Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Radmila Moacanin
!
-
W i s d o m Publications
23 D e r i n g S t r e e t
London W i , England
R a d m i l a M o a c a n i n 1986
i50.i9 54 ,
BS173J85
I S B N 086171042 8
S e t i n P a l a t i n o 10V2 o n i3pt b y
Characters of Taunton, Somerset, and
p r i n t e d a n d b o u n d b y Eurasia Press of
S i n g a p o r e o n 80 g s m S u n n i n g d a l e O p a q u e
paper supplied by Link Publishing
P a p e r s of W e s t Byfleet, Surrey.
Contents
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS vii
PREFACE Viii
1 BUDDHISM 1
Tibetan Buddhism 8
Tantric Buddhism - Vajrayana 15
2 C. G. JUNG 23
Collective Unconscious 29
Archetypes 30
The Self 32
Individuation 33
Alchemy 35
Synchronicity 39
Spiritual Transformation 77
T h e Union of Opposites 80
T h e Middle W a y and the Madhyamika 81
Ego and Non-Ego 83
Suffering and Methods of Healing 85
Redemption of G o d 89
J u n g ' s V i e w of Eastern Traditions 92
Dangers 96
Ethical Issues 98
CONCLUSION 101
NOTES 107
GLOSSARY ll8
BIBLIOGRAPHY 121
Acknowledgments
to m y T e a c h e r s , L a m a T h u b t e n Y e s h e a n d Lama T h u b t e n
Z o p a R i n p o c h e , w h o s h o w e d m e t h e p a t h to a n o t h e r reality;
t o D r . Ira P r o g o f f w h o i n t r o d u c e d m e t o t h e w o r l d o f J u n g ;
a n d h a s o n l y v e r y r e c e n t l y b e e n r e v e a l e d to t h e W e s t e r n
world?
C. G . J u n g , the alchemists, and Tibetan Buddhists, have
t h e y all b e e n in s e a r c h o f t h e s a m e truth - Self, P h i l o s o p h e r ' s
S t o n e , E n l i g h t e n m e n t ? H a v e their w o r k s a c o m m o n core
w h i c h , if p r o p e r l y u n d e r s t o o d a n d p r a c t i c e d , c o n t a i n a
universal value?
Is t h e r e a m e a n i n g f u l c o i n c i d e n c e in t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y
p r o p h e c y t h a t ' w h e n t h e i r o n b i r d s will fly t h e T i b e t a n s will
l e a v e t h e i r h o m e , ' t h e p r o p h e c y b e i n g fulfilled in t h e v e r y
t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y w h i c h b r o u g h t C. G . J u n g to u s ?
M a n y T i b e t a n s h a v e f o u n d a n e w h o m e in S w i t z e r l a n d ,
o n e o f t h e m o s t c o n g e n i a l p l a c e s for t h e m o u t s i d e o f T i b e t ,
looking at the s a m e Alps which inspired Jung, and which
are reminiscent of their o w n Himalayas, the surroundings
a n d visions w h e r e the mind can best meditate and expand.
S o m e y e a r s b a c k , u n d e r t h e i m p a c t o f t h e v e r y s a m e force
t h a t m a d e the Tibetans leave their h o m e , I too h a d to leave
m i n e , a n d f o u n d t e m p o r a r i l y a n e w h o m e in S w i t z e r l a n d . It
w a s t h e r e t h a t m y first i n t e r e s t in E a s t e r n m y s t i c a l tradi-
t i o n s w a s b o r n . It w a s in S w i t z e r l a n d a l s o t h a t I h a d m y first
e n c o u n t e r with the Dalai L a m a . Ever since I met Tibetans I
h a v e o f t e n felt g r a t e f u l , i n a s t r a n g e w a y , t o t h a t ' e v i l ' force
w h i c h w a s d i r e c t l y i n s t r u m e n t a l in b r i n g i n g u s t o g e t h e r .
F o r m e t h i s r e p r e s e n t e d a striking e x a m p l e o f t h e possibility
of experiencing that 'thought transformation' which the
Tibetans teach, and a demonstration of the multi-dimen-
sional aspects of every event.
I c a m e i n t o contact b o t h w i t h the work of Jung and with
T i b e t a n B u d d h i s m very s p o n t a n e o u s l y , and in each case as
the result of a series of synchronistic events. Both systems
h a d an i m m e d i a t e a n d strong impact on m e , and I had an
i n t i m a t i o n that s o m e h o w they m u s t b e related in a pro-
f o u n d l y s i g n i f i c a n t w a y , d e s p i t e t h e fact that t h e y w e r e
rooted in very different traditions and developed under
very different outward circumstances.
I n t h i s b o o k I shall try t o e n c o m p a s s g e n e r a l a r e a s o f
J u n g ' s p s y c h o l o g y a n d T i b e t a n B u d d h i s m . T h e s e are s u b -
j e c t m a t t e r s o f i m m e n s e s c o p e a n d complexity, both in theory
a n d practice, a n d voluminous works have been produced
i n e a c h o f t h e a r e a s . T h e r e f o r e m y s t u d y shall b e l i m i t e d to
c e r t a i n i s s u e s o n l y d e a l t w i t h b y J u n g , a n d t h e relation o f
a l c h e m y t o h i s o w n f i n d i n g s . T h e d i s c u s s i o n of B u d d h i s m
w i l l f o c u s o n T a n t r i c B u d d h i s m a n d i t s relation to J u n g ' s
psychology. I can hardly discuss Tantric Buddhism, how-
e v e r , w i t h o u t p l a c i n g it i n t h e b r o a d e r c o n t e x t of T i b e t a n
B u d d h i s m i n g e n e r a l . T h i s is t h e r a t i o n a l e f o r g i v i n g a b r i e f
o v e r v i e w o f T i b e t a n B u d d h i s m . T h e r a t i o n a l e for d i s -
c u s s i n g T a n t r i c B u d d h i s m a n d r e l a t i n g it to J u n g ' s p s y c h -
o l o g y i s b a s e d o n m y i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h i s particular f o r m
of B u d d h i s m is m o s t directly concerned with the issues
a n d p r o b l e m s t h a t p r e o c c u p i e d J u n g t h r o u g h o u t h i s life -
a b o v e all, t h e p r o c e s s of the g r o w t h of consciousness and
spiritual transformation. Jung refers to it as 'the
t r e m e n d o u s experiment of b e c o m i n g conscious, which
n a t u r e h a s laid u p o n m a n k i n d , a n d w h i c h unites the most
d i v e r s e cultures in a c o m m o n task.'
