7th International Symposium On Vulcanospeleology

Santa Cruz de La Palma, Canary Islands November 1994

President and Chairman:

Pedro Oromf

Vice- President and Organizer:

Conny Spelbrink

Vice- President:

Manuel Rosales

Commi ttee members:

Grupo J unonia Lucas L. Sala Manuel Arechavaleta Nieves Zurita

Co-sponsors:

Grupo de Espeleologia Junonia Federaci6n Espanola de Espeleologfa Federaci6n Canaria de Espeleologfa Universidad de La Laguna

Session Chairmen:

Paulo A.V. Borges Francis G. Howarth William Halliday Pedro Ororni Ronald Greeley Jean P. Van der Pas Paolo Forti

Proceedings Editor:

Pedro Oromi

1996

3

Cover:

Galeria de los Ingleses, the deepest branch of Cueva del Viento, Tenerife, Canary Islands (Photograph: 1.S. Socorro)

Edicion realizada con la colaboracion de:

Federacion Espanola de Espeleologfa Federacion Can aria de Espeleologfu.

Amelia Romero. editora Avda. de los Tilos, 21

Sant Cugat del Valles (Barcelona)

© Pedro Orornf Masoliver

Disefio de la portada: Pedro Oromf Masoliver

Deposito Legal: B-27.846-1996 ISBN: 84-8255-020-9

Printed in Spain

Irnpreso en FORIMPRES, S.A. Prat de la Riba, 57

08849 Sant Climent de Llobregat (Barcelona)

4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

HALLIDAY, W.R. Report of the 7th International Symposium on Vulcanospeleoiogy ARECHAVALETA, M., P. ORoMi, L.L. SALA & c. MARTiN. Distribution of carbon dioxide concentration in Cueva del Viento (Teneri fe, Canary Islands)

BORGES, P.A. V. Conservation status of Azorean lava tubes and pits

E.SI.TI-:RHAS, I. Naturliche und durch kunstliche Hohlraume entstandene Risse in vulkanischen Gesteinen

FORTI, P., G. GIUDICE, A. MARINO & A. Rossi. The MC I Cave on Mt. Etna and its peculiar metastable speleothems.

7

II i5

25

FORTI, P., M. PANZICA LA MANNA & A. Rossi. The peculiar mineralogic site of Alum Cave,

Vulcano, S 35

GAI{ciA, R. & A.J. G()NZAu,,:z. Estudio biol6gico de dos cavidades del Saito de Tigalate

(La Palma, Islas Can arias) 45

HALLIDAY, W.R. Recent vulcanospeleological progress in Hawaii... 51

HERNANDEZ, J.J. & P. OROM!. New discoveries of lava tubes related to Cueva del Viento in

Iced de los Vines (Teneri fe, Canary Islands)... 59

HOWARTH, F.G. A comparison of the ecology and evolution of cave-adapted faunas in volcanic

and karstic caves. 63

LAINEZ, A. Galerfu «Hernandez Pacheco» un nuevo descubrimiento en el complejo de lu

Cueva del Viento-Sobrado (Icod de los Vines, Tenerife). 69

OHSAKO, T. Relation between the volcanic activity of Mt. Hachijo-Fuji and volcanic caves

on Hachijo-Jima Island, The Seven lzu Islands, Japan. 75

OROMi, P., M. ARECHAVALETA & L.L. SALA. A Noctuid 1110th completing its life cycle in lava

tubes on Tenerife, Canary Islands.

PAIS, F..J. La utilizaci6n de tubes volcanicos como lugares de habitaci6n y enterramiento por los benahoaritas.

87

89

RODRiGUE/., R. Algunos datos sobre la fauna de Isopodos terrestres cavernfcolas en el

archipielugo canario. 97

ROSALES, M. Historia de la espeleologfu en Canarias. 101

SALA, L.L., P. OIWMI & J.e. RANDO. Cueva del Bucio lava tube (Tenerife, Canary lslands):

survey, environmental features and animal communities. 109

SLEZIN, Y.B. & A.I. TSYURUPA. Lava caves in Kamchatka. 113

ZURITA, N., L.L. SALA. M. AIUoCHAVALETA, E. MUNOZ & P. OROM!. Cueva de Petr6lea, a newly

discovered branch of Cueva del Viento system: survey and fauna. 121

APPENDIX 125

GARCiA. R. Los artr6podos de la Cueva de los Palrneros (La Palma, Islas Canarias). 127

GARCiA, R. & F. GOVANTES. La Cueva Virgen de Fatima, un tubo volcanico en la colada

hist6rica del Vole.in de San Juan (La Palma, Islas Canarias). I:n

GONZALEZ, A.J. & F. GOVANTES. La Cueva de la Mamona. Primera descripcion de un tubo

volc.inico en el noroeste de La Palma (Islas Canarias).

137

MEDINA, A.L., J.L. MARTiN, I. IZQUIERDO, J.J. HERNANDI":;' & P. OROM!. Cavidades volcanicas en la

isla de La Palma (Islas Canarias) 1. Descripci6n y consideraciones xobre xu fauna. 141

RANDO, J.C. & M. L()PEz. Un nuevo yacimiento de vertebrados fosiles en Tenerife (Islas Canarias). 171

5

REPORT ON THE 7TH SYMPOSIUM ON VULCANOSPELEOLOGY

William R. Halliday

National Speleological Society representative

The multidisciplinary 7th International Symposium on Vulcanospeleology convened on November 4, 1994 in Santa Cruz de La Palma, Canary Islands, Spain. Attendance was about 40, plus numerous spouses. Countries represented were Austria, England, France, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, Russia, and the United States. Organizing institutions were Grupo de Espeleologfa Junonia I , Federaci6n Canaria de Espeleologfa, and the Universidad de La Laguna. Scientific chairman and president was Pedro Oromf, Depto. de Biologfa Animal, Universidad de La Laguna. Vicepresidents were Manuel Rosales Martfn, president of the Federaci6n Canaria de Espeleologfa, and Conny Spelbrink of Grupo Junonia. The latter was Symposium Organizer. In addition to creating a well-run symposium, she was notably effective in obtainig complimentary receptions enjoyed almost every night of the meeting and field excursions.

Major earth science papers were presented by Yuri Siezin and 1. Tsyurupa on Lava caves in Kamchatka, Ronald Greeley on Erosion hy lava tubes, Takashi Ohsako on Relation between the volcanic activity of the Mt. Hachijo-Fuji and volcanic caves on Hachijo-jima Island, Paulo A.V. Borges on Conservation status ofAzorean lava tubes and pits, Ana Luisa Medina and J .M. Gonzalez on Aspectos generales sobre las cavidades volcdnicas de Monte Suswa y Tsavo (Kenya), Pedro Oromf (with the late Juan J. Hernandez Pacheco) on New discoveries of lava tubes related to Cueva del Viento in lcod de los vinos (Tenerife}, Istvan Eszterhas on Natur- und kiinsturspriingliche Risse ill den vulkanischen Gesteine, Paolo Forti et a1. on The peculiar mineralogic site of the Alum Cave, Vulcano, Sicily, Manuel Rosales on La espeleologia en Canaries, and this reporter on Recent vulcanospeleological progress in Hawaii.

Poster sessions included The MC I Cave on Mt. Etna and its peculiar metastable speleothems, by Paolo Forti et aI., Using remotely-sensed images to study the vulcanology of the Canary Islands, by Allison Reid, Cueva Petrolea, a newly discovered branch of Cueva del Viento system, by Nieves Zurita et al., La Galeria Hernandez Pacheco, un nuevo descubrimiento en el complejo de la Cueva del Viento, by co-workers of the late Hernandez Pacheco, and Cueva del Bucio lava tube (Tenerife. Canary Islands) by Lucas Sala et a1. A notable illuminated 27-pannel exhibit of the Museo de Ciencias Naturales of Tenerife on lava tube caves also was on hand.

Of special interest was the first oral presentation on Russian volcanic caves given outside the former U.S.S.R. Siezin is undertaking a systematic study of the caves of Kamchatka. He described several caves and systems, including a fragmented labyrinth and chain of collapsed sinks with homeothermic phenomena. The town of Prychiv has been plagued with subsidences of houses and its airport's runway into lava tube caves almost filled with sand or artificial fills. In 1975-76 he and coworkers observed the development of lava tube caves through outflow of lava from inflated lava steps. Also they have mapped and studied caves in the 1739 flows. Their sampling of molten lava at depths of up to 0.5 m has shown up to 34 volumes per cent of H2.

Numerous important discoveries in and around Tenerife's Cueva del Viento were described in various papers and posters. Until recently, the combined length of the two main caves (separated only artificially, by someone's excavation of a cellar) was 14.87 km. Cueva del sobrado was connected to the main cave about 5 years ago. Not including Cueva de Felipe Revent6n or other isolated segments of the overall system, the length now appears to total over 20 km. A figure of 25 km was mentioned, but it was not clear what was included in this. Some Spanish speleologists apparently do not adhere to IUS standards for determining cave lengths; for example, Lanzarote's Cueva de los Verdes is listed at 6.1 krn but this

I JUI1oI1ia was the old ROIDnn name for the island of La Palma

7

is the length of all the caves in that system, not Cueva de los Verdes alone. In any event, three major branches were found at different levels when an artificially filled pit entrance was excavated in 1994. The lowest - Galerfa de Hernandez Pacheco or Cueva Intuici6n - extrends 1.4 krn as a down-slope continuation of Cueva del Sobrado. The others extend up-slope, parallel to the main Sobrado Gallery. Local speleologists have proposed that about II<! km of the Sobrado section become to show cave.

I reported new world records for mapped length and depth of a lava tube cave - Kazumura Cave, Kilauea volcano, Hawaii. It now is 46.7 km long, with a vertical extent of about 850 m. Also I reported a new depth record for a volcanic pit - Na One Pit, Hualalai volcano, Hawaii, mapped to minus 267 m, and also rediscovery, mapping, and study of the Postal Rift and other caves of Kilauea caldera, Hawaii. I also discuss a new type of volcanic cavity associated with ultramafic xenolith nodule beds on Hualalai volcano, and the role of Hawaii Speleological Survey in thermal erosion studies in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.

Ron Greeley reviewed geological evidence of thermal and mechanical erosion by lava, best seen to date in caves of Mt. St. Helens, Washington. Regarding the new world data base on lava tube caves at Arizona State University, his physical data files now have information on about 1,000 individual lava tube caves in more than 300 systems in 23 countries. Computerization of the data is proceeding. 616 lava tube caves in more than 200 systems of 18 countries, total I ing about 250 km of passages are digitized, and some data and selected maps can be accessed already.

Paolo Forti noted that volcanic caves are the most promising for discovery of new cave minerals, and reported of recent identifications. Takashi Ohsako reported on unusual, glaze-lined caves along a crater rim in a pyroclastic stratum, in addition to more usual types of volcanic caves of such environments.

Paulo Borges reported a well-conceived plan toprotect the l Ou-odd caves of Pico Island as well as others in the Azores. The basic problems are (I) deforestation, (2) poor pasture management, (3) «cattle graveyard effect», (4) tourism impact, (5) water management, and (6) industrial and domestic waste. Their solutions include (I) maintaining a permanent record of the caves and their contents and features, (2) restriction of visitation in selected cases, (3) helping owners building protective rock walls around entrances, (4) educationg owners, and (5) long-term efforts to create nature reserves.

Eszterhas described several types of caves in volcanic rock in Hungary, produced by a variety of mechanisms. One is subsidence into underlying solution cavities. Discussion of this broadly favored the idea that this was a surface manifestation of a karstic phenomenon and should not be considered volcanic nor pseudokarstic. Others appear to be tectonic networks and fissure caves. One large rounded cavity opened by a quarry is unexplained. In 1994 Eszterhas publ ished a 72-page paperback book (in Hungarian) entitled Vulkcinosz.peleol6gia.

In other disciplines, Frank Howarth presented a scholarly Comparison of the ecology and evolution of cave-adapted faunas ill volcanic and karstic caves. Drawing on data mostly from tropical and subtropical caves, he concluded that, despite their obvious differences in age, morphology and geology, specialized animals living in both types of caves display remarkably similar adaptations. However, troglobites tend to be more plentiful in very old karstic caves, and in lava tube caves 100 to 1000 years old before a soil barrier obstructs pathways of some food sources. He postu lates that most of the world's cave species are unknown to science.

Rafael Garcfa Becerra reported finding 12 troglobites in a cave of La Palma, as well as 8 troglophiles and 7 trogloxenes. Ana Luisa Medina noted that the species they observed in caves of Kenya were not very adapted. Oromi and co-workers found only a small correlation between C02 levels and density and richness of troglobites in Cueva del Viento. Oromi also reported finding numerous skeletons of a recently extinct giant rat in a newly opened passage of Cueva del Viento. It also has been found in other Tenerife caves at about the same altitude. Rafael Rodrfguez Santana noted incipient modification of somatic characteristics in one Canarian cavernicolous isopod. Lucas Sala and co-workers reported on an abundance of a moth in Cueva de Felipe Revent6n, and on a rich troglobitic fauna in a small, almost virgin cave high in a pine forest on Tenerife.

Felipe J. Pais reported on the use of rockshelters and entrance zones of lava tube caverns as habitation sites of aboriginal inhabitants of La Palma. Some cave interments occured in deeper sections of lava tube caves.

Field excursions were well chosen and well organized. They included Cueva de Todoque, Cueva

8

del Perdido, Cuevas de Mazo, Cueva del Ports, Hoyo de la Sima, and Bucaro de San Martin on La Palma, Cueva de Don Justo and Cueva del Acantilado on EI Hierro, and Cueva del Viento and Cueva de Felipe Revent6n on Tenerife. Additional informal excursions included the Peak of EI Teide on Tenerife. the remarkable Cueva de la Fajanita on La Palma, and other volcanic features of at least four islands.

Cueva de Todoque is an easy 500 m lava tube cave with sizeable rooms and well preserved lava speleothems. Cueva del Perdido is a small labyrinth with attractive smooth passage walls. Cueva del Porfs has about 2 km of passages, much of it requiring crawling. One of the Mazo caves is steeply inclined and spacious; its origin is unclear. The other two are fairly small lava tube caves with considerable variation in passage size. Hoyo de la Sima is the deepest pit on La Palma, 75 m deep and up to 30 m in diameter. Bucaro de San Martfn is another vertical shaft, 57 m deep, with two upward leads from an iner chamber. Its first drop is 30 m.

On EI Hierro, Cueva de Don Justo is a 6.3-km three-dimensional labyrinth of large and small passages. Lavaballs and secondary mineral deposits locally are prominent. Near the famous Punta de Orchilla lighthouse, Cueva del Acantilado is very different. Only about 400 m long, it begins at the summit of a low lava dome with radiating surface tubes and tongues, and a largely collapsed lava tube leading in almost the opposite direction from Cueva del Acantilado. This dome may be a rootless vent. The cave extends to a seacliff where it ends with at least three adjoining windows. Some ledges are present, but rheogenic features are minimal. Halite and other mineral crusts are prominent. One of its skylights is a long-standing raptor site.

On Tenerife, Cueva del Viento is the seconf longest liiava tube cave in the world, with labyrinthine complexes on several levels and one very long unitary passage. It is the main cave of a larger complex extending both uphill and downhill from the town of Icod de los Vinos. Cueva de Felipe Revent6n is an especially complex detached segment of this system. Its three-dimensional labyrinth is extraordinary.

Cueva de la Fajanita has been described as a hollow dike, but its speleogenexis appears to be even more complex. The walls and ceiling of its inner chamber contain numerous dikes of varying size, intruding a body of consolidated red cinder. From its lower, outer end, a stacked tube ascends almost vertically, then levels off before descending steeply to a cliff face 2-level entrance. Near its midpoint a stacked confluent tube angles downward to join the main passage. The lowr tube in the main passage has multiple linings of very dense lava consistent with dike material; the upper one characteristically has only a single lining. The cliff face here appears to be a landslip feature.

The meeting and field excursions were very well received by those in attendance. However, attendance was lower and fewer papers were presented than at the 199 I symposium. This was the result of less agressive sol icitation of papers. Also the lack of a guidebook limited participants' understanding of features of the field excursions. Organizers of the 8th International Symposium wi I want to consider these matters in their planning.

With about 20 members and friends of the IUS Comission on Volcanic Caves in attendance at the meeting of that Comission, a strong preference was voiced for the next symposium to be in Nairobi, Kenya in February 1998. The chairman of the Cave Exploration Group of East Africa (Jim Simons) has proposed this, but without a specific date. The Comission plans to explore the preferred date and firm up a desirable date without known conflicts as soon as possible,

Another Canary Island speleological group is considering organizing a 2nd Encuentro Vulcanoespeleol6gico de las Islas Atlanticas which would be held before 1998. It would not be an IUS event. Sites would be the islands of Tenerife and Lanzarote.

The Grupo Junonia offered field assistance to volcanologists and vulcanospeleologists wishing to study the caves and volcanic pits of La Palma. Adress: c/o Conny Spelbrink, Carretera de Martfn Luis 32,38715 Puntallana, La Palma, Canary Islands, Spain. It turned out to be a remarkably notable site for such studies.

11/23/94

9

Distri bution:

NSS Board of Governors/President Geo2

North American Biospeleological Newsletter

7th International Symposium staff (Oromf, Spelbrink) Cave Exploration Group of East Africa (Simons) International Union of Speleology (Forti, C. Chabert) U.S. Geological Survey libraries - Reston and Hawaii Volcano Quarterly

10

DISTRIBUTION OF CARBON DIOXIDE CONCENTRATION IN CUEVA DEL VIENTO (TENERIFE, ISLAS CANARIAS)

M. ARECHAVALETA*, P. OROMI*, L.L. SALA* & c. MARTiN**

* Depto. Biologfa Animal, Universidad de La Laguna, Tenerife, Canary Is.

** Depto. Edafologfa y Geologfa, Universidad de La Laguna, Tenerife, Canary Is.

INTRODUCTION

It is well known that C02 concentrations in the air of caves are frequently higher than outside.

This phenomenon has been noted in both limestone and volcanic caves, even though the latter are usually located only a few metres below the surface. The origin of this C02 may be due to different agents; according to James (1977) the most important sources are a) animal and plant respiration, b) production by microorganisms, c) diffusion through rock and soil, d) production from subterranean waters, and e) natural emission of volcanic gases. The contribution of each source to the final concentration is difficult to calculate, and is obviously different from one cave to another (James, op. cit.).

Likewise, C02 concentration in a cave is not uniform, depending on several factors. The most important are the proximity of the emission sources - in the case of biological or volcanic origin - and, above all, the air renewal rate. The circulation of air is a consequence of variations in atmospheric pressure; the different temperature, relative humidity and chemical composition of the air occurring outside and inside the cave, also create differences in density (CIGNA, 1967) causing air movements. But the renewal rate at each sector of the cave mainly depends on its local section, and on the nearness of entrances and other connections to the exterior.

Carbon dioxide concentrations are on average noticeably lower in volcanic than in limestone caves. On one hand, the generally deeper location of limestone ones facilitates air stagnation; but more important is the chemical composition of the rock and abundance of water, which together contribute to higher CO 2 production.

The aim of this paper is to study the CO 2 distribution patterns in a lava tube and their relation with air movements in the cave. High concentrations of CO 2 - as well as methane - have been stated in the Canary Islands in artificial tunnels bored to extract water from very deep accumulations in volcanic rocks. However, no data concerning lava tubes are yet available in the literature. The measurements were taken in Cueva delViento (Tenerife), a lava tube which offers different climatic and structural conditions and therefore a variety of possibilities for comparison.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

This fact is also important for the air renewal rate.

For the present study the main tubes and some important lateral branches were divided into consecutive sectors of 200 m2 each, their length being variable depending on the width. A total of 132 sectors were studied, atmospheric CO 2 concentration and wind speed being quantified at each one.

The C02 concentration was measured with an LFG I ° portable gas analyser made by Analytical Development Company Limited (ADC), capable of analysing simultaneously C02 and CH4 concentrations. Its detection principle is infrared absorption spectrophotometry, with two possible measurement ranges: ° to 10% or ° to 100%. It has an internal pump rendering up to 200 ml/min. The reference measurements previously taken outside the cave were 0,01 % for C02 and O,OociO for CH4. The analyser was always calibrated before each workday. Wind speed was evaluated with a manual SALMOIRAGHI 1635 anemometer with a maximum accuracy of I mlsec. The data were taken several times at each sector, always for 30 seconds and using the mean values as final data.

I I

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

According to the reference measures taken outside the cave each VISIt, the normal CO 2 atmospheric concentration is 0.0 I %. The proportion of methane was also measured, but its presence was never detected. Actually this was the expected result, since methane is very rarely found in the Canarian artificial water tunnels.

The data obtained in this study are shown in tables I to V, where the CO 2 concentration and wind speed are included for each sector, as well as their minimal distance from the nearest communication with the open air. In most of the cases carbon dioxide concentrations were comparable to the reference value outside; however, in some sectors the values obtained were extraordinari Iy high, sometimes up to 13 times the normal concentrations. These are notably higher than those attained by Calandri ( 1992) in volcanic caves from Madeira (between 0.0 I and 0.025%).

Carbon dioxide concentration is correlated to breeze speed (r = -0.2324, P < 0.01) and to the distance from the nearest entrance (r = 0.3936, P < 0.0 I). Air renewal avoids stagnation, while higher levels appear in deeper or more remote zones of the cave, especially in blind galleries where the «cui de sac» effect facilitates an increase in CO 2 levels.

The higher values of CO 2 were obtained in Cueva de Felipe Revent6n (see table 1) and in some stretches of Cueva del Sobrado (table IV), almost always in the deep zone of both caves. In Cueva del Viento (Breveritas) the breeze is almost continuous and intense - «Viento» means wind - thus impeding accumulation of carbon dioxide. Only at its lower level called Galerfa de los Ingleses, concentrations are higher. This is a much deeper tube with no direct communication to the exterior and a unique connection with Cueva del Vi en to itself at Breveritas, far away from the nearest entrance; this makes environmental conditions very stable and C02 distribution uniform.

In Galena Piquetes, CO 2 values never exceeded the normal ones in spite of its considerable length. This is explained by the constant breeze, probably due to the existence of abundant cracks at the end of the cave which allow the entrance of a r r.

Table I. Carbon dioxide concentration, wind speed and distance from the entrance at different sectors of Cueva Felipe Revent6n. FI-F9: Main tube; LI: "Laberinto"; L2-L7: lateral branches.

Sector Entrance at (m) C02 (%)
FI 35 0,01
F2 RI 0,01
F3 110 0,01
F4 158 0,01
F5 203 0,01
F6 261 0,01
F7 305 0,13
FR 364 0,09
F9 436 0,05
LI 331 0,13
L2 296 0,Q3
L3 261 0,05
L4 364 0,07
L5 364 0,07
L6 423 0,11
L7 499 0,07 12

Wind (m/s)

0,18

D,D 16

0,13

0,01

Table II. Carbon dioxide concentration, wind speed and distance from the entrance at different sectors of Galerfa Piquetes (main tube).

Sector Entrance at (m)

PI 23

C02 (%)

Wind (m/s) 0,01

0,01

0,0 I

0,02

P2 93
PJ 133
P4 173
P5 213
P6 285
P7 337
P8 372
P9 412
PIO 472
PII 532
PI2 567
PI3 610
PI4 690
PI5 715
PI6 748
PI7 781
PI8 955
PI') 880
P20 831 0,01 0,01 0,01 0,01

0,01 0,06
0,01 0,02
0,01 0,02
0,01 0,04
0,01 O,OJ
0,01 0,02
0,0 I o.os
0,01 0,07
0,01 0,04
0,01 0,02
0,01
0,01
0,01 0,01
0,01
0,0 I
0,01 Table III. Carbon dioxide concentration, wind speed and distance from the entrance at different sectors of Galerfa Belen.

Sector Entrance at (m) C02 (%) Wind (m/s)
81 139 0,01
B2 73 0,01
B3 22 0,01
Table IV. Carbon dioxide concentration, wind speed and distance from the entrance at different sectors
of Cueva El Sobrado. S I-S 15: main tube; S- V: Viento-Sobrado connection; RIP: Sobrado Infe-
rior; PET I-PET2: Cueva Petr6lea; INT I-INT23: main tube of Galerfa Intuici6n; MR I-MR4:
lateral branch of Galerfa Intuici6n
Sector Entrance at (m) C02 (%) Wind (m/s) Sector Entrance at (m) C02 (%) Wind (m/s)
SI 22 0.0 I 0,13 INTS 931 OJ) I
S2 66 0,01 INT6 879 0, () I
S3 142 0,01 INT7 835 0,01
S4 221 0,05 INT8 785 0,01
S5 316 0,02 I NT<) 733 0,01
S6 221 0,05 INTIO (,<)7 0,01
S7 273 0,01 INTII 639 0.0 I 0.23
S8 356 0,03 INTI2 574 0,01
S,) 431 0,05 INTI3 514 0,01
SIO 531 0,05 INTI4 429 0,01 0,50
SII 604 0,05 INTIS 371 0,01 0,33
SI2 657 0,05 INTI6 327 0,0 I
SI3 682 0,09 INTI7 294 0,01
SI4 682 0,07 INTI8 261 0,01
SI5 76') 0, I () INTI9 221 (J.() I
s-v 531 0,05 INT20 176 0,0 I
RIPI 35 0,01 INT21 121 0,01 o,m
RIP2 2() 0,0 I fNT22 66 0,01 0, I I
PETI 10 0.05 INT23 19 0.0 I
PET2 88 0,03 MRI 42') 0,03
INTI 1116 0,01 MR2 502 0,03
INT2 Ion 0,01 MR3 547 0,03
fNT] 1028 0,01 MR4 584 o.m
INT4 ')74 0,01 13

Table V. Carbon dioxide concentration, wind speed and distance from the entrance at different sectors in Cueva de Breveritas. V I-V 19: Main tube of Cueva de Brcveritas; V-I: Connection with Galcrfa de los Inglescs; C 1- C8: Galena de los Pajaros; BR I-BR4: Brevcritas inferior; IN I-IN 14: Galena de los Inglcses.

Sector Entrance at (m) C02 (%)
VI 20 0,01
V2 (i7 0,01
V3 127 0,01
V4 177 0,01
V5 256 0,01
V6 346 0,01
V7 382 0,01
V8 428 0,01
V9 495 0,01
VIO 569 0,01
VII 630 0,01
V 12 709 0,01
VI3 762 0,01
VI4 889 0.01
V 15 952 0,01
VI6 9S1 0,01
VI7 1101 0,01
V IS 1176 0,05
VI9 1233 0,05
V-I 1233 0,01
CI 981 0,01
C2 1024 0,01
C3 1087 0,01
C4 1160 0,01
C5 1240 0,01
C6 1360 0,01
C7 1425 0,01
C8 1477 0,01
BRI 21 0,01
BR2 56 0,01
BR3 96 0,01
BR4 136 0,01
INI 1403 0,Q9
IN2 1444 0,09
IN3 1484 0,09
IN4 1524 0,Q9
IN5 1574 0,09
IN6 1624 0,09
IN7 1677 0,09
INS 1737 0,Q9
IN9 1779 0,09
INIO 1819 0,09
INII 1859 0,09
lNI2 1899 0,09
INI3 1947 0,09
INI4 1993 0,09
REFERENCES Wind (m/s) 0,26

0,16

0,10

0,36 0,15

0,14 0,19 0,15 0,13

0,36 0,23

O,IS 0,60 0,16 0,18 0,16

0,53 0,25 0,08

0,17

0, II

0,43

CALANDRI, G., 1992. Le grotte laviche di Madeira. Bollettino C. S. I. CAl, 36: 19-27

CIGNA, A. A., 1967. An analytical study of air circulation in caves. Int. .lourn. Speleol., 3: 41-54. HERNANDEZ PACHECO, J. J. et aI., 1995. Catdlogo espeleologico de Teneri/e. Museo de Ciencias

Naturales de Tenerife, Sta. Cruz de Tenerife, 168 pp.

IZQUIERDO, 1., A.L. MEDINA & J.J. HERNANDEZ. 1995. Geomorfologfa. In P. Ororni (Ed.) La Cueva del Viento. Gobierno de Canarias, Sta. Cruz de Tenerife, 98 pp.

JAMES, J. M., 1977. Carbon dioxide in the cave atmosphere. Trans. British Cave Research Assoc., 4(4): 417-429.

14

CONSERVATION STATUS OF THE AZOREAN LAVA TUBES AND PITS

PAULO A. V. BORGES

Universidade dos Azores, Departamento de Ciencias Agrarias, Terra-Ch. 9700 Angra do Herofsmo.

Terceira, Azores, Portugal.

ABSTRACT

The conservation status of the diverse vulcanospeleological patrimony of the Azores is the main subject of this paper. The lava tubes and volcanic pits from the Azores are being exposed to several types of disturbance, some of them with destructive effects. Unique geological structures and some cavernicolous endemic arthropods are enough justification to establish severe measures of conservation for such patrimony. This work focuses on the types of disturbance over the Azorean volcanic cavities and their fauna and possible ways of conservation. The main types of disturbance are: deforestation, pasture management, «cattle graveyard effect», touristic activities, water management and industrial and domestic waste.

SUM ARlO

Este trabalho tern como principal objectivo estabelecer 0 ponto da situacao sobre 0 estado de conservacao do patrimonio vulcanoespeleologico dos Acores. Os tubos de lava e algares vulcanicos destas ilhas tern sido sujeitos a varies tipos de disnirbios, alguns dos quais com efeitos destructivos. A presenca de estructuras geologicas unicas e de grande valor patrimonial assim como a ocorrencia de artropodes cavemicolas endernicos, constituem justificacoes suficientes para que se estabelecarn medidas de proteccao rigorosas e severas, Este trabalho sumariza os tipos de distiirbios a que tern estado sujeitas as cavidades vulcanicas Acoreanas, indicando algumas solucoes para medidas de conservacao. Os principais tipos de disturbio sao os seguintes: deflorestacao, maneio das pastagens, uso das cavidades como cerniterio de gado bovino, visitacao, maneio da agua e lixos dornesticos e industriais.

