of water one at a time.
3. Make a list of the ones that will float and the ones
that will sink.

115
Exercise: Sink or Float

1. Complete the table.(Tick in the column)

Name of solid Floats in water Sinks in water

2. Copy and complete.

A more dense substance is a substance that ______________ in water and a less dense
substance is one that ____________ in water.

3. Conclusion:
All objects that _____________ in water are ___________ ___________ than water. But all the
objects that float in ___________ are less _________ than ____________.

Activity: Water Takes Weight

Materials:
Basin
String
Elastic band
A large stone(brick)

Method:
1. Tie a piece of string around the brick.
2. Tie another end of the string to an elastic band.
3. Hold the brick or stone by the elastic band and lower it into the water.

Exercise: Water Takes Weight

Copy and complete.

When you put the ____________ in the water, elastic ____________ will be
stretched_____________. This is because the water is ____________ some of the bricks
___________.

116
Activity: Weighing in Air and Water

Materials:
1 spring balance
2 solids that float
2 solids that sink (e.g. Stone)
1 container of water
1 piece of string

Method:
1. Hang one solid on a piece of string and weigh it.
Write down its weight.

2. Lift the container of water until the solid is in it.

Do not let the solid touch the sides or bottom of the container.
Write down its weight.

3. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for other solid.

Exercise: Weighing in Air and Water

1. Copy and complete.

We used a solid called ______________ which sinks in water. We used another solid called
_____________ which floats on water. We tied each solid to a balance and weighed it in air
and then in water. We made sure that they did not touch the ____________ or the
___________ of the container.

Name of solid Floats or sinks Weight in air Weight in water Loss in weight

2. What happens to the weight of a solid which sinks when it is in water?

3. What happens to the weight of a solid which floats when in water?

117
Floating and Sinking

Submarines are made to move under water, but of course they need to come to the
surface sometimes. They have special tanks called ballast tanks to control the depth to
which they can go. When they need to sink, the tanks are filled with water, and when
they need to rise to the surface, the water is pumped out and air is pumped in.
Fish living in water need to sink and rise too. They do not have ballast tanks, but they
have bags of air called gas bladders inside them. Air passes in and out of the bladder
from the blood.

Water plants have air spaces in their stems. These help them float. If you have any water
hyacinths growing nearby, you could cut open the swollen parts of the leaves and look
at the air spaces inside. Some seaweed found growing in the ocean have small air-filled
floats which help to hold them up.

Gas bladder

Water hyacinth

Large ships may weigh many thousands of tonnes but they still float. If you have ever
been inside one, you will know that most of it is filled with air. Air makes ships less
dense.

Some things always float, some always sink and others can either float or sink. In the
activities of this lesson you have seen that certain objects can be made to float by
making them less dense.

Objects float in water when their weight is

balanced by the up-thrust from the water. The
object will sink until the weight of the water it
pushes out of the way is the same as the
weight of the object.
If the ship is overloaded, or if a hole lets water
inside, it may sink. Although the volume
remains the same, it will weigh more and may
sink. This is why captains must be very careful
not to overload their ships and keep away
from reefs that could make a hole in the
bottom of the ships. A boat floats because its weight is
balanced by the up-thrust from the
water

118
Exercise: Floating and Sinking

1. Why must the captain of the ship take care that he does not overload his ship?

2. Copy and complete.

A submarine can float or sink with the help of its _____________ tanks. When these are
filled with air the submarine will _______________. When ______________ is pumped in, the
submarine will sink.

3. What will happen to a fish when its gas bladder

a.) is filled with air from the blood?
b.) losses air into the blood?

4. Water plants have a lot of air spaces in their stems. How does this help them to
float?

5. When a ship is caught in a bad storm, the captain may give orders for some of the
cargo to be thrown overboard. Why is this done?

6. Why do we sometimes have pieces of cork tied to one edge of fishing nets?

Words You Should Know

appear sunken
Hollow ballast
Gas bladder spring balance

119
PARACHUTES

According to http://kids.britannica.com Air resistance is the frictional force air

exerted against a moving object. As an object moves, air resistance slows it down. The
faster the object's motion, the greater the air resistance exerted against it. Air resistance
affects all moving objects, from airplanes, rockets, and trains to car, bicycles, and even
living things.

(Source: http://www.sciencekids.co.nz)

The large surface area of a parachute increases the amount of air resistance the
skydiver encounters, allowing for a slower descent to the ground.

Skydiving is a sport, where a person jumps out of an airplane from a high altitude in the
air and opens the parachute to help them fall safely to the ground at a safe speed as
shown in the picture above.

As the skydiver falls, the force of gravity pulls the diver towards the earth. The force of
gravity makes an object fall fast. The parachute slows the skydiver down due to air
resistance or drag force.

However, the air pushes the parachute back up and creates a force opposite to the
gravity, slowing the skydivers. As the skydiver descends slowly to the earth, the push
and pull forces are almost in a balance.

120
ACTIVITY

Aim: To make a parachute with different weights attached to show which one falls the fastest and
slowest.

Materials:

A plastic bag or light material

Scissors
String
A small object to act as the weight, a little action figure would be perfect
Stop watches

Method:

1. Cut out a large square from your plastic bag or material. (30cm X 30 cm). A
suggestion for different groups they can use different areas of Plastic bag. (20cm x
20cm), (40cm x 40cm) etc.
2. Trim the edges so it looks like an octagon (an eight sided shape).
3. Cut a small whole near the edge of each side.
4. Attach 8 pieces of string of the same length to each of the holes.
5. Tie the pieces of string to the object you are using as a weight.
6. Use a chair or find a high spot to drop your parachute and test how well it worked,
remember that you want it to drop as slow as possible. Do this 3 times and note the
times taken and take the average. Fill the table below.

What's happening?

Hopefully your parachute will descend slowly to the ground, giving your weight a
comfortable landing. When you release the parachute the weight pulls down on the strings
and opens up a large surface area of material that uses air resistance to slow it down. The
larger the surface area the more air resistance and the slower the parachute will drop.

1. Cutting a small hole in the middle of the parachute will allow air to slowly pass
through it rather than spilling out over one side, this should help the parachute fall
straighter
2. Compare the times taken from the heights for the parachute to land for the different
areas of plastics and the speed.

Area of the Height Time taken Average time Average speed

parachute. 1 2 3

20cmx20cm
30cmx30cm
40cmx40cm

3. Discuss very briefly in your own words your observations for the release of the
parachute until it landed on the ground.

121
 4. Draw a graph to show the relationship between the average time taken and the Area of
the parachute.

5. Discuss and conclude how the average area of the parachute determines the time
taken for the parachute to land.

6. Is the air resistance an advantage to parachuters? Explain.

7. What is the main purpose of a parachute when falling off a height that is of a great
height and pull of gravity is enormous?

STONES THROWN INTO WATER

Any object thrown into water will displace its own volume or weight.. For instance if a
stone is weighed and later dipped into a beaker filled with water, the displaced water
will be its weight because it is submerged in water.

If something is submerged in water, it will displace an amount of water equal to its

volume. If something is floating in water, it will displace an amount of water equal to its
weight. Therefore, if you have anything more dense than water (stones) floating in a
boat and you throw it into the water, the water level will go down because the object
displaces less water when submerged

Question

1. Will there be any change in water level/height of floating part of the boat if stones are
dropped into the pond from a floating boat? Explain.

122
CAREERS

Electrician

Pilot

Air craft Engineers

123
EARTH AND BEYOND
YEAR 8

124
 EARTH AND BEYOND

Welcome to Earth and beyond once again. I believe

you have gathered a lot of knowledge about the solar system from
Year 7 and you are ready to explore more!
At the end of this main topic/strand you should be able to:
Demonstrate and recognize that the earth, solar systems and
universe are changing systems and explain the relationships
between these systems.

Your two sub topics/sub strands to study are:

4.1The Earth and Our Solar System
4.2 Our Changing Earth
At the end of these two sub topics/sub strands you should be able
to achieve the Content Learning Outcomes that are set for you
to achieve which are mentioned in the respective units.

125
Strand 4: Earth And Beyond
Sub strand: 4.1 Solar System
Content Learning Outcome 1:

Investigating how the positions of the sun, moon and earth cause
changes in features of the earth such as day/night cycle, low/high tides and
eclipses.

Introduction

The solar system is made up of the sun, planets, comets, asteroids, minor
planets, dust and gas. In Year7, you studied the different characteristics of each planet
and how each planet orbits in relation to the sun. Everything in the Solar system orbits
or revolves around the Sun. The Sun with its larger capacity has powerful gravity and
attracts all other objects in the solar system towards it. Thus these objects cannot fly
away from the Sun, instead they are trapped half way and they spend eternity orbiting
around their parent star! This pull of gravity of the Sun and the orbiting of these planets
contribute to the features of the earth such as the day/night cycle, high/low tides and
the eclipses.