Despite its i n t r i c a t e c o m p l e x i t y a n d e s o t e r i c nature,
T i b e t a n B u d d h i s m is e s s e n t i a l l y a p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d ethical
s y s t e m . A n d u n l i k e o t h e r p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e o r i e s a n d spiri-
tual a p p r o a c h e s that h a v e c o m e to us from Asia, Tantric
B u d d h i s m is v e r y m u c h a living p r o c e s s , b r i d g i n g t h e g a p
b e t w e e n o u r d e e p e s t y e a r n i n g s for s y m b o l i c a n d spiritual
m y s t e r y , a n d t h e d e m a n d s o f o u r m u n d a n e life, a l w a y s
s t r e s s i n g t h a t t h e m e a n i n g o f life is in living it.
I h o p e t o a r r i v e a t s o m e s o l u t i o n s to a f e w f u n d a m e n t a l
i s s u e s e x a m i n e d , a n d t h a t t h e r e s u l t s will d e m o n s t r a t e a n d
point to interconnections between the two systems. I hope
t o b e a b l e t o s h o w t h a t it is p o s s i b l e to r e c o n c i l e a n a n c i e n t
E a s t e r n spiritual discipline with a contemporary Western
p s y c h o l o g i c a l s y s t e m in a fruitful a n d m e a n i n g f u l w a y .
i Buddhism
ONCE UPON A t i m e , in a f a r - o f f l a n d t h e r e w a s a p r i n c e w h o
h a d a b e a u t i f u l w i f e a n d a y o u n g s o n . H e w a s called S i d -
d h a r t h a G a u t a m a . H e h a d l i v e d all h i s life i n a b i g palace a n d
a c c o r d i n g t o h i s f a t h e r ' s w i s h e s n e v e r left t h e p a l a c e . H i s
father, the king, w a s determined to protect his son and heir
f r o m s e e i n g a n y m i s e r y a n d t o o f f e r h i m all t h e w o r l d l y
p l e a s u r e s o f life. I n d e e d , S i d d h a r t h a t a s t e d to t h e full all t h e
w o r l d l y p l e a s u r e s o f life.
B u t o n e d a y h e d i s o b e y e d h i s f a t h e r ' s strict o r d e r s n e v e r
to leave the palace g r o u n d s . With his devoted companion
a n d charioteer C h a n n a , h e passed b e y o n d the gate and
v e n t u r e d i n t o t h e w o r l d . H e c a m e a c r o s s a n o l d m a n , a sick
m a n , a n d a d e a d m a n - t h r e e s i g h t s totally u n k n o w n to t h e
y o u n g prince. H e asked Channa whether he ever saw any-
t h i n g like t h a t . C h a n n a a n s w e r e d t h a t o l d a g e , s i c k n e s s ,
a n d d e a t h m u s t c o m e t o all o f u s . F o r t h e first t i m e in h i s life
Siddhartha w a s w o u n d e d by the arrow of a new awareness:
t h e s u f f e r i n g o f all h u m a n i t y f r o m w h i c h t h e r e is n o e s c a p e .
Finally, t h e fourth a n d decisive sight S i d d h a r t h a e n c o u n t e r e d
w a s that of a wandering holy man. H e no longer had a
c h o i c e : t h e i n n e r u r g e n c y , h i s n e w l y d i s c o v e r e d calling,
w a s o v e r w h e l m i n g a n d h e too h a d to leave his h o m e , his
r o y a l life a n d e v e r y t h i n g h e c h e r i s h e d , including his parents,
his beautiful wife a n d small son.
S i l e n t l y h e left t h e r o y a l p a l a c e for g o o d to e m b a r k a l o n e
o n a l o n g j o u r n e y in p u r s u i t o f a n s w e r s to t h e riddle o f life.
In h i s w a n d e r i n g s h e m e t m a n y f a m o u s , l e a r n e d t e a c h e r s ,
p h i l o s o p h e r s ; h e s t u d i e d w i t h t h e m a n d f o l l o w e d their
m e t h o d s . B u t n o n e o f t h e l e a r n e d m e n c o u l d a n s w e r his
o w n q u e s t i o n s , for these w e r e n o ordinary questions, not
f o r m u l a t e d in his h e a d , b u t felt deeply in his heart, searching
not for philosophical a n d metaphysical speculations but
t h e living truth. S o , S i d d h a r t h a continued his solitary journey
s e a r c h i n g for his treasure, the only treasure h e so desper-
a t e l y w a n t e d , a n d for w h i c h h e w a s d e t e r m i n e d o n c e m o r e
t o s a c r i f i c e e v e r y t h i n g . F o r m a n y y e a r s h e lived in the forest
a s a h e r m i t e n d e a v o r i n g to g a i n c o n t r o l o v e r his b o d y a n d
h i s m i n d . H e w a s s u c c e s s f u l in his e f f o r t s , b u t the results
w e r e a s t a r v e d , e x t r e m e l y w e a k e n e d b o d y a n d a discouraged
m i n d , w h i l e t h e t r e a s u r e h e w a s s e e k i n g still e l u d e d h i m .
A t t h e d e p t h o f h o p e l e s s n e s s S i d d h a r t h a r e a l i z e d that h i s
b o d y w a s h i s m o s t p r e c i o u s i n s t r u m e n t , n o t to b e a b u s e d
t h r o u g h ascetic practices a n y m o r e than through s e n s e indul-
g e n c e , b o t h o f w h i c h h e h a d k n o w n s o w e l l . It w a s t h r o u g h
h i s h u m a n b o d y - a n d t h r o u g h it a l o n e - t h a t h e c o u l d r e a c h
t h e t r e a s u r e h a r d to f i n d . N o w it w a s t i m e for t h e f o r m e r
p r i n c e , a n d t h e f o r m e r a s c e t i c , a g a i n to c h a n g e his life, to
a b a n d o n the w a y of self-denial and enter a more balanced
p a t h - the Middle Path. S o , h e took a meal, bathed, put on
f r e s h c l o t h e s . S i d d h a r t h a t h e n sat c r o s s l e g g e d u n d e r a t r e e ,
t o m e d i t a t e , a n d v o w e d n o t to r e m o v e h i m s e l f from this
s p o t till h e f o u n d t h e t r e a s u r e . A n d i n d e e d a f t e r m a n y d a y s
o f s i t t i n g u n d e r t h e t r e e t h e t r e a s u r e c a m e to h i m : in a flash
o f i l l u m i n a t i o n h e a t t a i n e d e n l i g h t e n m e n t , t h e l i v i n g truth
h e h a d b e e n s e a r c h i n g for. At that m o m e n t Siddhartha
b e c a m e the Buddha, the Awakened One.