I. INTRODUCTION

The diverse vulcanospeleological patrimony of the Azores, so rich that we have yet to identify most of them, is the main subject of this paper.

Even the smallest islet of the archipelago is a potential place to find a volcanic or other type of cave. Good examples of it are the Gruta Brisa Azul at the Ilheu das Cabras (near Terceira) and the Gruta do Romeiro in the IIh6u do Rorneiro at S. Lourenco (near St. Maria).

In recent times we are watching a noticeable rise in interest, among the people in general and the politicians in particular, in aspects related with the conservation and the natural patrimony. The recent accumulation of data about the Azorean lava tubes and pits (see Borges et al., 1992, 1993 and 1994; Borges & Si Iva, 1994; Constancia et al., 1994; Nunes & Braga, 1992) give us an excellent opportunity to develop strategies of conservation and public education. The environmentalist approach should be complemented by a scientific advising in order to strength potential conservation measures.

The lava tubes and volcanic pits from the Azores are being exposed to several types of disturbance, some of them with destructive effects. Unique geological structures and some cavernicolous endemic arthropods are enough reason to establish severe measures of conservation for such patrimony.

This work focuses on the types of disturbance over the Azorean volcanic cavities and their fauna and possible ways of conservation.

15

2. THE HISTORY

2.1. THE CAVES

All the Azorean islands are of volcanic origin and therefore lava tubes and volcanic pits are common, mainly in the more recent islands, or in the recent parts of the older islands. Fig. I shows the location of the Azorean archipelago as well as the location in the islands of the volcanic cave hotspot areas based on the checklists recently published (Borges et al., 1993 and 1994; Nunes & Braga, 1992).

Examples of recent volcanism are common throughout most islands. Historical eruptions with their impressive lava flows and lava tubes are of great importance, holding a huge diversity of geological structures and fauna. The caves and fauna of today are a result of many events that occurred during the last 20 million years (Constancia et al., 1994), and therefore should be carefully managed.

As a consequence we have now listed in the Azores 101 lava tubes and 27 pits (Borges et (11., 1993), but these numbers are still far from the reality. There are also more six (6) littoral caves and sixteen (16) othertype of cavities referred. According to their occurrence in the islands of the archipelago, Borges et al. (1993) listed the following numbers of lava tubes, volcanic pits, littoral caves and other caves: Corvo (I; 0; 0; 0), Flores (0; 0; 0; 0), Faial (3; 1; 0; 0), Pico (28; 8; 0; 0), Graciosa (18; 2; 0; 0), S. Jorge (7; 5; 0; 0), Terceira (29; 8; 4; 9), S. Miguel (15; 3; 0; 6) and S. Maria (0; 0; 2; I). However, Garcia (pers. comm.) referred for Pico almost 100 lava tubes and volcanic pits. Fig. 2 shows the distribution of the numbers of lava tubes and pits known to occur in the Azorean islands. It shou Id be noted the absence of volcanic caves in S. Maria and Flores, two older islands. In S. Miguel all the caves occur in the recent part of the island.

As it should be expected, geological age is a good predictor of the number of volcanic cavities in the Azorean islands (Fig. 3). In fact, the regression model showed in Fig. 3 is consistent with the idea that younger islands have large numbers of lava tubes and pits (r= 0.68, p« 0.05). S. Miguel and Terceira behave as outliers for two different reasons. In spite of the Northeast part of S. Miguel be the second older island of the Azores, great part of the island has a recent age, and Terceira is probably the best surveyed island from the archipelago having also very recent areas in contrast with older ones.

2.2. THE FAUNA

The fauna was recently reviewed and listed by Borges & Oromi (1994). A total of 16 species of cavernicolous arthropods are known, most of them endemics to some caves or cave systems in one island. Fig. 4 shows the distribution of the number of cave arthropods by the nine Azorean islands. The islands of the Central group are hotspots in cavernicolous fauna, being Terceira and Pico the most rich islands. The regression model that best fitted the distribution showed in Fig. 4, was a log-log model between the number of cavernicole species and the number of volcanic cavities in the islands (r= 0.86, p« 0.0 I) (Fig. 5).

In spite the fact that some species show evidences of rarity (e.g., the Cixiid species usually limited by their food resource, the roots of a particular tree species), some others appears to be largely distributed in the subterranean environment of the islands. This is the case of some Trechus species. Recently, Franz (1995) published an interesting work about the two species of Trechus from Pico and enlarged the known distribution of Trechus montanheirorutn Ororni & Borges. This species was originally described from Gruta dos Montanheiros and referred as very rare because of his occurrence only near a skylight (Borges & Ororni, 1991), but now is also known from Furna do Frei Matias and Gruta dos Vimes, both lava tubes (Franz, 1995). Another example of wide distribution within an island is the case of Trechus terceiranus Machado (Terceira), where is known from several caves and also from the Mesocavernous Shallow Stratum - M.S.S. (Borges, 1993). The other Trechus from Pico, Trechus picoensis Machado, has also a large distribution having been referred from 13 lava tubes (Franz, 1995; Oromi & Borges, 1991).

Nonetheless, not all species are common or/and abundant and measures of protection shou ld be carefully studied (see below).

16

I .

• I"

FAlAL

~

50

"-u

10

.. -._-~

30

20

AZORES

'.~ ,~H) ~JIL

.. "_": {

CAJ>E: "!TER D~IIIS. \1

2{J

~ CORVO

o FlORES

AZ RES

CJ GRACIOSA 0n:RCElRA

~

~ S . .TORGE

PiC¢"

e. :MKiTJEL

Figure I. Map of the region where the work was carried out, showing the Macaronesian region (A) and the nine islands of the Azores (B). In B, the main location of lava tubes and volcanic pits is presented for each island giving an idea of the hotspot areas.

17

120
0.----- ---
100 I ~ Volcanic Pits
l~lil Lava Tubes
W
en G
Q) 80 0
.~
> II:
ro
o 0
'+- i=
0 60
~ Z
Q) «
.0 ...J
E !d:
::::l
Z 40 0
:2:
20 o

COR

FLO

FAI

PIC

SMG

SMA

Figure 2. Numbers of lava tubes and volcanic pits referrred for the Azorean islands. Data extracted from Borges et al. (1993) and Garcia (pers. comm.). COR= Corvo; FLO= Flores; FAI= Faial: PIC= Pico; SJG= Sao Jorge; GRA= Graciosa; TER= Terceira; SMG= Sao Miguel; SMA= Santa Maria.

SJG

GRA

TER

Islands

3. CJ ~

Y = t.. 02 - [0 97x R~2 =- C 42

2 5 r=0.676 :0< 005)

~

+

(f) Q)

2 C

> ro r_')

o

ill .D

E ::J Z

1 C

0,5

•

•

fAl •

en 0 0 ~--.------------------------------------~~---------- __ ~ o _j

8..0

2

-O,5~--~------~~-------------,------------~------------~

Log (Geological age)

4

Figure 3. Linear regression between log number of cavities + I and log geological age of the islands. COR= Corvo; FLO= Flores; FAI= Faial; PIC= Pico; SJG= Sao Jorge; GRA= Graciosa; TER= Terceira; SMG= Sao Miguel; SMA= Santa Maria.

18

3. TYPES OF DISTURBANCE IN THE AZOREAN LAVA TUBES AND PITS.

3.1. THE EARLY HUMAN ACTIVITIES.

After being colonized by the Portuguese in the mid 15th century, all the Azorean islands suffered major changes in their landscape as a consequence of human activities. Most probably, with the massif destruction of the natural forests and land management for agriculture some cave entrances were obstructed. However, the human impact on the cave structures themselves was probably of minor importance when comparing with the more recent examples of human dilapidation of the speleological patrimony. Thus, we may affirm that the main consequence of these early human disturbances was the closure of some caves. The known most remarkable examples are a lava tube from Corvo, the Furna do Moreno (Graciosa) and the Gruta do Fouque (Terceira), the two former ones of large dimensions.

Other impacts were, for instance, the use of some caves for storing wine in Pico with the partial disruption of parts of the caves (e.g., several lava tubes in Bandeiras, Pico).

3.2. THE RECENT HUMAN ACTIVITIES

3.2.1. Deforestation for pasture land using Caterpillars

This is probably the more disastrous recent disturbance on the Azorean lava tubes and pits. In fact, in Pi co island, the most richest island in volcanic cavities, in the last ten years an unknown number of small and large lava tubes and pits were partially or completely destroyed for the creation of better pastures for dairy-cattle and beef-cattle. One of the most remarkable examples was the partial destruction of interesting parts of Gruta do Frei Matias.

On the other hand, such activities led also the the discovery of some unknown lava tubes and pits. In 1990 we had the opportunity of visit for the first time the actual largest lava tube from the Azores, the Gruta das Torres with 4 300 m, after a caterpillar driver had mentioned the discovery of a large entrance for a huge lava tube.

More recently one skylight of the Fuma Frei Matias was destroyed by a caterpillar tractor.

Fortunately we were able to stop the works and the other entrances are sti II intact.

3.2.2. Pasture management

The pasture land is the main economic agriculture exploration in the Azores. Pasture is currently the dominant vegetation in this volcanic archipelago: in 1985 the estimated area of arable land in the Azores was 65,3 % of the total area of the archipelago; from that, 67,7% is good grazing land used for milk production. However, there is also poor arable land (mainly the high altitude semi-natural pasture) that reaches 11,2% of the total area. Therefore, some activities like new roads and construction of protections in the skylights and pits changed the original characteristics of some caves and pits.

In some cases, like in Pico, if the option is walls of volcanic rock protecting the skylights and pits, then a special vegetation and environment is created with conservation of the overall system. In other cases, if the hole is filled with large rocks and soil debris then the result is the obstruction of parts of lava tubes or destruction of pits.

In Pico we have two recent interesting examples: in one case an interesting part of Furna do Frei Matias was obstructed for the construction of a better pasture; in another case the French Speleological Expedition that recently visited the Azores (July-August 1994) discovered more 300 m in the largest lava tube of the Azores, Gruta das Torres, after taking out some rocks and debris in the North extreme of the cave.

3.2.3. Construction and urbanization

The construction of houses and roads also caused several cave destructions: a lava tube near Gruta das Agulhas (Terceira); one lava tube in S. Miguel (Braga, pers. cornrn.). The Gruta do Henrique Maciel in Pico was completely obstructed at middle for the construction of the supports of an Hospital.

19

3.2.4. Animal graveyard

This is one of the commonest disturbances in the Azorean cave entrances, skylights and pits. In Pico and S. Miguel the farmers tend to use the caves as graveyards for dead animals, not only small animals like dogs and cats but also large cows. This is mainly a problem of civic education that can be solved with some well planned sessions or posters of education for the environment.

3.2.5. Touristic activities (visitation)

In Terceira there is a tradition of visiting lava tubes since long time. As a consequence of that large amounts of picnic meals debris can be found in some caves like Gruta des Balcoes, Gruta do Natal, Gruta do Coelho and Gruta das Agulhas. Among the consequences of such acti vities we may say that the destruction of geological structures is common and the destruction of roots may have as a consequence the starvation of cixiid planthopper nymphs.

Moreover, the carbide and batteries left in caves by visitors may be a threat for cave life.

3.2.6. Water management

Water impoundments with alteration of ground water flow occurred in several caves from Terceira and also S. Miguel. In Terceira several lava tubes in the Cabrito area were modified or adapted for such purposes and Gruta do Carnelo was completely destroyed.

3.2.7. Industrial waste

Pollution from waste water occurred in the largest cave from S. Miguel the Gruta do Carvao as a consequence of a Tobacco Factory. Fortunately, the «Arnigos dos Acores» have a project for the recuperation of this important lava tube, some works having already been performed.

4. SOME SOLUTIONS

4.1. MAINTAIN A PERMANENT INVENTORY OF CAVES, THEIR GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES AND FAUNA

The expeditions of «Os Montanheiros» (speleological group from Terccira) to the several islands of the Azores is an important way of giving publicity to the Azorean vulcanospeleological patrimony. In fact, at local and regional scales, several news and comments about new caves or environmental hazards in caves are given by the journalists and the population becomes more familiar with the problems.

However, some effort should also be carried out in the formation of local groups of speleologists in islands like Pi co, S. Jorge and Graciosa. In Faial we have the «Azorica» and in S. Miguel «Os Amigos dos Acores» both with a speleological section. In the case of S. Miguel some important work was already been done by «Os Amigos des Acores».

In Pi co, Mr. Albino Garcia started some interesting speleological activities in 1989-90, but is having some difficulties in the creation of a speleological group.

4.2. RESTRICT THE VISITATION ACTIVlTY IN A NUMBER OF SELECTED LAVA TUBES

The only known case in the Azores of restriction in visitation is the volcanic pit «Algar do Carviio» (Terceira), that is under the control of «Os Montanheiros». However, there are other similar projects for Gruta do Natal and Gruta das Agulhas (Terceira), Gruta do Carviio (S. Miguel) and Gruta do Soldao (Pico). This is a difficult task and only the caves located in places of very difficult access are tru I y protected.

20

4.3. HELP THE OWNERS OF PASTURES TO BUILD NATURAL FENCES AROUND SKYLIGHTS AND PITS

This probably an urgent task for a real protection of not only the cave structures but also their environment and skylights adapted fauna. Urgent measures should be implemented in Pica.

4.4. AS A LONG-TERM STRATEGY FOR THE PROTECTION OF CAVE FAUNA, MAKE THE PROTECTION OF THE ABOVE-GROUND HABITATS (E.G., CREATION OF NATURAL RESERVES)

This is a very complicated problem. In fact we have first to educate the politicians in order to have real measures of Conservation for the Azorean caves. Fortunately, some important natural areas are being studied by a LIFE project (EEC) in order to create protected areas in the Azores.

4.5. EDUCATION

Some effort should be taken by conservationists in educating not only the young people, but also groups of farmers using selected information about caves and their importance. However, there should be some caution in not publicize to much the location of caves to avoid an increase in the «visitation effect» (Howarth, 1981).

5. DISCUSSION

The numbers cited for the Azores of lava tubes, volcanic pits and their fauna give us little information about historical disturbances in cave structures or arthropod species extinctions. In fact, according to the data it seems that in some islands a better survey will have as a consequence an increase in the numbers rather than a list of new cases of cave disturbance. A true diagnosis requires a more reined analysis.

In some islands the human population is growing (e.g., Terceira, S. Miguel) (DREPA, 1994) and this resu Its in more water and land necessities, therefore, more cave destruction. Good examples of this occurred recently in Terceira, Pica and S. Miguel.

In Pica, the richest island in terms of vulcanospeleological patrimony, two different processes are occurring: (I) during the last ten years there was an enormous pressure to amel iorate the pasture land and produce meat and mi Ik. A large area of natural forest and semi-natural grassland was converted to pasture «monocultures» (a mixture of Trifolium repens, Lotus uliginosus, Lolium perenne, Dactylis glotnerata, Poa trivialisi with disastrous effects in the total area of natural forests at middle altitude. In lots of cases lava tubes and volcanic pits were also destroyed. In most cases the sown pastures were rapidly invaded by native herbs, grasses, rushes and ferns, becoming less productive. Moreover, the milk is not a real necessity in economical terms and we may affirm that in some years a great part of those new pastures will be abandoned. Thus, after a decade of huge efforts of conversion of land to better pasture with the consequent habitat destruction, the results are poor; (2) during the last twenty years there was also an abandonment of the lowlands usually used for wine production. As a consequence of that some weed plants (e.g., Pittosporum undulatums invaded the lava flows and lots of cave entrances are now difficult to be located, but preserved from human visitation and disturbance.

In Terceira and S. Miguel, because of the high value of land, many remaining lava tubes are probably facing urban and agricultural effects. In several islands lava tube entrances, lava tube skylights and pits have been plugged in several ways: (I) filling with rocks and debris during urban works; (2) intentional filling by farmers to protect the cattle, and (3) use for sewage disposal by local residents. The biodiversity of the cave fauna is another important and complicated subject. Most certainly there are a large set of species not yet discovered, which reinforces the importance of more efforts in survey studies. Concerning the known fauna (see Fig. 4), in spite of not being very rich is composed of endemics, thus has a high patrimonial value. Control over habitat destruction is essential to protect the cavernicolous fauna and their habitats. If we consider the fact that some species are restricted to particular parts of a particular cave, thus the disturbance of such habitats may have disastrous results.

21

Of course that there are inevitable conflicts that need to be carefully managed and solved by the environmental authorities in the Azores. For instance, an important question is: «What are the benefits and costs of a particular investment project?».

Several interesting projects of management and conservation of lava tubes and volcanic pits are being made by Azorean Speleological groups (e.g., «Os Montanheiros» in Terceira and «Amigos dos Acores» in S. Miguel), but a more planned work should be undertaken by the environmental authorities.

(J)
J) '3
C,)
::::-
r-
- ,
~
'-
4
if)
QJ
0
Q)
D.. 2
(f)
D j n
1
j l
I
I I I j
l l
1 I
I
11 n I
I R..O

SJG GRA TER SMG sr·,.,,,

FAI

PIC

Islands

Figure 4. Number of species of cavernicolous arthropods referrred for the Azorean islands. Data extracted from Borges & Oromf (1994). COR= Corvo; FLO= Flores; FAI= Faial; PIC= Pico; SJG= Sao Jorge; GRA= Graciosa; TER= Terceira; SMG= Sao Miguel; SMA= Santa Maria.

1 Q
..- Y = - 4 92e-2 + O.42x RA2 =- 0679 •
-+- •
:=;') 862 (;='<0,01 ) PIC
(f) 0 8
(]) -:-ER
0 1
<l)
a_ L' 0,
'..f) ,
S,'G •
0
0 ~ SMG
\,_
Q)
.Q
E 0 ,2
::J
Z
OJ 0,0
0
_j GRA
- 0,2
0 1 2 2
Log (Number of cavities -+ 1 ) Figure 5. Linear regression between log species of cavernicolous arthropods + I and log number of cavities + I. COR= Corvo; FLO= Flores; FAI= Faial; PIC= Pico; SJG= Sao Jorge; GRA= Graciosa; TER= Terceira; SMG= Sao Miguel: SMA= Santa Maria.

22

6. REFERENCES

BORGES, P. A. V. (1993). First records for the mesocavernous shallow stratum (M.S.S.) from the Azores. Memoires de Biospeologie, 20: 49-54.

BORGES, P. A. V. & A. SILVA (Eds.) (1994). Actas do III Congresso Nacional de Espeleologia e 1 Encontro lnternacional de vulcanospeleologia das llhas Atldnticas . Angra do Heroismo, 269 pp.

BORGES, P. A. V., A. SILVA & F. PEREIRA (1992). Caves and Pits from the Azores With Some Comments on Their Geological Origin, Distribution, and Fauna. Proceedings of" the 6th International Symposium on Vulcanospeleologv (Hi 10, Hawai i, August 1991), pp. 121-15 I .

BORGES, P. A. v., F. PEREIRA & A. SILVA (1993). Caves and pits from the Azores. II - An annotated Checklist. Acoreana, 7(4): 555-574.

BORGES, P. A. v., F. PEREIRA & A. SILVA (1994). Grutas e Algares dos Asores. I - Seis novas topografias de tubos de lava da ilha Terceira. Aetas do III Congresso Nacional de Espeleologia e I Encontro lnternacional de v'ulcanospeleologia das llhas Atldnticas . pp: 2-26.

BORGES, P. A. V. & P. OROM! (1991). The Cave-Dwelling Ground Beetles on the Azores (CoL.:

Carabidaei. Memoires de Biospeologie, 18: 185-191.

BORGES, P. A. V. & P. OROM! (1994). The Azores. In. C. luberthie & V. Decu (Eds.) Encyclopaedia Biospeleologlca. Tome 1 . pp. 605-610. Societe de Biospeologie, Moulis.

CONST ANCIA, 1. P., 1. C. NUNES & T. BRAGA (1994). Patrimonio Esp eleolo gico da Ilha de S. Miguel. Amigos dos Acores, Ponta Delgada.

DREPA (1994). Af'ores em numeros. Direccao Regional de Estudos e Planeamento, Acores.

FRANZ, VON H. (1995). Die troglobionten Tiere als Beweis FYr eine umweltgesteuerte Vererbung.

Aus den Sitzungsberichten der ... sterr. Akademie der Wissenschaf"ten math. -nat. kl., Aht. I, 201: 45-65.

HOWARTH, F. G. (1981). The conservation of cave invertebrates. In: LE. Mylroie (Ed.). Proceedings of the First International Cave Management Symposium, pp: 57-64.

NUNES, 1. C. & T. BRAGA (1992). Grutas vulcanicas da ilha de S. Miguel. Acoreana, 7(2): 479-492. OROM!, P. & P. A. V. BORGES (1991). New Trechodinae and Trechinae from the Azores (Col. :

Carabidae). Bocagiana, 152: I-II.

23

NATURLICHE UND DURCH KUNSTLICHE HOHLRAUME ENTSTANDENE RISSE IN VULKANISCHEN GESTEINEN

ISTVAN ESZTERHAs

Istirner, Ungarn

In Mitteleuropa haben vor ca. 2 Millionen Jahren die jiingsten Vulkane ihre Tatigkeit beendet.

Ein ansehnlicher ihrer ehemaligen Oberflache fiel seither der Erosion zum Opfer. Dadurch sind heute nur wenige syngenetische Hohlen und viel mehr postgenetische Hohlen in diesen vulkanischen Gesteinen bekannt.

Abb. I: Die wichtigsten Vulkangesteine in Ungarn und die in ihnen liegenden bedeutenderen Hohlen

numerierte Hohlen: I. Remete-barlang

2. Kapolcsi Pokol-lik

3. Pulai-bazaltbarlang

4. Sas-kovi-barlang

5. Nagy-barlang

6. Csorgo-Iik

7. Szilvas-koi-barlang

8. Rozsa Sandor barlang

Eine Gruppe der postgenetischen Hohlen biJden die Versturzhohlen bzw. Aufribhohlen. Zu ihrer Entstehung ist prirnar ein relativ grolier Hohlraum notwendig. Solche Hohl raurne kommen als naturliche Hohlform sowohl in vulkanischen, als auch in Karst- und anderen Gesteinen vor. Diese natiirlichen Hohlformen konnen z. B. Lavatunnels oder Losungshohlen im kalkhaltigen Grundgestein sein. Es ist aber auch moglich, daf kiinstliche Hohlraurne - wie alte Bergbaustollen - die Ausgangsformen fur diesen Hoh lentyp bi Iden.

Im folgenden beziehe ich mich nur auf Spaltensysteme in vulkanischen Gesteinen und auf die an diesen entstandenen Hohlen und andere Pseudokarsterscheinungen.

Die Auskiihlung und Verfestigung der La- va ist mit einer Verringerung ihres Volumens verbunden.

Die Volumenverringerung ist ausschlaggebend fur die Ausbildung von Spaltensystemen. Das morphoJogische System dieser Spalten ist vorwiegend von der Auskiihlungsgeschwindigkeit, der chemischen Zusammensetzung und der Dicke der Lava abhangig.

25

In der verfestigten Lava finden sich immer vertikale Briiche, die von der Oberflache bis auf das Grundgestein reichen. Die Richtung der vertikalen Briiche ist determinierend fur die Entstehung der Pseudokarster-scheinungen der Lavagesteine.

{fG;;;t:~f;{O (~I:r~Q;c~~~-~~

(o ,'O! t-so ;J;;,r,~"·I·;;nJ,'" r cncs eere) :or~r.r::o;,c) [orrr.6cio/~)

Abb. 2: Pseudokarstersc ):'1 Rrt'icM des pc-cte.teo Sy'l:e.l'!. .~~~ ~~~~~ ~t!~ ~~~;~e~)-

-sc hir-mt cr m t ropftor m

1. von der Denudation nicht gestortes Grundgestein

2. wasserstauende Schicht

3. kalkhaltige, verkarstete Schicht

4. Basalttuff

5. Basalt

An vulkanischen Plateaus in Mitteleuropa sind folgende Vorgange erkennbar: Die durch die vertikalen Briiche entstandenen Gesteinspakete sind in Karsthohlraume und unterirdische Erosionskanale eingebrochen. Dadurch «vererben» sich die Karst- und Erosionshohlraume der Tiefenzone bis in die vulkanischen Gesteine der Oberflache hinein.

Abb. 3: Grundrif3 und Aufrif der Basalthohle bei Pula mit den umgebenden Gesteinen

a: Boden mit Basaltschutt b: Gr aubasa lt aus dem zweiten Ausfluf

c: metamorpher Alumnit d: braunerI blasiger Basalt aus der ersten Ausfluf

e: Graubasalt aus dem ersten Ausfluf

f: unbekanntes, aber wahrschein I ich sehr kalkhaltiges Gestein

c s: u U1

26

Die Basaltdolinen. Wenn iiber den Hohlraumen der Grundgesteine die vertikalen Bruche des Basaltes parallel sind, entstehen auf der Oberflache Dolinen. Nach unseren Beobachtungen sind diese Dolinen in Reihen angeordnet. Wahrscheinlich spiegeln sie das Karstwasserleitungssystem des Grundgesteins wider.

Die Pseudokarst-Dolinenseen sind mit der Weiterentwicklung der grolleren Basaltdolinen entstanden. In den durch Einsturz entstandenen Dolinen sammelte sich zunachst periodisch Wasser. Spater, als durch die sich ansiedelnde Flora genugend wasserundurchlassige Schichten entstanden waren, haben sich diese Dolinen in permanente Seen verwandelt. Die alteren wurden sumpfig und verlandeten.

Basaltschlucklocher entstehen, wenn die vertikalen Bruche uber den Hohlraumen des Grundgesteins nach unten hin grolser werden. Es ist dies die sogenannte «LampenschirmForm. In diesem Fall entfernen sich die abrutschenden Gesteinspakete immer weiter voneinander und verursachen grol3e wasserleitende Spalten.

ORTENBE RGI-BAZALTBARLANG BASALTHOHLE BEl ORTENBERG

Felmerle a Rajoo-to-tojno 'tIg!o;cs.tl<J90 x.Jl-~,sa :l!!lm.!ltlO, FronzjDfQ Kri~ 11991.11.16J--Slil<)l'\-

rt.lmer" ., Berr.hurd S(;tH~jber 1199'. '1l26:~ robbont6s. Ular\! 'oI6"\Q,'

SZerwl!sz1et1. Ink atopjOn ["llerMS Istver. (11}9:;> . .,,11.5) a slemel~es bcejorOlii ulan.

Vrrmes'iung von Hto- ItMlrl-Moin [3.10.1990.1- ea,\e 'Oerrat'ios;)o9;Fronzjlirg )(rl(:\1 116.1.19(1) Sipha~lcn uno Be((I)-.('lId Schr eicer [26.5 ','il~IJ- Skic.le noct! der SprlH1QVflg Rt:d.i<;lierung ".on 1&lvOn EszterhoS (5.1.19921 cccr. oer $eir.en aeceoen.

N

I

-ffi-

I

HOSSZMETsze LiiN:>SSCHNITT

Aufril3hohlen entstehen, wenn die Bruche der Basaltdecke nach unten keilforrnig zusammenlaufen.

Dies wird als «Blumentopf-Form» beceichnet.ln diesem Fall konnen die unteren Schichten des Bendingt durch diese Entstehungsart ist es klar, dal3 soIche Hohlen nur selten einen naturlichen, fur Menschen befahrbaren Eingang besitzen. Ihre Zahl kann jedoch ahnlich grol3 wie die der Basaltschlucklocher sein. Auf diese Art entstand z. B. das 150 m lange Labyrinth der Basalthohle bei Pula im Siid-Bakonygebirge in Ungarn. Besondere Aufrisse zeigte die 52 x 32 m grol3e Basalthohle bei Orten berg im SiidVogelsberg in Deutschland (Abb. 4). Diese Hohle entstand durch keilforrnige Aufrisse. In das aufgelockerte und ausgehohlte unterlagernde Gestein drangen sieben Basaltblocke mit unterschiedlicher Geschwindigkeit ein Aufrisse bei Lavatunnels bilden Eingangsschachte (sogenannte jameo-s). In der weiterentwickelten Form entstehen Klufttaler (barraco-s) und Naturbriicken, Von Menschenhand geschaffene Stollen, Keller, Kasematten usw. werden «kunstliche Hohlraume» genannt. Aber in welche Kategorie sind soIche Hohlraume einzureihen, die auf eine naturliche Art, namlich durch Aufril3 oder Einsturz von alten Stollen und anderen kiinstlichen Hohlraumen entstanden sind? Zur Benennung solcher Hohlraurne schlage ich vor, die Bezeichnung «Konsequenzhohlen» einzufuhren.

27

AZ ORTENBERGI-BAZAcTSARLANG KElETKEZESE ENTSTE HUNG DER BASALTHOHlE BEl ORTENBERG

Es zte r nc s tslvcn s aerint / noc o tstvcn Es z r e r ncs

o 1') 20 ~o tr.

2.$:1' nl

.. '1j"tau

ALAFRAJZ GRUNOP.ISS

SENATIKUS .'1AGYARAZ6RAJZ

SCi-iENAT/SChE Eh'l(LARENOE Z£ICHNUNG

Abb. 5. Gesteins in eine Hohlform abreil3en, wahrend sich die oberen Schichten ineinander verkeilen. Dazwischen entsteht so ein Hohlensystern.

4 ~.

5 .J\.

\. '.

Abb.6: Spelaogenetischer Plan des Szilvas koz. 1-2: abgebaute Kohlenschichten. 3: zusammenehangende Basaltoberflache. 4: Spaltensysteme. 5: Konsequenzhohlen

28

·, \i/II,I .., .

'.I·/!'

.. /

'., t.u

- ,. -.-

_. '-. -:-

..

"'N.""""'·~_ .... _.,.~-,.~. 1(Y.V;'.y .... ·.,· 11 ",.., r,,/~~:O~~O_'~O':\,·~·?:

""'"'''''''''0'0 I"""- ,. ') r. _ 0- 0·· Q '.0 0 :0.