(Source: bing.com/images)

126
The Day and Night Cycle
The day and night cycle are caused by the earths rotation on its axis. This axis of the
earth is an imaginary line passing through North and South Pole. The time taken by
earth to complete one rotation on its axis is 24 hours, which is what we calculate total
up to 1 day. The Sun is the only source of light; its position is fixed and does not change
at all. The earth is the moving planet around the Sun which creates illusion. When North
Pole of the earth faces the Sun, it is daytime for all those countries on top half of the
hemisphere and those around the South Pole is at night time. Earth continues to rotate
and the cycle continues on. The Earth faces the Sun for 365 and a quarter days then it
makes 1 complete orbit around the Sun.

(Source: bing.com/images)

The Earths Seasons

Similarly the seasons are caused by the 23.5 tilt of Earths axis of rotation, a yearly
revolution around the Sun. This results in one part of the Earth being more directly
exposed to rays from the Sun than the other regions of the Earth. This part of the Earth
that gets exposed to the Sun gets the warmer season summer. The other part that is
tilted away from the Sun experiences cooler season-Winter. Seasons change as the Earth
continues its revolution causing the hemisphere to be tilted away from or towards the
Sun to change accordingly.

SOURCE :( en.wikipedia.com)

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How the position of the sun, moon and earth does causes the
ocean tides to change.
Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the Sun and the moon upon the ocean of the
earth. The Sun has the greatest pull. The tides are the greatest during a new moon when
the Sun and the moon are pulling from the same direction or when they are aligned
together. The side of the earth that faces the Sun usually has the High tide while the side
away from the Sun has the Low tide.

In other words, the gravitational pull of the moons tugs on the surface of the ocean until
it mounds up and outwards in the direction of the moon. When the water has reached
its highest point it is called High tide. On the side of the earth opposite the moon, the
centrifugal force caused by the earths rotation produce another mound of water and
High tides. Somewhere in between these two tides are two flat areas on the surface of
the ocean. These are Low tides. The tides change every 6hours .If its high tide at 6am in
the morning, low tide will be expected at 12 noon. But one tidal day is 24hrs 50 mins. If
it was high tide at 6am today; tomorrow high tide will be at 6.50am.

(source:google)

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How the positions of the sun, moon and earth cause changes
in the eclipses-Solar Eclipse and Lunar Eclipse
Eclipse occurs when a huge shadow travels across the surface of the earth. The darker
parker of the shadow is called the umbra. The penumbra is the lighter part. When the
earths surface is shadowed by the umbra (darker shadow) total eclipse will be seen.
But when the penumbra (light shadow) the surface of the earth, partial eclipse will be
seen.

Source: physicsforum.com-Google

129
 Solar Eclipse occurs sometimes when the moon passes between the Sun at a new
moon. The shadow of the moon fall on the earth that shadows out the Sun. This shadow
is called the Solar Eclipse.

SOLAR ECLIPSE-in America-Oct,23,2014

Lunar Eclipse occurs sometimes when the moon travels on the opposite side of the
Earth from the Sun at full moon. The moon passes in the Earths shadow. It is very dull
and can only be just be little visible.

(source:google-www.astrowebtv.com) NASA IMAGES

Total Lunar Eclipse seen in Japan-April,

ACTIVITIES FOR YOU

i. Set up a model to show how the illuminated regions of the earth change when
the Earth rotates.
Use a model world globe and the torch. Try and tie the end of one globe
with string and hold the string form a high point.

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 Put down the curtain and turned on the torch, the person holding must no move
his/her hand. Study how the illuminated area changes!

ii. On the same model, show the changes in the regions receiving sunlight (torch
light) as you receive the Earth (globe) spins.
iii. Make up a model of a moon. Hang it beside the earth. Shine the torch from an
angle towards the moon.
Try and show or demonstrate on the relationship of the three.

iv. Illustration and Presentation-Group activity

Make a drawing or sketch on the solar and lunar eclipse and

present to the class with very brief explanations on how they
occur.

Do the same for the shore tides. Sketch and describe how the low and
high tides occur.

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4.1.2 CONTENT LEARNING OUTCOME
Appreaciating and recognizing the Sun as the source of
almost all the energy in the solar system
Introduction
The Sun is the most dominant body in the Solar system. Without the sun, they
will be no Solar system and they will be no Earth. The Earth and all planets,
dwarf planets, tens and thousands of asteroids and trillions of comets and icy
bodies orbit the Sun. Without the Sun there will be no heat, all will fly off into
space where they would freeze and become dead. The Sun provides heat and light and
energy to our planet Earth. The other planets do not have their own light but reflects on
the sunlight that fall on them. The Suns heat energy transmits into the planets and
produces their gaseous compositions. Planets are kept in stable orbit by the Sun and are
at consistent temperature well above the chill of space. The inner planets retain their
heat temperature but their gaseous exteriors of Venus and Mars would be much cooler
without solar energy.
(source:bitesizescience-http//bloc.co.uk)

The Suns powerful gravitational pull keep all bodies of the Solar System in orbit around
it!

Sun- as the important source of energy on Earth

The Sun is considered to be the most important body in the universe. You have read and
studied a lot about it. Unlike other planets and bodies in the Solar System, planet Earth
is the only planet that can harbor life because of the Sun. We owe almost everything and
anything to it because without it there will be no life on Earth. This energy from the Sun
heats up our planet preventing us from over cooling. The heat warms up the whole
planet keeping it warm and a very comfortable temperature. Also the solar energy
generates electricity to most power plants around the world and those that are
outsourced by coal or gas .Most people have feared the threat of global warming thus
have opted for the usage of pure solar heat. Most areas in Fiji are now using solar power
energy in order to generate electricity.

132
(Source: www.usdivetravel.com)

Installing Solar panels at Matavu Island Resort in Kadavu.

In addition to the above, the Sun gives light. The natural light is what we are blessed
with during the day as we are able to do a lot of activities without borrowing it and also
that it is not switched off at any hour until it is the natural night time.

Kids enjoy swim in the sea in the Yasawas. People go shopping

(Source: www.tourismfiji.com)

Furthermore the sunlight is the main component of the photosynthesis process which is
a necessity for the both the plant and animal life cycle. Leaves in plants receive sunlight
that in turn manufactures the oxygen gaseous component for animals, other creatures
and mankind to breathe in order to stay alive! It is her vice versa for what receives from
us. The exhaled carbon dioxide from us and all other animals plus those from the
atmosphere is a necessity for plants to breathe in and for the manufacture of oxygen.

133
 (Source: bing.com images)

Photosynthesis

Effect of the Moon and Sun on plants and animals in the local culture
Before the invention of technologies people were very dependent on the sun and the
moon for almost everything. The Sun and the moon had been a traditional source of
light thousands and thousands of years ago. The Sun and the Moon were also used to
calculate time, days and years. The cultural beliefs in those days about the sun moon
and earth towards living things was something that was of great importance and of
great significance to the gone generation.

In Fiji myths and legends about this topic is now of less importance to the modern
society, however the oral history of its traditional belief is very much alive in many
Fijian communities. Yet, the Religious belief of this significance seems to be sustained
mainly in the Indian and Chinese culture.

i-Taukei Culture
In the i-Taukei traditional calendar,
the moon plays a significant role for
the Fijian ancestors in determining
the kind of food that will be of
sufficient during that time. They are
able to know the kind of fish that is
plentiful at sea when it is full moon
and when it is half moon. Also by studying the weather patterns during the time they
are able to know the sprouting flowering plants and food plants of the season. During
hot and humid sunny days ,when there are a lot of ants around the home carrying tiny
particles is the symbol of wet weather is going to happen soon. Pregnant ladies are
discouraged from going out at night on a full moon because it is believed the baby will
be a weak baby when it is born. Fisherman study the sun, and wind direction to guide
them to places of the sea where there is a lot of fish and also they are the traditional

134
compass .Fishermen do not fish during the new moon or full moon, if they do then the
catch will not be consumed as it is believed to have been contaminated fish. During wet
weather, people in the islands go down to the beach at sunset to check for a red shadow
in the horizon. This will signify fine weather the next day!

Indo-Fijian Culture (source: southsidemission.org)

The two most significant Indo Fijian cultures in Fiji are the Muslims and the Hindus. In
the Muslim religion they observe a sacred fasting period called the Ramadan. It is the
9th month of Islamic calendar. The month lasts 29-30 days based on the visual sighting
of the crescent moon. It is the holy month for them as they pray from dawn until dusk
and they do not do anything believed to be sinful during the fasting period. They focus
on prayer for forgiveness and reading the holy book Quran. At the end of the fasting
month especially on the new moon, they celebrate Eid which is the biggest celebration
in the Muslim calendar-a celebration to mark the end and success of the fasting period.

In the Hindu religion, the Sun is the most important, the most significant powerful God
they pray to. The Sun God-Surya Narayan is the god Hindus pray to every morning. At
dawn at the view of the suns rays they put holy water on their forehead and face
towards the sun. It is their belief that blessing will come from the Sun for healthy life, it
energizes the body and gives power to eyes to see properly. The Moon God-Chandra for
them is the God of peace. They believe that the moonlight is powerful and that peace is
transmitted from it. It is also called the herbal power-meaning it gives peace to
blooming plants giving peace to all kind of species. The solar and lunar eclipse they
believe is very powerful and that must not affect unborn babies. Pregnant mothers are
not allowed to see the eclipse or do any work during that time. The Hindus pray to the
nine planets of which have different names and which is significant in all their cultural
life. For example the priest will have to
advise the couple if it is the right partner to
marry by looking at their birth months that
matches to the planets. If planets match then
marriages will be approved. Likewise for
births, the childs birth time day and month
is taken to the priest so as to bless him/her
with the god planet that he/she was born in
order to gather his wishing future and name!