H e l i v e d a l o n g life b r i n g i n g t h e t r e a s u r e h e d i s c o v e r e d to
m a n y p e o p l e , y o u n g a n d o l d , rich a n d p o o r , l e a r n e d a n d
u n e d u c a t e d , to e v e r y o n e a n d a n y o n e w h o w a s r e a d y to
d i s c o v e r t h e t r e a s u r e f o r h i m s e l f ; for t h e t r e a s u r e w a s to
b e f o u n d n o w h e r e e l s e b u t w i t h i n t h e d e p t h o f e a c h indivi-
d u a l m i n d . H i s m o r t a l b o d y d i e d at t h e a g e o f 8 0 or s o . B u t
P r i n c e S i d d h a r t h a G a u t a m a - the B u d d h a - lived happily ever
a f t e r in t h e m i n d s a n d h e a r t s o f m i l l i o n s o f h u m a n b e i n g s
w h o a c c e p t e d h i s m e s s a g e a n d m a d e it a living reality.
T h i s is t h e tale o f S h a k y a m u n i B u d d h a , p r o b a b l y o n e o f
t h e o l d e s t , m o s t o f t e n r e p e a t e d , t h e m o s t fantastic o f all
t a l e s . It h a s b e e n t o l d a n d h a s i n s p i r e d c o u n t l e s s h u m a n
b e i n g s for t w o a n d a h a l f m i l l e n i a .
W h a t w a s t h e m e s s a g e that S h a k y a m u n i B u d d h a b r o u g h t
to t h e w o r l d ? A b o v e all t h a t e a c h h u m a n b e i n g h a s t h e
potential to attain e n l i g h t e n m e n t a n d b e c o m e a B u d d h a .
' M a n is h i s o w n m a s t e r , a n d t h e r e is n o h i g h e r b e i n g o r
p o w e r t h a t sits in j u d g m e n t o v e r h i s d e s t i n y . ' 1
Buddha,
a n d his followers to this day, can only teach, guide, point to
t h e p a t h to l i b e r a t i o n ; e a c h p e r s o n m u s t e n t e r a n d w a l k t h e
path alone, just as Siddhartha did. O n e must maintain a
healthy d o u b t about the teachings o n e receives, n o matter
w h o the a u t h o r i t y , i n c l u d i n g t h e B u d d h a , until their validity
is clearly c o n f i r m e d t h r o u g h i n v e s t i g a t i o n , a n a l y s i s , a n d
e x p e r i e n c e . O n l y w h e n w e h a v e discovered that the teachings
a r e v a l u a b l e a n d a p p l i c a b l e t o o u r o w n life s h o u l d w e
f o l l o w t h e m . U l t i m a t e l y , w e a r e o u r o w n a u t h o r i t y in t h e
spiritual q u e s t ; t h e r e is n o r e v e a l e d t r u t h , s a c r e d s c r i p t u r e ,
n o dogma a n d no savior.
T h e e s s e n c e of B u d d h a ' s teaching and the foundation of
all s u b s e q u e n t B u d d h i s t d o c t r i n e w a s e x p r e s s e d in h i s first
s e r m o n d e l i v e r e d a t S a m a t h , n e a r B e n a r e s , after h i s enlight-
e n m e n t o n t h e n i g h t o f t h e full m o o n o f J u l y . I n it h e
expounded the Four Noble Truths:
1 u b i q u i t o u s e x i s t e n c e o f s u f f e r i n g in life;
2 t h e s o u r c e o f s u f f e r i n g is t o b e f o u n d in selfish c r a v i n g
a n d a t t a c h m e n t o f all k i n d s ;
3 c e s s a t i o n , liberation, f r e e d o m f r o m suffering is possible;
4 t h e p a t h l e a d i n g f r o m s u f f e r i n g to liberation.
T h e F o u r N o b l e T r u t h s d o c t r i n e f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t e s o n this
p a t h , g e n e r a l l y r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e M i d d l e W a y b e c a u s e it is
f r e e f r o m all e x t r e m e s . It is a l s o called t h e N o b l e E i g h t f o l d
P a t h a s it s p e c i f i e s r u l e s o f b e h a v i o r , in t h o u g h t , s p e e c h
a n d action, that lead to liberation. T h e y are:
1 right understanding
2 right thought - purpose or aspiration
3 right speech
4 right action
5 right livelihood
6 right effort
7 right mindfulness, awareness, attentiveness
8 right concentration, or meditation.
A m a j o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f all B u d d h a ' s t e a c h i n g s is
that t h e y are d e s i g n e d to fit t h e n e e d s a n d a p t i t u d e s
o f e a c h i n d i v i d u a l . S i n c e w e all h a v e d i f f e r e n t
i n t e r e s t s , p r o b l e m s a n d w a y s of life, n o o n e m e t h o d
o f i n s t r u c t i o n c o u l d e v e r b e s u i t a b l e for e v e r y o n e .
B u d d h a h i m s e l f e x p l a i n e d t h a t for t h e p u r p o s e o f
reaching a particular disciple c o m i n g from a par-
ticular b a c k g r o u n d h e w o u l d t e a c h a particular
doctrine. T h u s there could b e certain times w h e n
it m i g h t b e n e c e s s a r y t o s a y ' y e s ' a n d o t h e r s w h e n
it w o u l d b e m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e to s a y ' n o , ' e v e n in
r e s p o n s e to the s a m e q u e s t i o n . 3
T h i s p r e c i s e l y is t h e s t r e n g t h o f B u d d h i s m , n a m e l y t h e
flexibility o f its m e t h o d s a n d p r a c t i c e , its e m p h a s i s o n e a c h
individual's experience, not intellectual, philosopical
k n o w l e d g e a l o n e , o r b l i n d faith. N o t h i n g , n o m e t h o d is
e x c l u d e d t h a t c o u l d l e a d to t h e u l t i m a t e g o a l of liberation.