Abb. 7: Geologischer Schnitt des Szilvas-kos

Was bedeutet dieser Begriff? Es handelt sich hierbei urn wirkliche Hohlen, da sie auf eine naturl iche Art, durch die Ausgleichung der angewachsenen Spannung im Gestein, entstanden sind. Solche Hohlen tragen uberwiegend die Kennzeichen einer tektonischen Entstehung. Das Wort «Konsequenz» weist darauf hin, daf die Hohlen dieses Genotyps durch den Einsturz eines fruher vorhandenen Hohlraums entstanden sind und quasi dessen Erbe angetreten haben. Demzufolge liegen diese Hohler: in jedem Fall auf einem hoheren Niveau als der ursprungliche kunstliche Hohlraum. Zur Unterscheidung von den echten, naturlichen Hohlen, empfehle ich den Begriff «Konsequenzhohlen» nur fur solche Hohlen stenung hatten.

Abb.8: Die Szilvas-ko-Hohle - eine Konsequenzhohle (Aufr if und Grundrib)

2 , ,

;

-z-~-

o I

29

I ---(I>

\JLj

Abb. 9: In Csak-ko entstand die Nagy-Hohle durch Aufrif aus einem alten Miihlsteinbruc

Aus dem Gesagten erklart sich, daf sich so1che Konsequenzhohlen vorwiegend in alten Bergbaugebieten finden. Die Entstehungsbedingungen sind am besten, wenn sich sprode Gesteine wie Basalt, Rhyolith usw. oberhalb der ehemaligen kiinstlichen Hohlraurne befinden. Diese Gesteine konnen die durch die Massenbewegung entstandenen sekundaren Hohlraume, die Konsequenzhohlen, dauerhaft bewahren. Unter dem Basalt des Szilvas-ko im Medvesgebirge in Nordungarn wurde Steinkohle abgebaut. Durch Einsturz der ehernaligen Stollensysteme sank der Basalt ein und es entstanden darin Spalten und Hohlen (Abb. 6 - 8).

Bei dem Dorf Gyongyossolyrnos im Matragebirge in Nordungarn befand sich friiher ein Miihlsteinbruch im Rhyolith des Csak-kos. Die Decke der gewaltigen Grubenhalle stiirzte langsam ein, so daB auf diese Art ein hoher gelegener natiirlicher Hohlraum - die 133 m lange Nagy-Hohle - entstanden ist (Abb. 9).

LITERATUR

BERTALAN, K. (1958): Magyarorszag nem karsztos eredetii barJangjai, Karsz- 6s Barlangkut.

Tajekoztato, Budapest p. 12-21

ESZTERHAs, I. (1986): A Pulai-bazalt- barlang es kornyeke - Karszt es Barlang I. fuzet.. Budapest p.23-32

ESZTERHAs, I. (1987): Osszefugges a bazaltrnezak pszeudokarszt- jelensegei es az alapkozet lepusztulasi forrnai kozott - Fol ia Muzei Historiconaturales Bakonyiensis IV. kotet, Zirc p. 67-72 ESZTERHAs, I. (J 989): Infolge der Denudation der Basaltplateaus entstandene Pseudokarsterscheinungen und Elohlen - Proseedings l Oth International Congress of Speleology Budapest I. kot; Budapest p. 222-225

ESZTERHAS,1. (1991): Genotypes of caves in volcanic rocks in Hungary-Conference on the Karst and Cave research in Hungary, Josvafo-Szornbathely p. 8 J -86

ESZTERHAs, I. (1993): Konsequenzhohlen Jahresbericht der Hfg Rhein-Main, Frankfurt a. M: p. 43-44 ESZTERHAs, I. (1994): Vulkanszpeleologia - MKBT tanfolyami jegyzet, Budapest p. J-72

30

ESZTERHAs, I. (1994): Konzekvenciabarlangok - Proceedings 5th Pseudokarst Syrnpozium in Szczyrk,Bielsko-Biala p. 25-28

ESZTERHAs-BUBICS (1993): Die Ortenberger Basalthohle - Jahresbericht der Elfg Rhein-Main, Frankfurt a. Moo, p. 13-33

OZORAY, Gy. (1960): The genesis of nonk arstic natural cavities as elucidated by Hungarian examplesKarszt- es Barlang-kutatas, Budapest p. 127-136

RUHL-SCHREIBER-STEIN (1990): Die Basalthohle bei Ortenberg - Jahresbericht der Hfg RheinMain, Frankfurt a. M. p. 297-306

TRIMMEL, H. (1965): Fachworterbuch fur Karst- und Hohlenkunde - Juhre sheft fur Karst- und Elohlenkunde, Wien

31

THE MCI CAVE ON THE MT. ETNA AND ITS PEClJLIAR METASTABLE SPELEOTHEMS

PAOLO FORTII, GAETANO GIUDICE", ANTONIO MARINd & ANTONIO ROSSI'

I Istituto Italiano di Speleologia, Via Zamboni 67, 1-40127 Bologna, Italy 2 Centro Speleologico Etneo, Via Cagliari 15,1-95127 Catania, Italy

3 Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Largo S. Eufemia 19, 1-41100 Modena, Italy

On the Mt. Etna volcano, at the top of the Bove Valley, a new cave was found in the lava flow of 1991-93 and explored when its internal temperature was still high (over 80°C). This allowed the discovery of some peculiar speleothems, whose development was strictly controlled by temperature and humidity.

The cave is a classic lava tube, its total length is about 800 meters with diameters ranging between 5 and 8 meters and the entrance is a small hole opened at 1900 m a.s.l. reaching the ceiling of the main gallery.

When the first caver entered the cave he found the walls and the ceiling almost completely covered by large speleothems (stalactites, stalagmites, helictites) normally snow white in colour, but in some places blue, pale green, orange to reddish formations have been seen.

The preliminary analyses proved that thenardite was practically the single component of all the speleothems; the same mineral was found some years ago in another lava tube sti II hot on Mt. Etna.

The thenardite is metastable in the normal meteorologic conditions of Mt. Etna changing to mirabilite and therefore we decided to keep the evolution of the MC I speleothems under control with respect to temperature and humidity in order to achieve new data on the stability range for this mineral and the natural conditions which cause its transformation into mirabilite.

After a few months, when the mean temperature of the cave was lowered to 25°C, the speleothems were partially changed in shape and composition: besides some thenardite was transformed by dripping into mirabilite, alunite, bloedite, halite, hesaedrite, picromerite, sylvite and trona have been found as components of the cave formations.

This fact has proved that the early weathering of lava beds may cause the deposition of several different metastable minerals inside the lava tubes of Mt. Etna instead of the single thenardite, as thought until now.

The monitoring of the cave is still in progress and it will last until the temperature will reach the normal value (10°C) and all the metastable minerals will be washed away by dripping, which is forecasted for the spring of 1995.

In the MC I cave it was also possible to make interesting observations on the aerosol induced speleothems: in fact in this cave plenty of very thin thenardite helictites (needle like filaments) and some thenardite rims, clearly related to aerosols, were still growing at the time of our first explorations close to strong uplifting hot air flows emerging from cracks in the walls and in the floor of the lava tube.

Finally close to the bottom of the cave there was a small hole in the floor blowing a very hot air flow: tuffs of very thin blades (1-2 mm in length) were growing all around this hole clearly due to the aerosols transported by the air flow. The colour of the blades was shining yellow to reddish-brown and the analyses proved that they were composed principally by hematite, with some tenorite and polyhalite (the last two being completely new minerals for the cave environment).

This study, though preliminary, on the metastable speleothems of the MC I cave confirmed the idea, which was suggested only a few years ago, that the volcanic environment is perhaps the most interesting one for the study of the cave minerals.

33

THE PECULIAR MINERALOGIC SITE OF THE ALUM CAVE (VULCANO, SICILY)

Paolo FORTI I, Marcello PANZICA LA MANNN, Antonio ROSSI'

I Istituto Italiano di Speleologia. Via Zamboni 67. 1-40127 Bologna. Italy

2 Assessorato Territorio e Ambiente. Viale Regione Sicilia 2194. Palermo. Italy

3 Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra. Largo S. Eufemia 19. 1-41100 Modena. Italy

ABSTRACT

The Alum cave is a small tectonic cavity hosted in the volcanic tuff close to the pier of the Vulcano island: it has several entrances all a few meters above the sea level.

This cave was well known since the last century due to the abundance and variety of the minerals growing inside: for a period the cave was partially transformed into a quarry to exploit the alum.

Without any doubt the Alum cave is one of the most important sites for the cave mineralogy in the world, hosting more than 10 different and rare minerals, nevertheless up to present no topographic map of this cave was done and no photographic documentation was available. Moreover in the last eighty years nobody made a control on the minerals still present inside the cave.

This is the reason why we decided to explore this cavity, whose map is here presented. During the exploration we also did a detailed analysis of the hosted cave minerals, which still cover a large part of the cave walls: about the 40% of the minerals described in the past and many new ones have been observed still growing inside the cavity.

In the present paper all the observed cave minerals are shortly described and the genetic mechanisms discussed. Quite all the chemical deposits of the Alum Cave are generated by the reaction of the fumarolic fluids over the volcanic tuff in presence of sea sprays and aerosols.

RIASSUNTO

La Grotta dell' Allume e una piccola cavita di origine tettonica sviluppatasi nelle vulcaniti presso il porto dell' isola di Vulcano quasi a livello del mare. Questa cavita era gia molto famosa nel secolo scorso per la grande abbondanza dei minerali che vi si trovavano: essa fu anche per un certo tempo utilizzata industrialmente per I'estrazione dell'allume.

Ciononostrante sino ad oggi di questa grotta non esisteva ancora un rilievo e una documentazione fotografica, inoltre da piu' di ottanta anni nessuno si era preoccupato di verificare quali minerali ancora esistessero al suo interno.

Considerato la grande importanza che questa grotta ha nel panorama mondiale dei minerali di grotta, a dispetto delle sue modeste dimensioni, si e deciso di procedere alIa esplorazione della Grotta dell' Allume, di cui viene qui riportato il rilievo topografico. Durante I'esplorazione si e anche compiuta una dettagliata analisi delle mineralizzazioni presenti, che si sono dimostrate essere ancora molto varie ed interessanti.

Nel presente lavoro vengono quindi brevemente descritti i vari speleotemi osservati, la cui genesi puo esser ricondotta innanzitutto all'attivita fumarolica presente in prossirnita della Grotta dell' Allume e poi alia presenza di abbondanti spray e aereosol marini.

35

Fig. 1- Aerial photo of the Island of Volcano with location for the Alum Cave

36

INTRODUCTION

Over the past few years we have become aware that volcanic caves, on first sight seemingly scarce on speleothems are in reality perhaps the cave environment where it is possible to locate the greatest variety of secondary cave minerals (FORTI, 1992).

The motive for this variety depends essentially on the possibility that these caves have, contrarily to the normal karst ones, of developing peculiar speleogenetic mechanisms mostly based on the thermal fluid activity which can be present inside the cavity even a long time after its genesis.

The Island of Vulcano represents perhaps the best example in the world for the abundant variety of secondary cave minerals, due to its strong volcanic activity that has continued uninterrupted for some thousands of years.

In the XVIII Century SPALLANZANI (1792) cited an important cave on this island where abundant alumogen and ammonium chloride were found.

But the natural cavity of the Alum Cave near the Levante Port (see fig. I) is by far and the most important natural cavity of the Vulcano Islans. This cave was already well known for the great abundance of secondary mineralization, essentially alum (LACROIX, 1907) and a quarry was settled thereinside to exploit alum during a good part of the XIX Cent. (PANICHI, 1914).

A very detailed study was effectuated at the beginning of the 1900's on the minerals of the Island of Vulcano and on that occasion 14 secondary minerals were cited deriving from the Alum Cave (PANICHI,1914).

However, from then on this cave was lost to memory, so much so, that the cavity with its extremely important speleothems were in no way cited in the monography «Cave Minerals of the World» (HILL & FORTI, 1986).

The purpose of the present work taken on is to try to fill this lapse and principally to see how and up till what point the cave still hosts the minerals described in the past.

THE CAVITY AND THE HOSTED SPELEOTHEMS

The first work commenced with the cave survey, or rather what was left of it; infact the exploitation of alum in the previous century plus road construction had in part brought about the demolition of the Alum Cave.

All that remains of the cave, which practically opens at the foot of a small hill of markedly fractured and altered volcanic tuff, is presented as a great chamber with some lateral galleries connected externally by various, more or less large entrances (See Fig. 2,3).

37

Fig. 2.- General photo of the entrances to the Alum Cave

plain

Allume

Volcano tslalHI

1 fl94 :

f'QrJz.ca Me5.s.fl~ Fort~

mO '======='

Fig. 3.- Map of the Alum Cave with sample locations

The cave walls are almost completely covered by a 1-3cm. layer of very thin acicular crystals of a translucid white or pearl grey colour while in more restricted areas we observed yellowish, bluish and greenish inflorescence and/or powdery masses.

The most different variety of deposits were located in the proximity of a floor crack which released hot vapours.

Selective samples were taken (16, see Fig. 3) based on chromatic and morphologic observations, organoleptic analysis and U.V florescence realized directly in the cave. Samples taken for further study were:

I - Sample of the wall rock, made up of pumice englobed in micocrystalline cement. This sample has not been analysed for this work.

38

2 - Long white acicular crystals with a white u.v. fluorescent base. A microscopic view of the sample shows a construction of efflorescence aciculars positioned in a radial aggregation. The single filaments are transparent with a vitreous shine or iridescent and in some cases assume the typical aspect of hair (halotrichite). At the top of the fibre, individual crystals of an octahedral form are noted while in other portions the filaments are encrusted with a pulverulent material (soda or potash alum?).

3 - Coralloid. The microscope evidenced that each globule was constructed by the aggregation of microscopical individual elements, shining transparent with a tabular form (gypsum), while the surface showed even some elongated individual crystals (halotrichite ?).

4 - Microgours of an iron gray colour. The microscope showed that the sample was constructed by an aggregation of iso-oriented crystals, gray on the surface and snow white on the inside(gypsum).

5 - Vitreous crystals on the edge of a partially fractured speleothem. The microscope showed similar characteristics of sample 3. Very limpid crystals (gypsum) are present on the globule, while many of the fractures and micro cavities are filled with a pulverulent material (bassanite) which in some cases covers the limpid crystals.

6 - Dust that is acid to the taste. The microscope shows a desegregated mass of tabular or forming brief filaments, the individual crystals appear transparent with vitreous brightness. This would seem typical of tamarugite. There are also small masses of a shiny gray/brown colour with characteristic conchoid fracture (potash alum and/or soda alum?). Though rarely a whitish earth like dust is present (hydrobsaluminite ?)

7 - Plastic acicular crystals. The microscope shows a mass of woven filaments. The colour of the mass is white while the single filaments are transparent with vitreous brightness (halotrichite). Rare crusts are found in the mass, of a shiny gray/brown with evident conchoid fracture (potash alum) and shiny gray crystals of an octahedral form as in sample 2 (soda alum).

8 - A yellowish rim on fibrous materials. The microscope evidences the absolute dominance of needle like filaments component (halotrichite). The yellowish colour evidenced microscopically is apparently correlated to an earth like dust and tends to disappear with an increase of the enlargement. In some zones we noted transparent octahedral shaped aggregated crystals with glassy brightness and of grayish colour (soda or potash alum).

9 - Canary yellow dust. The microscope shows an aggregation of little individual pieces in a soft light mass of a yellow sulphur colour. It was possible to observe crystal lines of a pinacoidal aspect inside a micro cavity. When the material was placed in water it melted giving origin to a yellow solution that became turbid if reheated (copiapite).

10- Crust with a yellow U.V.fluorescence. Under the microscope the material looks like a snow white or slightly pink deposit; the little crystals which compose it present the usual pointed end and are perfectly transparent and shiny. They are of medium hardness and break-up very easily into many microscopic individual pieces. The most resistant aggregation could be of soda alum while the individual pieces that break-up (more rare) could be of potash alum or tamarugite (this in definitely minor quantitative).

II - A rim with strong yellow violet U.V.fluorescence. It is impossible to distinguish it from sample 10 using the microscope.

12 - Bri II iant yellow blades. The brilliant yellow colour tends to diminish under the microscope changing to a reddish brown-pinkish shade (rnetavoltine). The mass is constructed from piramidal elements. Some crystals show evident esfoliations and fractures perhaps through drying out (zaherite). The presence of needle like elements could be correlated to alum.

39

13 - Pale blue crusts near a crack with escaping hot vapour. It appears to be massive granular material under the microscope in a lovely shade of pale blue and transparent. The few crystalline elements recognisable have a pinacoidal abit (hematite). There is an extremely friable earth like material only slightly cemented (gypsum) in contact with this pale blue mass where small aggregations of transparent gray crystallines with a glassy aspect (soda alum?, taramugite?) can be observed ..

14 - Greeny/blue rim near a crack with escaping hot vapours. The sample seemed constructed with prevalently a greenish component and a minor whitish material seen under the microscope. The components are the same morphologically, transparent with a glassy shine and sometimes globular in shape. The sample would seem to be made oftamarugite partially discoloured green from copper impurity (suggested by the presence of copper sulphate in the nearby sample 13).

15 - Reddish coloured rim near a fracture with an active fumarole. Microscopic analysis shows that the rim is formed by various overlying blades from glassy brightness to resinous. A strong enlargement reveals the single blades are made of long individual crystall ines which serve as a support for the smaller needles, though all of the same material (thenardite).

16 - A bluish/white rim near an active fumarole. The sample appears constructed by different mineralogical phases under the microscope. The most abundant are those made up of minute prismatic transparent needles (halotrichite). Its possible to recognise little groups of pyramid shaped individual pieces, perhaps octahedral with glassy brightness (soda alum? and/or potash alum? alumogen?). A thin layer of whitish pulverulent material is also present perhaps deriving from bumps or partial dehydration of the sample.

DETECTED MINERALS

As all the minerals were crystalline a X-ray diffraction analyses on the dust was utilised to identify the mineralogic species present in each sample. The results have since been confirmed by microscope analysis and by an electronic microscope study(see Fig. 4-14).

All the analised samples (15) have almost always resulted as mixture of more minerals, the most abundant is the halotrichite. The following reports the mineralogical composition in order of the relative quantity in each sample of speleothem.

2

3- 4- 5 6

7

8

9- 10-11 12

13

14

15

16

halotrichite, soda alum, hydrobasaluminite (tr) gypsum, bassanite (tr)

tamarugite, soda alum, potash alum, hydrobasaluminite (tr), gesso (tr) halotrichite, soda alum, potash alum (tr)

halotrichite, soda alum, tamarugite, potash alum (tr), gesso (tr) copiapite, alumocopiapite (tr)

halotrichite, potash alum, soda alum, tamarugite (tr) zaherite, metavoltina, alumogen

chalcantite, soda alum, tamarugite, gesso, aubertite tamarugite

thenardite

halotrichite, soda alum, potash alum, alumogen

The studied samples revealed 15 different mineralogical species all referable to sulphate, more or less hydrated.

40

Fig. 4.- Calcautire crystal from sample 13 (photo SEM. Paolo Ferrieri )

Fig. 6.- Gypsum rosette with bassanite granules from sample 5 (Photo SEM. Paolo Ferrieri)

Fig.8.-Tabular halotrichite crystals trom sample 7 (Photo SEM, Paolo Ferrieri)

Fig. 5-Tabul<u' crystals ofcopiapite from sample 9 (Photo SEM. Paolo Ferrieri)

rig. 7.- Bunches of halotrichite crystals from sample 2 (Photo SEM. Paolo Ferrieri)

Fig.9.-Cubo-octahcdral crystals 01 soda alum on the top of the halotrichitc filaments from sample 8. (Photo SEM. Paolo Ferricri)

41

Fig. 5-Tabulm' crystals ofcopiapite from sample 9 (Photo SCM. Paolo Fcrrieri)

r-ig. 12-Talllarugitc crystals with small crystals of soJa potash alum from sample 6 (Photo SEM. Paolo Ferrieri)

Fig. l l-Tamarugite rescue from sample 14 (Photo SEM, Paolo lenieri)

rig. 13-Sound ununrugitc crystal from sample 6 (Photo SEM, Paolo Fcrricri)

Fig. l-t-Evidcnr from of dehydration in the Zaherite mass surmounted by mctavoltinc trom sample 12 (Photo SEM, Paolo Fcrrieri)

42

The genesis of all these minerals is surely referable to the combined action on the volcanic tuff, which appears greatly altered by fumarolic vapours still escaping from some wall and floor fractures in the cave and by the abundant marine aerosols inside the cavity due to the vicinity of the sea.

The study proceeds with a correlation of what was observed at the beginning of the century by PANICHI on tab.I , where all minerals observed in the Alum Cave are reported in alphabetic order _

It is interesting to observe that out of a total of 23 different minerals only 6 are noted in both studies. This would certainly depend partially on the speleothem samples analysed: in fact during this study all minerals were knowingly left out that didn't seem made from sulphate (as opal and aragonite speleothems) Some others could have gone unnoticed in the first or second study due to great dispersion and the modest amount of some of the mineralogic species observed.

The presence in the actual study of 9 minerals not reported at the beginning of the century, in OUl- opinion would demonstrate that the conditions inside the Alum Cave (essentially fumarolic exaltation) have changed through time, with consequent possibility of speleothem deposition and with a different chemical composition.

What is exceptional is the fact that we found 5 absolutely new cave minerals in one time only during our study (alurninocopiapite, aubertite, copiapite , hydrobasaluminite and zaherite).

Table J - Observed minerals (P: PANICHI; F: this study) in the Alum Cave and their principal morphological characteristics,

mineral

Aluminocopiapite F
Alunogeno P-F
Aragonite P
Aubertite F
Bassanite F
Chalcantite F
Copiapite F
Coquimbite P
Gypsum P-F
Halotrichitc P-F
Hydrobasaluminite F
Kalinite P
Keramohal i te P
Metavoltina P-F
Millosevichite P
Opal P
Pisanite P
Potash Alum P-F
Soda Alum P-F
Tamarugite F
Thcnardite F
Voltaitc P
Zaheritc F ref formula

description

(Mg,AI)(Fe,Al)4(S04)6(OH)2-20H20 tuffs of small transparent crystals

AI2(S04)3-17H20 small white to transparent crystals

CaC03 coralloids

CuAI(S04 )2CI-14H20 pale green to transparent small masses

CaS04-112H20 powder over gyspurn crystals

CuS04-SH20 pale blue bothrioidal masses

(Fe,Mg)Fe4(S04)6(OH)2-20H20 tuffs of small transparent to yellow crystals

Fe2( S04)3 -9H20 CaS04-2H20

FeA 12( S04 )4-22H20 AI4(S04)(OH) I 0-36H20 KAI(S04)2-IIH20 AI2(S04)3-18H20 (K,Na,Fe)5Fe3(S04)6(OH)2-9H20 AI2(S04)3

Si02-nH20

(Fe,Cu)S04-7H20 KAI(S04)2-12H20 NaAI(S04)2-12H20 NaAI(S04)2-6H20

NaS04

K2FeSFe4(S04) 12-18H20 AI12(S04)5(OH)26-20H20

43

small violet to pink hexagonal tablets acycular crystals

white acicular fibers

small plastic clayly masses small ociacdral crystals

shining silver fibrous stalactites thin yellow hexagonal blades violet to green hygroscopic crusts white small stalactites

blue-green crusts

octacdral and cubic small crystals octaedral and cubic small crystals

snow white masses of elongated crystals translucent crusts

pale green crusts

translucent to vitreous elongated crystals

CONCLUSION

Study effectuated on chemical deposits from the Alum Cave of the Island of Volcano has confirmed the exceptional richness of secondary cave minerals, that they are still present and continue to develop inside this small but definitely interesting cavity.

A good 5 of them have only been observed in this cave, which considering its peculiarity would merit a great deal more attention on the part of territorial authority.

The number of hosted mineralogic species and that of the minerals up till now only observed inside this small and in some ways insignificant cave transform it perhaps into the most important in the world for the hosted secondary deposits.

Nevertheless, the Alum Cave is actually without any kind of protection and unfortunately in the last few years has been transformed into a rubbish tip.

All that remains is to hope for a possibility to save the cave in the near future, even through this study. We need to stop further degradement and transform it first of all into an «outdoor museum» dedicated to the cave minerals and then into an important laboratory where we can study the evolution in the time of the speleothems which form in function of the physico-chemical properties of the fumarolic gases rising inside it .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We thank Mr Paolo Ferrieri for the precious collaboration provided on location and with the Scanning Electron Microscope

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Forti P., 1992 Cave minerals in volcanic caves. l st Int. Meeting of vulcanospeleology of the Acorean

Islands, Azores, in press.

Hill c.x., Forti P. 1986 Cave Minerals of the World. NSS, Huntsville, p.I-238

Lacroix A., 1907. Sur deux gisements nouveaux de metavoltine. Bull. Soc. Franc. de Miner., 30: 30. Panichi U., 1914. Contributo allo studio dei minerali dell'Isola di Vulcano. Mem. Soc. It. Scienze, s.3,

19: I-55.

Spallanzani L. 1792 viaggi aile due Sicilie. Pavia, II, p.153-195.

44

ESTUDIO BIOLOGICO DE DOS CAVIDADES DEL SALTO DE TIGALATE

(LA PALMA, ISLAS CANARIAS)

R. GARCIA* & AJ. GONzALEZ**

*CI San Miguel, 9. 38700 SIC de La Palma. Islas Canarias **Avda. EI Puente 29, 2°-36. 38700 SIC de La Palma. Islas Canarias

ABSTRACT

A biological study of two lava tubes localized in Saito de Tigalate is made. A study of the physical parametres, a catalogue of the fauna collected and a possible trophic pyramid of this particular ecosystem are introduced. The collecting methods are explained and the location and type of substrate in which were set these trapping stations is indicated. Three new species have been discovered and the area of distribution for some troglobitic species has been extended after this study.

RESUMEN

Se realiza un estudio biol6gico de dos tubos volcanicos localizados en el Saito de Tigalate, (La Palma), realizandose la descripci6n de las cavidades y presentandose la lista faunfstica, asf como la posible piramide tr6fica del ecosistema. Se explica la metodologfa de trampeo utilizada, indicandose el tipo de sustrato sobre el que se localizan las veinticuatro estaciones distribuidas a 10 largo del recorrido de las dos cavidades. EI presente estudio proporciona tres nuevas especies para la ciencia y amplfa el area de distribuci6n de varias especies troglobias de la Isla.

INTRODUCCION

Las Islas Canarias constituyen uno de los lugares del mundo con mayor riqueza en cavidades de origen volcanico, islas como Tenerife, Lanzarote y EI Hierro, son conocidas por un gran mirnero de espeleologos y resultado de ello son los numerosos trabajos que se han realizado en estos ultimos arios sobre sus cavidades (HERNANDEZ et aI., 1985; IZQUIERDO et aI., 1986; MARTiN et al., 1985; MARTIN et aI., 1986; MARTIN et aI., 1987; MARTIN & OROM!, 1990, MONTORIOL i POUS & DE MIER, 1974; OROM! et al., 1985; etc.), En cambio, y aunque ya se intufa la riqueza en tubos volcanicos de la isla de La Palma, pocos son los trabajos que se han realizado en esta Isla (MARTiN, 1986; OROM! et AI., 1987; MARTIN, 1992; ASHMOLE et aI., 1992).

Siguiendo los pasos comenzados por el grupo G.I.E.T. de la Universidad de La Laguna, hemos creido conveniente comenzar a desarrollar en La Palma una serie de estudios biol6gicos de distintas cavidades; fruto de ello es este articulo en el cual pretendemos aportar algunos datos de interes sobre la vida que prospera en el interior de estas cavidades.

DESCRIPCION DE LAS CAVIDADES.

Morfologla

EI Saito de Tigalate es una depresi6n del terreno formada por la acci6n erosiva de las aguas del Bco. Hondo, localizado en el terrnino municipal de la Villa de Mazo, sus coordenadas UTM son 28RBS266596. Las dos cavidades se encuentran separadas por unos escasox 60 metros y discurren en gran parte paraleJas al Barranco Hondo.

45

EI tubo A presenta una sola boca que se abre a unos 230 m s.n.m., a partir de la boca se desarrolla, en sentido ascendente y con una pendiente de 15 de media, un iinico tubo principal el cual no ha sido todavfa totalmente explorado ni topografiado, s610 hemos recorrido 616 m, aiin asi es de notables dimensiones con cuatro rarnales y dos pasos estrechos, presentando adernas tres salas grandes algunas de mas de 40 metros de largo y 8 metros de alto.

EI tubo B presenta cuatro entradas; dos bocas superiores que se abren a unos 200 m s.n.m. y dos inferiores que se abren a 80 y 100 m s.n.m. Su longitud total es de unos 817 metros, con una pendiente de unos lOde media. Se trata de un tubo longitudinal con cinco rarnales que continuamente cortan el tubo principal y que presentan adernas cuatro pas os estrechos, tras los cuales aparecen arnplias salas, algunas de elias de mas de 10 metros de largo y basta 4 metros de alto.

En el interior de am bas cavidades se observan las tipicas estructuras geol6gicas de cualquier tubo volcanico (estafilitos, terrazas, cornisas, tapones, etc.).

Parametres fisicos.

Suelo. Se distinguen tres tipos de sustrato:

- terroso-arenoso acompafiado en muchos tramos por la presencia de numerosos cantos rod ados, muy abundantes en la cavidad A.

- compacto que aparece principal mente en aquellas zonas de elevada pendiente.

- de derrubios como resultado de los desprendimientos que se han producido en deterrninadas

zonas.

Humedad. La humedad va aumentando conforme profundizamos en las cavidades; tarnbien se ve condicionada por el mayor tamafio de las salas, el mirnero de bocas y grietas que presenta el tubo. La humedad media en ambos tubos es de 94% para el A y 87% para el B.