Chinese Culture (source: www.womenofchina.cn.org)

135
The Chinese celebrate a festival called the Moon Cake Festival known as the Mid-
Autumn festival which falls on the 8th lunar month which is September. Traditionally it
is a harvest festival for farmers especially during the appearance of the new moon.
Ladies worship the moon goddess Chang-E. At the moon cake festival during the full
moon women peel pomelos and mini yams in the belief that they will have flawless
complexion. Also women pray to the moon goddess to be blessed for good husbands.

ACTIVITIES FOR YOU

I. SKETCHING
Sketch your own interpretation of your understanding about the Sun as the main
source of energy on Earth.

II. Find out something unique from the different cultures in your community about
the Cultural significance of the Sun, Earth and Moon.

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4.1.3 CONTENT LEARNING OUTCOME
Investigating the structure of the earth,the rocks and
explain the natural occurrences that impact on their
structures.
Introduction
In many years,just as man began to explore the earth and what is beyond the
sky,the need to explore what was underneath began centuries ago as people
found out vibrations generated by earthquakes.Scientists began to explore the
mysteries of what was underneath and found out many amazing things just like
what astronauts found out from outer space.They found out the physical
composition of the earth or the structure of the earth.

(source:www.physicalgeography.net)

*Scientists who study and explore about the Earth,rocks and soil are called Geologists.
Geologists were able to find out after digging and drilling and through observations and
measurements of earthquakes ,that there were four parts of the inside of the
Earth.(Refer to the diagram above.)The part that we are on,where plants and animals
are found and the soil we live on is called the crust.It is so hard that it is able to hold the
oceans together.As compared to the whole Earth the crust is very thin.The thickness is
about 70km thick and 10km thick under the oceans.

Under the crust is the layer called the mantle.The mantle is thicker and made up of very
heavy rocks.It is 3,000km thick.The temperature at this layer is very hot that it melts the
rocks and caused it flow in a very thick liquid like porridge.

Below the mantle,deeper in the Earth is the outer core.It is made up of hot liquid
rocks.Deeper than the outer core is the inner core which is deep in the Earths centre.

137
It is observed and experienced that the deeper the Earth the deeper the temperature
is.People who dig minerals and oil wear special suit because as they get deeper the
temperature is high.

Activity For You

i. Modelling

Make a model of the structure of the Earth.Use a stryfoam to cut the

layers inside it.Colour and label the layers of your model earth.If
there is no stryfoam then you can use other things that are suitable.

ii. Research Work

Find out more about the structure of the Earth.Look for information
for the characteristics given and fill in the table.
Structure of Position Temperature Diameter Thickness Mineral Soil
the Earth length composition type

Crust

Mantle

Outer
core

Inner
core

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Structure of Rocks
The whole earth is made of
rocks and minerals.Inside
the earth there is a liquid
core of molten rocks and
on the outside there is a
hard crust.The crust is
made up of rocks and
minerals which most are
covered by water,sand,soil
and ice.If we dig in the earth
,we will always hit rocks.

source:bing images-rocks in fiji)Rocks found in the island

of Taveuni,Fiji

The rocks you see around you,the mountains and river beds are made of minerals.
A rock is made up of 2 or more minerals.Minerals make up rocks which sometimes form
spaces where there is not a lot of room,so they dont have a crystal shape.When there is
just a big hunk of a mineral,it isa called a massive mineral. If there is a definite shape
with easy to see flat sides,it is called a mineral crystal.Most of these earths minerals and
rocks were formed millions of years ago.

The rock structures are divided into Primary and Secondary structures..

Primary structures-are the structures of rocks formed before or at the same time as
material is in the process of becoming rocks.For example ,the rocks formed from magma
as it crystallises or the rocks formed when sediments accumulate.It is the initial rock
structure from when it is formed.

Secondary structures-It is the structure imposed on rocks after it has already

formed.This is when the rocks change due to compression of exsiting rocks.

Examples of Primary Structures of Rocks

(Source: http://hiddenincatours.com) Source: http://oceanlight.com

139
Examples of Secondary Structures of Rocks-when the initial shapes rocks are changed
by man or the natural process.

(Source:rockhammertimeblogspot.com) (Source:wikipedia.com)

Acitivity For You

Research-
Look for information in the library ,in journals or online about the detail
structures of the Rocks-Primary and Secondary structures and the explanation of
their activities. Collect pictures to support information you have collected and
present to the class in one short paragraph.

140
Types of Rocks and How they are formed
There are 3 types of rocks:

I. Igneous Rocks
II. Sedimentary Rocks
III. Metamorphic Rocks

I. Igneous Rocks

Igneous means the result produced by the action of fire or overheating.Inside the
volcano,the heat is very very strong causing minerals and metals of the earth to
melt.This melted liquid in the volcanoes is called magma.When the magma erupts out of
the volcano it is called larva .This larva cools and forms rocks called Basalt
rocks.These Basalt rocks are given the term as extrusive igneous rocks.This means the
rocks which are formed outside the volcano.

On the other hand,the magma that errupts within the volcanoe form rocks called
Granite rocks.It is also given the term as intrusive igneous rocks.

IGNEOUS ROCKS

Granite rock Scoria rock Pumice rock

Granite rocks- cools to form crystals. Large
crystals rocks form when magma cools
slowly. Small crystals rocks form from
magma which cools faster.
Basalt rocks- formed with gas holes in
it. If erupted as small pieces they are
as scoria. Pumice are formed from
volcanic eruption under the oceans.
Gases are trapped in them and they
can be found floating.

141
II. Sedimentary rocks
The sedimentary rocks are made from sediments which are collected at the bottom of
the sea,rivers and lakes.These sediments are small parts of rocks,dead animals and
plants that were eroded by the push of water,wind into the oceans.These sediments
press each other and compression happens which change them to Sedimentary
rocks.This change do not change overnight!It takes thousands of years to change!The
sedimentary rocks have layers called the beds or the bedding planes.

Sediments collected at the bottom Sedimentary rocks have layers called

bedding planes.

(source: bing.images)

There are many types of Sedimentary rocks and each is dependent on the type of
sediments in which it is made.

I. Sandstone-made from sediments of sand.In Fiji people call it soapstone because

it is slippery like soap!

II. Conglomerate rocks- made from gravel and large brown particles cemented
together.They are found along the coastal lines of many islands and inland of
larger islands.

III. Limestone- are formed from sediments of shellfish.snails ,dead plants that drops
to the bottom of the sea.They are pressed together by water wind and gets
compressed and change very slowly-for change takes thousands of
years.Limestone can be found in caves.In Yasawa,the Sawa-I-Lau caves is
limestone caves.

142
Sandstones Conglomerate rock

( bing.com/images source:tripadvisorfiji.com-)

Limestone caves. Sawa-I-Lau caves in the Yasawas -All caves are made of limestones.

III. Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic means to be changed or transform.These rocks are the changed forms of
Igneous and Sedimentary rocks through the process of heat and pressure caused by
molten magma at the bottom earth and also the upper layer temperature of the
atmosphere.

There are 2 types of Metamorphic rocks:

i. Marble rocks-are rocks that change from limestones sedimentary rocks

through pressure from above.

ii. Slate-are clay that changed through heat and pressure

(source:http//pinterest.com)

143
 Marble metamorphic rocks Slate metamorphic rocks

(Sources: https://www.google.com/search?q)

ACTIVITY FOR YOU

i. Oral presentation
Choose only 1 type of rocks studied- igneous,sedimentary or metamorphic rock.
Without reading explain to the class what you have learnt about the rock you
have chosen.

ii. Explain the formation of igneous and metamorphic and sedimentary rocks.

iii. Experiment-Homemade Rocks

Topic: Homemade Rocks

Materials: 1 tin lid,1small stick.1 piece of aluminium foil,some sugar,some baking

powder,heatinf apparatus,some paint powder.1 small rectangula cardboard,

Method A-Wrap the retangular cardboard with the foil.Place it on something making a
45 degrees position .Mix 1teaspoon of sugar and a pinch of paint powder on the tin
lid.Heat the mixturevery slowly until it starts to melt.Stir the mixture with the stick until
almost all the crystals have melted.Hold the tin lidwith tongs.Pour the mixture down the
foil.Leave it to cool.After sometime,break it open!What type of rock does it look like.

Method B-Melt 1 teaspoonful of sugar and a pinch of paint in the tin lid as you did
earlier.Add a pinch of baking powder.Stir quickly 6 times.Leave to cool.Break it
open.(what is it like inside?How is it different from the first kind?(what sort of rock is it
like?

*Carefully do the experiment above,discuss your findings with your teacher and write
down all that you did Scientific Method write up in your science books!