T h i s e n d o w s t h e t e a c h i n g s w i t h a n e x q u i s i t e ability t o
a d a p t to t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f v a r i o u s p e o p l e , living u n d e r
different g e o g r a p h i c a l climates, different cultures, a n d hist-
orical b a c k g r o u n d s . I n this s e n s e B u d d h i s m h a s truly a u n i -
versal c h a r a c t e r , a n d a r e l e v a n c e to life t h a t h a s persisted
u n d i m i n i s h e d to t h i s d a y , for its w i s d o m is r o o t e d in t h e
depth of the h u m a n psyche.
W i t h s u c h a w i d e latitude in m a t t e r s o f instruction a n d
practice it w a s inevitable that d u r i n g t h e e n s u i n g c e n t u r i e s
a f t e r B u d d h a ' s d e a t h doctrinal d i f f e r e n c e s w o u l d e m e r g e
a n d a v a r i e t y o f traditions d e v e l o p . T w o m a j o r s y s t e m s
arose: Hinayana, or the 'Lesser Vehicle,' and Mahayana,
or the 'Greater V e h i c l e . ' T h e former, the Southern School,
s p r e a d in t h e c o u n t r i e s t o d a y k n o w n a s B u r m a , T h a i l a n d ,
a n d S r i L a n k a , w h i l e t h e latter, t h e N o r t h e r n S c h o o l , in-
c l u d e s t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a s of n o r t h e r n I n d i a , M o n g o l i a ,
Tibet, Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal, Cambodia, Vietnam,
C h i n a , Korea, and Japan.
T h e H i n a y a n a s t r e s s e s strict m o r a l regulations, a n d a d h e r -
e n c e t o a u s t e r e r u l e s o f c o n d u c t . T h e u l t i m a t e goal is attain-
m e n t o f o n e ' s o w n salvation. T h e h i g h e s t stage of individual
d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e ideal h u m a n b e i n g , is called a n ' A r h a t . '
T h e w o r d m e a n s 'a s l a y e r o f t h e f o e , ' a n d t h e foe is u n d e r -
s t o o d to b e t h e p a s s i o n s . 4
T h e M a h a y a n a c o n t i n u e s w h e r e H i n a y a n a l e a v e s off: t h e
u l t i m a t e g o a l o f M a h a y a n i s t s is to s e e k salvation n o t for
t h e i r o w n s a k e b u t for t h e b e n e f i t o f all b e i n g s . A n d this
g o a l is n o l e s s t h a n t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f B u d d h a h o o d . W h i l e
H i n a y a n a e m p h a s i z e s austerity, self-restraint, and high
e t h i c a l b e h a v i o r , M a h a y a n a e m p h a s i z e s intuitive w i s d o m
t o r e m o v e t h e veil o f i g n o r a n c e o b s c u r i n g o u r p u r e e s s e n c e ,
t h e B u d d h a - n a t u r e d w e l l i n g in all of u s a n d w h i c h o n l y
n e e d s t o b e u n c o v e r e d . T o find o n e ' s true self, realize o n e -
s e l f , is to r e a l i z e t h e i n h e r e n t B u d d h a - n a t u r e . It h a s b e e n
s a i d t h a t ' [ H i n a y a n a ] e m p h a s i z e s the h u m a n i t y o f t h e
Buddha; Mahayana emphasizes the Buddha-nature of
humanity.' 5
T h e i d e a l o f t h e A r h a t in H i n a y a n a is r e p l a c e d in t h e
M a h a y a n a s y s t e m b y t h e ideal of t h e B o d h i s a t t v a . F r o m t h e
ideal of a purely private salvation of Arhats intent upon
r e a l i z i n g n i r v a n a , B o d h i s a t t v a s h a v e v o w e d to d e v o t e all
t h e i r p u r s u i t s t o t h e w e l f a r e o f o t h e r s a n d to w o r k for a
u n i v e r s a l d e l i v e r a n c e o f all b e i n g s . In t h e m a n y self-seeking,
e g o i s t i c a c t i o n s a n d e n d e a v o r s a r e totally a b s e n t .
spontaneously to t h e i r i m p u l s e o f c o m p a s s i o n towards
e v e r y o n e a n d all, a n d a r e fully i n v o l v e d in t h e affairs o f t h e
w o r l d ; t h e y a r e in t h e m i d s t o f it, w i t h all its s t r u g g l e s a n d
t r i b u l a t i o n s . T h e i r s is n o t a n e g a t i v e w a y o f d e n y i n g a n d
a b a n d o n i n g t h e w o r l d , b u t a p o s i t i v e w a y o f a f f i r m i n g it
a n d t r a n s f o r m i n g it, b y v i r t u e o f t h e i r g r e a t c o m p a s s i o n
a n d g r e a t w i s d o m . T h e i r life t a s k is t o s e t p e o p l e free f r o m
i g n o r a n c e , p a s s i o n , a n d evil.