Esta diferencia viene motivada en parte por que en el tubo A existe una sola boca, muy pocus grietas, grandes carnaras donde el aire circula lentamente y un continuo got eo del techo, llegandose en algunas zonas a la saturaci6n que se manifiesta con numerosas charcas a 10 largo del ario.

Temperatura. La temperatura media el tubo A es de 14,9 DC; en el tubo B es de 17,7 C en los tramos estrechos y de 16,5 DC en las grandes salas. Como podemos observar las fluctuaciones diarias y anuales son mayores en la cueva B que en la A.

Energfa. EI flujo energetico hacia el interior de los tubos puede ser de varias formas:

A traves de las bocas. Una de las principales fuentes energeticas se debe a la entrada de ani males principalmente vertebrados como murcielagos (PICCOlUS tenenffaei ratas (Rattus sp.), lagartos tGallotia sp.), cabras (Capra hircusv, perros (Canis familiaris), conejos (Oryctolagus cuniculusy, humanos 0 bien invertebrados como algunos lepid6pteros e igualmente dfpteros del genero Calliphora que entran en la cueva, unas veces buscando frescor y otras atraidos por el olor de los cad.iveres en descomposici6n.

Tarnbien el hombre con sus visitas a las cavidades introduce en elias de manera involuntaria sernillas, frutos y organismos adheridos a su ropa y de forma voluntaria palos, hierba, papeles y por desgracia otros objetos como plasticos, latus, etc.

Igualmente en el tlujo energetico interviene el viento al transportar semi lias, esporas y algunos pequefios animates hacia el interior de los tubos.

Grietas. La arnplia red de grietas que existen a 10 largo de las dos cavidades permite que se introduzca gran cantidad de agua que Ileva consigo materia organica. Asimismo muchos ani males penetran activa y pasivamente a traves de estas grietas.

Rakes. Aunque poco abundantes a 10 largo de las dos cavidades, suponen un aporte energetico al ecosistema. Se ha observado una mayor cantidad en el tramo mas alto del tubo A.

METODOLOGIA

Se instalaron 12 estaciones en cada cavidad, cinco sobre sustrato terroso-arenoso, cuatro con sustrato de derrubios y tres en sustrato compacto, colocandose en cada una de elias una trarnpa de cafda y separadas aproximadamente unos 50 metros unas de otras. Simultanearnente ala colocaci6n se realizaba durante 5 minutos un muestreo a vista. Algunas de las trampas fueron cebadas con queso.

EI periodo de muestreo dur6 un ana (septiernbre de 1993 - agosto de 1994) Y las trampas se mantenian funcionando durante todo el mes, recogiendose a primeros de cada mes.

46

Los diferentes medios utilizados fueron:

- Disolucion saturada de agua sustituida despues por anticongelante de automovil.

- Cebos de queso.

RESULTADOS

En la tabla I se presenta un listado de las especies encontradas en el interior de las cavidades, indic.indose en que tubos se encontraron, si son endernicas por medio de un asterisco y su posible adaptacion a la vida subterranea.

Las cavidades del Saito de Tigalate presentan una abundante fauna adaptada al medio subterraneo, aunque dominan cualitativa y cuantitativamente las especies con tendencia a vivir y colonizar las grietas, fisuras y cavidades del subsuelo.

Se ha cornprobado que existe una mayor riqueza especifica en las estaciones localizadas en zonas de las cavidades donde dominaban los sedimentos terroso-arenoso ya que se capturaron las 30 especies, 10 que representa el 100% del total, en cambio algunas de elias compartieron otros sustratos; en este caso, solo 4 especies aparecieron sobre compacto 10 que constituye el 13,3%, y 7 sobre derrubios que equivale al 23,3%. Tarnbien se ha comprobado que la mayorfa de las especies troglobias aparecieron en los tramos mas hiimedos de la cavidad.

Por 10 tanto, resulta evidente ante los datos presentados, que de las des cavidades estudiadas es el tubo A el que presenta una mayor riqueza y mayor diversidad de especies.

En el interior de los tubos volcanicos hay un continuo f1ujo energetico, estableciendose numerosas relaciones troficas entre las distintas especies que constituyen la comunidad cavernfcola. De las 26 especies de invertebrados censados en el tubo A, no todos 10 colonizan por igual: los verdaderos cavernfcolas con evidentes adaptaciones a estos ambientes se limitan a las zonas de mayor humedad, y por otra parte muchas otras especies solo aparecen en la entrada de la cavidad y constituyen una de las mas importantes aportaciones de energfa a esta cueva.

En el tubo B la colonizacion parece ser mas hornogenea y de las 13 expecies de invertebrados colectados, practicamente todos colonizan por igual el tubo volcanico, aunque destacan por su abundancia Anataelia lavicola y Collembola indet.

Si dejarnos de lado aquellas especies, norrnalrnente trogloxenos, que no profundizan dentro de la cueva, vemos que las comunidades anirnales de este ecosistema constan de unas 21 especies en el tubo A y unas II especies para el tubo B. En base a estos datos y los de la ecologfa general de las especies irnplicadas hemos elaborado las siguientes pirarnides troficas (figs. I y 2).

EI presente estudio proporciona tres nuevas especies (Asterolepism(l sp., Neoasterolepisma sp. y Curculionidae indet.). Igualmente se citan especies recientemente descubiertas en otras cavidades de la Isla, arnpliando asf su distribucion.

AGRADECIMIENTOS

Agradecernos al grupo de espeleologfa Benisahare (seccion La Palma) la colaboracion prestada en la elaborucion del topografiado de ambas cavidades. Tarnbien hacemos extensive nuestro agradecimien to por la determinacion de algunas especies a V. Mahnert (pseudoescorpion), M. Baez (dfpteros), M. Buena (heteroptero), C. Ribera (aracnidos), M. Gaju (tisanuros) y R. Rodriguez (isopodos), y a P_ Ororni por la revision y comentarios del manuscrito.

Este trabajo se ha beneficiado de la colaboracion y ayuda prestada por el Excrno. Cabildo Insular de Santa Cruz de La Palma.

47

Licinopsls anqustula Lithob! us "l' Do.ene benahoBr~~sis

Trechus benaho~ritus Apteranoosis ~l.ensls Apteranopsis heohaestos

Chthonius DSchsdoi ct!in_sriensis

OKNtvOROS. SAPR6FAGOS Y xrL6FAGOS

Anataelia lavioola Anataelia trOQ'lobia Halophl1oscla"couchl Trichoniscus bassoti Pal.archestia hypoqaea

coll_is Laparocerus Bp Megaselia sp Sciarldae

r.oboee.ec-e subterrsnea

DETRIWFAGOS

.. icroorqanlSDOs

Reservas al1menticis.s de 18 caverns

Aeroplsncton

ra.ices

Fig. 1.- Piramide tr6fica de la cavidad A.

Dysders ratonensis Loxosceles rufescens

Licinopsls anqustula Chthonius .achadoi canarienais

0KNtv0R0S. SAPR6PAGOS

Anataelia lavicola ctenolepisma sp Collellbola

Lobopte.ra subte.rre.nee. Weoasterolepisma sp

Aeroplancton

Oetritus orq4nioos

raices

DI!TRIWPAGOS

microorganislDOs

Reserves ali.m.entlclas de 18 caverns

Fig. 2.- Piramide tr6fica de la cavidad B.

48

Tabla 1.- Especies encontradas en las cuevas A y B, con indicacion de su adaptacion correspondiente.

TAXA

ADAPTACION

CUEVAS

Clase ARACHNIDA

Orden ARANEAE

I. Dysdera ratonensis Wunderl ich, 1991

2. Loxosceles rufescens (L.Dufour, 1930)

3. Liocranidae indet.

Orden PSEUDOSCORPIONIDA

4. Chthonius machadoi canariensis Beier, 1965 Clase CRUSTACEA

Orden ISOPODA

5. Halophiloscia couchi (Kinston, 1858)

6. Trichoniscus bassoti Vandel, 1960 Orden AMPHIPODA

7. Palmorchestia hypogaea Stock&Martfn Clase DIPLOPODA

8. Ommatoiulus moreleti (Lucas, 1860) Clase CHILOPODA

9. Lithobius sp.

Clase HEXAPODA

Orden COLLE~''IBOLA 1 O. Colembola indet.

Orden THYSANURA

I I . Ctenolepisma sp.

12. Neoasterolepisma sp. I

13. Neoasterolepisma sp. 2

14. Lepisma sp.

Orden DERMAPTERA

15. Anataelia lavicola Martin & Oromf, 1988

16. Anataelia troglobia Martin & Ororni, 1988 Orden BLATTARIA

17.Loboptera fortunata Krauss, 1892 Orden ORTHOPTERA

18. Gryllidae indet.

Orden HETEROPTERA

19. Noualhieria pieltaini Gomez Menor, 1924

Orden COLEOPTERA

20. Hegeter tristis Fabricius, 1792)

21. Licinopsis angustula Machado, 1987

22. Trechus benahoaritus Machado, 1990

23. Apteranopsis palmensis Hdez.& Martin, 1990

24. Apteranopsis hephaestos Hdez.& Garcfa, 1989

25. Domene benahoarensis Ororni & Martin, 1990

26. Curculionidae indet.

Orden LEPIDOPTERA

27. Microlepidoptera indet

Orden DIPTERA

28. Sphaeroceridae indet.

29. Megaselia sp.

30. Calliphora vicina Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830

49

A-B A-B A

A-B

A A

A

A

A

A-B

B B A A

A-B A

A-B

B

B

A A-B A

A

A

A

A

A-B

A

A A-B

troglobio troglofilo trogloxeno

troglofilo

troglofilo troglobio

troglobio

trogloxeno

troglofilo?

troglofilo?

troglobio troglobio trogloxeno trogloxeno

troglofilo toglobio

troglobio?

?

trogloxeno

trogloxeno troglobio troglobio troglobio troglobio troglobio troglobio?

trogloxeno

troglofilo? troglofilo trogloxeno

BIBLIOGRAFIA

ASHMOLE, N.P., P. OROMI, M.1. ASHMOLE & J.L. MARTIN, 1992. Primary faunal succession in volcanic terrain: lava and cave studies on the Canary Islands. BioI. J. Linn. Soc., 46: 207-234.

HERNANDEZ, J.J., 1. IZQUIERDO, A.L. MEDINA & P. OROMI, 1985. Introducci6n al estudio biol6 gico de la Cueva «Felipe Revent6n» (Tenerife-Islas Canarias). Aetas del 2° Simp. Reg. F.C.N.E., Burgos, 1984.

IZQUIERDO, 1., A.L. MEDINA & M. DIAZ, 1986. La fauna invertebrada en las cuevas La Labrada y Las Mechas (Tenerife, Islas Canarias). Vieraea, 16: 309-320.

MARTIN, J.L., P. OROMI & J. BARQUIN, 1985. Estudio ecol6gico del ecosistema cavernicola de una sima de origen volcanico: la Sima Robada (Tenerife, Islas Canarias). Endins, n° 10-11: 37-46.

MARTIN, J.J., 1986. Informe sobre las actividades desarrolladas por el grupo de investigaciones espeleol6gicas de tenerife en las isla de La Palma: 1. (Sin publicar).

MARTIN, J.L., P. OROMI & J.J. HERNANDEZ, 1986. EI tubo volcanico de la Cueva de San Marcos (Teneri fe, Islas Canarias): origen geologico de la cavidad y estudio de xu biocenosis. Vieraea, 16: 295-308.

MARTIN J .L., P. OROM! & I. IZQUIERDO, 1987. EI ecosistema e6l ico de la colada volcanica de Lomo Negro en la isla de El Hierro (Islas Canarias). Vieraea, 17: 261-270.

MARTIN, J.L. & P. OROMi, 1990. Fauna invertebrada de las lavas del Parque Nacional de Timanfaya (Lanzarote, Islas Canarias). Ecologfa, 4: 297-312.

MONTORIOL i POUS, J. & J. DE MIER, 1974. Estudio volcano-espeleol6gico de la Cueva del Viento (leod de los Vi nos) isla de Tenerife, Canarias). Speleon, 23: 93-102.

OROMI, P., J.1. HERNANDEZ, J.L. MARTIN & A. LAINEZ, 1985. Tubos volcanicos de Tenerife (Islas Canarias): consideraciones sobre su distribuci6n en la isla. Aetas 2° Simp. Reg. F.C.N.E., Burgos, 1984.

50

RECENT VULCANOSPELEOLOGICAL PROGRESS IN HAWAII

WILLIAM R. HALLIDAY

Chairman, Hawaii Speleological Survey

ABSTRACT

In 1993 and 1994 the length of Kazumura Cave was extended to a total of 46.7 km, with a vertical extent of about 850 m. Using single rope techniques, an unnamed volcanic pit on Hualalai volcano was bottomed at -263 m. Exploration and study have been extensive elsewhere on Kilauea, Mauna Loa and Hualalai volcanoes of Hawaii Island and elsewhere in Hawaii. Another cave in the Kazumura System has about 20 km of passages. If it is possible to connect the two, the vertical extent will be about 1090 m, but vertical extent of lava tube caves should not be compared to depths of limestone caves. Other apparent vent caves at the head of the Kaupulehu xenolith nodule beds are described.

The three years between the 6th and 7th International Symposia of Vulcan os pel eo logy (1991-1994) have constituted a time of notable progress in Hawaii speleology. Members, Joint Venturers, and local cooperators of the Hawaii Speleological Survey have intensified field and bibliographic research throughout the islands. An extensive bibliography of Hawaii speleology is in progress, with more than 1000 index cards in process. More than 800 caves, groups of caves, and cave-related place names are listed in H.S.S. files. Not all the caves are in volcanic rock. Not all are large caves. Not all the caves in volcanic rock are lava tube caves. Yet Hawaii clearly has emerged as the world's leading area for the study of lava tube and related caves.

And of all Hawaii, the northern part of Puna District -- between Mauna Loa volcano and the East Rift Zone of Kilauea volcano on «the Big Island» of Hawaii -- has become pre-eminent.

In this part of Puna District, in January and February 1994 Hawaii Speleological Survey teams led by Kevin Allred more than doubled the unsegmented length of Kazurnura Cave, to 31.66 km. The end-to-end length was 21 km. This length was the greatest known for any lava tube cave in the world. Beyond two plugs of black pahoehoe lava were two more caves in the same system, known to have at least 15 km of additional length: Sexton's Cave and Olaa Cave.

The vertical extent of Kazumura Cave was calculated at 644 m., more than that of any limestone cave in the United States.

Its average inclination was found to be 1.75 degrees, less in its lower section and considerably more in the upper sections. Passage cross-sections also were found to be different in the different areas. While considerable local variation exists, its lower end tends to be wide and comparatively low while the upper section tends to be high and narrow. Locally, slip slopes and cut banks were found at sharp bends. Lavafalls up to about 15 m are numerous, especially in the upper sections. Multiple stacked levels also were commoner in the upper sections. Tongues and coatings of lavas of different colors were more uniformly distributed.

In late September 1994 a local cooperator of the Hawaii Speleological Survey connected Sexton's Cave to Kazumura Cave. Underthe direction of Kevin Allred, an especially intensive period of mapping occurred in October 1994. By October 24, 1994 mapping of the Sexton's Cave section was complete, and an additional 245 m also had been found and mapped in Kazumura Cave proper. With data still being processed, as of the date of this symposium the total length of passages of Kazumura Cave is about 46.7 km (29 miles). Its vertical extent is about 850 m (2800 feet) but the cave never is more than about 20 m below the surface and it has many entrances. Therefore this figure is not properly compared to the depth of limestone caves.

51

No connection has been made between Olaa Cave and the Sexton's Cave section of Kazumura Cave. Intervening is an apparently short area of breakdown partly covered with intrusive black lava. While seeking a connection in October 1994 more than 3.6 km of passage was mapped in a linear distance of about 1.6 krn.This suggests an eventual total length of 15 to 25 km for Olaa Cave. Its vertical extent is known to be about 240 m. Thus the total vertical extent for the system is about 1090 m with only a single short

Olaa Cave and the Sexton's Cave section of Kazurnura Cave tend to have especially notable ceiling heights, high lavafalls, and extensive multilevel development. Olaa Cave has especially notable plunge pools and also has an underground hornito or driblet spire above a sheer 10m pit bel ieved caused by headward erosion.

On both sides of Kazumura Cave are several other major lava tube caves and systems. All these appear to be in the flow field of Ailaau shield, located on the rim of Kilauea Iki crater. On the map, the largest nearby caves and systems appear to be disconnected effluents and/or re-entrants of Kazurnura Cave. The pattern of the group is beginning to look like that of 1987-88 Kupaianaha tubes mapped by multispectral thermal infrared techniques (Realmuto et al, 1992). In October 1994, voice and sight connection was made between Kazurnura Cave and Doc Bellou Cave, the upper end of a system about I km long. Intervening is a distance of about 10m, in which three very low lava constrictions can be seen, each perhaps 10 cm high. The length of this system is not included in the length figure for Kazurnura Cave.

Also subparallel to Kazurnura Cave, at greater distances are Keala Cave and the John Martin-Pukalani Cave System. These have many features in common with Kazumura but are not mere copies of it, and are extensive caves and systems in their own right. The length of Keala Cave is 8.28 km. Most of what originally was called John Martin Cave was remapped in 1993 and 1994; it was found to be segmented. What originally was considered to be its lower end now is recognized as Pukalani Cave, previously thought to have been lost to science because of road construction in a subdivision. It terminates by a lava sump but the Uilani Caves are in line with it and Lower Uilani Cave is about 3 krn long. It contai ns a major distributory complex downslope from a braided entrance section, and its middle branch begins with a drained underground lava pond. The mid-portion of this cave currently is threatened by road construction. Keala Cave and John Martin Cave contain considerably more arborescent lava than does Kazumura Cave and show other qualitative differences.

Farther toward the East Rift Zone the main Pahoa Cave or Caves is/are said to be at least ten miles (16 krn) long. Exploration and pacing ended in large «walking passage» (McIlheny and Stone, 1991). These and smaller caves nearby are not under study by the Hawaii Speleological Survey. The published small-scale paced map appears to show segmentation. For current hazard evaluation studies of the U.S. Geological Survey, it will be especially important to determine whether this cave or caves and two neighboring systems arise from vents on the East Rift Zone or from the Ailaau shield.

Numerous other lava tube caves have been reported around and up-slope from Kazumura, Keala, and the John Martin-Pukalani System. Few have been investigated, and none is known to approach the lengths of Kazurnura, Keala, and John Martin-Pukalani. But empty spaces on the map of the Ailaau flow field suggest that less than half of existing lava tube caves are known.

Elsewhere on the «Big Island», Hualalai volcano is more noted for pit craters than for lava tube caves, but both are plentiful. At least as 1948, respected staff members of the U.S. Geological Survey termed the pit craters simply «The Bottomless Pits.»

In January 1994 the Hawaii Speleological Survey received permission for a week's investigation of these pits, most of which are on private property. Kevin Allred was chairman of this project also. After preliminary surface reconnaissance, Allred and Don Coons first descended an unnamed pit with benchmark 6083 (feet) on its lip. The main pit crater was found to be about 135 m deep. From a ledge about 15 m above its floor, a vertical magma chamber belled out to an undetermined depth. The general appearance was remarkably like that of a limestone sotano in Mexico with a shaft continuing downward.

Another 200 m of rope was air expressed from the mainland and on January 28 Allred and Coons descended directly to the bottom of the magma chamber from a Tyrolean traverse rope. Mapping showed that the bottom was 263 m (862 feet) below the spillover point of the outer pit.

Subsequently, Hawaiian elders bestowed the name Na One Pit on this remarkable phenomenon. If a partially water-filled volcanic pit on Molokai Island, Hawaii is excluded, Na One is the deepest pit known

52

«
::>
«
0
0 I
:i «
;,:: ,...,..,

~\

.,; ~
~ §
1/ '<i
I
I
§ ]
2
U.J
...J
u::
0
a:
0.. 53

in the United States. Depending on definitions, it may be the deepest volcanic pit in the world.

In a different part of Hualalai volcano, Hawaii Speleological Survey teams explored and mapped a new type of vertical volcanic conduits. These are located at the apparent head of the well-known Kaupulehu xenolith nodule beds in 1800-0 I flows. These studies were in cooperation with planetary geologists of Arizona State University and the Lunar and Planetary Institute of Houston, Texas. In subterranean field work here, the Hawaii Speleological Survey had the lead role.

In this area are about a dozen vertical volcanic conduits, mostly occurring in distinct lines, upand down-slope. About half of them are plugged at the bottom, fi ve to ten meters below the surface. The others characteristically continue nearly horizontally as low, narrow passages five to fifteen meters long, expanding into small chambers containing minor evidence of lava flow. The horizontal segments slope gently toward the axis of the main 1800-0 I flow channel. Steepwalled septae separate individual vertical conduits, and the appearance is that of «curtain of fire» vents. Some are roofed with thin domes of pahoehoe. No tube structure is present.

The largest of these phenomena differs considerably from its neighbors. It is a complex of three vertical conduits, a spacious sloping chamber about 30 m long, and some minor subterranean extensions. It reaches a depth of 30 m, descending rather uniformly at about 4S degrees. Locally, lava pond strands are present.

The extraordinary feature of this cave is a hanging wall/ceiling of dense lava containing ultramafic xenoliths up to about 20 ern in diameter. Nearly all are at least partially rounded. They occur singly or in clumps, the latter somewhat sorted by size. A considerable variety of ultramafic minerals is represented. The dense lava bed is two to about 20 em thick. In the upper part of the cave, its slope is about 4S degrees. Near the bottom, it curves toward the horizontal. From its inner surface, small stringers of dark lava enter adjacent rubbly aa or scoria. Locally, xenoliths of this dense lava appear to have settled to its bottom while it still was visco-elastic.

The most uphill of these vertical cavities also is atypical. Its cavernous interior is comparatively wide and shallow, and several faint strand lines are present on its overhanging walls. It has no horizontal component. Its outer surface has the general appearance of a pahoehoe minishield with a clump of xenolith nodules «cemented» on its downhill overflow. At its lower margin is a rudimentary lava tube cave about 10m long; a xenolith nodule bed is exposed in the cave's pitlike entrance.

Although the other vertical cavities are quite different in structure from the two atypical forms just described, outflow of pahoehoe lava seems to have been a common denominator. The large cave contains puzzling distributions of small beds and tongues of xenolith nodules as well as the hanging wall previously described. In one of the smaller horizontal caves at the bottom of a vertical conduit, a vertical bed of xenoliths is seen in the rock exposed by lateral breakdown of the crust of the inner chamber. These, however, lack the mineralogical diversity seen in the hanging wall of the large cave nearby. In these complexes, evidence of subsidence or lava reflux is plentiful. But this may only represent a late stage in speleogenesis. Much remains to be learned by on-site study here. While these are all small scale volcanic features, their unique characteristics and their association with the extensive beds of large ultramafic xenoliths are of special interest to planetary geologists.

The Hawaii Speleological Survey also has assisted planetary geologists from Arizona State University in studies of thermal erosion in caves of Hawaii Volcanoes National Park and elsewhere. In addition to simple vertical erosion into nontube forming volcanics, undercutting and development of slip slopes and cut banks have been noted. Some of us have come to believe that some sudden changes in tube diameter, especially where lavafalls are present, are the result of thermal head ward erosion.

During these studies we also found fragments of bird bones in deeply buried volcanic ash exposed by lateral breakdown which occurred after downcutting. These still await ornithological study.

Kilauea caldera was found to be an unexpectedly fruitful area for vulcanospeleological study. In addition to a large lava tube system about I krn long, our teams located several small caves formed by drainage of tumuli, lava ponds, and other small-scale pahoehoe structures. Subsequently we learned from George Walker at the University of Hawaii in Honolulu that he recently had studied and described some of these phenomena (Walker, 1991, 1992). We look forward to future joint studies in this area.

Under the direction of Douglas Medvi lie, recent H.S.S. exploration and study of caves on the north side of Mauna Loa volcano have produced maps and data on numerous comparatively short lava tube

S4

'Ir "' ... N"oPt: ........ ~fIIU:OQ('
~ """"~- c::h. a..ofIftII c.cM! '" • Aa4
--- ..,.,.,.,. roa.Of'~"'f
-7"~ ..._.,""""" ....... 'P.,. ""'"'_
''If'''''lf~..:;:oNA.~ ..,Q_A IOU.Dba • ....__.
--- 'ASI or ,,",,1111 "",.. .. "''''~'''''''''''-L NA ONE PIT 60e~

Suunto.-.d __,. J..-.-y, 1" ...

K_ .0 O.¥'OCI Dor-

D .... ~ WtA.m~

DOlI COOfI'S carOl II ... "

Haw .. Soe~ 50",."..,

s

PROFILE

to,

'"

-

rUT

..

..

..

..

..

, ..

PLAN

s'

..

'"

I to,

I '"

..

VERTICAL PERSPECTIVES

LEGEND

C."OO''''''' by D. Coon. I"'" C, A V£S.'Y. 1994

55

caves. Some of them contain unusual mineralogical deposits including elemental sulfur. Other studies by Australian John Webb found thenardite on the floor plus calcite and gypsum on the walls of one cave here. Detailed followup is in process. On the floors of some of these caves, multicolored lava flows are notable.

On the lower slopes of Hualalai volcano, Medville's teams have found somewhat longer caves, up to about 1'/2 km in length. Near the summit of Hualalai volcano, other H.S.S. teams found caves with unusual degassing phenomena behind their tube linings.

Investigation of the southern part of Mauna Loa volcano has lagged. but one H.S.S. team assisted a U.S. Geological Survey team in descending 90-meter Hapai Mamo Pit on its Southwest Rift. Nearby, another team found short but evaporite-rich lava tube caves with impressive red lava speleothems.

In the field of resource protection, the Hawaii Speleological Survey has begun community education through illustrated talks in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park and to governing bodies of community associations. These have been well received. Officers of two of these associations now are among our most active members and field cooperators.

Further, the H.S.S. has nominated 110 Hawaiian caves and groups of caves to receive protection under the Federal Cave Resource Protection Act. In 1993 we submitted inventories of 25 caves in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. Several of them necessarily were incomplete but mapping and inventory of additional caves followed in 1994.

We are working directly with the U.S. Board on Geographic Names to preclude public distribution of locations of Hawaiian caves. We have provided recommendations on cave management to public and private organizations, in one case warning of imminent collapse of a major subdivision road if subjected to heavy vehicles. In that report we recommended several alternative approaches to protection of the cave if that road is to be reconstructed.

These studies have provided a wealth of new scientific data, but also raise many questions. Some are merely definitional; others of real interest in earth science.

Findings from the exploration of Na One Pit (<<Pit 6083») exemplify the need for clearer definitions in the borderland of fulcanospeleology and volcanology. As described, it contains a vertical magma chamber about 150 m deep extending downward from a ledge of a somewhat atypical pit crater also about 150 m deep. The stated total depth is from the spillover point of the rim of the outer pit crater. We are unaware of any disagreement about this method of calculation. But definitional and procedural problems arise when it is comparated to other volcanic pits and craters of Hualalai volcano.

Consider Kaupulehu crater. Its main portion is a wide, shallow bowl-shaped structure about V2 km in diameter. At the lowest point of this shallow bowl is an arcuate sheer-walled pit estimated to be 15-20 m deep, 10-15 m wide and 30-40 m long. At one end of this inner pit is a narrow vertical shaft of unknown depth, perhaps deeper than Na One Pit (we have not yet received permission to descend it). Should the outer bowl-shaped shaped crater be included in calculating its total depth? What is the line of demarcation between craters and volcanic pits? Perhaps the rules of the International Union of Speleology distinguishing solution dolines from limestone pits can be applied in volcanic terrain. But how widely would they be accepted?

Further, what is a pit crater?

This term is used very loosely in Hawaii and probably elsewhere. At least since discovery of the adjacent Thurston Lava Tube in 1913 everyone except a few vulcanospeleologists has called Kaluaiki a pit crater. Kaluaiki is the slightly sinuous multilevel closed depression between Manka Thurston Cave and world-famous Thurston Lave Tube. Part of Mauka Thurston extends beneath the shallow upslope end of Kaluaiki, like the unnamed cave in the middle of the Big Trench Cave System in Skamania County, Washington (Halliday, 1963). Kaluaiki thus appears to be an unusually large trench segment rather than a pit crater, and part of a jameo system. During the 6th International Symposium of Vulcanospeleology in 1991, this was pointed out during the field excursion and also in the published Proceedings. But most authorities still speak and write of it as a pit crater. Even if vulcanospeleologists agree among themselves on such matters, how do we bring volcanologists and administrators into the process of definition and redefinition?

In a different frame of reference, the vertical extent of Kazumura Cave currently is greater than the depth of any limestone cave in the United States. But the cave is never more than about 20 m below the

56

surface. It has many entrances, and its challenge simply is not comparable with that of I imestone caves of similar vertical extent. In my opinion, Kazumura Cave should NOT be considered the deepest cave in the United States. To list vertical extents of lava tube caves with depths of limestone caves would be very misleading. In my opinion, listing depths or vertical extents separately for caves in different kinds of rock should be the minimum. But some disagree. Can agreement be reached?

Agreement has not been reached among planetary geologists and U.S. Geological Survey volcanologists about the origin of the vertical volcanic conduits at the head of the Kaupulehu xenolith nodule beds, nor about their relation to the nodule beds themselves. Are they vents, subsidence residuals, hollow dikes, or something yet unthought?

My impression -- like that of some planetary geologists -- is that all these cavities were parts of xenolith-bearing vents, with some late secondary subsidence. Only additional study can confirm or refute this.

Much additional exploration and study also remain to be done in the caves on both sides of Kazumura Cave. On the surface, the entire area between Mauna Loa volcano and the immediate vicinity of the East Rift zone has the appearance of a single flow field. But especially in the upper end of this area, the jungle is so dense that direct observation is very I imited, and some aerial photos seem to show sizeable flow lobes of the East Rift overlapping part of the Ailaau flow field. Precise mapping of the Pahoa and nearby caves would clarify their relation to the more northerly caves and their origin from the Ailaau shield or the East Rift.

Another question arising underground here is the reddish color of some cooled pahoehoe.