144
Natural Occurances That Impact The Structures Of Rocks
The structures of rocks change during natural occurances.Some of these natural
occurances are:

i.Weathering

ii.Soil Erosion

iii.Natural Disasters-Volcanic eruption, Earthquakes, Tsunamis

i.Weathering
Weathering is the breakdown of rocks,soil,minerals and other artificial material by the
different atmospheric conditions in the atmosphere,biota(wildlife organisms) and
waters.This process takes places millions of years before significant changes can be
seen.This process does not move the rocks or relocate rocks and soil to other places.

Weathering is classified as 3 processes:

i. Physical
ii. Chemical
iii. Biological
i. Physical weathering process
This is the breakdown of rocks and soil through direct contact with the atmospheric
conditions such as heat,water,ice and wind.

Heat-The heat temperatures can crack rocks.When it is too hot during the
day,the rocks expand and contract when it is too cold in the night causing the
breaks.

(source:www.agrihunt.com)

Weathering caused by solar heat

145
 Water-Overflowing of water over rocks wear the rocks away.Huge waves crash
onto rocky coastline and onto reefs. Water also carry small hard rocks that break
softer rocks as they tumble against them. Falling rain on rocks wear out minerals
and causes the breaks as well. This form of Erosion is also called Fluvial erosion
and a good example is the Sand dunes of Sigatoka.

Weathering caused by running water.

(source:http/www.glogster.com)

Aeolian erosian erosion of the Sand dunes in Sigatoka.

(source: (Source: https://www.google.com/url)

146
 Ice-In colder parts of the world,when water beside rocks freezes they cause
expansion causing the rocks to break.

(source:outdoorsmagic.com)

Wind- Wind blow sands into rock surfaces, smooths them down and smaller
particles are removed.The wind wears the rocks away. This form of erosion is
also known as Aeolian erosian and a good example is found on the movement of
dust particles too.

(source:glogster.com)

147
ii. Chemical Weathering Process
Chemical weathering(also known as decomposition or decay) is one of the breakdown
of rocks by chemical mechanisms,the most important ones being
carbonation,hydration,hydrolosis,oxidation and ion exchange in solutions.Chemical
weathering changes the composition of material toward surface material,such as
clay.Rainwater and oxygen join together causing the rocks to break and also change
them to red soils.Carbon dioxide and air dissolves in rain forming a weak acid.These
dissolves rocks like limestone.

Ayers Rock in Australia-World Heritage-is the result of chemical weathering. (source:jwbalckboard.com)

iii. Biological Weathering Process

This is a sub-process of the physical and chemical weathering process.It plays an
important role in the part of soil formation.Living organisms such as plants and animals
cause rock to decompose.

* Plants and tree roots crash their way to find water and minerals .They force rocks to
break.The plants give off organic acid that chemically breakdown the rock minerals.

* Animals,worms,termites.gophers are some organisms that physically break rocks

apart during physical activities such as boring(insects and worms digging holes).

*Decay-plants and animals-when plants and animals decay,they release carbon dioxide
into the air.Carbon dioxide mixes with water and forms carbon acid which breaks
minerals in rocks.

Plants roots force their way into rocks Bugs boring onto a rock
source:www.biologicalexceptions.com)

148
iv. Soil Erosion
Soil erosion is the washing away of soil,rocks and minerals caused by water,wind and
mankind.These forces soil stones and minerals to relocate . Like the weathering
process,soil erosion is also a factor that keeps changing the physical appearance of the
worls around us.

* Erosion caused by water-This happens when there is heavy rain downpour.The soils
from hillsides are washed away due to the force of the rain as in flooding.When it is a
bare land,the land structure is spoilt and shatters thus breaking every element that
exists in that soil environment.

* Erosion caused by wind- When there is a natural disaster such as hurricane and
whirlwinds and tornadoes,the strond wind blows small rock particles and sand away .

*Erosion caused by mankind-People are also the contributors to soil erosion.

Deforestation-People remove forests to build buildings and malls thus causing landslide
on idle lands during extreme weather conditions.

Erosion by wind- hurricane impact Water erosion-flooding

Land reclamation by man.

(Source: fijitimes.com)

149
 ACTIVITIES FOR YOU
I. Write down the differences in weathering and soil erosion .

Fill in the table below:

weathering Soil erosion
Differences

II. MINING- Act out the weathering process and soil erosion in your groups.

III. Fill pie dish tray with sticky soil.Push the soil with your fingers so it
makes a soil mountain.Fill up a cup with water and pour it from above
the soil mound.observe how the soil erodes down to the plate of the
dish.Pour more water.Discuss as you observe the changes.Write down the
experiment layout in your science book discussing our results of water
erosion.

IV. Do the same thing with wind erosion.Put a pile of dry soil on the pie dish.
Get a straw and point it towrds the mound of sand. Blow into the straw.
Notice how the sand start to fall and move down the mound and notice
the sand that are flying off from the dish. Write and record your findings
in your science book.

V. Find the defnitions of the words in the box with specific examples.

Weathering Chemical weathering

Physical weathering Biological weathering

Soil Erosion Wind Erosion

Water Erosion Ice Erosion

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iii. Natural Disasters
Natural Disasters also contribute more to the changes in the physical structures of the
earth.Earthquakes,Volcanic eruptions and Tsumanis are a few to mention.

Natural Earthquakes Tsunamis Volcanic

Disasater Eruption

Causes Vibrations caused by Caused by sudden Magma rises

rocks breaking under movement of the ocean through cracks or
stress.result in the due to weaknesses in the
compression in the earthquakes,underwater Earths
Earths crust causing landslides crust.Pressure
the break. makes the plate
movement causing
magma to explode.
Effect Earthquakes intensity Marine ecosystem is Environment in
causes break in the destroyed.marine the volcano zone is
earths surface,collapse species are destroyed.Burning
of structures,loss of lost.Human,natural of wildlife and loss
lives environment also of lives.
destroyed and also Magma cools and
human life forms rocks
loss.Displacement of
rocks ,soils and
minerals.

Even though there are major impact caused in the changed of the structures of the
Earth, people try their best to ensure that the impact of these disasters do not directly
affect their lives.Thus the need to rise awarenesses in natural preparedness continues
as a vital trend in the world today.

When natural disasters are expected to happen people are authorised to take
precautionary measures as to avoid accidents and loss of lives.People take heed of
warning and follow advices of what to do before,during and after the cyclones

151
The table below show the summary of the above for earthquakes,tsunamis and
volacanic eruptions.

Natural Disaster Before During After

Earthquake *Learn the earthquake
evacuation plan.
*Prepare all necessary
items,torch,batteries,first
aid kit and radio,bottle of
water.
*push heavy furnitures
to the wall or lie them
down
Tsunami *Know your disaster
evacuation plan
*Collect adquate amount
of food,water and
clothing
*Take your radio and all
other necessary items
and move to higher
ground.
Volcanic eruption *Have your emergency
plan ready.
*Evaluate risks of
volcanic eruption before
putting up structures.
*Reinforce existing
building structures and
build protective
structure like dikes to
prevent lava
*Stay calm..never run *check yourself for
around injuries
*crawl under *Check water
furniture-table beds pipes,gas,electric lines
*if outdoor-stay in the for damages.
open away from *Listen to latest radio
powerlines. broadcast.
*If in the car,stop the *be careful of broken
car and stay in the car. items and debris
*Move away from
coastal lines,tsunamis
may happen next.
*stay at higher ground *Wait for water level to
*Keep on listening to decrease.
the radio *Listen to advice from
.*If walking try and get authorities to move
closer to a tree to hold back to your home.
on to.Never swim in *If injured get medical
the running water. aid.
*Clear all debris and
boil drinking water.
*listen and take heed *Do not go near when
of instructions from there are remains of
the radio. volcanic eruption.
*Stay away from the *Stay indoor and wear
volcanic area. facemusk to protect
*Cover nose and eyes your lungs and
with wet piece of eyes.Only move out
cloth.do not inhale the when you are adviced.
smoke *If outside cover
*evacuate from the yourself up.from head
place as soon as to toe.
authorities advice. *Remove ash from the
roofs and around the
house

ACTIVITIES FOR YOU

I. DRAMA- Choose a natural disaster from above, In your groups dramatise

what your family is going to do before,during and after the event.
II. Building Questions-From the notes given ,write down at least 10
questions and throw at other groups to find out their knowledge of the
topic. Be prepared to answer the questions if they are too difficult to
answer the questions as well.

152
Strand 4: Earth And Beyond
Sub strand: 4.2 Our Changing Earth
Content Learning Outcome 1:
Gathering information about the uses of different
layers of the atmosphere and describe the effect of
human action on these.

Introduction

As you have learned earlier,Earth is the only planet in the Solar System that is
ble to sustain life. The atmosphere is made up of a thin layer of gases that cover the
Earth like a blanket. These blanket of gases protects the Earth by absorbing the heat and
ultra violet rays of the Sun. It traps some heat and keeps the Earth warm.Also it reflects
much heat,otherwise the earth will be overheated and we will not be able to live. This
unit will explain the different layers of the atmosphere its components and the effects of
human actions on them.