B o d h i s a t t v a s h a v e m a d e t h e i n d e s t r u c t i b l e r e s o l u t i o n to
b e c o m e a B u d d h a , solely for the benefit of others; they have
t h u s single-mindedly entered and are pursuing the way of
t h e e n l i g h t e n e d b e i n g to b e c o m e fully i n t e g r a t e d , free f r o m
c o n f u s i o n a n d i n n e r conflict. T h e y h a v e d e v e l o p e d the
m e a n s to t a p t h e i n n e r t r e a s u r e o f o t h e r s , t h e latent s e e d s o f
e n l i g h t e n m e n t , w h i c h a c c o r d i n g to M a h a y a n a is t h e c o m -
m o n h e r i t a g e o f h u m a n i t y . T h e y a r e ' . . . l i k e t h e skilful
alchemist w h o by virtue of the power of his chemicals can
c h a n g e silver into gold a n d gold into silver.' 8
W h a t is it t h a t g i v e s t h e b o d h i s a t t v a this s t r e n g t h
b y w h i c h h e e x c e l s all t h e r e s t ? It is h i s capacity to
sustain the c o m p r e h e n s i o n of the true nature of
t h i n g s , his capacity to bear with every circumstance
d e v o i d o f f e a r a n d a n x i e t y , a n d h i s ability to m e e t
every situation with u n i m p e d e d insight and un-
bounded compassion. 9
TIBETAN BUDDHISM
T i b e t a n B u d d h i s m is p a r t o f t h e M a h a y a n a . W h e n it w a s
i n t r o d u c e d i n t o T i b e t f r o m India, in t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y A D ,
it m e t w i t h t h e n a t i v e B o n religion a n d its s h a m a n i s t i c
practices. A s B u d d h i s m spread, m a n y Indian scholars came
to T i b e t a n d translated religious texts a n d their c o m m e n t a r i e s ,
u n t i l T i b e t a n s t h e m s e l v e s b e g a n w r i t i n g their o w n c o m -
m e n t a r i e s . It h a s b e e n said that o n the Tibetan soil B u d d h i s m
m i x e d w i t h t h e local B o n cult a n d i n c o r p o r a t e d s o m e o f its
features. T h e present Dalai L a m a , however, denies any
e x t r a n e o u s i n f l u e n c e s a n d states that ' t h e B u d d h i s t teaching
t h a t s p r e a d t o T i b e t is j u s t t h e s t a i n l e s s t e a c h i n g o f India
a n d n o t h i n g e l s e . T h e T i b e t a n l a m a s n e i t h e r a l t e r e d it n o r
m i x e d it w i t h a n o t h e r r e l i g i o n . ' 1 1
A n o t h e r k i n d o f i g n o r a n c e is o u r d e l u s i o n that p h e n o m -
e n a a r e p e r m a n e n t , w h e r e a s i m p e r m a n e n c e , c h a n g e is t h e
u b i q u i t o u s l a w of n a t u r e . W e are attached to people, objects,
p o s s e s s i o n s , s i t u a t i o n s , a n d a b o v e all t o o u r o w n b o d y a n d
life, a n d w h e n t h e y c h a n g e , o r c e a s e t o b e , w e e x p e r i e n c e
s u f f e r i n g . N u r t u r e d b y t h e d e s i r e for p e r m a n e n c e a n d n o n -
c h a n g e ' o n e ' s m i n d b e c o m e s stiff a n d f r o z e n . ' 1 4
O u r g r e a t e s t e n e m y is o u r s e l f i s h n e s s , o r a s B u d d h i s t s
s a y , e g o - g r a s p i n g , o u r s e l f - c h e r i s h i n g a t t i t u d e . All suffer-
i n g s d e r i v e f r o m it. T h e t h r e e p o i s o n s o f t h e m i n d , g r e e d ,
h a t r e d , a n d ignorance, pollute our thoughts and actions
a n d bring us confusion, restlessness, and pain. A n d as w e
s c r u t i n i z e o u r o w n e x p e r i e n c e s w e f i n d o u t that w i t h o u r
actions, conscious or unconscious, w h e t h e r motivated by
p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e t h o u g h t s , w e p l a n t s e e d s that will
ripen in t h e f u t u r e . B u d d h i s t s w o u l d s a y w e will suffer, o r
b e n e f i t , f r o m t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s in f u t u r e lives, b u t a l s o ,
a n d v e r y m u c h s o , in t h i s life, i n d e e d in o u r i m m e d i a t e
f u t u r e . T h i s is t h e s i m p l e a n d i n e x o r a b l e l a w of c a u s e a n d
e f f e c t , o r k a r m a . T h e a c t i o n s w h i c h inevitably produce
f u t u r e , if n o t i m m e d i a t e , s u f f e r i n g a n d h a r m to o u r s e l f or
o t h e r s a r e called n o n - v i r t u o u s , unskilful, or negative actions,
w h i l e t h o s e w h i c h p r o d u c e p o s i t i v e r e s u l t s are called vir-
tuous actions.
As Buddhists r e p e a t e d l y tell u s , all b e i n g s , without
e x c e p t i o n , s h a r e in c o m m o n t h e d e s i r e to a v o i d suffering
a n d achieve happiness. Yet through our thoughts and
a c t i o n s , a n d d u e to o u r d e l u d e d a n d p o l l u t e d m i n d w e
b r i n g t o o u r s e l f t h e e x a c t o p p o s i t e of w h a t w e strive for.
F o r B u d d h i s t s , ' s i n s ' are called 'non-virtuous actions.'
B y ' v i r t u e ' t h e y m e a n not only goodness and morality, but
a l s o e f f i c a c y , p o w e r , w h i c h v i r t u o u s a c t i o n s i n d e e d are
c a p a b l e o f g e n e r a t i n g . G r e e d , p r i d e , a n g e r a n d the l i k e ,
t h e n , a r e n o n - v i r t u o u s a c t i o n s w h i c h lead to m e n t a l suf-
fering and confusion. 1 5
T h e g a t e w a y t o all spiritual p a t h , w h e t h e r l e a d i n g
t o p e r s o n a l Liberation o r S u p r e m e E n l i g h t e n m e n t ,
is t h e F u l l y R e n o u n c e d M i n d . J u s t a s a p a s s p o r t ,
visa, v a c c i n a t i o n s a n d sufficient m o n e y a r e n e c e s s -
ary before w e can undertake a long journey, so
a l s o is t h i s s t a t e o f m i n d e s s e n t i a l if w e a r e to
follow the D h a r m a successfully....What exactly
does such a mind renounce? W e must develop
renunciation of the causes of suffering, the mental
afflictions themselves....Renunciation does not
imply that w e should give u p our enjoyments or
p o s s e s s i o n s . T h e r e h a v e b e e n m a n y h i g h l y realized
beings w h o have been kings, wealthy merchants
a n d t h e like. It is n o t o u r p o s s e s s i o n s b u t o u r
i g n o r a n t , clinging attitude t o w a r d s t h e m that m u s t
be abandoned. 1 6
It n e e d s t o b e e m p h a s i z e d that, c o n t r a r y to p o p u l a r belief,
w h a t t h e m i n d r e n o u n c e s is s u f f e r i n g , s a m s a r a , a m i s e r a b l e
a l i e n a t e d w a y o f life, t h e e x i s t e n t i a l d e s p a i r - o r t o p u t it
d i f f e r e n t l y , it r e n o u n c e s u n c o n s c i o u s n e s s , d a r k n e s s o f t h e
m i n d , t h e m i n d t h a t is n o t a w a k e n e d . W h e n t h e m i n d is
c o n s c i o u s , a w a k e n e d , t h e n s a m s a r a is n o m o r e , t h e r e is n o
dissatisfaction. Indeed the word Buddha m e a n s simply
that - the A w a k e n e d O n e .
T h e m i n d h a s t h e p o t e n t i a l t o b e a w a k e n e d , in fact it h a s
a n u r g e t o a w a k e , y e t it s l e e p s in i g n o r a n c e a n d d e l u s i o n s .