Traditionally, this is attributed to oxidation. But characteristically, the outside of cooled pahoehoe flows on the surface in Puna is black, not red from exposure to atmospheric oxygen. And in the larger caves, red tongues of lava consistently break out from beneath a grey crust at lavafalls. Moreover, in the largest, most extensive caves, the characteristic colors of solidified lava tongues commonly are brown, red, orange, or yellow. A few are black, as on the surface (some have a red interior with a thin black crust). The black tongues tend to be found near entrances, and often plug the tube. Are these black tongues invasive flows which entered the caves after initial cooling of the tube'.' If redness is a sign of oxidation, lava congealing near entrances should be red, not black. Does a red, yellow, orange, or brown color thus indicate an initially higher temperature rather than oxidation? Or especially slow cooling? Clearly, further investigation of the cause of colors of intratubal lavas may provide new insights into the fiery processes of their developments.

After degassing during injection of lava beneath lava crusts, does cavitation persist? Is there a continuum of cavitation between the finger-sized tubes in a few pahoehoe toes and enormous «boreholes» like Kazumura Cave? Is there a critical minimum diameter of tubes in advancing lava tongues, below which internal cavities cannot be continuous?

Do lavafalls of 10m or more in Kazumura, Olaa and other Puna caves really result from thermal headward erosion, or do they merely reflect pre-existing surface features overrun by tubeforming lavas? If the latter, why is the cave often much larger below the lavafall than above it? Can stacked multilevel speleogenesis be attributed to thermal erosion?

These are only a few of the question to be answered about the plumbing of volcanoes and lava beds. My own part in these studies soon will be ending. I urge all of you to seek the answers to these -and to the other questions yet to be formulated -- throughout the lava tube caves and volcanic pits of the world. 45 years of observation of lava tube caves around the world have shown me that their features differ markedly, from area to area. Study on a world-wide basis is essential to fuller comprehension of the processes which they demonstrate.

But when you reach impasses in your own areas of study, consider seeking the answers in Hawaii.

The recent breakthroughs here promise much for the future of vulcanospeleology.

57

REFERENCES

HALLIDAY, W. R. 1963. Caves of Washington. Washington State Division of Mines and Geology Information Circular 40: 81-82 and plate 3.

McELDOWNEY, H. and FD. Stone. 1991. Survey of lava tubes in the former Puna Forest Reserve and on adjacent state of Hawaii lands. Prepared for State Historic Preservation Division, Division of Water Resource Management, Department of Land and Natural Resource, Honolu lu. p. 21.

REALMUTO, V. 1. et al. 1992. Multispectral thermal infrared mapping of the I October 1988 Kupaianaha flow field, Kilauea volcano. Hawaii. Bull. Volcanol. ,55: 35.

WALKER, G. P.L. 1991. Structure, and origin by injection of lava under surface crust, of tumuli, «lava rise pits», and «lava-inflation clefts». Hawaii. Bull. Volcano]. 53: 546-558.

WALKER, G. PL. 1992. Kilauea Crater Field Trip (guidebook). Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, p. 21.

58

NEW DISCOVERIES OF LAVA TUBES RELATED TO CUEVA DEL VIENTO IN ICOD DE LOS VINOS (TENERIFE, CANARY ISLANDS)

JUAN J. HERNANDEZ PACHECO * and PEDRO OROM! **

* Museo de Ciencias Naturales, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands

** Depto. Biologfa Animal, Universidad de La Laguna, Tenerife, Canary Islands

The area of Icod de los Vinos is by far the richest in lava tubes not only in Tenerife but also in the Canarian archipelago. It is located below the northern side of Pi co del Teide, a big stratovolcano originated during the so called Subrecent Series III (COELLO, 1989). This huge accumulation of lavas and pyroclasts started growing some 150.000 years ago and is still in activity: the last eruption occured in 1798, and abundant fumaroles are yet steaming in and around the crater. Some of the lavas of this actually 3,717 m high peak flowed northwards during the last few thousand years, forming narrow channels along the steepest slope of the proper Teide, and more expanded lava fields at lower altitudes, especially between 800 m a.s.1. and the sea shore. Most of the recent lavas covering this area were 01 ivine-augite basalts of pahoehoe type (MONTORIOL POUS & DE MIER, 1974), and originated a complex network of lava tubes especially abundant over the town of leod; some of the caves (Cueva de San Marcos and Cueva de Punta Blanco) also reached the coast and open at the sea cliffs. These lavas are quite recent and thus hold just a thin soil layer upon, wich allows the development of Canarian pine forest at unusual low altitudes; instead, older terrains in the northern slope of the island at these heights are normally covered by subtropical laurel forest, which needs deeper and more humid soils. Concerning to leod area, many vineyards and other cultures are now occupying the best terrains in the surroundings of the town, while the pine forest only remains on the projecting lava ridges, which are generally made up of less fluid lavas. Therefore, the lava tubes are mainly under cultivated land and houses, and very rarely under the forest or the original scrub. This is very important for the conservation of the cave environment, since many chemicals and remains of sewage have been found in water samples from the leod caves.

Many lava tubes are known in the upper part of leod (see HERNANDEZ PACHECO et al., 1995) but Cueva del Viento is by far the longest one, and probably one of the most labyrinthine together with Cueva de Don Justo, in El Hierro. Many speleological teams have surveyed this complex cave (MONTORIOL POUS & DE MIER, 1974; WOOD & MILLS, 1977; HERNANDEZ et al., 1995) that reached some 14 km when Cueva del Sobrado was joined in 1988 to the proper Cueva del Viento by members of Grupo de Espeleologfa de Tenerife Benisahare (see OROMI& MARTIN, 1995). It was considered and rejected again for several times as to be the longest lava tube in the World (MONTORIOL POUS, 1971; HALLIDAY, 1972a, 1972b; WOOD, 1973). Actually this is not an extraordinarily long tube between the most distant points, but the complex network comprises many kilometers of interconnected galleries. The origin of this kind of tubes have been a matter of discussion; MONTORIOL POUS & DE MIER (197 I, 1974) support that labyrinthine caves are straight related to steep terrains, while WOOD & MILLS (1977) suggest this is the result of several factors affecting the lava mobility (high effusion rate *copiar de Wood

The upper part of the cave is the most labyrinthine, forming a tridimensional network of interconnected tubes, from which diverge downwards three independent long galleries: Cueva de los Ingleses in a deeper level, Cueva de las Breveritas (the longest one, continued by Cueva de los Piquetes) and Cueva del Sobrado (see HERNANDEZ et al., 1995). The latter had its own independent entrances, one close to and the other at the very end of the cave at the lowest point known at that time. This was not a typical collapsed skylight, but a connection of the lava tube to a natural pit almost completely filled of stones. One of us (HERNANDEZ) investigated among the old local people, and was informed that some 80

59

years ago a woman fell down, and after she was rescued the pit was filled up of stones and debris to prevent new accidents. But it was said that in the bottom of the pit there was a continuation of the cave, and the Cabi Ido de Tenerife (local government) gave the permission and funds for excavations. After removing many tons of debris, two new branches appeared at different depths of the pit: Cueva Petr61ea and a still unnamed gallery, both going up parallel to the main gallery of Cueva del Sobrado. The bottom was finally reached on June 1994, and a big lava tube was discovered. This was the downwards continuation of Cueva del Sobrado, starting at the bottom of the pit and extending for some 2 km away (see LAINEZ, 1995). It is a remarkable tube with an average inner dimensions much bigger than in the rest of Cueva del Sobrado; in the whole Cueva del Viento something simi lar is only found in Cueva de los Ingleses, actually underlying Cueva de las Breveritas and also connected with it through a vertical pit, but internal with no skylight.

This main new tube - first called Intuition Cave - is almost unbranched and the floor is of extremely rough lava, in contrast to the generally smooth substrate prevailing in Cueva del Sobrado up from the pit. Speleothems are abundant and varied, especially the secondary mineral concretions, very well preserved for it had probably never been visited by people before. The roots are very scarce, surely because of the depth with regard to the surface. However, the only remarkable branch named Gallery D (see survey in LAINEZ, 1995) is quite different, with much smaller dimensions, its floor is very even and slender roots hang from the roof.

In general the fauna is very scarce when compared to Cueva del Sobrado or any other reasonably unspoiled part of Cueva del Viento. Again Gallery D is an exception, having provided most of the specimens of troglobitic animals known in the cave. However, this little fauna is far from being comparable to the rich and varied communities found in the upper part of Cueva del Sobrado.

Probably one of the most interesting findings when this new tube was explored, were the abundant subfossil bones spread all along the cave. Most of them belong to Canariomys bravoi Crusafont & Petit, a giant extinct rat which occured in Tenerife until not very long ago. Most of the lava tubes in the region of leod had remains of this rodents, although they have been already collected or destroyed by cave visitors. Better preserved specimens with parts of the skin were found in a cave in the easter part of the island; they were in an aboriginal burial, mixed with tools and human remains, which demonstrates the extinction has been relatively recent. The arrival of guanches to Tenerife has been estimated aproximately 2,600 B.P. (ONRUBIA PINTADO, 1987). According to HUTTERER & OROMf (1993) these big rats were common visitors of the caves and even they cou Id use lava tubes regularly; the remarkable abundance of skeletons in these caves in contrast to their scarcity in surface deposits supports this hypothesis.

Also frequent were skeletons of bats, especially in the deepest part of the tube some 1,500 m far from the entrance. This suggests that probably there was another entrance now collapsed, for these animals rarely reach such inner distances in lava tubes in the Canary Islands.

First author of this paper was the responsible of the discovery and exploration of this new branch of Cueva del Viento; he planned and managed the works of clearing debris in the pit, and devised an ambitious project to destinate a small part of Cueva del Sobrado to public visits, and protect all the rest of Cueva del Viento by law. He was extremely enthousiastic and he worked very hard, but unfortunately he died before accomplishing his wishes. As a hommage to him the speleologists involved in this project have named the new branch Galerfa Hernandez Pacheco.

60

REFERENCES

COELLO, 1. J 989. Marco geologico regional del Teide y Las Cafiadas. In V. Arana & L Coello (Eds.):

Los volcanes y la caldera del Parque Nacional del Teide. ICON A, Madrid, pp. 45-63.

HALLIDAY, W.R. I 972a. The World's longest lava tube caves. N.S.S. News, 30 (4): 80-82. HALLIDAY, W.R. 1972b. Internationally significant lava tube caves of the Canary Islands. Proc. InL Symp. Vu1canospeleology and its Extraterrestrial Applications: 35-43.

HERNANDEZ, 1.1., A.L. MEDINA, I. IZQUIERDO, A. VERA & H. GARCIA. 1995. Toporaffa y espeleometrfa. In P. Oromf (Ed.): La Cueva del Viento. Consejerfa Polftica Territorial, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, 98 pp.

HERNANDEZ PACHECO, 1.1., P. OROMl, A. LAINEZ, G. ORTEGA, A.E. PEREZ, J. S. LOPEZ, A.L. MEDINA, I. IZQUIERDO, L.L. SALA, N. ZURITA, M. ROSALES, F. PEREZ & LL MARTIN. 1995. Catalogo espeleologico de Tenerife (LL Bacallado ed.). O.A.M.C., Santa Cruz de Tenerife, pp. 168.

HUTTERER, R. & p. OROMf. 1993. La rata gigante de la isla Santa Cruz, Galapagos: algunos datos y problemas. Res.Cient.Proy. Galapagos TFMC, 4: 63-76.

MONTORIOL POUS, 1. 1971. Expedicio Tenerife-7 J . Circ. Club Muntanyenc Barcelones (Soc. Ciencies NaL), 89: 90.

MONTORIOL POUS, L & 1. DE MIER. 1974. Estudio vulcanoespeleologico de la Cueva del Viento (lcod de los Vi nos, Isla de Tenerife, Canarias). Speleon, 21: 5-24.

ONRUBTA PINTADO, 1. 1987. Les cultures prehistoriques des lies Canaries: erat de la question.

L' Anthropologie, 91: 653-678.

OROMI, P. & J.L. MARTIN. 1995. Memoria historica. In P. Oromi (Ed.): La Cueva del Viento. Consejeria Politica Territorial, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, 98 pp.

WOOD, C. 1973. Cueva del Viento confirmed to be the longest lava tube cave in the world. Journal Shepton Mallet Caving Club, 5 (6): 3-7.

WOOD, C. & M.T. MILLS. 1977. Geology of the lava tube caves around Icod de los Vi nos, Tenerife.

Trans. British Cave Res. Assoc., 4 (4): 453-469.

61

A COMPARISON OF VOLCANIC AND KARSTIC CAVE COMMUNITIES

FRANCIS G. HOWARTH

Department of Natural Sciences. Bishop Museum. PO Box 19000. Honolulu, Hawaii 96817

ABSTRACT

The communities of cave-adapted animals recently discovered in lava tubes and tropical caves rovide systems to independently test evolutionary theories developed from historic biospeleological studies in temperate limestone caves. Limestone caves are usually old, deep, large, three-dimensional mazes, with few mesocaverns and subject to complex geological history often including uplift, folding, and subsidence. Compared to limestone caves, lava caves are usually younger, shallower, smaller, less complex mazes, with more abundant mesocaverns and with a simpler history. In spite of these major contrasts resulting from differences in parent rock and mode of formation, specialized subterranean animals living in both lava and karstic caves display remarkably similar adaptations, indicating that selection pressures and ecology must be similar. Indeed, there are important ecological similarities. Once beyond the influence of entrances, the physical environment in subterranean habitats is perpetually dark, humid, and nearly isothermal; lacks most environmental cues; and often contains lethal or sublethal gas mixtures and wet barren rocky substrates. Even though the types and sources of food vary among regions and caves, the difficulties of finding food resources as well as finding mates in dark threedimensional mazes are similar. For both rock types, numerous cave-sized and smaller passages exist that have no entrance allowing access to humans, and also at least some of the surface over both is often barren with food resources sinking into subterranean voids out of the reach of surface species. Troglobites evolved to exploit these resources in the harsh subterranean environment. Because of their different geological histories, lava and limestone cave communities may accumulate and lose species differently over time. In limestone caves, succession progresses downward, with younger habitats deeper below the surface. Succession in lava tubes is opposite, with younger habitats near the surface and older habitats deeper. New lava flows continually rejuvenate aging cave habitats in volcanically active areas, allowing for specialized species to occur in exceptionally young caves.

INTRODUCTION

These are exciting times in biospeleology, as the discoveries of specialized cave animals in lava tubes are expanding our understanding of cave biology. The studies being conducted in the caves of the Canary Islands are at the cutting edge of this research. Thus, it was especially fitting that the 7th International Vulcanospeleological Symposium was held there.

I am often asked to contrast the ecology and evolution of cave faunas in limestone and lava caves.

Of course, our understanding of lava tube biology has only recently begun to catch up to what's known for limestone caves, but some differences and similarities have emerged that could shed light on the question. Certainly, the striking similarity of morphological features among obligate cave animals, no matter what the parent rock, indicates that some fundamental evolutionary principles must be involved in their origin. In this paper, I compare the ecology of obligate cave species in limestone and lava caves, focusing especially on terrestrial systems.

HISTORY

Obligate cave animals were known to the ancients and to science very early. Formal cave biology studies began in Europe more than a century ago following the discovery of underground lakes in caves.

63

Since limited water resources in karst terrains restrict economic development, cave hydrology became an important science. The subsequent discovery of many bizarre cave-adapted animals spurred ecological and evolutionary studies. Cave animals were also found during explorations and efforts to convert caves to tourist attractions.

Unti I recently, most underground biological studies were done in temperate limestone ca ves (Vandel 1965, Barr 1968, Culver 1982). The reasons for the early exclusion of lava tubes are probably complex but relate more to the relative proximity of karst areas to urban scientific centers in Eastern North America and Europe and to preconceptions and fears of volcanoes than to real biological differences. A few obviously cave-adapted animals were known from lava caves and other rock types, but they were considered exceptional phenomena and not indicative of general principles (e.g., Barr 1968). Interestingly in Japan, where limestone and lava caves both occur near science centers, remarkable cave animals were found in lava tubes beginning in the late 1930s (Torii, 1960; Ueno, 1971). However, even these discoveries by Japanese biologists were largely discounted by most mainstream cave biologists.

This parochial view of nature still plagues science. The maxim «If I didn't believe it, I wouldn't have seen it» is sti II all too true. Thetake home message from this paper can be summarized as: «Assume nothing in evolutionary biology»!

Since the early 1970s, there has been a revolution in cave biology following the rediscovery of the lava tube fauna in Japan; the discovery of lava cave faunas in Hawaii, Galapagos, Canary Islands, North America, and elsewhere; and the discovery of similar faunas in fractured rock terrains of diverse types, and of course in the tropics (Ueno, 1971; Howarth, 1983; Juberthie, 1983). These faunas provide systems to independently test the evolutionary theories developed from the marvelous and pioneering historic biospeleological studies done in temperate limestone caves.

FORMATION

Li mestone

The cave ecosystem is rigidly defined by its geologic setting; thus, if we understand the formation of caves and associated subterranean voids, we can better understand the origin and ecology of cave communities. Limestone cave formation can be complex and related to chemical, climatic, geologic, and hydrologic forces, acting over very long time scales (White er al., 1995). Limestone is generally a mechanically durable rock; however, calcium carbonate, its principal component, dissolves in acidified water.

In near surface environments, this acidity is usually derived from dissolved carbon dioxide. In limestone areas, caves and karst landforms result from the interplay between the strength of limestone, which resists mechanical erosion, and its solubility, which allows groundwater to excavate the rock from within. Tectonic uplift and downcutting by erosion expose progressively deeper deposits to solution. This solution enlarges the larger developing passages since they can carry increasing amounts of water in a positive feedback system. Thus, voids enlarge and remain open as solution and erosion progress; but smaller passages often become plugged as groundwater uses the more efficient larger channels. Limestone is rarely pure calcium carbonate, and its solution usually leaves behind a sticky clay (affectionately called «slirnestone»), which tends to fill the mesocavernous voids.

Limestone caves also tend to deepen with time due to erosion and downcutting, which lowers the water table, whi Ie remnant sections of older caves are abandoned as upper level passages, which collapse and eventually erode away. Thus, cave habitats in limestone are usually continuously available for colonization by cave animals, but these habitats become progressively deeper with time. Active passages can be 5 or more million years old, but the habitat can be available for much longer. During their long existence, they can be modified by geologic processes, such as tectonics and climatic change, which may alter their habitability (Barr, 1968; Ford, 1978; Culver, 1982).

Limestone caves can have complex shapes with deep shaft entrances, that allow food energy to reach deeper passages quickly. Dissolved limestone can reprecipitate, creating the well-known, spectacular formations. This dual edged sword of solution and reprecipitation can change the shape of a passage and thereby the air flow within it, so that passages once open to desiccation can be isolated from external climatic conditions and vice versa.

64

Local climate greatly affects cave formation. Limestone solution is orders of magnitude faster in the tropics than in temperate regions, so that cave passages there may not be continuously available for

Active lava tubes are remarkably efficient insulators; at Mauna Ulu, they carried lava over 12 km from the vent to the ocean with only a 10° C loss of temperature (Peterson and Swanson, 1974). Thus, pahoehoe lava flows build and repair their own conduits or lava tubes, that then transport the lava great distances from the vent. This mechanism is now recognized as the major factor in building shield volcanoes (Peterson and Swanson, 1974; Peterson et al., 1994). It also means that pahoehoe flows can cover large areas and create abundant underground habitats for cave animals.

There are six major geologic differences between limestone and lava caves: age, size of voids, shape, aspect, role of water, and direction of development (Table J). These have different effects on cave communities. Age is one of the most conspicuous differences between limestone and lava caves. Thus, one would expect there to be significant differences in the degree of cave-adaptation among troglobites from different caves (Vandel, 1965; Barr, 1968), but such is not the case (Hoch and Howarth. 1989). Cave species can migrate from older to younger caves in both systems, so that their age may be much older than the cave in which they are found (Howarth, 1983). Hoch and Howarth (1989) found a much better correlation with the cave environment rather than with cave age for cave planthoppers in limestone and lava caves in Australia.

Voids:

Both limestone and lava contain extensive systems of interconnected voids. but initially lava usually has a much better developed system of shallow intermediate sized voids than limestone. These voids provide ideal habitats for obligate cave species, and colonization and evolution may be rapid in young lava flows (Howarth, 1993).

Shape and aspect:

Lava flows are roughly linear, running downslope from a fixed vent. Lava caves may be long and sinuous and have a great altitudinal gradient, but they are rarely more than a few tens of meters from the surface. The shallow nature means that plant roots and other organic material from the surface may grow or be transported into them. Young to intermediate aged lava tubes (that is, from 500 to 5,000 years old) often have relatively abundant food resources. Limestone caves are often more vertical with deep shafts. Food resources concentrate in deeper voids. Thus, cave communities may be deeper below the surface in limestone.

For both limestone and lava, where erosion is mostly vertical, a significant amount of food energy in surface environments over caves is transported into subterranean voids out of reach of surface organisms. Evidence for this loss is the presence in both terrains of barren rocky habitats with islands of vegetation, or vice versa. This food energy is concentrated by the terrain. Most leaf litter and organic material falls into cracks and pits; thus, litter and soil accumulate only slowly over areas with extensive underground voids.

Food resources:

Food energy enters caves in five ways: carried in by animals, plants, water, and gravity, and produced autochthonously by chemoautotrophs. The importance of each of these varies regionally, and is mostly similar in limestone and lava caves, except in two important aspects: transport by plants and water. Because lava tubes are often shallow, plant roots are often the most important food resource. Young lava has little soil, and pioneering geophilic plants must send their roots deep for water and nutrients. Plant roots are also much more important energy sources in most tropical cave ecosystems (in both lava and limestone) than in most temperate caves, but their importance in temperate caves may have been overlooked during the early biological studies there (e.g., see Vandel, 1965; Barr, 1968).

Since sinking streams are a major factor in the formation and evolution of limestone caves and since they can carry large amounts of detritus, they are a major food provider in most karst areas. Sinking streams are rare in lava tubes, since detritus laden streams quickly fill and erode lava tubes. Streams occasionally occur in lava tubes, such as when a tube intersects a water table. Diffuse infiltration of rain water is important in both lava and limestone caves, and colloidal oozes from organic material deposited by percolating water can be common in young lava tubes.

65

Table 1.- Comparison of Volcanic and Karstic Cave Habitats.

FACTOR

*Cave Formation *Geological History Surface Environment Exposed barren rock Surficial area

"'Size of cax 's *Aspect of caves "Depth of caves *Medium-sized voids

fill with time *Age *Individual cave *Habitat *Succession Food Sources

*Plant roots Trogloxenes "Water transport * Acidentals Gravity transport Chernoautotrophs

"Location of food Environment Substrate Humidity Carbon dioxide Temperature Light

Form

Zones

*Water

* Aquatic habi tats

Terrestrial troglobite adaptations Morphology

Behavior

Physiology

LAVA Brief

Relatively simple

Often present

Variable

Small to large

Mostly horizontal

Mostly shallow

Initially very abundant, Fewer than in young lava Older habitats deeper Young (I a - < 500 ka) Young to old

Usually upwards

Often most important Important

Limited importance Probably important Locally important Locally important Mostly shallow

Wet rock

High

Sometimes high Nearly isothermal Dark

3-D maze

Five zones Streams rare Relatively limited

LIMESTONE Long-term & dynamic Often complex

Often present Variable

Small to very large Horizontal to vertical Shallow to very deep

Older habitats on top Old (100 ka - > 10 rna) Usually old

Usually downwards

Locally important Important

Often most important Probably important Locally important Locally important Often deep

Wet rock

High

Sometimes high Nearly isothermal Dark

3-D maze

Five zones Streams common Often abundant

Similar in both lava and limestone Similar in both lava and limestone Similar in both lava and limestone

Succession:

The different geology, food resources, and environment interact to affect succession in cave communities. In limestone caves, erosion and downcutting create newer cave habitats ever deeper within the limestone deposit, while older caves degrade and no longer contain deep zone environments. Water-transported food is also carried to the deepest passages. Thus, the cave community moves deeper with time (White et al., 1995). The situation is the reverse in lava.

New lava flows undergo succession as a mature forest develops on the surface. Pioneer plants arrive, and leaflitter and wind-borne debris slowly build a soil layer. Over time the geophilic pioneers drop out in favor of soil-loving species. This succession affects cave communities. As the pioneering vegetation establ ishes, a greater amount of food enters cave habitats, and the most diverse cave communities occur in young vegetated lava flows. Large deep passages are often wet with abundant dripping water, while shallow passages just below the surface are often dry because the abundant cracks allow airflow and evaporation to take place.

66

Accumulating soil slowly fills surface cracks and voids, limiting root penetration by the pioneering trees. The soil also captures and holds both nutrients and water, so that plants capable of growing in soil eventually replace the pioneering species. Much less water reaches deeper cave environments, and the larger cave-sized passages, especially those connecting directly to the surface, dry out. Much less food also enters the deeper caves, and the animals retreat further from entrances and into passages that still receive food. Curiously, the soi I seals the surface, so that shallower cave passages now retain moisture. Some soi I inhabiting roots can grow into these shallow voids. Thus, cave animals move with their environment upwards into shallower passages as succession progresses.

The rate of succession is related to the surface climate and floristic diversity. In dry and mesic habitats on Hawaii Island, the stages can be observed in flows from 100 to 10,000 years old. In rain forest climates, succession progresses very fast, so that some of the stages are obscured, with some cave species arriving within a decade after the flow, while caves less than 10,000 years old may appear barren. Older cave habitats in active volcanic areas, can be rejuvenated by later flows that cover part of the cave and reset both surface and cave succession to their beginning stages. Recent radiocarbon dating of lava flows on Hawaii confirm that young active volcanoes are extremely dynamic environments: the total surface area of Mauna Loa has been renewed at a rate of about 40% per 1000 years, whi Ie the renewal rate for Kilauea has been even faster, at nearly 90% per 1000 years (Holcomb, 1987; Lockwood and Lipman, 1987).

Environment:

The physical environment is similar in both limestone and lava caves; they are dark, three-dimensional mazes. In addition, caves are strongly zonal habitats. Five zones can be characterized by their abiotic and biotic environments: Entrance, Twilight, Transition, Deep Cave and Stagnant Air Zones (Howarth, 1993). The extent of each zone is governed by the location, size, and shape of the entrances and passages; however, the boundaries between the zones are dynamic. The deep cave and stagnant air zones usually occur only deep within caves or beyond a passage constriction such as an n-or u-shaped deadend passage, which trap water vapor and carbon dioxide. Only a few caves extend into the stagnant air zone, but it is hypothesized that this is the environment characteristic of the mesocaverns (Howarth and Stone, 1990). In both limestone and lava caves, obligate cave species are almost universally restricted to the two deeper zones, where the air remains saturated with water vapor. Many are found only in deadend passages beyond tortuous crawlways.

Synthesis:

In spite of the great contrasts in parent rock and mode of formation, specialized subterranean animals living in both lava and karstic caves display remarkably similar adaptations, indicating that selection pressures and ecology must be similar (Howarth, 1983; Huppop, 1986). For both rock types, numerous cave-sized and smaller passages exist that have restricted contact with the surface, and also the surface over both often has barren areas with food resources sinking into subterranean voids out of reach of surface species. Troglobites evolved to exploit these resources in the harsh subterranean environment; that is, they appear to be adapted to exploit medium sized subterranean voids - mesocaverns. Limestone caves are continuously present for long periods of time, and the cave habitat deepens with age. In limestone, whenever active cracks begin to plug from soil formation, litter, and vegetation, descending water will either keep them open or enlarge others to maintain the flow of water and food energy into ever deeper caves. In Hawaii, younger lava tubes only 500 to 1000 years old appear to harbor the most diverse faunas. Tree roots dangle into caves and supply food energy directly, as well as provide avenues for other food to enter deep caves. As the lava surface ages, the cracks fill with soil, roots, and litter, which prevents food and water from entering deep caves. Simultaneously, however, shallow cave passages become more sealed from the surface climate. Troglobites track their changing environment and move closer to the surface as the lava ages.

There are exceptions; where food does enter older caves such as in 600,000 year old Koloa Cave on Kauai and in 190,000 year old Bayliss Cave in Australia, cave animals can be found. While deep young passages that receive little food input, such as parts of SOO-year old Kazurnura Lava Tube on Hawaii, support few animals. Barr (1968) described a similar situation in Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, in which cave species were rare in the larger main passages but more common at the ends of truncated passages where food and moisture entered the passage.

67

Most of the world's cave species remain unknown to science. Recent discoveries show that significant faunas can be expected wherever a system of interconnected subterranean voids have been available with food for long enough time.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

For the opportunity to visit the Canary Islands again, to attend the 7th International Vulcanospeleological Symposium, and to see first hand what's happening in Hawaii's sister island group in the Atlantic, I thank most sincerely Professor Pedro Oromf, Conny Spelbrink, and the organizing committee of the symposium for the invitation and for making the generous arrangements so that I could attend. I thank F D. Stone, Hawaii Community College, Hilo; E. Pearthree and E. O'Toole, University of Hawaii, Manoa; and my wife N. C. Howarth for lively discussions and assistance in the field. I also thank F D. Stone and N. C. Howarth for comments on the manuscript.

I ded icate this contribution to the memory of my good friend and colleague J. J. «<1 uanjo») Hernandez Pacheco.

LITERATURE CITED

BARR, T. c., Jr. 1968. Cave ecology and the evolution of troglobites. Evolutionarv Biology, 2: 35-102. CULVER,D.C. 1982. Cave Life Evolution and Ecology. Harvard University Press, Cambridge. 189 p. FORD, T.D. 1978. Chillagoe - a tower Karst in decay. Trails. British Cove Research Assoc. 5 (2): 61-84. HOCH, H. and FG. HOWARTH. 1989. Six new cavernicolous cixiid planthoppers in the genus Solonaima

from Australia (Homoptera: Fulgoroidea). Systematic Entomology, 14: 377-402.