The Different Layers Of The Atmosphere

The atmosphere is divided up into 5 layers as shown in the diagram below. The first
layer from the earths crust is troposphere.It is the atmosphere we interact in with
all other species. The second layer is the stratosphere where aeroplanes fly in. The
third layer is the mesosphere where only hot air balloon can fly to detect weather.
The fourth is the thermosphere where statelites fly for research and meterology
study.The last is exosphere, the outer space where the last atmosphere in the entire
Solar system.

Each layer and its components and importance

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First layer-the Troposphere
This layer of the atmosphere is the atmosphere around us. It is our home layer and it is
also known to be the disturbed layer because all the weather changes occurs here.Also a
lot of human acitivities disturbs this atmosphere and it is the place where our flying
creatures fly about and also aeroplanes . The gaseous component of our atmophere is
very compact.It has 75 % mass of all atmospheric air. Air at this level is the heavies and
also the air pressure is high. The air is comprised of 78% Nitrogen,21% Oxygen,and 1%
of Argon,Carbon dioxide and other gases. It also comprises of ozone which can be a
hazard and that contributes to smog.It is composed also of water vapour which
organizes the Earths temperature.

The carbon dioxide component is absorbs infrared radiation and heat fom the sun and
helps in the warming of the earth. The nitrogen is added by plants and is coneverted to
nutrient content but is lost from the atmosphere through rain. Water vapour differs in
parts of the earth and is responsible for the different weather patterns that we
experience.

The diagram below shows the first and the second layers of the atmosphere:

(source:www.climatechicago.fieldmuseum.org)

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Second Layer-the Stratosphere
The stratosphere contains the ozone layer and contains relatively high concentration of
that gas.It is a layer in which temperature rises with increasing altitude. The rise in
temperature is caused by the absorption of Ultraviolet ray radiation of the sun by the
ozone layer, which prevents this to penetrate to the Earth. It also restricts turbulence
and mixing. Almost free of clouds and other forms of weather. This is the layer where
aeroplanes fly because of the minimum turbulence effect.

(source: http//ustudy.in)

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Third Layer-the Mesosphere
At this atmosphere,the air is thin and cold. The temperature drops as the altitude
increases. The mesosphere is the layer where most meteors that fall from outer space
burns upon atmospheric entrance. This layer can only be accessed by rocket powered
jets or aircrafts and powered satellites and orbital space crafts.

(source:http//olgavovk.com)

Fourth Layer-the Thermosphere

The Solar Ultra violet radiation is high.Temperature is highly dependent on solar
activity and can rise to very very high temperatue. Radiation causes this atmosphere to
be electrically charged,enabling radio waves to bounce off and be received beyond the
horizon. Even though the the temperature is high,one will ot feel warm because of the
air space is nearly zero,not enough to transfer heat!!

The space shuttle and the Internation Space Station of NASA is the only space crafts that
can be found in this layer.

(source:www.windows2universe.org)

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Fifth layer-the Exosphere
The Exosphere is the uppermost layer where the atmosphere thins out and merges with
interplanetary space.This layer is mainly composed of extremely low densities of
hydrogen helium and other molecules of nitrogen,oxygen and carbon dioxide.The atoms
and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometres without
colliding with one another.Thus the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas and the
particles constantly escape into space. It is far beyond Earth and Meteorological
phenomena is impossible . Only higly powered satellites orbits the Earth here.

(source:http//kcra-kw.com)

EXOSPHERE IN OUR PLANET!!!!!

The Autostadts KonzernForum displayed the EXOSPHERE/GLOBEFIELD in Germany in

the year 2000! It is there to visualise the beautiful discoveries at the Exosphere and the
beauty of what is beyond Earth, plus the genuis invention of German scientists!!This
also featured in the movie released in 2009 The International !!!

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 (source:http//ingogunther.com)

ACTIVITIES FOR YOU

I.Writing Exercise-Answer the questions which follow:

a. Name the 5 different layers of the atmosphere.Under each ,write down in a

summary form what happens at each layer.

2. You will pass the paper label of the name of each level to one another.When layer
from the 5 different layers reach your hand, in 5 minutes write down one
component of each layer and its importance, pass on the label before the 6th
minute. Your teacher will tap the desk for you to start and finish!! Its a game!!.
At the end of the time,you will show how many you are able to answer!!

3. Research- As an extension exercise from your reading in this text,do a further

research to find out more on the atmospheric layers .Find out something new by
opening related websites on this topic or through reading Science books and
Encyclopedias.

4. Painting!!Love to paint????

In your groups paint the different layers of the atmosphere on any material and
display! Explain to the class your finished art piece!

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Mans Activities In The Layers Of The Atmosphere and Its Impact
Apart from the natural changes in the atmosphere,many of the activities man have
involved in have begun to change the atmospheric conditions in the different layers of
the atmosphere.Huge amounts of toxic gases had been released as a result of these
activities.It does not only affect the composition of the atmosphere,it results also in the
variety of impacts on health and the environment.

The troposhere is the atmosphere that is greatly disturbed.Here on Earth,because of

industrialization,technologies invention, burning of fossil fuel,coal,oil etc.,the gaseous
component of the atmosphere here is getting so compact and toxic!The emission of
carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide have a serious effect of our health and the
environment.This is the result of combustion.These gaseous compounds are found in
chemicals, pesticides in devices and motors at around home and around places. .

Normally the atmosphere contains less amount of carbon monoxide and other toxic
gases but mans activities like burning of fossil fuels,car emissions and all form of
pollutioncontribute to the additional excess content in the atmosphere.As the
result,these molecules of air disperse around us and cause a lot of health problems such
as breathing problem,loss of consciousness,chronic heart diseases,lungs failure and
even death!

The stratosphere gets infected from what happens at the troposhere.The excess amount
of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide and other gas elements contributes to more
and more heat and thus our earth gets warmer than normal. The ozone layer gets
depleted because of the increased heat.When the ozone layer is depleted,it allows for
more Ultra violet radiation of the Sun to penetrate through to Earth. As a result people
are exposed to the radiation which causes skin cancer.sicknesses and a the variety
health problems.

The rest of the layers the Mesosphere,the Thermosphere and the Exosphere gets
disturbed as well.The natural occurances happening at these layers begins to change as
emissions from the troposhere is getting huge and forcefully affect them.

On the overall note,the impact of human activities had resulted to many unexpected
events such as the melting of ice in the Artic regions,recssion of glaciers on global
scale,migration of temperate species,increasingly predictable weather all point to
gradual increase in our global temperature. Changes in global climate patterns
continues to happen and affects how well crops grow in a particular area,the direction
and strength of ocean currents,intensity of weather systems due to the change in the
amount of heat energy available to fuel them,and the length of seasons.Moreover,the
concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere can affect ocean acidity,growth
patterns of all plant life and could affect the maturation process of animals due to less
content of relevant gases.

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Diagram showing the variety human acitivities in the layers of the atmosphere.

(source:http//en.wikipedia.org)

ACTIVITIES FOR YOU

I. Make a chart: Illustrate and explain.

On a venguard sheet draw some of the activities that man does that affects the layers of
the atmosphere. Write 5-8 sentences that will cover the explanations of the drawing and
the effect of these acitivities.

You will explain your activity to the class or to the your adjacent year 8 class if there is!!

2. List the gases that are Natural and anthropogenic emissions from the earth.

3. Which gases will produce Acid rain?

4. Explain how acid rain is formed.

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4.2.2 CONTENT LEARNING OUTCOME
Appreaciating how weather influences our daily
activities
Introduction
As you have learnt in Year 7,the weather influences our daily acitivities in many
ways.The weather determines the type of activities we do,the events we organise
or go to,the kind of crops we grow and of course the types of clothes we wear
daily!Weather and climate are two atmospheric conditions that bossesthe
activities we do at the different sides of this planet.We have understood that
Weather is the day to day state of the atmosphere.Weather changes more often .We may
experience a hot day today and we may experience the opposite tommorow!We may
experince heavy downpour this whole week but we can expect light showers and fine
weather next week!Unlike Weather,climate is the average long term atmospheric
condition of a certain place.Fiji lies in the tropical zone of the globe and the climate is
usuallysunny, warm and humid.The climate in the polar region is always cold!Climate
changing period takes an average span of 30 years!

It is always important to understand how weather occurs and also how we can
contribute to less disturnaces in the natural cycle of weather.

The components of weather

There are several components that make up weather just as you have studied in the
previous year.These components are the main elements that occur naturally that
combines together to form weather.Without any of these elements we would not
experience what weather really is.

I. Temperature-it is the amount of heat in the atmosphere.The temperature is

dependent on the uneven heating of the Earth by the Sun.Most of the heat of the
sun is reflected back into space.One third of the sunlight that reaches the
atmosphere is reflected back into space by clouds.The sunlight warms the
earth, ocean and lakes and reflects warmth back into the air.

(source:www.earthtimes.org)
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Suns heat rays on the earth.Much is reflected back into space.

2. Humidity-Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the air.When the sun

heats the Earth,the water particles from the rivers and lakes rises up or changes
into water vapour.This process is evaporation.The water vapour floats in the
atmosphere and move and meet other sheets of water vapour to form clouds.

(source:http://ngdir.ir)

3. When these clouds meets a very cold environment or cold surface,it falls as
precipitation in the form of rain,snow ,hail or sleet.This is how our mysterious
rain is formed!