W h e n u n o b s t r u c t e d b y i g n o r a n c e it e x p e r i e n c e s p e a c e a n d
b l i s s . S o m e , if n o t m o s t p e o p l e , h a v e s u c h e x p e r i e n c e s at
l e a s t a f e w r a r e t i m e s in t h e i r l i v e s : g e n u i n e l o v e , a e s t h e t i c
experiences, encounters with extraordinary human beings,
a l t e r e d s t a t e s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e s e a r e brief, fleeting
m o m e n t s w h e n w e h a v e a g l i m p s e o f a n o t h e r state o f m i n d ,
a n o t h e r l e v e l o f e x i s t e n c e , a n d a r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t it is w i t h i n
o u r p o w e r t o attain it, h e r e a n d n o w . W e a l s o c o m e t o
r e a l i z e t h a t it is n o t t h e e x t e r n a l e n v i r o n m e n t , b u t o u r
m i n d , our o w n inner world, that adjudicates over our h a p -
p i n e s s o r suffering. T h i s is like finding a wish-fulfilling jewel.
B u t t h e fully r e n o u n c e d m i n d in itself is n o t sufficient t o
a c h i e v e full e n l i g h t e n m e n t , a c c o r d i n g to t h e M a h a y a n a
s c h o o l , w h i c h c o n s i s t e n t l y s t r e s s e s t h a t a n y action m u s t b e
m o t i v a t e d b y t h e i n t e n t i o n to b e n e f i t o t h e r s , a n d n o t m e r e l y
o n e s e l f . T h u s to the c o n c e p t of the r e n o u n c e d m i n d m u s t b e
a d d e d 'the m i n d of enlightenment,' the enlightened motive,
o r s o - c a l l e d bodhicitta, w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s t h e s e c o n d of t h e
t h r e e p r i n c i p a l a s p e c t s o f t h e p a t h to e n l i g h t e n m e n t .
With the awakening of the mind of enlightenment one
b e c o m e s vitally i n t e r e s t e d in t h e w e l f a r e o f o t h e r b e i n g s . In
f a c t , T i b e t a n B u d d h i s t s a l w a y s r e f e r t o all s e n t i e n t b e i n g s ,
n o t o n l y h u m a n k i n d . ' L i k e o n e s e l f , all s e n t i e n t b e i n g s a r e
afflicted b y s u f f e r i n g ; t h u s e v e n t h e s m a l l e s t insect is similar
t o o n e s e l f in n o t w a n t i n g suffering a n d w a n t i n g h a p p i n e s s . ' 17
F r o m t h e a w a r e n e s s o f t h e interior states o f m i n d , c o n s c i o u s
a n d u n c o n s c i o u s , a n d t h e l a w o f c a u s e a n d effect t h a t d e t e r -
m i n e s t h e m , o n e r e a c h e s a n e x p a n d e d a w a r e n e s s that i n -
c l u d e s o t h e r s . F r o m e g o - i n v o l v e m e n t , s e l f - c h e r i s h i n g atti-
t u d e focusing solely on o n e ' s o w n being, o n e m o v e s on to
another level w h e r e one perceives the advantages and
necessities to cherish others. H e r e too the law of cause and
e f f e c t r e i g n s s u p r e m e . F r o m c l o s e i n t e r p e r s o n a l relation-
s h i p s , t o s o c i a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s , t h e r o o t s of all
c o n f l i c t s a n d w a r s lie in t h e s e l f - c h e r i s h i n g a t t i t u d e s . V i r t u -
o u s a c t i o n s t o w a r d s o t h e r s - in b o d y , s p e e c h , a n d m i n d -
s u c h a s r e f r a i n i n g f r o m killing, s t e a l i n g , lying, u s i n g h a r s h
l a n g u a g e , a n d developing c o m p a s s i o n a n d generosity, bring
g e n u i n e a n d lasting p l e a s u r e a n d satisfaction. T h e s e actions,
f r e e f r o m e g o c e n t r i c i t y , h a v e a n e n e r g i z i n g effect o n t h e
p e r s o n w h o p e r f o r m s t h e m , a n d paradoxically b y losing
o n e ' s e g o in a s e l f l e s s activity o n e f i n d s o n e ' s S e l f . T h e
e f f e c t s c a n b e e a s i l y c h e c k e d : t h e s e a r e t h e b e s t m o m e n t s in
a n y o n e ' s l i f e . A g a i n t h e y a r e f o u n d in t h e p r e s e n c e o f
w o r k s o f a r t o f a n y k i n d - w h i c h is p r e c i s e l y t h e f u n c t i o n o f
a r t - in t r u e c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h a n o t h e r h u m a n b e i n g , in
c r e a t i v e a c t i v i t y . T h e y a r e f o u n d t h o u g h e v e n in s m a l l ,
s i m p l e a c t s o f e v e r y d a y life, w h e n e v e r o n e steps out of o n e ' s
self-imposed egocentric p r i s o n . 1 8
T h e enlightened motive
m o v e s o n e , first t o b e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e s u f f e r i n g s o f
o t h e r s , a n d a s a n e x t s t e p to d e v e l o p a s t r o n g motivation to
a t t a i n e n l i g h t e n m e n t for the s a k e o f o t h e r s , that is to guide
t h e m to liberation. T h i s is t h e w a y o f t h e B o d h i s a t t v a w h o
k n o w s that t h e only w a y to inspire, assist a n d guide others
t o l i b e r a t i o n is t o h a v e first f o l l o w e d t h e p a t h o n e s e l f a n d
attained e n l i g h t e n m e n t . But even before o n e has m a d e that
d e t e r m i n a t i o n , e v e r y action t h a t h a s b e e n t o u c h e d b y t h e
m i n d of enlightenment, bodhicitta, even the smallest, most
m u n d a n e a c t i o n b e c o m e s p o w e r f u l . T h u s , 'it is said t h a t
g i v i n g a h a n d f u l o f f o o d to a d o g if d o n e w i t h b o d h i c i t t a ,
b r i n g s u s m o r e b e n e f i t t h a n g i v i n g a u n i v e r s e o f j e w e l s to
e v e r y living b e i n g w i t h o u t such m o t i v a t i o n . ' 1 9
T h e enlight-
e n e d m o t i v e is like t h e art o f t h e a l c h e m i s t t h a t c h a n g e s
base metal into gold.