HOLCOMB, R.T. 1987. Eruptive history and long-term behavior of Kilauea Volcano. p. 261-350 (Chapter 12) IN: R.W. Decker, TL. Wright, and P.H. Stauffer (eds.) Volcanism in Hawaii. vol. I. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 1350.

HOWARTH, FG. 1980. The zoogeography of specialized cave animals: a bioclimatic model. Evolution, 34: 394-406.

HOWARTH, FG. 1983. Ecology of cave arthropods. Annual Review of Entomology, 28: 365-389. HOWARTH, FG. 1993. High-stress subterranean habitats and evolutionary change in cave-inhabiting arthropods. American Naturalist, 142: S65-77.

HOWARTH, FG. and FD. Stone. 1990. Elevated carbon dioxide levels in Bayliss Cave, Australia: implications for the evolution of obligate cave species. Pacific Science, 44: 207-218.

HOPPOP, K. 1986. The role of metabolism in the evolu tion of cave animals. National Speleological Society Bulletin, 47: 136-146.

JUBERTHIE, C. 1983. Introduction, Ie milieu souterrain: etendue et composition. Metnoires de Biospeologie, 10: 17-65.

LOCKWOOD, J.P. and P.W. LIPMAN 1987. Holocene eruptive history of Mauna Loa Volcano. pp. 509-535 (Chapter 18) IN: R.W. Decker, TL. Wright, and P.H. Stauffer (eds.) Volcanism in Hawaii, vol. I. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 1350.

PETERSON, D.W., R.T. HOLCOMB, R.T. TILLING, and R.L. CHRISTIANSEN. 1994. Development of lava tubes in the light of observations at Mauna Ulu, Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii. Bull. VOlCWlOl., 56: 343-360.

PETERSON, D.W. and D.A. SWANSON. 1974. Observed formation of lava tubes during 1970-71 at Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii. Studies in Speleology, 2: 209-222.

SWEETING, M.M. 1973. Karst Landforms. Columbia University Press, N.V. 362 p.

TORII, H. 1960. A consideration of the distribution of some troglobionts of Japanese caves. (I). Japanese 1. Zoology, 12: 555-584.

UENO, S.-1. 1971. The fauna of the lava caves around Mt. Fuji-san. I. Introduction and historical notes.

Bull. Natl. Science Museum, Tokyo, 14: 201-218, Plates 1-4.

VANDEL, A. 1965. Biospeleologv: The Biology ofCavernicolous Animals. Transl. B.E. Freeman. Oxford:

Pergamon. 524 pp. (From French).

WHITE, W.B, D.C. CULVER, J.S. HERMAN, TC. KANE, & J.E. MYLROIE. 1995. Karst lands.

American Scientist, 83: 450-459.

68

GALERIA «JUAN JOSE HERNANDEZ PACHECO», UN NUEVO DESCUBRIMIENTO EN EL COMPLEJO DE LA CUEVA DEL VIENTO - SOBRADO

(ICOD DE LOS VINOS, TENERIFE)

ALFREDO LAINEZ CONCEPCION

Grupo de Espeleologfa de Canarias Benisahare. Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Islas Canarias

INTRODUCCION

Ya desde antes de la conquista de las islas en el Siglo XV, los primitivos pobladores de Canarias conocfan la existencia de ciertas grutas e incluso las utilizaban para varios fines.

La espeleologfa en Canarias se inicia como una actividad puramente deportiva. Sin duda la ex istencia de galerfas subterraneas inexploradas cautivo el interes y la curiosidad de los prirneros ex ploradores. Entre ellos, y formando ya parte de la historia de la espeleologfa de Can arias figuran los herrnanos D. Jose y D. Agustfn de Betancourt y Castro, D. Jose Monteverde y Molina, D. Cristobal Afonso y otros, quienes en 1776 realizaron una exploracion de 9 horus en la Cueva de Los Guanches (hoy Cueva de San Marcos) en el municipio de leod de Los Vinos (ver BETHENCOURT Y CASTRO, 1776). La prirnera referencia escrita de la espeleologfa en Canarias, escritos por D. Cristobal Afonso, en una visita realizada dos aiios antes a lu Cueva del Viento en Icod y de Ia que reproducimos estes frugmentos:

«Tendra esta cueva obscura media cuarto de legua de largura. esto es, lo que anduvimos.

que 10 denuis, ya no lo viinos: dicen algunos que .I'Ll asiento

tiene Eolo ell la cueva, que es del viento:

to mas cierto, quc elfuego abrio CSf({ gruta que aunque la tierra se resiste bruta,

de su ardor oprimida,

ti sus volcanes les franqueo salida:

COil tan juertes TOZOlZes,

vienen del Pico estos bocarrones».

Y cuanta razon podfa irnaginar D, Cristobal Afonso ya que la Cueva del Viento desde esos aries hasta los actuates ha ido desvelando sus secretos guardados por el Rey Eolo y la madre naturaleza, gracias al gran entusiasrno de muchas personas amantes de la espeleologla que han ido dando a conocer estes secretes.

DESCRIPCION GEOLOGICA DEL COMPLEJO VOLcANICO VIENTO-SOBRADO.

La cueva del Viento-Sobrado se halla ubicada en la zona Norte de la isla de Tenerife, en el valle de Iced de Los Vinos. Los rasgos orograficos que caracterizan esta zona de la isla son de luderas con una pendiente descendente en direccion Norte, y un relieve suavizado como consecuencia de los recubrimientos de coladas de materiales mas recientes que discurrieron desde el sector central de la isla.

En el PORN de la Cueva Viento-Sobrado (VARIOS AUTORES, 1995) se describen las caructerfsticas geologicas de la zona, que reproducimos a continuacion. Los terrenos estan formados por dos tipos de

69

coladas, una de tipo traquftico-fonoliticas de los Roques Bluncos (Serie IV) y otra de basaltos plagioclasicos (Scrie III). Los materiales de la Serie III ocupan la mayor extension superficial, adernas de aburcar un amplio espectro composicional desde los terrninos basalticos olivinicos. hasta terrninox fonolfticos. Los tipos litologicos mas cornunes corresponden a basaltos olivfnicos procedeutes de centros de emisi6n mas 0 menos cercanos. Asirnisrno, en el valle de lcod los apilamientos de coladas basalticas de esta Serie pueden lIegar a alcanzar varies centenares de metros. En relacion con esta Serie tambien se encuentran rocas de caracter mas salico con composiciones que varian entre traquibasaltos y fonolitas maficas.

Intercalados en este conjunto se encuentran, adernas, algunos paquetes de coladas muy delgadas de basaltos vacuolares de tipo «pahoehoe», que presentan entre elias unox lirnites muy claros, sin bases frugmentarias y que en conjunto pueden constituir acurnulaciones con potencias superiores a los 10 metros.

Los afloramientos de la Serie IV ocupan una extension reducida dentro de la zona de la cueva y entre sus materiales predominan las rocas de cornposicion intermedin a salica.

La cueva del Viento-Sobrado se forma durante la ernision de las Series JJl y TV, durante las cuales el material reboso desde la Caldera de las Cafiadas, esparciendose por la vertiente norte y cubriendo la cornarca de leod. Los rubes subterraneos presentan sus ejes orientados con ciertu desviacion respecto a la direccion norte-sur. Aunque en esta cueva xe dan las tres fuses clasicas de formacion de: construccion de tubo, drenaje del conducto e interrupcion y colapso, su mayor cornplejidad pcrrnite reconocer hasta xiete etapas distinrus en la forrnacion.

En la primera se conforrno una gran unidad donde se constituyo la galena de los Ingleses (Breveritas inferior) y la del Sobrado inferior (esta ultima denominada Galerfu Juan Jose Hernandez Pacheco). Posiblemente el origen de estas cuevas estuvo asociada a grandes canales que posrcriorrnente se fueron techando.

Luego sobrevino un periodo de pequeiia 0 nula actividad volcanica, dreruindose el contenido lavico de arnbas cavidades. Posteriormente, la lava enfriada y mas compacta se colapso en varias de las secciones del techo de la cueva.

Una nueva colada causa la forrnacion de un sistema de grandes canales trenzados 0 subparalelos bajo la inclinada pendiente del terreno y a traves de la lfnea del antiguo tubo.

En una etapa posterior se seleccionaron rutas lavicas mas favorables causando la modificacion de las formas y patrones del recorrido. Las fluctuaciones en el nivei de lava originaron la formaci6n de «tubes de desparramiento» conectando las principales rutas alimentadoras y ocupando nuevas superficies. EI techado de los tubos principales fue progresando rnientras por las claraboyas escapabu lava liquida durante las posteriores subidas de flujo El sobreflujo capture la cueva inferior colapsandose el techo y formando los pozos que conectan las galerfas mas superficiales (Breveritas Superior y Piquetes) con las mas profundus (Breveritas Inferior e Ingleses).

En la siguiente etapa la lava fluyo durante un tiempo de forma continuada con periodicas surgencias, acornod.indose bajo tierra. Luego, con el cese de la actividad efusiva volcanica, se produjo un lento y gradual drenaje de la lava ya muy viscosa, modificando y dando lugar a diversidad de formas y secciones.

Finalrnente, el enfriamiento de la lava condujo en algunos tramos al colapso del techo y las paredes.

HISTORIA DE LOS DESCUBRIMIENTOS.

La cavidad Viento-Sobrado est a considerada como uno de los mayores tubes volc.inicos del mundo (WOOD, 1973). En el afio 1968 se empezo a explorar y topografiar por espeleologos del Grupo Montafiero de Tenerife y su seccion de Vulcanoespeleologfa de la Guancha descubriendo 6 krn de galerias; en el afio 1972 (vel' COMITE NACIONAL ESPELOLOGIA, 1979) un grupo de espeleologos ingleses descubren 4 krn de nuevas galerias aumentando el desarrollo a 10 km (COURBON, 1972); en el aiio 1989 los miernbros del Grupo de Espeleologfa de Tenerife Benisahare descubren la union de la Cueva del Viento con la del Sobrado aumentando el recorrido a cerca de 14 km (LAINEZ et al., 1993).

70

J--+

j

! .-q

; ,-+

-- ~-oj-

- ·-1

!I
0
w
w
I
w
ct
tj
0 ~
I
;:
w
Vl 0
~ l!i
:z !I !I
«
~
«
OC
w
-'
«
""
~l II ~ , _,-
---<>I-
--+
u
+
· -q-
, -11- .+
.-,- ' -q-
. -d- .~-
j -+
-+
.-q- ·-cl-
-q- • ---"1-
--+ • ---ct-
- ---q-
.+
-....q-
-+
--;- - -d-
----;-- 4-
--q-
· -+
. -1.6-
-+
--9- .+

· -d-

• q

· -4- .+

,-+

• -<:j-

71

Pero esta cavidad nos seguirfa deparando nuevas sorpresas: el dia 6 de junio de 1994 con motive de las obras que realizaba el Cabildo de Tenerife con el Musco de Ciencias Naturales de Tenerife en la boca inferior del Sobrado aparece una nueva uni6n con otra cavidad inferior de grandes dirnensiones, con este nuevo descubrirniento el desarrollo de la cavidad se aproxima de memento a los 19 k m.

Desde hace mucho tiempo atras, algunos espcleologos mantenfamos que el gran complejo de la Cueva del Viento-Sobrado podrfa dar muchas sorpresas; estas han ido upareciendo debido a la generosidad de la Cueva en desvelarnos sus entrarias y otras a la tenacidad de algunas personas, como fue el case de nuestro amigo Juan Jose Hdez. Pacheco, cornprometido desde muchos an os con el terna de la espeleologfa, desarrollo una gran labor en este campo en la Universidad de La Laguna donde se licenci6 en la IS" Prornocion (1980-1985) especializandose en Bioespeleologfa, seccion que coordinaba admirablernente en el Musco de Ciencias Naturales de Santa Cruz de Tenerife, donde ocupaba plaza de Tecnico-Biologo. Uno de sus cornetidos era la realizaci6n de un proyecro en la Cueva del Viento-Sobrado para xu protecci6n y planificacion de futuras visitas de publico. Como parte de cste proyccto decidio cxtraer los escornbros vertidcs en un jameo. hace unos 80 an os a rafz del accidentc sufrido por una vecina que cayo al interior y que la autoridad mando clausurar. La excavaci6n dio como resultado la aparici6n de una sima de unos 23 metros de profundidad, la cual daba acceso a un gran tubo volcunico perteneciente al mismo complejo de la Cueva del Viento-Sobrado, con un desarrollo topografico de 2.346 metros.

Con esto la Cueva del Viento-Sobrado pasa a tener una gran importancia a nivel mundial tanto por xu desarrollo, como el gran interes geologico y biol6gico. Desgraciadamente Juan Jose Hernandez. no pudo ver terminado su proyecto al sufrir un accidente de trafico en el que perdi6 la vida el dla 22 de julio de 1994. Con este articulo querernos resefiar 10 que una persona con su tenacidad logr6 descubrir en las entrarias de la Cueva del Viento-Sobrado y recordar a un amigo que sicrnprc tendrernos en nuestra memoria.

EI tubo volcanico denominado en su nornbre Galerfu Juan Jose Hernandez Pacheco se abre a traves de una sima denorninada Lopez Bonillo por la cual descendiendo unos 23 metros, accedernos a una gran sala que se divide en dos tubos. A media pared queda otro pequeiio tubo: la Cueva Petrolea. Bajando pOI' un derrumbe de bloques nos introducimos en un amplio tubo dcscendente que a pocos metros va aurnentando su altura entre unos 8 y 10 metros y su anchura entre :3 y 5 metros. A medida que bajarnos varnos encontrandonos cornisas a diferentes alturas, legados de una circulaci6n lavica abundante en su interior.

EI suelo es de escoria bastante aspera. En el suclo vamos encontrando restos de un irnportante yacimiento paleontol6gico, abundan restos de la rata gigante Canariornys bravoi, cspecie propia del archipielago ya extinguida y que esta ernparcntada con otra especie de Gran Canaria conocida por el nornbre de Canariornys tamarani. La cavidad va disrninuyendo en altura y ensanchandose, apareciendo bifurcaciones a diferentes niveles de distintos desarrollos, aunque algunos no se han podido cx plorar debido a su diffcil acceso. Nos encontramos con un ramal grande ala derecha que fuc en xu dla un tubo secundario el cual se estrecha hasta Ilegar a unas gateras imposibles de superar.

EI tubo sigue descendiendo hasta una primera estrechez debida al taponamiento del material en esta parte del tubo, esta da paso a una cascada pOI' 10 que la cavidad vuelve a tener dimensiones un poco mas bajas y anchas para de nuevo abrirse a un tamario de 5 x 5 metros. Otra pcquefia bifurcaci6n nos vuelve a llevar al tubo principal. Continuando el descenso aparece una segunda caxcuda, asf como estafilitos y estalactitas recubriendo el techo. La gatera va disminuyenclo hasta lIegar a una gatera impracticable. Acabarnos este rrabajo con unos versos de D. Cristobal Afonso que dedicarnos a nuestro amigo Juan Jose Hernandez Pacheco y a la Cueva del Viento-Sobrado.

«Ell este pues lugar f{//11oS0,

si 110 de los mayores, populoso,

cuvos principios, por algun descuido, sus archivos lo guardan ell olvido.

d fa parte Norte csta una fosa

que ci la vista se tnuestra t emerosa

porque su. obscura boca es toll cstrecha que apenas para entrar !lOS abrio breclia».

72

AGRADECIMIENTOS

Quiero dedicar este trabajo al inolvidable Juan Jose Hernandez Pacheco, descubridor de esta nueva cavidad y bajo cuya direcci6n se inici6 el estudio topografico de la misma. Nuestro agradecimiento tarnbien a todos aquellos cornpafieros que colaboraron en el topografiado de la cueva,

BIBLIOGRAFIA

BETHENCOURT Y CASTRO, J. 1776. De una nueva cueva que se hal/a en la isla de Tenerife examinada 14-11-1776.

COMITE NACIONAL DE ESPELEOLOGIA. 1979. Avance del Catdlo go de g randes cavidades de Espaiia. Ed. C.N.E. Madrid 241 pp.

COURBON, P. 1972. Atlas de grandes cavidades del Mundo.

LA.INEZ, A.., F. RUO, J.A. BONILLA y F.J. TRUJILLO. 1993. Destrucci6n del ecosistema de la Cueva del Viento. leod de Los Vinos. Aetas VI Congreso Espaiiol de Espeleologia: 10 I-II I.

VVA.A., 1995. Plan de ordenacion de recursos naturales de la Cueva del Viento-Sobrado. Gobierno de Canarias, Consejerfa de Politica Territorial, 73 pp + 2 mapas.

WOOD, c., 1973. Cueva del Viento confirmed to be the longest lava tube cave in the world. Journal Shepton Mallet Caving Club, 5 (6): 3-7.

73

RELATION BETWEEN THE VOLCANIC ACTIVITY OF Mt. HACHIJO-FUJI AND VOLCANIC CAVES ON HACHUOJIMA ISLAND,

THE SEVEN IZU ISLANDS, JAPAN

T AKASHI OHSAKO

c/o Sakae prit Co., 3-6-1, OHTSUKA BUNKYO-KU, TOKIO, 112 JAPAN

ABSTRACT

Volcanic caves which cannot be explained by conventional formation mechanisms were discovered at the summit of Mt. Hachijo-Fuji on Hachijojima Island for the first time. The narnesof the caves are Hachijo-Fuji Fuketsu and Hachijo Dome FissureCaves. The purpose of this paper is to propound a formation mechanism of Hachijo-Fuji Fuketsu as an example of a volcanic tectonic cave on the basis of a slide of a bed in the craterrim, and that of Hachijo Dome Fissure Caves as an example of alava dome fissure cave on the basis of a residual thermal stressin the lava dome.

Hachijo-Fuji Fuketsu is formed along the head of the slide because fissures are formed in the bed owing to collaspes of thecrater rim, and the resultant slide develops the fissures intoHachijo-Fuji Fuketsu with the width of the fissures widening.

Hachijo Dome Fissure Caves are formed in the form of a fissure in the plane of the maximum residual thermal stress in the lava dome with viscoelastic properties because quick cooling of the wall of a pit crater with the atmosphere causes the fissure to be formed through deformation of the lava dome due to the residual thermal stresses.

I. INTRODUCTION

Members of Japan Volcanospeleological Soiety have been investigating volcanic caves on Hachijojima Island, one of the Seven Izu Islands, Japan since the existence of Hachijo Fuketsu N°.1 was confirmed in 1979.

Hachijo-Fuji Fuketsu and Hachijo Dome Fissure Cave A were discovered in 1990 and in 1992 respectively. However, it has turned out that the formation of these volcanic caves cannot be explained by coventional formation mechanisms of volcanic caves.

The purpose of this paper is to propound formation mechanisms of a volcanic tectonic cave and a lava dome fissure cave. The formation mechanisms are proposed on the basis of my on-the-spot surveys. Hachijo-Fuji Fuketsu is a volcanic tectonic cave. Hachijo Dome Fissure Caves are instances of a lava dome fissure cave.

The term a volcanic tectonic cave" is defined as the volcanic cave formed because of a slide of a bed in an unsteady crater rim as a result of the sliding of a bed. The term a lava dome fissure cave" is defined as the volcanic cave formed in the form of a fissure in a lava dome with viscoelastic properties because of a residual thermal stress.

Before turning to the main argument, this paper describes an outline of the Seven Izu Islands, a summary of the geology and topography of Hachijojima Island and Mt. Hachijo-Fuji, and the volcanic caves on Hachijojima Island.

2. THE SEVEN IZU ISLANDS

The Seven Izu Islands is composed of Oshima, Toshirna, Niijima, Kozushima, Miyakejirna, and Hachijojima islands (Fig. I ).

75

, 3 9' E

I • O· E TOKYO I

M r . F UJ , •

A \)
~
B 0 _"
CIJ
DO
EO
3 4' N FD
t h. Pac i fie
o c e a n
">\_) G
3 3' N
1 3 9' E 1 • o· E Fig.I.- The locations and the names of the Seven Izu Islans. A: Oshima Island, B: Toshima Island, C: Niijima Island, D: Kozushima Island, E: Miyakejima Island, F: Mikurajima Island, G: Hachijojima Island.

The Seven Izu Islamds is situated in the western part of the Pacific Ocean, between latitude 33 degrees to 35 degrees north and longitude 139 degrees to 140 degrees east.

To take two typical examples, Oshima Island is situated about II Okm south of Tokyo, the nation's capital. Hachijojima Island is situated about 290 km south of Tokyo.

The Islands are located on the eastern border of the Philippene Sea Plate. The origin of island-arc type volcanos is related to the subduction of the Pacific Plate underneath the Philippene Sea Plate. Some island-arc type volcanoes have developed into the SevenIzu Islands (Yuasa, 1991).

Table I shows the relation of the geology of the Seven Izu Islands and the volcanic caves. Oshima, Toshima, Miyakejima islands are made up principally of basalt and andesite (Isshiki, 1959). Volcanic caves have been discovered except Toshima Island because we have not yet made investigations into volcanic caves on Toshima Island.

There is no volcanic cave on Niijima Island and Kozushirna Island because they are made up principally of rhyolite.

3. HACHIJOJIMA ISLAND

As I mentioned above, Hachijojima Island is the southernmost island of the Seven Izu Islands. It has the shape of a pear with maximum 8 km in width and 14 km in length. The area of this island is about 69 square kilometers (Fig. 2)

Hachijojima Island consists of Mt. Hachijo-Fuji and Mt. Miharayarna. Mt. Hachijo-Fuji is the highest volcano in the Seven Izu Islands. It is 854.3 meters high. The heiht of Mt.Miharayama is 700.9 meters.

Mt. Miharayama is made up of a caldera stratovolcano (region 2 in Figure 2) and a small conical volcano (region 3 in Figure 2) (Isshiki, 1984). The volcanic activity started tens thousands of years ago and ended 3000 years ago or 2000 years ago. The caldera was created about twenty thousand years ago. The volcanic body of Mt. Miharayama has been dissected considerably (Nomura, 1986).

The large degree of dissection must have destroyed the volcanic caves on Mt. Miharayama because most volcanic caves tend to exist near the surface of the earth.

Mt. Hachijo-Fuji is a main stratovolcano (region I in Figure 2) (lsshiki, 1984). The volcanic activity started 3000 years ago or 2000 years ago and ended in 1707. Mt. Hachijo-Fuji is scarcely dissected (Nomura, 1986).

As for the geology of the two volcanos, Mt. Miharayarna is made up principally of Andisitic

76

lavas, basaltic lavas and phyloclastic rocks. Mt. Hachijo-Fuji, on the other hand, is made up principally of basaltic lavas and scoria (Nomura, 1986). Considering the difference in the degree of dissection between the two volcanoes and that in the geology between the two volcanoes, it is reasonable that the volcanic caves are concentrated not in Mt. Miharayama but in Mt. Hachijo-Fuji (Fig.2). The circles in Figure 2 designate the locations of the volcanic caves.

Fig.2.- Topographic map of Hachijojima Island. The closed circles designate the locations of volcanic caves. The region I) is a main stratovolcano. The region 2) is a caldera stratovolcano (Older caldera stratovolcano). The region 3) is a small conical volcano (Younger caldera strato-volcano). (Modified after Isshiki, 1984.)

lit. HACHI..(}-f1JJ1
/ (85400) N
1
I "
M -r; (701m)

\ " (

/

(3) )

;'

L

5 k m

4. MT. HACHIJO-FUJI

Mt. Hachijo-Fuji is an almost perfectly conical stratovolcano just like Mt. Fuji in the Mainland of Japan (Fig. 3).

1__2~ CRATER ~PARAStTIC VOLCANO

MAIN STRATOVOI.CANO

Sse 0 r j 11 COn e

T 1 U f f can C

Fig.3.- A complete view ofMt. Hachijo-Fuji from Mt. Miharayama. Mt. Hachijo-Fuji is an almost perfectly conical stratovolcano just like Mt. Fuji in the Mainland of Japan.

FigA.- Topographic map of Mt. Hachijo-Fuji. Mt. Hachijo-Fuji occupies the northwestern part of Hachijojima Island. The broken line represents a boundary between the region of Mt. Hachijo-Fuji and that of Mt. Miharayama. (Modified after Isshiki, 1959.)

The small island to the left is a volcanic island named Hachijo-Kojima. It is located at 7.5 km northwest of Hachijojima Island. It is considered that this island was created in the first stage of Mt. Miharayama formation (The board of Education of Hachijo-Cho, 1973).

Mt. Hachijo-Fuji has parastic volcanoes in the southwest part of its foot. These volcanoes have nothing to do with the volcanic caves on Hachijo Island because no cave exists on the parasitic volcanoes (Fig. 4).

77

Mt. Hachijo-Fuji has a summit crater named Oana. It's about 400 meters in diameter, and about 50 meters in depth. The volcanic tectinic cave exists on the rim of the summit crater (Fig. 5).

Moreover, Mt. Hachijo-Fuji has a lava dome in the summit crater. There are five lava dome fissure caves with twelve entrances in the lava dome.

Furthmore, Mt. Hachijo-Fuji has a pit crater named Koana in the summit crater. It is about 180 meters in diameter, and about 95 meters in depth. The formation of this pit crater caused the lava dome fissure caves to be created in the lava dome. The details will be described later.

It is recorded in documets that the eruptions of Mt. Hachijo-Fuji was in 1394 ",,1427, 1487, 1518"" 1523, 1605 and 1707. However, it is not described whether the eruptions were summit eruptions or lateral eruptions. Moreover, it is not clear where lava flows poured from because lava explorations have been begun only partly on Hachijojima Island (Nomura, 1986).

The last eruption of Mt. Fuji is also in 1707. The relation between these eruptions has not been apparent yet.

Fig.5.- The locations of Hachijo-Fuji Fuketsu and Hachijo Dome Fissure Caves in the summit crater ofMt. HachijoFuji. Koana is the name of the pit crater. Oana is the name of the summit crater. The crosses designate the entrances of Hachijo-Fuji Fuketsu and Ha ch ijo Dome Fissure Caves.t After Hacjijo-cho, Tokyo.)

5. VOLCANIC CAVES ON HACHIJOJIMA ISLAND

Table 2 is a list of volcanic caves on Hachijojima Island. These volcanic caves can be roughly classified into four groups: a lava cave, a rift cave, a volcanic tectonic cave and a lava dome fissure cave.

There are nine lava caves. Hachijo Fuketsu N." I is the second longest lava cave in Japan. The longest lava cave is Mitsuike-Ana at the foot of Mt. Fuji. It is 2202 meters long.

Hachijo Fuketsu N." 2 is missing. Why should we cannot find it out in spite of three times searches?

Hachijo Fuketsu N." 5, Gokuraku-Ana, Hachijo Dome Fissure Cave C and E are unsurveyed caves.

There are four rift caves. Part ofNazumado Rift Cave is a lava cave, which is 80 meters long. Rift cave part of this cave is more than 6 meters high. We cannot climb up any higher because of a narrow passage.

There is the volcanic tectonic cave named Hachijo-Fuji Fuketsu. There are the five lava dome fissure caves named Hachijo dome fissure cave A, B, C, D and E. Hachijo dome fissure cave A is the deepest volcanic cave in Japan. It is 77m in depth. There are 19 volcanic caves altogether.

I would like to focus attention on the formation mechanisms of the volcanic tectonic cave and the lava dome fissure caves because they were discovered for the first time in Japan.

6. VOLCANIC TECTONIC CAVE

6.1 Features of the Outside of Hachijo-Fuji Fuketsu

In view of the important features of the crater rim of Mt. Hachijo-Fuji, let us then consider the formation mechanism of Hachijo-Fuji Fuketsu.

78

The cross on the topographic map (Fig.5) designates the locations of two entrances of HachijoFuji Fuketsu. These entrances open on the upper part of a very steep crater wall, namely a free face. The mark of the topographic map under the cross presents a rock precipice. A talus slope can be observed at the foot of the crater wall, and hence it is considered that retreats of the crater wall due to a rockfall caused the entrances to open on the free face.

Part of the crater rim with the entrances is higher than parts of the crater rim on both sides of the entrances. As is analogized from the numerous examples of collapses of crater rims on stratovolcanoes (Oilier, 1991), collapses of the crater rim due to volcanic activity of Mt. Hachijo-Fuji resulted in the formation of the lower parts of the crater rim.

Judging from these features, it can be considered that the higher part of the crater rim with the entrances was left behind as an unsteady rock precipice during the volcanic activity.

As is evident from Figure 5, Hachijo-Fuji Fuketsu is located along the brink of the unsteady rock precipice. Moreover, the cave is below the slope of the higher part of the crater rim. These features indicate that the unsteady rock precipice was pulled downward by gravity, and hence it is considered that tensile stresses toward the center of the crater and the lower part of the crater rim have been set up in the higher part of the crater rim.

6.2 Features of the Inside of Hachijo-Fuji Fuketsu

The angle of inclination of the cave is about 27 degrees, and that of the slope of the crater rim over the cave is about 25 degrees (Fig.6). These features show that Hachijo-Fuji Fuketsu is formed near the surface of the crater rim because Entrance 2 is about 4 meters below the surface.

--------- ..•. ---

______ SECTION_ - " ~

---- ... - .- 20

3 0

----------~~- ..... -'-"":~~~~~:~~~ -,,---

=================~5~O'~"'~~'~-_ .-_ .. ,Om

N

Fig.6.- Map of Hachijo-Fuji Fuketsu Hachijo-Fuji Fuketsu. The cave iscomposed of Passage A, passage B and Passage C. Pair of Passage C was excavated. Entrance I was opened artificially.

10

2 0

3 (I

4 0 m

It is reported from a seismic prospecting that the internal structure of Mt. Hachijo-Fuji is symmetrical about the central axis of the crater (Tokyo Metropolitan Government Office, 1992). It is likely from this feature that the stratification structure of Mt. Hachojo-Fuji promotes sliding by the collapses of the crater rim described in section 6.1 because stratification planes act as shear surfaces along which a slide bed moves downward (Fujita, 1990).