(source:http//makewav.es)

4. Wind-Wind is moving air.Air that moves from high pressure areas to very low
pressure areas.The distance between the low pressure areas and the high
pressure areas determines how strong the wind will blow.When clouds are
forms after evaporation ,the wind is responsible for moving the clouds to cool
areas for condensation.

Air near the equator is hot and it rises up through the atmosphere as a
convection current.As it moves higher it gradually becomes cooler and moves
towards the poles.These air does not reach the poles directly but it moves back
to Earth at about 30 degrees latitude North and South.After coming down the
cooler air moves back towards the equator.This is the air that we feel which is
the wind.These winds that blow towards the equator is called trade winds.The
wind is responsible for spreading the suns heat from the regions of the equator
to the all other parts of the earth.

Cloud Cover-(extracted from -www.weatherwizkids.com/weather-clouds.htm)

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What is a cloud cover?
The amount of clouds in the atmosphere- a large collection of very tiny droplets
of water or ice crystals.

How are clouds formed?

All air contains water, but near the ground it is usually in the form of an invisible
gas called water vapor. When warm air rises, it expands and cools. Cool air can't
hold as much water vapor as warm air, so some of the vapor condenses onto tiny
pieces of dust that are floating in the air and forms a tiny droplet around each
dust particle. When billions of these droplets come together they become a
visible cloud.

Why are clouds white?

Since light travels as waves of different lengths, each color has its very own
unique wavelength. Clouds are white because their water droplets or ice crystals
are large enough to scatter the light of the seven wavelengths (red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet), which combine to produce white light.

Why do clouds turn gray?

Clouds are made up of tiny water droplets or ice crystals, usually a mixture of
both. The water and ice scatter all light, making clouds appear white. If the
clouds get thick enough or high enough all the light above does not make it
through, hence the gray or dark look. Also, if there are lots of other clouds
around, their shadow can add to the gray or multicolored gray appearance.

Why do clouds float?

A cloud is made up of liquid water droplets. A cloud forms when air is heated by
the sun. As it rises, it slowly cools it reaches the saturation point and water
condenses, forming a cloud. As long as the cloud and the air that its made of are
warmer than the outside air around it, it floats!

How do clouds move?

Clouds move with the wind. High cirrus clouds are pushed along by the jet
stream, sometimes traveling at more than 100 miles-per-hour. When clouds are
part of a thunderstorm they usually travel at 30 to 40 mph.

Why do clouds form at different heights in the atmosphere?

The characteristics of clouds are dictated by the elements available, including the
amount of water vapor, the temperatures at that height, the wind, and the
interplay of other air masses.

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 Cloud cover combination of all formed clouds. (source:frangardino.com)

Rain formation

Thus ,again as said earlier,when the clouds are fully filled and has more mass of
water vapour ,and once it meets a cool envrionment the clouds bust and the
water vapour changes into rain.This process of water vapour changing to rain is
called condensation. This process of forming rain is also known as the water
cycle.

(source:tutorvista.com)

AIR PRESSURE AND WEATHER

High pressure system is associated with good weather while Low Pressure is
generally associated with cloudy and rainy or snowy weather.

When air cools, it rises which can cause water vapour in the air to condense to liquid
and water droplets, sometimes forming clouds and precipitation. On the contrary,
sinking air is associated with warming and drying conditions.

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High pressure is associated with sinking air, and low pressure is associated with
rising air due to the typical air flow around high and low pressure. The airflow (due to
the Earths rotation and friction) is directed slightly inward toward the low pressure
center, and slightly outward away from the high pressure center:

(Source: http://www.weatherworksinc.com/high-low-pressure)

The slightly inward moving air in low pressure causes air to meet and since it cant
move downward due to the surface, the air is forced upward, leading to condensation
and precipitation. The opposite occurs with high pressure. Air is moving away from the
high pressure center at the surface (or diverging) so as a result, air from above must
sink to take its place. The surface flow is accompanied by the opposite behavior at
upper levels of the atmosphere, as shown in the diagram above.

165
(Source: http://www.weatherworksinc.com/high-low-pressure)

NB - High pressure = nice weather and Low pressure = bad weather.

Rising air = Moistening, Sinking air = Drying.

ACTIVITY FOR YOU

Experiment:

Topic:The Water Cycle

Materials:

Heating apparatus, Bottle of iced water, beakers.

Method:

Boil a beaker half filled with water, Let it boil and observe the evaporation of
water.After a few minutes hold the bottle of iced water on the tip of the water
vapor.Collect water in a beaker.

Result:Discuss what you observed.

Write a report on the experiment with a Aim, introduction, materials, method, reults
,observation and conclusion in your science books.

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 Air Pressure
The atmosphere presses down on the earth as the result of earths gravity.The
pressing down of the atmosphere is called atmospheric pressure or air
pressure.The air pressure or changes in it is very important for the changes in
weather.Warm air weighs less than cool air which is why hot air balloons stay in
the sky.Lighter weights puts less pressure on whatever is underneathe
them.When there is warmer air,the air pressure is lower. Cooler air weights
more so when the air is cooler the air pressure is more.

(source:fondriest.com)

ACTIVITY FOR YOU

Topic: Air Pressure

Materials: a flask, hard boiled egg, heating apparatus

Method:

Half fill the flask with water and bring it to the boil. Let steam pass out of the flask for
about one minute.

Q. What does steam do to most of the air inside the flask? Turn off the burner. Put
the egg on top of the lask. Watch the egg for a few minutes,

Observe what happens!

Write a simple report on your findings and a Conclusion.

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 CAREERS

Astronaunts Geologists Meteorologists

(Sources: https://www.google.com/search?q)

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Glossary

Adaptation - A change in the body or behaviour of a species over many

generations making it able to survive in its environment.

Air conditioning - A way to control the temperature, humidity, dust and

movement of air inside buildings, cars, buses, offices etc.

Air Pressure The weight of air of the atmosphere pressing down on the
earth. The air pressure of the earth averages about 6.6 kilograms per 6.5
square centimeters.

Air resistance It is the air that is pushing against a moving object e.g. a
falling parachute.

Alum is a chemical known as Aluminum sulphate. This is added to cloudy

water to allow small particles to be removed.

Atmosphere the air that surrounds the Earth and other planets. The
earths atmosphere is composed of Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%) and
other gases (1%).

Ballast A material used to provide stability to a vehicle or structure e.g.

an electric ballast is a device intended to limit the amount of arrived in an
electric circuit, also inductive ballasts are used in fluorescent lamps, high
intensity.

Biodiversity A wide variety of plant and animal species living in one

area.

Biological control A bio effector- method of controlling pests (including

insects, mites, weeds and plant diseases) using other living organisms.

Biological weathering - Animals, Plants and microbes can wear away

rocks for e.g. burrowing animals such as ants can move into crack rocks,
growing roots exert pressure while fungi excrete chemicals that
breakdown roc and minerals.

Biomass is biological material derived from living or recently living

material or living organisms. Biomass for energy is based on the plant and
animal waste material.

Brine Solution of salts (usually sodium chloride) in water. Water salinity

based on dissolved salts. Fresh water has <0.05 %, brackish water 0.053

169
%, saline water3-5 % and Brine > 5%. Brine is salt water with high
concentration of salt sodium Chloride.

Camouflage Colouring and markings on the animals or plants that help

them blend in their surroundings and hide from their enemies and
predators. For e.g. a green caterpillar will conceal itself very well from its
enemies on a green spinach or cabbage leaf.

Carnivore An animal that eats the flesh of other animals. From Latin
Caro, meaning flesh and vorare, meaning to eat greedily

Cement A grey powder that is a mixture of crushed stone limestone and

clay. Cement is widely used to pave roads. When water, sand are added to
cement it forms the Mortar used

Centrifuge Mixture being separated by spinning e.g. separating liquid

and solid. The mixture is placed in special test tubes which are spun in a
circle at high speeds. The heavier substances are forced to settle in the base
of the test-tube while the lighter substances are left to the top e.g. milk and
curd.

Chemical weathering is the weakening and subsequent disintegration of

a rock by chemical reaction through agents such as water and oxygen. The
processes involved are Hydrolysis (using water) and Oxidation (with
oxygen).

Climate The usual weather in a certain area over many years. Climate is
mostly based on temperature, humidity, wind, sunshine and precipitation
(rain or snow)

Coarse rough or loose in texture or grain.

Commensalism relationship between two organisms where one benefits

and the other is not affected, for example the shark and the remora fish or
cleaner wrasse fish.

Compact closely and firmly united e.g. elements occupying little space
compared with others of the same kind.

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Condensation The change in states of a gas into a liquid form when it is
cooled or it loses energy. Clouds are the condensation of water vapor when
it is cooled in the upper atmosphere.

Conductor Any material through which energy can flow. A copper wire is
a god conductor of electricity but glass is not. A metal rod is a good
conductor of heat: wood is not. Air is good conductor of sound; a pillow is
not.

Conglomerate rocks are sedimentary rocks consisting of rounded

fragments or quartz pebbles, cobbles and boulders surrounded by sand and
finer materials and cemented with silica, iron oxide and calcium carbonate.