T h e third of the three principal aspects of the path to
e n l i g h t e n m e n t is t h e c o r r e c t v i e w o f reality, o r t h e w i s d o m
o f v o i d n e s s , sunyata. T h i s is t h e m o s t difficult c o n c e p t t o
c o m p r e h e n d , a n d it m u s t b e g r a s p e d t h r o u g h direct e x p e r i -
e n c e n o t m e r e l y t h r o u g h intellectual u n d e r s t a n d i n g . Y e t it
is a t t h e h e a r t o f all B u d d h i s t t e a c h i n g s , a n d i n s e p a r a b l e
f r o m t h e t w o o t h e r principal a s p e c t s o f t h e p a t h , d i s c u s s e d
earlier. It c a n n o t b e e x p l a i n e d a n d u n d e r s t o o d through
rational analysis but only through gradual development of
i n t u i t i v e w i s d o m . T h e t r a i n i n g in t h i s h i g h e r w i s d o m is
e s s e n t i a l b e c a u s e m i s c o n c e p t i o n s a b o u t reality are t h e basic
s o u r c e o f all s u f f e r i n g .
T h e c o n c e p t o f s u n y a t a , e m p t i n e s s , h a s g i v e n rise to
m u c h m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d d i s t o r t i o n . Sunya, a Sanskrit
w o r d , m e a n s ' r e l a t i n g t o t h e s w o l l e n . ' A c c o r d i n g to t h e
B u d d h i s t s c h o l a r E d w a r d C o n z e , the e t y m o l o g y o f t h e w o r d
e x p r e s s e s t h e u n i t y o f o p p o s i t e s , n a m e l y w h a t is s w o l l e n
f r o m t h e o u t s i d e is h o l l o w i n s i d e ; o u r p e r s o n a l i t y is b o t h
s w o l l e n b y t h e five skandhas 21
and empty of a s e l f . 2 2
T h e r e is
n o i n d e p e n d e n t , i n h e r e n t l y e x i s t e n t , u n r e l a t e d self, or T a s
w e h a v e b e e n a c c u s t o m e d to think. T h e nature of all p h e n o m -
e n a is e m p t i n e s s . P h i l o s o p h i c a l l y , t h i s is t h e p r i n c i p l e o f
r e l a t i v i t y o f all t h i n g s a n d c o n d i t i o n s . B u t it is a l s o t h e
p r i n c i p l e o f limitless potentiality, n o n - e x c l u s i v e n e s s : e m p t i -
n e s s c a n c o n t a i n a n d p r o d u c e e v e r y t h i n g . A s y n o n y m for
s u n y a t a is n o n - d u a l i t y . O n t h i s s u b j e c t t h e Lankavatara
Sutra says:
. . . w h a t is m e a n t b y n o n - d u a l i t y ? It m e a n s that
light a n d s h a d e , long a n d short, black and white,
are relative t e r m s . . . a n d not independent of each
o t h e r ; a s N i r v a n a a n d S a m s a r a a r e , all t h i n g s are
n o t - t w o . T h e r e is n o N i r v a n a e x c e p t w h e r e is S a m -
s a r a ; t h e r e is n o S a m s a r a e x c e p t w h e r e is N i r v a n a ;
f o r t h e c o n d i t i o n o f e x i s t e n c e is n o t o f m u t u a l l y -
exclusive character. 2 3
T h e l a c k o f a s e p a r a t e , p e r m a n e n t T d o e s n o t i m p l y its
total n o n - e x i s t e n c e , which w o u l d be nihilism, another ex-
t r e m e a n d dogmatic viewpoint, equally wrong. T h u s there
is a c o n v e n t i o n a l T , ' w h i c h w e all h a v e , t h a t e x i s t s o n t h e
r e l a t i v e l e v e l o f reality, w h i l e o n t h e u l t i m a t e , a b s o l u t e level
o f r e a l i t y it d o e s n o t e x i s t . T h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e five skandhas
is c o n v e n t i o n a l t r u t h , w h i l e t h e v o i d n a t u r e o f all p h e n o m -
e n a is a b s o l u t e t r u t h . 2 4
T h i s distinction b e t w e e n the relative,
m u n d a n e , a n d a b s o l u t e , u l t i m a t e t r u t h is central to t h e
p h i l o s o p h y o f M a d h y a m i k a ( M i d d l e W a y ) , ( w h i c h I shall
r e t u r n t o i n a later c h a p t e r ) . A c c o r d i n g to t h e p r e s e n t Dalai
L a m a it is 'a t h e o r y w h i c h r e m a i n s s u p r e m e a m o n g all t h e
theories of different Buddhist s c h o o l s . ' 2 5
A t this p o i n t it is
i m p o r t a n t to e m p h a s i z e again the Buddhist view that the
m i s c o n c e p t i o n a b o u t reality a n d t h e b e l i e f in a n i n d e p e n -
d e n t , f i x e d e x i s t e n c e o f t h e self is t h e s o u r c e o f all s u f f e r i n g ,
a n d t h a t ' r e a l i z a t i o n o f s u n y a t a is like t h e k n i f e that c u t s t h e
root of i g n o r a n c e . ' 2 6
W i t h T a n t r i c B u d d h i s m o r V a j r a y a n a - t h e third v e h i c l e ,
a l t h o u g h part of the M a h a y a n a school - Tibetan Buddhism
r e a c h e s its h i g h e s t a n d m o s t m a g n i f i c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t . B y
following the short path of Tantra - also k n o w n as the
D i a m o n d V e h i c l e - t h e a d e p t m a y r e a c h e n l i g h t e n m e n t in
o n e s i n g l e l i f e t i m e , w h i l e a c c o r d i n g to B u d d h i s t t h o u g h t all
o t h e r g r a d e d paths take an extraordinarily long time, 'aeon
u p o n a e o n , ' to attain B u d d h a h o o d .