The floor in Passage A is buried under lots of pyroclastic materials, such as lappili, volcanic blocks and lavas, while the floor in Passage B is somewhat buried. Moreover, there is scarcely a variation in the height of a ceiling in Passage A in comparison with a variation in Passage B. These features indicate that Passage A was affected in interior conditions by the volcanic activity after Entrance 2 was opened by the retreats.

79

6.3 Formation Mechanism of Hachijo-Fuji Fuketsu

It is not necessary to consider Entrance I and Passage C because Entrance I was opened artificially and Passage C was excavated for part of a military base during World WarII. This section concentrates on a formation mechanism of Passage A and Passage B.

From the observational studies described above, the formation mechanism can be developed as follows:

I) the crater rim of Mt. Hachijo-Fuji is formed (Fig.7 a),

2) the crater rim is collapsed by the volcanic activity, and consequently, the higher part of the crater

rim and the lower part of that are formed,

3) the higher part is bent downward by gravity, and hence fissures are formed mainly in the weak part of the bed 2 (Fig.7b),

4) the slide occurs under the crater rim because the bed 2 is divided into two parts on the fissure plane by gravity,

5) the slide widens the fissures, so that it develops them into Hachijo-Fuji Fuketsu (the volcanic tectonic cave) along the head of the slide (Fig.7c),

6) Entrance 2 is opened by the retreats of the crater wall.

A

/
", /
".- / /
./ / I
--- ".-/ /
./ ",
./ ./
_./ /'
./
./ 80.3

Boo 1

Bed 2

Bed 1

Rod 2

Bcd 3

ERLPT I VE F I SSlIHE CAVE

c

Fig. 7.- Diagram illustrating the formation of Hachijo-Fuji Fuketsu. A) The crater rim is formed during the volcanic activity. B) Fissures are formed in the weak part of the stratum 2 after the collapses of the crater rim. The shaped portion designates the zone of the fissures. C) The slide develops the fissures into Hachijo-Fuji Fuketsu (the volcanic tectonic cave) along the head of the slide. The arrow represents the direction of the slide.

80

7. LAVA DOME FISSURE CAVE

Turning now to the formation mechanism of the lava dome fissure caves, namely Hachijo Dome Fissure Caves.

7.1 Features of the Outside of Hachijo Dome Fissure Caves

The fist point to note is that tha entrances are approximately on a straight line (Fig. 5).

The second point to note is that there is neither a strike-slip feature by a lateral fault nor a tectonic scarp by a dip-slip fault on the lava dome.

Thirdly, it is difficult to consider that the northeast-southwest movement of the lava dome accompanied with a tensile stress caused the lava dome fisurre caves to form in the lava dome because the relative height value of the lava dome, 25 m, is much smaller than the depth value of the lava dome fissure cave, 77 m maximum, so that the movement of the lava dome cannot have had direct effects upon the lower part of the lava dome fissure caves.

These features indicate that Hachijo Dome Fissure Caves were formed not by the tectonic agency, but by the agency of the thermal stress induced by the formation of the pit crater.

There is a ring-shaped trench on the lava dome (Fig. 8). It is believed that the trench formed when the lava of the lava dome went back to the volcanic vent to some extent, and then the fringe of the lava dome cooled with the vent was pu lled toward the center of the lava dome. The trench formed earl ier than the pit crater formed because the northwestern part of the trench is cut by the pit crater as in Figure 5.

Fig. 8.- Looking southeastward toward the summit of Hachijo-Fuji. The ring-shaped trench can be seen on the lava dome. (Photo by Gakken Hachijo Visitor Center).

81

7.2 Features of the Inside of Hachijo Dome Fissure Caves Figure 9 shows the section of Hachijo Dome Fissure Cave B, C, and D. However,it has not yet perfected as a section. Up to now it has been verified that the entrances, N.D 2, N.D 3, N.D 4, N.D 5 and N.D 6 are connected by the lower part of the cave B. Similarly, the entrances, N.D7 and N.D 8 are connected by the lower part of the cave C. Besides, the entrances, N." 9 and N." 10 are connected by the lower part of the cave D (Kondo, personal communications).

As in Figure 9, the several entrances are wide to an explorer, but the width of the caves is reduced at a halfway point and at the bottom of the caves. Each passage is very narrow (Kondo and Hirose, personal communications). Figure 10 shows a very wide bottom at a depth of 66 meters in the Cave A. This is the exception.

EJ(I"1W(l: 110. 2 110. 3 It>. 4 No. 5

..,.

1tl.6 ..., ..

c~

.o,

Ib 1 "'.8

110. 9 Ih 10

t:'-:"':'_ "'") c ":-'::£Cl

:.llll I..J.. 1.'" ,.~

1i(I].r. tlJ.!u

o 0

J.6. 1.113

Fig. 9.- Section of Hachijo Dome Fissure Caves (From T. Hirose, 1993).

Fig. 10.- A very wide bottom in Hachijo Dome Fissure Cave A. (Photo by S. Kondo).

82

It has been reported that the same level lines of lava lining are observed in each of the lava dome fissure caves (Kondo, personal communication). It indicates that all entrances were connected by the lower part of the caves when a lava rose to the same lava level lines.

Several observations in the last few paragraphs have shown that the vertical cave system of very narrow width consists of Hachijo Dome Fissure Caves.

7.3 Formation Mechanism of Hachijo Dome Fissure Caves

In this section, I make the assumption that the lava dome can be regarded as a viscoelastic body before and after the formation of the pit crater.

It was reported by Miyano et al. in 1983 that a residual compressive stress is set up near the surface of a viscoelastic body and a residual tensile stress is set up in the central part of that when the surface of the body is cooled quickly (Fig. II (a).

It was also reported by Sudo in 1988 that a hollow cylinder is deformed by quick cooling of the internal surface of the cylinder, it changes to a barrel in shape as a result as shown in Figure 11 (b).

RESIDUAL STRESS

til C

--C amp res s i veT ens i I e-« ~

" n

~

~ ~--

QUICK COOLING

n "

:._'-------'---___JL.....J

~

~

- -

B ~

A

Fig. 11.- Principles for the formation mechanism of the Lava Dome Fissure Caves. A) Distribution of a residual stress. B) Deformation of a cylinder. The big arrow represent the direction of the deformation of the cylinder. The small arrows represent the direction of the residual compressive stresses (~ ~) and the residual tensile stresses (~ ~). (A: from K. Miyano et aI., 1983; B: from H Sudo, 1988).

Here, let us regard the lava dome as a hollow cylinder, although the pit crater is inscribed in the crater.

Thermal conductivity of a lava is so low that a time lag of cooling (temperature difference) takes place between the side wall of the pit crater and the fringe of the lava dome when the distance between the two places is long on a horizontal plane.

Let us apply the ideas in Figure II to Hachijo Dome Fissure Caves. The pit crater was formed in the lava dome, and consequently quick cooling of the wall of the pit crater with the atmosphere caused a residual compressive stress to set up near the surface of the pit crater, and, at the same time, caused a residual tensile stress to set up on the fringe of the lava dome, and hence the forces are applied horizontally, for example, in the direction of the arrow I and the arrow 2 in Figure 12.

Consequently, the fissure wi II be formed in the lava dome because of the deformation of the lava dome when the horizontal compressive stress induced by the forces reaches the fracture strength of the lava dome. What has to be noticed is that as the distance between the two places mentioned above gets shorter, a residual stress will grow weaker, for instance, in the direction of the arrow 2 in Figure 12. This is because a time lag of cooling gets shorter.

83

Fig. 12.- Diagram illustrating the formation of Hachijo Dome Fissure Caves. They were formed in the direction of arrow I.

Lava Dome _-

C r 8 1 & r rim

era t & r rim

/

Pi 1 crater

It follows from what has been said that Hachijo dome fissure caves were formed in the plane of the maximum residual stress in the lava dome. In short, the lava dome fissure caves are the cavities where the fissure is not filled by lava blocks, and so on.

8. DISCUSSION

It remaims an unsettled question how Hachijo-Fuji Fuketsu (the volcanic tectonic cave) is formed near the surface of the crater rim.

The interior surface of Passage B just like shark-tooth-shaped lavacicles indicates that the bed I in Figure 13 was a viscoelastic body maintained at a high temperature. Consequently, the bed I will not break by the agency of stress relaxation unless the bed is bent rapid Iy. On the other hand, the elastic bed 2 and the other elastic beds will break in the absence of stress relaxation when the bending stress reaches the rupture strength of the beds. Before the slide starts, the beds are steady, but as soon as the shear surfaces develop among each bed because of the inclination of the crater rim, the only restraining force is the friction of movement. The tendency to slide decreases with increasing bed thickness bacause the sliding frictional forces are in proportion to the forces perpendicular to the shear surfaces as in Figure 13.

D i $ 1 r i l, 1.1 tin II 0 t

the tensile ~tre~s

BA'd 3(Elastic body)

Bed 1 (V i e Co 0 o , 8 S. tic bod y)

Bcd 2(E185tic bony)

surface

Fig. 13.- Diagram illustrating the formation ofHachijoFuji Fuketsu. The shaded portion designates the zone of the fissures.

84

Judging from Figure 13, the bed 2 is the most suitable bed for the slide because the tensile stress due to the bending is strongest in the bed 2, so that the fissures wi II be formed mainly in the bed 2. Moreover, the slidung frictional force is weakest in the bed 2. Consequently, the bed 2 near the surface of the crater rim can slide down most easily in the beds.

Let us leave Hachijo-Fuji Fuketsu and turn to Hachijo Dome Fissure Caves. An example to support the formation mechanism of Hachijo Dome Fissure Caves (the lava dome fissure caves) is a Kondo's personal communication that each of the cave widths in the middle of the depth shows a tendancy to widen in comparison with each of the cave widths at the entrances and the bottoms just as Fig.ll (b) shows. In this formation mechanism, it is very important that the deformation of the lava dome takes place as described in section 7.3. However, the possibility of the cave formation gets smaller when the diameter of the lava dome becomes larger because the viscoelastic property of the lava dome weakens the effect of the deformation on the analogy of a shock absorber.

9. CONCLUSION

In the first half of this paper, the relation of the geology and the number of the volcanic caves on the Seven Izu Islands are described. This relation shows whether volcanic caves exist or not, but cannot clarify the reason why many volcanic caves exist on Hachijojima Island.

The formation mechanism of Hachijo-Fuji Fuketsu is proposed as an example of a volcanic tectonic cave. This mechanism is an accurate reflection of the stratification structure of Mt. Hachijo-Fuji. Considering from the the formation mechanism, a volcanic tectonic cave is a uncommon volcanic cave which has a kind of a slide collapse structure.

The formation mechanism of Hachijo Dome Fissure Caves is proposed as an example of a lava dome fissure cave. This is the first time that a concept of a residual thermal stress has been introduced into the formation mechanism of the volcanic caves. The notable feature of this mechanism is that the movement of matter, such as a lava and pyloclastic materials except volcanic gases, does not take place in the lava dome fissure caves when the lava dome fissure cave is formed.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to thank Gakken Hachijo Visitor Center for permission to use the photograph of the crater of Mt. Hachijo-Fuji and Mr. Sumio Kondo for permission to use the photograph of Hachijo Dome Fissure Cave A ; I also wish to thank Mr. Sumio Kondo and Mr. Toshimichi Hirose for helpful communications of Hachijo Dome Fissure Caves, and Mr. Takanori Ogawa for his comments on HachijoFuji Fuketsu.

N." CAVE NAME LENGTH (DEPTH) NOTE
I Hachijo Fuketsu N." I 1404 m
2 Hachijo Fuketsu N." 2 (missing)
3 Hachijo Fuketsu N.O 3 84 m
4 Hachijo Fuketsu N." 4 76 m
5 Hachijo Fuketsu N." 5 (unsurveyed)
6 Gokuraku Ana (unsurveyed)
7 Sin-Gokuraku Ana 676 m
8 20 Bokku Fuketsu 35 m
!) 21 Bokku Fuketsu 45 m
10 Eigo Rirt Cave N.o I (- 31 m)
II Eigo Rift Cave N.o 2 (- 12 m)
12 Eigo Rift Cave N.o 3 80m(+>Xm)
13 Nazumado Rift Cave
14 Hachijo-Fuji Fuketsu 103 m
15 Hachijo Dome Fissure Cave A (-77 m) Entrance N.o I
16 Hachijo Dome Fissure Cave B (-78 m) Entrance N." 2 = N." 6
17 Hachijo Dome Fissure Cave C Entrance N." 7 = N." X (unsurveyed)
18 Hachijo Dome Fissure Cave D (-70 m) Entrance N."!) = N." 10
19 Hachijo Dome Fissure Cave E Entrance N." II = N." 12 (unsurveyed) 85

REFERENCES

HIROSE, T. 1993. [Rough map of Hachijo-Fuji lava dome rift cave (provisional name)]. Journal of Japan volcanospeleological Society, 30 (3): 6 (in Japanese).

ISSHIKI, N. 1959. [Geology in Hachijojima Island, Regional Geology Study Report]. The Geological Survey of Japan, 58 pp. (in Japanese).

ISSHIKI, N. 1984. [Editorial Committee of KANTO, Part 3 of Regional Geology of Japan (ed)]: [Hachijocho, Yuhama Remains]. The Board of Education of Tokyo Metropolitan Government. pp. 1- 5 (in Japanese).

MIYANO, K. et al. 1983. Expedient estimation method based on photoviscoelastic analysis for residual stress in polyurethaneresin beams by quenching both surfaces. Journal of the Society ofMaterials Science, Japan, 32: 818-822 (in Japanese).

NOMURA, T. 1986. Regional Geology of Japan Part 3 KANTO. Kyoritsu Shuppan, Tokyo, 335 pp. (in

Japanese).

OLLIER, C. 1991. Volcanoes. Kokin Shoin, Tokyo, 257 pp. (in Japanese).

SUDO, H. 1988. Residual stress and strain. Uchida Rokakuho Publishing, Tokyo, 214 pp. (in Japanese). THE BOARD OF EDUCATION OF HACHI.TO-CHO. 1973. A History of Hachijojima Island. Hachijo

Town Hall, Tokyo. 708 pp. (in Japanese).

THE TOKYO METROPOLITAN GOVERNMENT, Bureau of General Affairs, Disaster Control Division, Anti-Disaster Planning Section (Ed.). 1992. Research data on characteristics of volcanic eruption and prevention of volcanic disasters in the Izu Islands. The Tokyo Metropolitan Governemnt, Tokyo. pp. 174-184 (in Japanese).

YU ASA, M. 1991. The reason for the differences in geology phenomena between northern and southern parts of the Izu-Ogasawara Arc. J. Goegraphy, 100 (4): 458-463 (in Japanese).

86

A NOCTUID MOTH COlVIPLETING ITS LIFE CYCLE IN LAVA TUBES ON TENERIFE, CANARY ISLANDS.

P. OROMI, M. ARECHAVALETA & L. SALA

Dpto. Biologfa Animal, Universidad de La Laguna. Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain

MARTIN (1992) reported the presence of adults and cocoons of a noctuid moth (Schrankia ? sp.) in Cueva del Viento-Sobrado and Cueva de Felipe Revent6n (Tenerife), After frequent visits to these and other caves on the island we can corroborate the occurrence of this insect and clarify some aspects of their biology. Indeed, it is confirmed to belong to the species Schrankia costaestrigulis (Stephens, 1829), kindly identified by Dr. D. Agassiz at the International Institute of Entomology in London. According to BACALLADO (1973), this species had already been recorded for La Palma and Gran Canaria by Pinker in 1963, and there was just an obscure record by Simony for Tenerife at the end of last century. Since the moths have been accurately studied in the Canaries during the last decades (see BACALLADO, 1973; BACALLADO & PINKER, 1982), these limited records indicate that Schrankia costaestrigalis is very scarce in epigean environments. However, very abundant individuals, either caterpillars, cocoons or adults have been observed by ourselves in some caves on Tenerife, especially Cueva de Felipe Revent6n.

The larvae feed on tender parts of roots, usually on the growing tips. Most of them are on root sprouts belonging to shrubs or trees that live outside above the lava tubes, reaching the cave through cracks and developing mainly hanging from the roof. They can also be seen upon the rootlets that grow horizontally on the ground of lava tubes, especially when there is some soil. These caterpillars are semiloopers, grey coloured and are usually perching upside down to feed on the root tips.

They prepare a cocoon for pupation with pieces of roots spun together and tied to a dangling root, usually the one they have been feeding on. The cocoon remains hanging at some 2 to 4 cm from the roof. The larvae that feed on roots growing on the ground, pupate hanging under stones or wall prominences, always close to the roots.

The complete process of pupation was followed in the laboratory: several larvae were reared using the same roots picked up in the cave and preserved hanging in humid chambers. They are livingroot chewers and refuse roots that dry out. The caterpillars reared in the laboratory were collected in at least the third instar, so we could not calcu late the exact ti me taken for larval development. Three of the pupae obtained from these larvae achieved their development, hatching on the twelfth day after being enclosed in the cocoon.

The newly hatched adults spend a long time on the cocoon before they start flying; in the cave it is common to see them in this position. Unlike caterpillars, the adults are found all along the lava tube, even far from the roots, what indicates their easy mobility. They are commonly perched on the walls or sitting on the lateral benches or on stones, and fly easily when disturbed. Some mating couples have been observed, and on one occasion a female was laying eggs on a hanging root.

These moths are particularly abundant in Cueva de Felipe Reventon, but they also occur in some other lava tubes of the same area, although they are much scarcer. They do not simply occur in caves with abundant roots, but in those where abundant root sprouts are still growing tender and whitish. As far as we have observed, some of the rootlets in the cave age and become dark, larger roots, but most of them stop growing and dry out. It is only each spring when new rootlets are put forth and provide food for the larvae, who are abundantly seen from June to September but not the rest of the year. The adult moths, however, can be observed at any time, but only frequently during spring and summer.

Neither the larvae nor the adults show special adaptations for cave life, and both males and females are good fliers. HOWARTH (1981) reported the presence of five species of Schrankia known from lava tubes on Hawaii, with different degrees of adaptation. In Kazumura Cave (Hawaii Big Island) there are three species. One is usually found nearer the entrance and has indistinctly patterned wings; in the two

87

LA UTILIZACION DE TUBOS VOLcANICOS POR LOS BENAHOARITAS COMO LUGARES DE HABITACION Y DE ENTERRAMIENTO

FELIPE 1. PAIS PAIS

Gallegos 26,38727 Barlovento, La Palma, Canary Islands

INTRODuccrON

Los benahoaritas, cuando arribaron por primera vez a la isla de La Palma, se encontraron con un medio ecologico y geografico totalmente diferente al que conocfan en sus lugares de origen en el noroeste del continente africano. Nada mas desembarcar, una de sus prirneras necesidades seria, sin duda, encontrar un refugio seguro y abrigado que les permitiese vivir 10 mas cornodamente posib!e. Este problema no les supondrfa excesivos quebraderos de cabeza para resolverlo, ya que las cuevas naturales son extraordinariamente abundantes por toda la orograffa insular, si bien es precise real izar alguna precision mas detallada sobre esta generalizacion. En La Palma, las cavern as, covachas y cejos se distribuyen, fundamentalmente, por la mitad norte de la isla, en la denorninada Paleopalma. Asf, por ejernplo, en el bando prehispanico de Ahenguareme (actual Fuencaliente) este tipo de cavidades son practicamente inexistentes.

Esta gran abundancia de cuevas naturales serta, precisamente, la que perrnitio a los benahoaritas hacer una seleccion entre aquellas que reunian las mejores condiciones de habitabilidad en cuanto a sus dirnensiones, luminosidad, exposicion (vertiente de solana-umbria), grado de humedad y, en general, su proteccion contra las inclemencias del tiempo en cada zona. En muchos trabajos de investigacion y publicaciones xe ha realizado una serie de aseveraciones que no son totalmente ciertas, siendo preciso hacer algunas puntualizaciones al respecto. Una de elias hace referencia a que los benahoaritas ocupaban el tramo inferior de los barrancos, desde la orilla del mar hasta una cota altitudinal aproximada de los 400 metros.

Esta generalizacion, al men os para La Palma, no refleja la gran complejidad que muestra el habitat prehistorico insular. Esta hipotesis sf parece confirmarse para los sectores norte, noreste y este de la antigun Benahoare. En estas zonas sf existe una serie de condicionantes de tipo natural que dificultaban la vida por encima de ese Ifmite. Estos factores son:

I) La orograffa se caracteriza por la presencia de gigantescos barrancos, de cauces muy profundos y estrechos, que se yen interrumpidos, de trecho en trecho, por cabocos insalvables. A ello debemos afiadir que las cuevas naturales cada vez escasean mas, conforme nos acercarnos a la cabecera.

2) La influencia con stante del alisio provoca el arraigo de unos bosques muy frcndosos de laurisilva a partir de los 200-300 metros. Esta vegetacion ocasiona unos elevadisirnos Indices de humedad que convertfa en inhabitables muchas de las cuevas naturales que aparecen en los dominos de esa formacion vegetal. A pesar de todo, la presion demografica llego a ser tan fuerte que vi vieron en zonas que hoy nos parcce casf imposible, tal y como sucede en buena parte de Tagaragre (Barlovento). Aunque tam bien podriamos suponer que el clima de esos momentos fuese menos humedo que el actual, xi bien la mayorfa de los datos apuntan en sentido contrario.

Por contra, en el resto de la isla y, sobre todo, en los sectores del noroeste (Tijarafe, Puntagorda y parte de Garafia) y oeste (Valle de Aridane), los micleos poblacionales pod Ian ascender mucho mas, con magnificos poblados de cuevas situados en torno a los 700-800 metros, contando con algunos ejemplos de cuevas de habitacion situadas sobre los 1.300 metros. Las condiciones cl imarolcgicas de esta area, con escasez de precipitaciones anuales y fuerte insolacion a 10 largo de todo el afio, permitfan grandes concentraciones hurnanas en EI Barranco de Torres, EI Rincon, Cuevas de Herrera, Barranco de Los Cardos, etc.

89

Aun mas diferenciado serfa el poblamiento humane del extrema meridional de La Palma, ya que se trata de zonas que se han visto muy afectadas por el vulcanismo muy reciente, con cinco erupciones en la etapa historica. AI ser la parte mas joven de la isla, los barrancos son muy cscasos y de poca entidad, puesto que apenas sf han tenido tiempo para labrarse un cauce clararnente definido. En sus margenes las cuevas naturales, aptas para la ocupacion hurnana, son casi inexistentes y, en todo caso, no pasan de ser meras covachas de reducidas dimensiones, sue los muy inclinados y con frecuentes desprendimientos del techo y los laterales. Los rasgos mas caracterfsticos del paisaje son las coladas lavicas en las que pueden aparecer pequerios cejos y oquedades que no fueron despreciadas por los benahoaritas. Los tubos volcanicos son bastante frecuentes, si bien muchos de ellos han quecJado sepultados por las erupciones mas recientes.

Ya hemos apuntado con anterioridad que para la ocupacion de las cuevas naturales se valoraban especialmente una serie de cuestiones de tipo geornorfologico y clirnatico, esencialmente. Pero tambien se ten fan en cuenta otros factores de caracter econornico, Los principales poblados de cuevas se establecfan en las proximidades de algun punto de agua que no se cegara en la epoca estival. La ubicacion estrategica de las cuevas respecto a las rutas pastoriles 0 los camos de pastoreo mas ricos y jugosos no serfa minusvalorada por una poblacion que tenfan en sus rebafios de cabras, ovejas y cochinos la principal fuente de alimentaci6n.

A medida que la poblacion prehispanica fue creciendo, las pretensiones a la hora de escoger cuevas como vivienda se fueron convirtiendo menos ex igentes. Tal es axi, que llego un momento, coincidiendo con la fase cerarnica IV, en que no les quedo mas remedio que ocupar todo tipo de covachas. cejos y oquedades naturales por muy malas condiciones de habitabilidad que ofreciesen. En muchas ocasiones, estas cuevas apenas si tenfan capacidad para albergar a una 0 varias personas como maximo que, adernas, tenfan que soportar unas incomodidades muy fuertes (escasa altura del techo, suelo inclinado e irregular, minima profundidad, etc.). Este tipo de habitat tan intensivo no es patrimonio de zonas concretas de la isla sino que, por 10 que se esui revelando con la realizacion de la Carta Arqueologica, se produjo en todos los bandos prehispanicos, como son los casos de Aridane (Los Llanos, Tazacorte y EI Paso), Tigalate (Mazo), Ahenguareme (Fuencaliente) y Tagaragre (Barlovento). (Foto I).

Las peores cuevas naturales (escasa profundidad y altura, gran hurnedad, piso irregular 0 inclinado, entrada expuesta bacia los vientos dominantes, amplios cejos con poco rehundirniento del risco, etc.) se desechaban como vivienda humana. No obstante, eran ernpleadas con otros fines muy diversos. entre los que destacaba la explotacion como encerraderos 0 apartaderos de sus rebafios. Las prospecciones arqueologicas estrin dernostrando que hubo muchisimas covachas que fueron ocupadas de forma eventual 0 estacional, estando relacionadas, con toda probabilidad, con refugios pastoriles inmersos dentro de los diferentes paraderos pastoriles.

En la gran mayoria de las ocasiones, las cuevas naturales se habitaban sin realizar excesivas remodelaciones 0 transformaciones en su estructura primitiva. La abundancia de este tipo de cavidades era tan abrumadora que los benahoaritas no se vieron en la necesidad de fabricarse casas artificiales. tal y como ocurre, por ejemplo, en Gran Canaria. Sin embargo, en el interior de las cuevas se hacfan una serie de construcciones de piedra suelta que estaban destinadas a proveersc de mayores grad os de comodidad para hacer su vida cotidiana un poco mas llevadera. Asf, eran muy frecuentes los muretes de piedra seca que tapaban toda 0 parte de la boca para proteger el espacio util interior de las inclemencias del tiernpo (viento, frfo, lluvias, sol, etc.). A veces, levantaban muros que se relacionaban con la creacion de un piso regular y llano, para evitar la entrada de escornbros proceclentes de los terrenos situados a mayor altura, etc. En las zonas mas profundas de las cuevas, asf como pegado a las paredes laterales, se construfan poyos 0 repisas artificiales, de anchura y altura variables (aunque rararnente superan el metro), sobre los cuales colocaban los distintos utensilios de uso cotidiano. Otro tip de estructuras muy corrientes serfan los carnastros para dormir 0 descansar, las marnparas de piel 0 entramado vegetal para sectorizar el espacio util (EI Tendal), mesas y asientos realizados con rocas alargadas y planus, de los que aun perviven magnificos ejemplos en los abrigos pastoriles reutilizados de alta montana.

AI igual que sucedfa con las cuevas naturales de habitacion, los yacimientos de caracter sepulcral aparecen en gigantescas necropolis que albergaban un elevado mimero de cadaveres 0 se utilizaban pequefias covachas, cejos y grietas que solo contenfan los restos oseos de uno 0 varies cuerpos. La gran mayorfa de los cronistas de la conquista de la isla O. ABREU GALINDO, 1977; T A. MARlN DE

90

CUBAS, etc.) nos relatan como los antiguos palmeros se dejaban morir de inanicion, para 10 cual se 10 cornunicabun a sus familiares y estes los encerraban en cuevas naturales cuya entrada sellaban con muros de piedra seca. Asimismo, en el interior de las cuevas sepulcrales solfan realizar una serie de estructuras artificiales, con muros de piedra seca, que separaban unos cuerpos de otros, cmo sucedio en La Cueva de La Palmera en Tijarafe (E. MARTiN RODRfGUEZ, 1993) Y se colocaban yacijas vegetales para evitar el contacto de los restos humanos con la tierra.

Los tubos volc.inicos no pasan de ser meras cuevas naturales, si bien su estructura, dirnensiones y geomorfologfa difieren notablemente de 10 que genera I mente entendemos cuando nos referimos a cstas. Las Islas Canarias, al tener un origen volcanico, cuya forrnacion y crecimiento aur: no han finalizado, cuentan con un elevado mirnero de estas cavidades, algunas de las cuales son realmente espectaculares. En la isla de La Palma los estudios espeleologicos tienen una historia muy recicnte y apenas si se han iniciado. No obstante, ya conocemos una gran cantidad de tubos volcanicos que, en la gran mayoria de los casos, cuentan con vestigios prehispanicos. La abundancia de tubos volcanicos en nuestra isla es un fenorneno normal, maxime si tenemos en cuenta el hecho de que, despues de la conquista de Alonso Fernandez de Lugo en 1493, ha existido una imprtante actividad volcanica historica. Por tanto, no es de extraiiar que los tubos volcanicos tengan una presencia constante desde la orillu delmar a las curnbres mas altus (Pico de Bejenado, Los Andenes, etc). Por esa misma ruzon, los tubos volcanicos son mucho mas numerosos y espectaculares en la mitad sur de La Palma al estar recorridos sus paisajes por coladas lavicas recientes que, obviamente, no contienen rastros de su explotacion pOI' parte de los benahoaritas.

LA UTILIZACION DE LOS TUBOS VOLcANICOS COMO LUGARES DE HABITACION

La propia configuracion de los tubos volcanicos era la que indicaba a los benahoaritas cual era la zona mas apta para ser ocupada de forma perrnanente 0 estacional. Este tipo de cuevas, por 10 general, suelen ser bastante estrechas y una profundidad bastante significativa. Logicamente, la parte mas idonea para el desarrollo de las actividades cotidianas eran las mas proxirnas a la entrada, hasta donde la penetracion de la luz diaria perrnina una estancia de sus ocupantes sin excesivos problemas de lumiosidad. Adernas, la humedad no era tan agobiante como en las areas mas alejadas de la boca. Todos los tubos volcanicos descubiertos durante nuestras prospecciones, y que no pertenezcan a coladas historicas, fueron ocupados, de una u otra forma, por los benahoaritas, a menos que sus dimensiones (anchura y altura) fuesen tan pequefias que hiciesen inviables cualquier tipo de asentarnienro, bien de tipo habitacional o sepulcral.