Conserving energy is using less energy and a good example is driving

less and cycle to work or use energy efficient bulbs and at the same instant
save money. Another example is to reduce burning.

Conservation The protection and wise use of Natural resources, such as

air, water, land, plants, animals and the minerals in the earth.

Consumer An organism usually animals that feed on other organisms e.g.

a herbivore is a consumer and so is a carnivore.

Convection Rising or falling movement within a liquid or gas caused by

heating or cooling. Convection occurs when you heat a pot of water on a hot
stove. The hot water at the bottom moves up to the top.

Crystallisers Crystallisation occurs in the crystallisers. It involves soli-

liquid separation techniques; there is mass transfer of a solute from the
liquid solution to a pure solid crystalline phase. A good example will be the
production of sugar from sugarcane in Sugar mills. These are used for
evaporation and successive cooling and heating of the saturated solutions
to form solid composed of atoms that are arranged in an orderly manner.
The repetition of these processes leads to the formation of crystal.

Decantation A process for the separation of mixtures by removing a

layer of liquid, generally are from which a precipitate has settled. The
purpose may either to produce a clean decant, or to remove an undesired
liquid from the precipitate (or the layers).

Decomposers Are organisms that breakdown dead or decaying

organisms and in doing so, carry out the natural process of decomposition.
Like herbivores and predators, decomposers are heterotrophic, meaning

171
that they use organic substrates to get their energy, carbon, and nutrients
for growth and development.

Deforestation Cutting down trees and destroying a forest. In slash and

burn deforestation, workers cut down all the trees that can be used for
lumber and burn the rest.

Density Shows how tightly the matter of an object is packed together. For
example, the density of iron is greater than the density of wood.

Deposition is a geological process in which sediments, soils and rocks

are added to a land form or land mass. Wind, ice water (rain) as well as
sediment flowing through gravity, eroded sediments through Kinetic
energy in the fluids is deposited building layers of sediment.

Distillation A way of separating substances from a solution. It involves

heating liquid and condensing and different gases or vapors that form from
it.

Dormancy A period in an organisms life cycle when growth,

development (in plants and animals) and physical activity are temporarily
stopped. This minimizes metabolic activity and therefore helps an
organism to conserve energy e.g. mango seed will lie dormant until the
right conditions for germination are present.

Earthquakes A violent shaking of the ground due to sudden shifts in

parts of the earths crust. They usually occur along a fault, which is a break
in the crust where plates that make up the earths crust rub against each
other.

Eclipse The temporary blotting out of the light of a heavenly body. A

solar eclipse is when the moon passes between the earth and the sun. A
lunar eclipse is when the moon passes through the earths shadow.

Ecology The study of relationships among plants, animals and other

living things in their environment. Ecology is concerned with populations
the members of the same species in an area; communities- the different
plant and animal species in an area; and ecosystems-communities and their
environments.

Ecosystem All the living things in an area. An ecosystem includes the

climate, water supply, nutrients and soil. Every ecosystem can be divided
into 5 main parts:

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Source of Energy-The sun is the main source of energy.

Secondary consumers- Animals like dogs, cats and eagles that eat other
animals and some birds.

Decomposers- Bacteria, Fungi and microbes that break down dead

producers and consumers into simple nutrients which return to the soil.

Electrical energy derived from the electrical potential energy, it is the

energy absorbed or delivered in an electric circuit and carried by moving
electrons in an electric conductor which is insulated.

Electrons A tiny particle within an atom that carries a negative electric

charge. The charges travel at a great speed in orbits around the atoms
nucleus.

Element A chemical substance that contains only one kind of atom and
that cannot be broken down into simpler substances there are 103 known
elements, they are arranged and described in the elementary table.

Endangered species

Endemic species Organisms that have become scarce and are in danger
of becoming extinct (wiped out) e.g. the Kacau of Gau, Crested Iguana and
Tagimoucia of Taveuni.

Erosion Is the movement of soil from one place to another by water,

wind or human activities. This is worsened by the felling of trees and
leaving the soil exposed to agents of erosion for example, the removal trees
and soils to source bauxite in Bua.

Evaporation is a form of vaporization of a liquid that occurs on the

surface of a liquid into the gaseous phase. The other type of vaporization is
boiling, characterized by bubbles of saturated vapour forming in the liquid
phase.

Exosphere Air is the exosphere which is extremely thin and is almost the
same as the airless void of outer space.

Exotic The origin or characteristic of a distant foreign country and the

word is synonymous with non- native. For example the mahogany and Pine
trees are exotic species of plants in Fiji while Kauvula and Dakua makadre
are indigenous plants.

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Extinction it is the end or of a group of organisms (taxonomy), normally
a species.

Extrusion - Forcing something out through a small opening. Extrusion can

shape solid metal or plastic into strips, tubes or threads. Also the way the
lava comes out of some volcanoes.

Filter A device with tiny holes that strains out solids or gas. Also a device,
that removes certain frequencies from electronic circuits and removes
particular colors from light rays.

Filter bed A layer of sand or gravel on the bottom of a reservoir or tank

used to filter water or sewage

Float To stay on top of a liquid or gas.

Floatation The phenomenon is related to relative buoyancy (floating

ability) of objects. It is also a process or method of separating mixtures, an
example of this is dissolved air floatation (DAS), a water treatment.

Fluorescent Describes something that glows or gives off light when

exposed to electric current, light, X-rays or Ultra-violet rays.

Food chain A grouping of living things in a community in which each

member feeds on the member below it in the food chain.

Food web All the food chains in the community

Fossil Fuel Coal, oil (petroleum), and Natural gas which are burned to
release energy. Fossil fuels formed many million years ago from the
remains of plants (coal) and buried bodies of sea creatures (oil and natural
gas).

Friction The force that tends to stop objects from sliding. Friction is
helpful when sneakers keep you from slipping and harmful when parts rub
against each other in a machine.

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Gas bladders is also known as air or swim bladder which is an internal
gas-filled organ that helps the fish to control its buoyancy. For example,
when the air fills the bladder the fish becomes lighter and comes to the
surface; deflation of the gas bladder allows the fish to gain weight and
allows the fish to sink to the bottom.

Geologist A Scientist who studies the solid (rocks) and liquid matter that
constitutes earth as well as the processes and history that have shaped it.

Grains a fruit or seed of cereal as in food, or a rough surface or texture of

soil, sand or rocks.

Gravity is the pull of the earth. The force that attracts a body towards the
centre of the earth, or towards any other physical body having mass. For
example, every time one jumps, one experiences gravity. It pulls one back
to the ground. However, without gravity one would float off into the
atmosphere.

Greenhouse gases (GHGs)- Sometimes they are known in the short form
as GHGs in the atmosphere. They absorb and emit radiation within the
thermal infra-red range. The greenhouse gases are Carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide, fluorinated gases. These are gases especially the
Carbon-dioxide are notorious causal of Green house effect.

Greenhouse effect Greenhouse gases trap the suns heat in the

atmosphere thus increasing the earths temperature.

Habitat An organisms address or the place where an organisms lives.

Herbivore An animal that mostly eats plants. Some herbivores such as

cows and horses eat grass. Others, including many birds, mostly eat seeds.

Heterogeneous mixture is a mixture made up of different substances

that remain physically separate e.g. a mixture of sand and sugar.

Hibernation It is a period of inactivity especially in winter and cold

periods and the body processes slow down. E.g. Koala bears become
inactive during winter.

Homogenous mixture - A mixture that is uniform in composition

throughout. For e.g. air, acids, cup of coffee.

Humidity The amount of water vapor in the air. The humidity is high
over the oceans and forests and low over the deserts.

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Hydrometer is an instrument used to measure the specific gravity (or
relative density) of the liquids; that is the ratio of the density of the water.
It is made of glass and consists of a cylindrical stem and a bulb weighted
with mercury or lead to make it float upright.

Hydropower or water power is the power derived from the energy of

falling water and running water, which may be harnessed for useful
purposes, for example Monasavu Hydropower is renowned in Fiji in
supplying the hydropower to every household.

Impurities- are unwanted substances inside a confined amount of liquid,

gas, or solid which differ from the chemical composition of the material or
component for example Aluminum and lead are impurities frequently
found in tap water.

Incandescent giving off light when heated, the current flows through an
incandescent bulb, the filament glows while hot.

Inner core The center region of the inside of the earth. The inner core
starts about (5,150km) below the surface. It reaches to the center of the
earth about (6 400 km) down. Inner core has some iron and nickel. The
temperature may reach 7000Centigrade.

Insulator is a material which has internal electric charges that do not

flow freely. They are non- metallic solid, usually made of plastic or rubber
covering the electric wires which are made of copper and other metals.

Interspecific Competition These are organisms and are members of

different species that compete for the same scarce or limited resources in
an ecosystem e.g. food and habitats.

Intraspecific Competition These are organisms and are members of the

same species that compete for the same scarce or limited resources in an
ecosystem e.g. food, habitats and other needs.

Intrusive igneous rock Formed from magma that became solid beneath
the earths surface.

Kinetic Energy The energy in a moving body such as wind, a speeding

truck, car, bus, a flying ball and an aeroplane.