En La Palma es frecuente la existencia de unos tubos volcanicos que presentun, ell sus trarnos iniciales, la estructura y caracteristicas tfpicas de una cueva natural. Todos ellos fueron, sistematicamente, habitados por la poblacion prehispanica. En el fondo de estos cejos es de donde parte realrnente el tubo volcanico propiamente dicho. En cavidades de este tipo hernos estudiado yacimientos arqueologicos de gran interes que presentan una potencia estratigrafica de gran relieve. Los ejernplos son muy numerosos, destacando La Cueva de Las Tijaraferas, Riscos de La Caldereta (Foto 2), Cuevas de Herrera (EI Paso), La Fajana de Barlovento, etc.

Si la profundidad maxima de los tubos volcanicos se sinia en torno a los 20-30 metros, aprox imadarnenre, fueron habitadas en todo su espacio util, aunque la luz que Ilegaba a las zonas mas profundus era casi nula y, en much os casos, al men os actual mente, la hu rnedad reinante en el interior era elevad ixima, incluso con goteos de agua a 10 largo de todo el afio. Los yacirnientos arqueologicos son estax caracterfsticas son igualmente abundantes: Barranco de La Crucita, Barranco de Cararno, Los Camachos, (Burlovente), La Calderera (El Paso), etc. En algunos de estos tubos aun hoy son clarumente perceptibles en el techo las costras de hollfn que dejaron las hogueras que tuvieron que encenderse en el interior para alumbrarse y calentarse.

Existen rnuchos tubos volcanicos que, tras una entrada rnuy estrecha y angosra, dan paso a una zona interior mucho mas espaciosa que, a veces, lIegan a frrnar salones inmensos y real mente espectaculares. En estes casos, tam bien hemos descubierto numerosos asentamientos perrnanentes a pesar de la intensa oscuridad reinante. Posiblemente, los rayos del sol, dependiendo de la exposicin de la entrada, pod fan alcanzar los espacios mas reconditos, aunque solo fuese durante periodos I11UY cortes a 0 largo del dia. Este tipo de tubos volcanicos presentaba, para su ocupacion por parte de la poblacion prehispanica,

91

una serie de ventajas e inconvenientes. Respecto a las primeras, el hecho de contar con una boca muy pequefia les proporcionaba una protecci6n eficaz contra deterrninados elementos cl imatol6gicos, como las lluvias y el viento, aunque estuviesen expuestas a favor de los mismos como sucede por ejernplo en EI Rinc6n 0 EI Barranco de Los Cardos, por ejemplo. Es interesante detenermos en el primer yacimiento, puesto que se trata de un gigantesco tubo volcanico que fue asiduamentc habitado por los benaharitas a pesar de que la entrada esta directamente expuesta a favor de los constantes vientos de brisa que azotan a ia parte alta del Valle de Aridane (foto ::I).

EI principal inconveniente de vi vir en un tubo volcanico con las caracterfsticas anteriorrnente mencionadas, y aparte de la oscuridad, estriba en que sue len presentar una elevada humedad ambiental, con abundantes rezumes y goteos a 10 largo de todo el afio y de forma mas acusada tras la caida de Iluvias torrenciales. En los dos yacimientos que hernos citado aparece ese mismo problema, a pesar de 10 cual pareccn resentar una ocupacion intensiva con un importante relleno arqueologico que ha sido pucsro al descubierto por los saqueos de os expoliadores. Si embargo, esta hipotesis no se puede comprobar hasia que no se realice una excavacion arqueologica sistematica de uno de ellos. Es posible que tales cuevas fuesen ocupadas en mementos muy concretes del afio, que coincidirfan con la epoca estival.

Pero, no todos los tubos volcanicos se destinaron a un unico fin. En la prehixtoria de La Palma son cada vez mas frecuentes unos yacimientos arqueol6gicos en los que se entremezcla un aprovechamicnto habitacional con otro sepulcral, como hemos comprobado en El Rinc6n (El Paso), Tigalate Hondo (Vi lla de Mazo) (Foto 4), etc. En el primer caso aparecen entrernezclados restos arqueol6gicos tfpicos de una cueva de habitacion (cerarnica, industria litica, fragentos oseos, etc.), junto con huesos hurnanos, algunos de los cuales est an quernados. EI tubo volcanico de Tigalate presenta otro tipo de ocupaci6n. pues la entrada sirvio como vivienda, mientras que en las partes mas profundus exisiti6 uno 0 varies cnterramientos. Desgraciadamente, los destrozos provocados por los expoliadores, en ambos casos, nos impide extraer mayores conclusiones. En este ultimo aparecen varias tibias y un perone de una persona adulta que fueron colocados junto a la entrada del tubo or quien saqueo la necropolis.

LA UTILIZACTON DE TUBOS VOLcANICOS COMO NECROPOLIS

Las prospecciones arqueologicas que se han venido realizando en los iiltirnos afios en la isla de La Palma han puesto de rnanifiesto unos datos bastante curiosos, aunque muy interesantes. Los poblados de cuevas naturales de habitacion son muy nurnerosos y en ellos podfan vivir un elevado mirnero de benahoaritas. Sin embargo, no existe una correspondencia clara entre esos yacimientos habitacionales con la escasez acusada de cuevas sepulcrales. Tal es asf que, hoy por hoy, una pregunta de muy dificil respuesta serfa (,d6nde enterraban a sus muertos 0 que hacfan con los despojos humanos de la gran mayorfa de la poblaci6n? De cualquier forma, debemos apuntar que una de las razones principales del desconocimiento de su mundo funerario esta en el saqueo sistematico a que han sido sornetidos este tipo de yacimientos arqueol6gicos.

AI igual que sucede con una generalizaci6n muy arraigada sobre que la poblaci6n prehispanica no ascend fa por encima de una determinada cota altitudinal, situada en torno a los 400 metros, tarnbien se apunta que los auaritas elegfan como lugares de enterramientos aquellax zonas que estuviesen bastante alejadas de los poblados de habitaci6n, ernplazandose a ambos extreos de los mismos 0 en el tramo inferior de las laderas de los barrancos. No obstante, en La Palma hemos comprobado como exa hipotesis es total mente erronea, puesto que muchas cuevas sepulcrales aparecen entrernezcladas, incluso formando parte de una misma cueva de habitaci6n, con las areas de ocupaci6n permanente, tal y como sucede en los Barrancos de Las Canales, EI Rinc6n, Los Cardos (El Paso), Barranco de La Baranda (Tijarafe), Barranco de Cueva de Agua (Garafia), La Longuera (Breria Alta), Barrunquito de Medina, Barranco del Saito (Barlovento), etc.

Los tubes volcanicos reunen una serie de condicionantes de tipo geomorfologico que los convertfa en lugares ideales para depositar los restos de sus seres mas queridos. Cuando los benahoaritas, al igual que nosotros, despedian a sus farniliares, pretend fan que su «descanso» no fuese interrumpido. Por clio, elegfan covachas y cejos de diffcil acceso 0 que pasasen desapercibidos. Los tubos volcanicos

92

tienen entradas muy angostas, a veces peligrosas, que preservaban su interior de posibles saqueos 0 depredadores naturales: perros, cuervos, etc .. Cuando eran utilizados como yacimientos funerarios no presentan su entrada tapiada porque la simle vista de esos agujeros bastaba para desanirnar a los curiosos. Las grandes profundidades que suelen alcanzar los tubos volcanicos, su progresivo estrechamiento, la presencia de nineles laberlnticos, etc. eran circunstancias que favorecfan 1£1 preservaci6n de los restos humanos. Otros datos que tendrfan muy en cuenta a la hora de elegir el sitio para el descanso eterno serfa la insondable oscuriclad y la quietud inquebrantable que caracterizan a estas cavidades. Pero tambien existen ciertos factores negativos que incidiran directamente en la conservaci6n de estos yacimientos hasta nuestros dias y que no es otro que la gran humedad reinante que provoca el deterioro progresivo de los materiales organicos, inclufdos los restos humanos, que son tipicos de este tipo de yacimientos arqueol6- gicos.

Las supersticiones, el miedo a 1£1 oscuridad y 10 desconocido, asf como la sensaci6n de claustrofobia que producen sitios tan estrechos, fueron condicionantes que, hasta tiernpos relativarnente recientes, garantizaban la preservaci6n de much as cle estas necr6polis. Pero, desde finales del siglo pasado, se produjo un auge incontrolaclo de la busqueda de restos prehispanicos para engrosar los fondos de algunos museos o crear irnpresionantes colecciones privadas que todavfa hoy perduran, junto con otras nuevas de creac6in mucho mas reciente. Estes rastreos han sido tan sistematicos que hoy es practicamente imposible en contrar alguna cueva sepulcral que este intacta. Desgraciadamente, los tres ejempls mas interesantes que hernos localizado: La Cueva del Gofio (Foto 5) y el Barranco de Los Cardos en EI Paso y los tubos de Tigalate Hondo en Mazo han sido saqueados por expoliadores.

En los ultimos afios ha cobrado un gran auge la espeleologfa en La Palma (coexisten dos grupos indepenclientes) que, en determinados cases, esta ocasionanclo darios, a veees irreparables, en algunas de las necropolis que se ubican en tubos volcanicos. Estes cientfficos no acnian de manera consciente y los destrozos que puedan ocasionar vienen dados simplernente por el desconocimiento 0 1£1 ignoraneia de la importancia que esos vestigios puedan tener. Por ultimo, querernos destacar un hecho que cada vez tiene mas predicamento entre personas j6venes y que no es otro que el afan exploratorio de personas que buscan sensaeiones fuertes 0 necesitan probarse a si mismos. En este sentido, 1£1 exploraci6n del interior de los tubos volcanicos puede satisfacer las exigencias mas arraigadas.

LA PRESERVACION DE LOS TUBOS VOLcANICOS

A 10 largo de esta conferencia se ha puesto de manifiesto como los tubes volcanicos fueron utilizados por los benahoaritas como lugares de habitaei6n 0 de enterramiento y, en deterrninados cases, como escondrijos de su njuar domestico. Hasta el memento, no se ha real izaclo ninguna excavaei6n arqueol6gica en el interior de estas cavidades naturales, 10 eual quiere decir que toclos ellos conservan buena parte 0 la gran mayorfa de su relleno arqueol6gico. Esta eireunstancia debe ser tenida en cuenta por todos aquellos que se introduzean en el interior de los rnismos con fines cientfficos 0 simple curiosiclacl. Los restos prehispanicos son materiales muy fragiles que pueden rornperse 0 desaparecer con las simples pisadas de una persona. Si la estancia en estos lugures no se hace con euidado pueclen producirse alteraeiones postdeposicionales que desvirtuan los datos que se obtengan a la hora cle realizar la excavaci6n. Asl, en un tubo volcanico de Mazo, que fue utilizado como necropolis y en el que tarnbien aparecen innumerables fragrnentos cle ovic.ipridos, estos ultimos materiales estrin siendo clestrozados por las pisadas de los cada vez mas frecuentes visitantes que conocen su existencia. Las roturas son frecuentes en los fragmentos de cerarnica, los restos malacolgicos, la industria 6sea, etc.

Serra conveniente reealear la necesiclacl de que todos aquellos excursionistas que se introcluzcan en los tubos volcanicos los dejasen de la misma forma en que se los encontraron, sacanclo nuevamentc al exterior todos los desperdicios que se produzcan. Es lamentable cornprobar como las basuras de toclo tipo (botellas, latas, alpargatas, cartones, etc.) «siembran» todo el interior, desde la zona de la boca a las partes mas profundas. En algunos casos hernos comprobado como la boca dc los tubes tue utilizada como basurero hasta haee escasas fechas y, en algun caso, todnvia 10 sigue sienclo (Lavas del Volcan Martin en Montes de Luna).

Un hecho a tener en eonsideraci6n es 1£1 posibilidad cle organizar visitas gufadas al interior de

93

deterrninados tubos volcanicos, Sin embargo, tal y como esta la situaci6n actual, son impensables tales recorridos hasta que no se realicen las excavaciones arqueol6gicas correspondientes. Hoy dfa existen deterrninados grupos que estan interesados en limpiar de basuras estes tubos, pero estas operaciones, a nuestro juicio, no se deben realizar sin la supervision de un arqueologo, puesto que entre los materiales que se extraigan pueden incluirse piezas prehist6ricas. Bajo ningun concepto se deben mover de su posicion originaria aquellos materiales de clara filiaci6n prehispanica, por muy pequeiios e insignificantes que sean.

Ante cualquier hallazgo de un yacimiento arqueologico en el interior de los tubos volcanicos debe avisarse inmediatarnente al EXCIllO. Cabildo Insular 0 la Direcci6n General de Patrimonio Hist6rico para que un especialista pueda inspeccionar y valorar la importancia del descubrirniento. Incluso, abogarfamos por una mas estrecha colaboracion entre arqueologos y espeleologos para el cstudio y la eonservaci6n de estas impresionantes cavidades naturales. En este sentido, ya han habido algunos intentos en este sentido aunque, desgraeiadamente, las cuestiones monetarias han impedido que se pudiera llevar a buen termino el cerrarniento de varies tubes volcanicos en Mazo.

BIBLIOGRAFfA BAsICA

ABREU GALINDO, J. 1977 Historia de la Conquista de las Siete Islas de Cunari a. (Santa Cruz de Tenerife), 1977.

DEL ARCO AGUILAR, M. c. JIMENEZ GOMEZ, M. Y NAVARRO MEDEROS, J. F. 1992. La Arqueologfa en Canarias: del rnito a la ciencia. Santa Cruz de Tenerife.

DIEGO CUSCOY, L. 1951. El determinismo geografico y la habitaci6n del aborigen de las Islas Can arias

Aetas y Mernorias de la Sociedad Espanola de Antropologfa, Etnograffa y Prehistoria. XXVI: 17-58.

HERNANDEZ PEREZ, M. 1977. La Palma Prehispanica, Las Palmus de Gran Canaria. MARTIN RODRIGUEZ, E. 1993. La Palma y los auaritas. Santa Cruz de Tenerife.

PAIS PAIS, F. J. 1993. La Economfa de Producci6n en la Prehistoria de la Isla de La Palma: la Ganaderia.

Santa Cruz de Tenerife.

TEJERA GASPAR, A. Y GONZALEZ ANTON, R. 1987. Las culturas aborigenes canarias. Santa Cruz de Tenerife.

94

Foto 1.- Poblado prehispanico de cuevas naturales de Buracas en Las Tricias (Garafia)

Foto 3.- Aspecto interne de un tuba volcanico que rue habitado por los Bcnahoaritas en EI Rincon (EI Paso)

Foto 2.- Aspecto exterior del cejo y la entrada de un tubo volcani co en los Riscos de La Caldereta (EI Paso)

Foto 4.- Una de las entradas de un tubo volcanico en Tigalate Hondo (Villa de Mazo)

POlO 5.- Aspecto del interior de la necropolis de la Cueva del Gofio (EI Paso).

95

ALGUNOS DATOS SOBRE LA FAUNA DE ISOPODOS TERRESTRES CAVERNICOLAS EN EL ARCHIPIELAGO CANARIO

R. RODRIGUEZ SANTANA

Viceconsejerfa de Medio Arnbiente. Seccion de Flora y Fauna. Vivero Forestal de Tafira Carretera General del Centro Km 6,3. Las Palmus de Gran Canaria. Islas Can arias

INTRODUCCION

La fauna de isopodos terrestres en el Archipielago Canario, aproximadamente con 70 especies, se caracteriza por un alto nivel de endernicidad que supone alrededor del 60% de las especies. Este nivel de singularidad faunfstica es resultado por su condicion de islas oceanicas y por la diversidad de habitats que podemos encontrar en el Archipielago. Por su origen geologico, con periodos eruptivos dilatados en el tiernpo, se han generado sistemas ed.ificos cornplejos y ricos en Medios Subterraneos y en cavidades naturales, basicarnente volcanicas, que han permitido la adaptacion de algunas especies a condiciones ecol6gicas de esta naturaleza.

Hasta que comenzaron las prospecciones de MSS y cavernfcolas, por parte de los invcstigadores del Departamento de Biologfa Animal de la Universidad de La Laguna, la isopodofauna de estos habitats paso desapercibida. Entre las especies que constituyen 1£1 isopodofauna cavernfcola cabe resaltar algunas de elias notables y de especial interes que se analizan en el presente trabajo. No obstante, tanto el nurnero de especies citadas como aquellas singulares pueden incrernentarxe sensiblernente con nuevas investigaciones que clarifiquen la cornposicion faunfstica en cada una de las islas.

MATERIAL E INVENTARIO

Familia Trichoniscidae

Trichoniscus bassoti Vandel, 1960

Material. Tenerife: Cueva Fea de Arico, 21-1 1-1982, 9 machos y 13 hernbras; Cueva Fea de Arico. 25-11-1982, 2 hernbras y 1 macho (J.L. Martin leg.); Cueva Labrada, 09-03-1983, 9 machos y 1 hernbra: Cueva del Viento, 03-06-1987, I macho (J.L. Martin leg.)

Esta especie, considerada troglobia por VANDEL (1960), descrita a partir de ejernplares procedentes de Madeira, habita tambien los tubes volc.inicos de la isla de 'Ienerife, siendo la unica especie troglobia de la isopodofauna can aria con una distribucion suprainsular con una distribuci6n que incluye dos arch ipielagos macaronesicos.

Familia Halophiloscidae

Halophiloscia couchii (Kinahan, 1858)

Material. La Palma: Cueva Tacande, 9-IX-1986, 16-IX-1986, 9 machos, 2 hernbras (A.L. Medina lcg.); Cueva de Los Palrneros, II-IX-1986, 2 hernbras (A.L. Medina leg.)

Aunque las caracterfsticas morfologicas de los ejernplares epigeos son bien conocidas y han sido detail ada por varios autores (LEGRAND, 1945), las poblaciones troglobias de La Palma presentan

97

estructuras diferenciadas y adaptadas al medio cavernfco!a. Tales modificaciones, consecuencia de la adaptacion al habitat, fueron descritas por RODRIGUEZ Y BARRIENTOS (1993a). A pesar que los caracteres sexuales de los ejernplares cavernfcolas no rnuestran diferencias significativas respecto a sus congeneres epigeos, los caracteres sornaticos son constantes en cada case y nos permiten diferenciar ambos grupos de poblaciones. Adernas, las poblaciones epigeas son hal6filas estrictas explotando los nichos supra e intermareales mientras que las poblaciones troglobias aparecen en cavidades naturales donde no hay influencia marina.

Parece evidente la necesidad de realizar estudios morfol6gicos y ecol6gicos con series numerosas de ejernplares troglobios en diversos tubos volcanicos para determinar el estatux definitive de estes ejernplares.

Familia Armadillidae

venerillo tenerifensis Dalens, 1984

Material. Tenerife: Cueva del Viento, 14-IV -1983, I macho 12-IV -1987, I macho (J.L. Martfn leg.): Cueva de Felipe Revent6n, 9- VII-1983, A.L. Medina, I macho Cueva de Felipe Reventon, 2-1- 1984, I macho 1. Izquierdo leg ..

Esta especie siernpre ha sido colectada siempre en medios cavernfcolas de la isla de Tenerife, de la que es endernica, y por sus caracteristicas anat6micas se considera una especie troglobia (DALENS, 1984). Presenta un alargamiento de los apendices: antenas, perei6podos y uropodos; presenta un extraordinario desarrollo en niimero y tarnaiio de las sed as en tergos y apendices; como ultimo canicter relevante el aparato ocular est.i ausente.

Familia Armadillidiidae

Eluma pwpurascens Budde-Lund, 1885

Material. Tenerife: La Montafieta, 15- VI-1988, 4 machos 4 hembras, A.L. Medina leg; Cueva del Viento, 26- V-1985, 5 machos y 9 hernbras A.L. Medina leg.; Pedro Alvarez, 3- VIl-88, I hcrnbra; 03- 06-1987, I macho y I hernbra, A. L. Medina leg.; La Guancha, 26-4-1988, I hcmbru, A.L. Medina; Be1chete, 5-XI-J989, 16 machos y 22 hembras, 1. Izquierdo leg., EI Bailadero, 21-1- I 990, I macho y I hernbra (A.L. Medina leg.); Barranco de Afiavingo, 14-XI-1990, I macho A.L. Medina leg.: Tierra del Trigo, 13-Il-1988, 3 machos y 3 hernbras La Gomera: Laguna Grande, 06-IX-1987, 15 machos 20hembras CA.L. Medina leg.): Las Hayas, 06-IX-1987, I macho y I hernbra (A.L. Medina leg.). La Palma:

Los Tilox, II-XI-1989, 6 machos y 8 hembras A.L. Medina leg.; Cubo de la Galga, 2- V -1989,2 machos A.L. Medina leg.

Esta especie de origen atlanto mediterraneo es frecuente en ambientcs hurnedos y en habitats endogeos y cavernfcolas. Todo el material estudiado proviene de muestreos en el MSS. Tal cantidad de citas indican que es una especie frecuente en este medio y que en las cuevas se cornporta como una especie trogl6fila.

A rmadillidium vulgare (Latrei lie, 1804)

Material. Tenerife: EI Bailadero, 21-1-1990, I macho A.L. Medina leg.; Los Realejos, 11-1I- 1982,7 hernbras, P.Oroml leg.; La Palma: Cubo de La Galga, 06-IV-1989, I macho A.L. Medina leg.

Especie mediterranea de amplia distribuci6n y gran polivalencia ecol6gica. En Canarias habita todos los habitats desde la costa hasta los 2000 msnm apareciendo, esporadicamenre, en los prirneros metros de las cavidades naturales. Su comportamiento ecol6gico en los medics cavernfcolas es el de una especie trogloxena.

98

Familia Porcellionidae

Porcelliotiides sexfasciatus sexfasciatus

Material. Gran Canaria: Tiles de Moya, 27-VII-1989, I macho A.L. Medina leg.; Tenerife:

Barranco de Ariaringo, 14-XI-1990, I hernbra (A.L. Medina leg.); Barranco del Agua 27-11-1990, 1 hernbra (A.L. Medina leg.).: La Palma: Fuencaliente, 3-V-1989, 1 hembra (A.L. Medina leg.).

A pesar de que esta especie cosrnopolitu tiene una tendencia antrop6fila, su extraordinaria polivalencia ecol6gica Ie ha perrnitido colonizar pnicticamente todos los habitats presentes en Canarias. En las cavidades naturales es frecuente en los alrededores de las entradas 10 que es un indicio significativo de la humanizacion del medio donde se encuentra.

Porcellio sept entrionalis Vandel, 1954

Material. Tenerife: Cueva grande de Chio, '9- VIl-' 989, 1 hembra.L Izquierdo leg; 20- V -1989, 1 hernbra (A.L. Medina leg.); Pinar de Chfo, 5- VII-1988, 1 macho y 3 hernbras (A.L. Medina leg.).

Esta especie endemica de Tenerife es frecuente en los niches edaficos de la laurisilva de la isla, aunque ha colonizado otros habitats del dorninio del pinar y algunos cavernfcolas. Dentro de este habitat se encuentra de manera accidental por 10 que podernos considerarla una especie trogloxena.

Porcellio meridionalis Vandel, 1954.

Material. La Gomera: EI Cedro, 12- VII-1988, 2 hernbras, A.L. Medina leg.; EI Cedro, 22-IU- 1989, 3 machos y 3 hernbras, A. L. leg.

Porcellio meridionalis es una especie exclusiva de los habitats boscosos y urnbrofilos de laurisilva y fayal-brezal de La Gomera y EI Hierro. Las citas de su aparici6n en el MSS confirman que esta especie frecuenta las microcavidades del suelo donde las condiciones microclimaticus presenran menores rangos de variaci6n.

Porcellio medinae Rodriguez y Barrientos, 1993

Material. Tenerife: Cueva grande de Chfo, 19-IX-1988, I macho A.L. Medina leg

EI ejemplar tipo de est a especie endernica de Tenerife fue recolectado en una cueva de la isla de Tenerife. Ningun caracter morfologico hace pensar que se trate de una especie troglobia ya que aparece pigmentado, con ojos bien desarrollados y un patron de sedaci6n sin adaptaciones particulates. Como sefialan RODRIGUEZ y BARRIENTOS (1993b), dada las pocas referencias de las que disponernos, es diffcil considerar si se trata de una especie troglobia 0 si su presencia en una cavidad es un hecho accidental.

Porcellio martini Dalens, 1984

Material. Tenerife: Cueva del Viento, 25-II-1982, I macho (J.L. Martin leg.): 14-IV-1983,

hembra, J.L. Martin leg; 12-V-1987, I macho P. Oromi leg.; Cueva de Felipe Revent6n, 03-III-1984, I hernbra, I. Izquierdo leg; 12-IV-1986, I macho J.L. Martin leg; 8-VIII-1988, I hernbra (A.L. Medina leg.); Barranco del agua, 27-XI-1990, 2 machos A.L. Medina leg; Cueva Grande de Chfo, 19-II-1988, 2 hernbras, 1. Izquierdo leg; 20-1-1989, I macho I. Izquierdo leg; 20- V -1989, I macho 1. Izquierdo leg.

Todas las localidades donde Porcellio martini ha sido recolectado, pertenecen a habitats cavernicolas y de MSS. Algunos caracteres morfol6gicos nos indican que esta especie tiene habitos trogl6filos. Tales caracteres fueron recogidos parcialrnente por DALENS (1984) y se refieren a la frecuente despigmentaci6n de los tegumentos y a la presencia de sedaci6n bien desarrollada sobre los apendices.

99

CONCLUSIONES

La isopodofauna canaria que frecuenta el MSS y los medics cavernfcolas en las islas es poco numerosa. Entre las especies troglobias, aquellas que frecuentan las cavidades y las que esporadicarnente se recogen en medios caverrucolas, b.isicarnente en los prirneros metros de la entrada, suman diez especies, mirnero que supone el 15% del total de las especies presentes en canarias.

A niveles faunfsticos, este abanico de diversidad es una clara repeticion de las caructeristicas que muestra 1£1 fauna epigea.

Las especies pertenecientes a 1£1 familia Porcellionidae suponen 1£1 mitad de las que se han colectado en el MSS y en medios cavernfcolas aunque, entre elias, no existe ninguna troglobia. Esto responde claramente a la diversificaci6n que ha sufrido la familia en los habitats cpigeos de las islas con endernismos monoinsulares (VANDEL, 1954; HOESE, 1984; RODRIGUEZ y BARRIENTOS, I 993b) Y a la polivalencia ecologica que muestra el Porcellionides sexfasciatus scxfasciatus que 1£1 convierte en una especie frecuente en los medios cavernfcolas.

Los representantes de 1£1 familia Armadillidiidae presentan una amplia distribuci6n en el grupo de islas centro-occidental y su presencia en las cavidades naturales es frecuentc. Armadillidium vulgare es un habitante accidental mientras que Eluma purpurascens, con mayores requerimientos de humedad y temperatura, se cornporta como una expecie trogrofila.

La familia Armadillidae esta representado por el troglobio Venerlllo tenerifensis, especie frecuente en las cuevas de Tenerife. EI genero Vellezillo es el iinico representante de la familia en el Archipielago y, en la misma linea que el genero Porcellio, ha sufrido una gran diversificaci6n en las islas dando lugar a varies endernismos monoinsu lares.

La presencia de Trichoniscus bassoti, descrita del Archipielago de Madeira, es de diffcil interpretacion si consideramos la colonizaci6n de tubos volcanicos canaries como un proceso natural y espontaneo. Biogeograficamenre, con los is6podos terrestres, resulta improbable que una especie troglobia colonice dos archipielagos cuando la tendencia de especiacion es a generar endernisrnos local izados geograficamente y adaptados a los requerimientos ecologicos de los medics cavernicolas.

La unica interpretacion que cabe para justificar la presencia de Trichoniscus bOSSOli en Tenerife es a partir de una introducci6n activa y una progresi6n de sus poblaciones a traves del MSS y de los tubes volcanicos, abundantes en la isla.

La gran extension de las costas que hay en el Archipielago Canario facilita el asentamiento de especies hal6filas y de arnplia distribuci6n como la Halophiloscia couch! que en la isla de La Palma ha generado una poblaci6n troglobia, de habitus cornpletamente diferente a sus congeneres epigeos, que se ha colonizado ciertos tubos volcanicos, Esta especie esta siendo reconsiderada por el autor pues el nivel de diferenciaci6n morfol6gica requiere una revision de su estatus sistematico.

REFERENCIAS BIBLIOGRAFICAS

DALENS, HEMBRAS, 1984. Isopodes terrestres rencontres dans les cavites volcaniques de l'Ile de Tenerife. Trav. Labor. Ecobiol. Arthrop. Edaphiques, Toulouse, 5 (I): 12-19.

HOESE, B., J 984. Ein Beitrag zur Tiergeographie der terrestrischen Isopoden der Kanarischen Inseln (Crustacea: Isopoda: Oniscidea). Court. Forschembras-lnst, Senckenberg , 71: 39-44.

LEGRAND, 1.1., 1945. Contribution a letude des isopodes terrestres de la Bretagne. Bull. Soc. Zool.

France, 74: 54-67.

RODRIGUEZ, R. y 1.A. BARRIENTOS. 1993a. Las familias Halophilosciidae y Philosciidae en el Archipielago Canario (Crustacea: Isopoda: Oniscidea). BO/I1. Asoc. esp. EIlI., 17( I): 183- J 95.

RODRIGUEZ, R. y 1 .A. BARRIENTOS. 1993b. Dos nuevas especies de is6podos terrestres de las Islas Canarias: Porcellio babilonus n.sp. y Porcellio medinae n.sp. (Oniscidea: Porcellionidae). vicraea. 22: 79-87.

VANDEL, A., 1954. Etude des Isopodes Terrestres recuillis aux lies Canaries par 1. Mateu en Mars Avril 1952. Metnachos Mus. NUl. Hisl. NatUJ: Paris. Ser. A. Zoologic, 8 (I): J -60.

VANDEL, A., 1960. Les Isopodes Terrestres de I' Archipel maderien. Memachos Mus. Nat. Hist. Natur.

Paris. Ser. A. Zoologie, 22 (I): 1-156.

100