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Land reclamation is the idea of getting and creating new land. It is
usually done with rivers and lakebeds. There is a natural process which fills
such areas with sand, dirt and other materials.

Limestone A type of rock made up of mostly calcium or calcium

carbonate. Limestone is widely used as a building stone and to make lime
(CaCO3).

Lunar Eclipse See eclipse

Magma Molten rock beneath the surface of the earth that is melted by the
great heat there. Magma hardens into solid road either underground or on
the surface.

Magnet An object that attracts iron, steel, cobalt and certain ceramics.

Mantle A thick zone of rock within the earth that is beneath the crust. The
mantle goes down about 2870 km and makes up almost 5/6 of the total
volume of the earth. The upper mantle contains semi solid rocks on which
the plates of the crust move.

Mass The amount of matter in an object. It is also defined as the

resistance of an object to a change in its motion. An objects mass always
remains the same, while weight which is the pull of gravity, can change.

Materials is a broad term for the (chemical0 substances, or a mixture of

substances that can constitute s thing or is made up of matter.

Matter Anything that occupies space and has mass. Matter mainly exists
in three forms: solid, liquid and gas.

Mesosphere The layer of the earths atmosphere from about 48 km

above the surface to about 80 km. It is between the Stratosphere and
Thermosphere.

Metamorphic Describes a type of rock formed when another rock is

changed by the heat and or pressure in the earths crust. Marble is a
metamorphic rock made from the sedimentary rock limestone.

Microwave A very short electromagnetic wave used in radar, television

and satellite communications. A microwave oven uses microwave radiation
to heat food.

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Migration The regular, long distance movement of animals to places
with better living conditions. Migrations usually occur at a change of season
when animals seek more comfortable weather, a greater food supply, or a
place to breed or give birth.

Mixture A combination of two or more substances that are not

chemically bound together, e.g. air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen and other gases.

Non-renewable energy Resources that are limited in supply. The

supplies come from the earth and it takes a million of years to replace.

Nozzle A cylindrical or round spout at the end of the hose, a pipe or tube
used to control a jet of gas or liquid.

Nutrient A food substance such as protein, carbohydrates, fat, Vitamins,

Minerals, fibers and water needed for growth and good health.

Outer core The part of the earth and other planets beneath the mantle.
The earths outer core is 2250 km thick and contains melted iron and
nickel.

Ozone A form of oxygen in small amounts found in the air, after a

thunderstorm. It contains three molecules of oxygen, the formula is O3.

Ozone Layer It is between 19 and 48 km thick and above the earth.

Ozone layer blocks many suns ultraviolet rays from reaching the earth.
Scientists have found holes in the ozone layer believed to be caused by
Chloro Fluro Carbons (CFCs).

Ozone Depletion Ozone Layer have been broken down by the reaction
between CFCs mainly Chlorine with Oxygen in the ozone and tears apart
the ozone molecule. One atom of Chlorine can destroy greater than one
hundred thousands of ozone molecules according to U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. Use of CFCs was banned in 1996 and the amount of
Chlorine is falling.

Panning Washing gravel in a pan to separate out gold in rivers.

Penumbra The lighter shadow around the dark shadow (umbra) during
an eclipse or whenever a shadow is cast. Also, the greyish outer part of
snapshots.

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Photosynthesis The process in which plant cell use energy from the sun
to combine Carbon dioxide and water and minerals to make food for
growth and reproduction. Photosynthesis releases Oxygen to the
atmosphere.

Physical weathering- Process that breaks rocks apart without changing

their chemical composition.

Population The total number of organisms or people in one area or place.

Precipitation - Rain or snow and hail that fall onto the earth. It is also the
separation of a solid from a solution. The precipitation reaction of soap in
hard water produces a white scum or foam and water

Predator An animal that hunts, kills and eats the other animals (usually
the prey). Sharks, dogs, cats are examples of predators, for example, the cat
(predator) kills the rat (prey).

Preservation To keep alive or safe from harm, the Levuka Heritage-old

buildings have been reserved because of its poignant History. Woodlands
like Colo-I Suva should be preserved.

Primary consumers Animals like goats, cows and horses that eat primary
producers.

Pressure The force acting over a given area of a surface. Pressure is equal
to the strength of force divided by area. [P=F/A] It is measured in Pascal or
[N/m2]

Producers - Green plants and plantlike protists (phytoplankton) that make

their own food by photosynthesis. For instance, Algae is a producer and so
is a tree and a small moss plant.

Products Products are formed when two reactants associate or mix

together to form a new yield. For example: Carbon dioxide and water react
in the presence of solar energy and chlorophyll to form carbohydrates and
oxygen. Carbohydrate and oxygen are products formed.

Pumice It is formed when hot lava mixes with water which later hardens,
resulting in a porous material perfect for sloughing away dry skin. They are
often used in body salons.

Purify To make pure by getting rid of unwanted substances, one can

purify water by passing it through filters.

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Radiation A form of energy such as heat, light, X-rays, Microwave or
radio waves. Also includes dangerous high energy nuclear radiation and
empty spaces as well as some materials.

Sandstone A sedimentary rock that formed mostly on grain of sand that

have been cemented together by pressure and minerals.

Sieve an implement used (Utensil with wire or plastic mesh held in a

frame) for straining solids from liquids; for separating coarse from fine
materials.

Scoria rock Heavy dark coloured, glassy, pyroclastic igneous rock that
contains vesicles [bubble like cavities]

Sedimentary rocks Formed by deposition. A kind of rock, that forms in

one or three ways fine grains of sediment (as in sandstone), water
evaporates, leaving behind precipitated minerals, as in limestone, or the
buried remains of animals or plants are heated and compressed
underground, as in chalk. Sedimentary rock makes up about three quarter
of the earths land surface.

Sluicing An artificial channel for conducting water with a valve or gate

(sluice gates) at the upper end for regulating water flow.

Species defined as the largest group of organisms capable of

interbreeding and producing fertile offspring.

Solar Eclipse Takes place when the moon passes between the sun and
the earth and the moon fully or partially blocks (occults) the sun.

Solar energy is the radiant light and heat from the sun harnessed using a
range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating, solar
photovoltaic, solar thermal energy, solar architecture, artificial
photosynthesis.

Solidification or Freezing ia phase transition in which a liquid turns into

a solid when its temperature is lowered below its freezing point.

Solute A substance that dissolves in another substance. For example

sugar (solute a solid) dissolves in water (solvent) to form a solution
(sugar solution)

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Solution is a homogenous mixture composed of only one phase. A solute
is a substance dissolved in another substance known as a solvent. For
instance Sugar when mixed with water forms a solution sugar solution.

Solvent a solvent is a liquid that dissolves a solute. It can also be a solid

or gas.

Spring balance Scale made up of a hook attached to a spring that

stretches in proportion to the weight of the object being weighed.

Stratosphere is the layer of the earths atmosphere. It is the second layer

of the atmosphere as you go upward.

Streamlining design or provide with a form that presents very little

resistance to a flow of air or water increasing speed and ease of movement.

Sublimation Transition of a substance directly from the solid to gas

phase without passing through the intermediate liquid phase, For example
burning iodine crystals which changes directly to gas.

Temperature- is the degree of hotness or coldness of an object especially

expressed according to a scale such as C or F or K.

Thermosphere is the layer of the earths atmosphere directly above the

mesosphere and directly below the exosphere.

Trade winds (sometimes called trades) are the prevailing pattern of

easterly surface winds found in the tropics, when the lower section of the
troposphere near the earths equator.

Transformation a complete change in someones or somethings

appearance. For example, changing energy from one form to another. For
example solar energy transformed to chemical energy.

Troposphere is the lowest layer of Earths atmosphere and site of all

weather on the earth. It is bonded on the top, a layer of air called
tropopause which separates the troposphere from the stratosphere and the
bottom of the surface of the earth.

Tsunamis also known as seismic sea waves or as a tidal wave, is a series

of waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, in the
ocean or a lake. Earthquakes, volcano emptions, under water explosion,
meteorite impacts generate Tsunamis.

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Umbra Umbra, penumbra and antumbra are three distinct parts of a
shadow created by any light source after impinging an opaque object.

Ultra- violet light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength from

400nm to 10nm shorter than that of visible light but longer than X-rays.

Up thrust The upward force that a liquid or gas exerts on a body floating.

Upward force Buoyancy is an upward force exerted by a fluid that

opposes the weight of an immersed object.

Vacuum A space devoid of matter.

Volcanoes Is a mountain that opens downward to a pool of molten rock

below the surface of the earth. When pressure builds up, eruptions occur,
gases and rocks shoot up through the opening and spill over or fill the air
with lava fragments.

Weather State of the air and atmosphere at a particular time and place;
the temperature and other outside conditions (such as rain, cloudiness etc.)
at a particular time and place.

Weathering is the breaking down of rocks, soils, minerals and artificial

through contact with the Earths atmosphere, biota and water.

Weight the amount or quantity of heaviness or mass. The force that

gravity exerts upon a body equals to load of a mass of a body.

Zoologist Study animals and other wildlife, and how they interact in their
ecosystems. They study the physical characteristics of animals, their
behavior and the impacts of human on wildlife and their natural habitats.

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