T a n t r a , ' a S a n s k r i t w o r d , relates to t h e c o n c e p t o f w e a v -
i n g , s u g g e s t i n g a c t i v i t y , c o n t i n u i t y , a n d also i n t e r d e p e n -
d e n c e a n d i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s . T a n t r i c B u d d h i s m is b a s e d o n
t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f M a d h y a m i k a , w h i c h is e s s e n t i a l l y t h e
c o n c e p t o f t h e m i d d l e w a y , t h e view free o f the t w o e x t r e m e s ,
e t e r n a l i s m a n d n i h i l i s m . It is i n t e r e s t e d n e i t h e r i n t h e o -
r e t i c a l a n d m e t a p h y s i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n s , n o r in t h e a s c e t i c
p r a c t i c e s o f s o m e o t h e r s e c t s . Its e m p h a s i s is o n the m e t h o d ,
o n a c t i v i t y a n d c o n t i n u i t y . T h e m e t h o d s a r e c o m p l e x , at
t i m e s b e w i l d e r i n g , s t r a n g e a n d i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e to t h e
uninitiated, suggestive of primitive superstition, and
s h a m a n i s t i c m a g i c . Y e t in t h e i r e s s e n c e t h e y are all b u t
d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s o f spiritual transformation: w a y s of t r a n s -
m u t i n g a n y a n d all a s p e c t s o f s a m s a r i c life - positive, n e g a -
t i v e , o r n e u t r a l - i n t o t r a n s c e n d e n t a l w i s d o m . All o b s t a c l e s ,
negativities, passions are harnessed a n d transmuted into
v e h i c l e s o n t h e p a t h to e n l i g h t e n m e n t . G o o d a n d evil a r e
t r a n s c e n d e d a n d f l o w b a c k into p u r e spiritual e s s e n c e w h i c h
is t h e u l t i m a t e n a t u r e o f t h e u n i v e r s e . T h i s is t h e direct,
s h o r t p a t h to l i b e r a t i o n , t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l o n e , a s it entails
a r a d i c a l r e v o l u t i o n o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , b u t it is b y n o m e a n s
a n e a s y p a t h , n o r d e v o i d o f d a n g e r s . It is far f r o m b e i n g
p r i m i t i v e (in t h e n e g a t i v e s e n s e o f t h a t t e r m ) ; q u i t e to t h e
c o n t r a r y , it i s a m o s t s o p h i s t i c a t e d m e t h o d of spiritual
g r o w t h a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . M i r c e a Eliade p o i n t s o u t that
t h e r e are parallels b e t w e e n
T h e g o a l is t h e s a m e a s in all o t h e r s c h o o l s o f B u d d h i s m ,
n a m e l y , e n l i g h t e n m e n t , b u t it is e n l i g h t e n m e n t h e r e a n d
n o w , a n d n o t in a n y i n c o n c e i v a b l e f u t u r e . It a i m s at t h e
p e r m a n e n t destruction of suffering - the sole concern of
B u d d h a a s e x p r e s s e d in h i s v e r y first s e r m o n , o n t h e F o u r
N o b l e T r u t h s - a n d f o l l o w s t h e c o n v i c t i o n that t h e r e is an
a l t e r n a t i v e in t h i s e x i s t e n c e to t h e m i s e r y o f m u n d a n e life.
It is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e t h a t b e f o r e e n t e r i n g t h e tantric p a t h
t h e a d e p t m u s t b e familiar w i t h a n d practice at all t i m e s t h e
f u n d a m e n t a l steps of the Hinayana and Mahayana schools.
Restraint, self-awareness, training of the mind, c o m p a s -
s i o n , a n d c u l t i v a t i o n of w i s d o m a r e n e c e s s a r y f o u n d a t i o n s
b e f o r e o n e v e n t u r e s i n t o t h e d i a m o n d p a t h . In fact a T a n t r i c
m a s t e r o f t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y Atisa ' b a s e d his t e a c h i n g o n
the idea that H i n a y a n a , M a h a y a n a and Vajrayana could not
be regarded separately but must be seen as aspects of a
single p a t h . ' 2 8
L o o k i n g at t h e t h r e e y a n a s t o g e t h e r , t h e y are
a c o n s i s t e n t a n d n a t u r a l e v o l u t i o n in B u d d h i s t t h e o r y a n d
practice.
T a n t r a i m p l i e s c o n t i n u i t y - t h e c o n t i n u i t y of the m o v e -
m e n t o f o n e ' s life a n d i n n e r g r o w t h , w h e n spiritual practice
i s c o n s c i o u s l y p u r s u e d . A n d p r a c t i c e l e a d s to an u n d e r -
s t a n d i n g o f t h e i n t e r w o v e n n e s s o f all p h e n o m e n a , t h e rela-
tionship between microcosm and macrocosm, mind and
u n i v e r s e , m a t t e r a n d spirit - a n idea that b e a r s a striking
s i m i l a r i t y to t h e f i n d i n g s o f m o d e r n s c i e n c e .
It c o u l d b e s a i d t h a t t h e a i m o f B u d d h i s t T a n t r a is t o
p e n e t r a t e into, h a r n e s s , a n d transform the dynamic forces
of the universe, w h i c h are n o different from the psycho-
logical forces and archetypal constellations of our o w n
p s y c h e . B u t this c a n n o t b e d o n e through the exercise of
discursive thought or application of abstract theories, but
o n l y b y b e i n g d e e p l y i m m e r s e d in a c t u a l p r a c t i c e s . D u e t o
the e n o r m o u s wealth of those practices, 2 9
Tantra has given
r i s e t o m u c h m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d m i s c o n c e p t i o n s . In t h e
W e s t e r n w o r l d it h a s o f t e n b e e n e q u a t e d w i t h m a g i c a n d
exotic sexual practices.
A s t o t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e T a n t r a , a s w e l l a s t h e similarity o r
d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n H i n d u a n d B u d d h i s t T a n t r a s , t h e r e is
m u c h controversy, a n d n o definitive a g r e e m e n t o n these
i s s u e s . A c c o r d i n g t o o n e a u t h o r , t h e r e w a s n o o n e particular
p e r s o n w h o i n t r o d u c e d T a n t r a into B u d d h i s m at a n y p a r -
ticular t i m e , b u t rather that it h a s b e e n gradually incorporated
in t h e c o u r s e o f c e n t u r i e s . 3 0
T h e s a m e author maintains that
there are n o fundamental differences between Hindu and
Buddhist Tantras. 3 1
A c c o r d i n g to all s c h o o l s o f T a n t r a , bliss is t h e
n a t u r e o f t h e A b s o l u t e . . . . T h e A b s o l u t e is realised
b y u s w h e n w e r e a l i s e o u r self a s p e r f e c t b l i s s . In
all o u r o r d i n a r y e x p e r i e n c e s o f p l e a s u r e w e h a v e
b u t a m o m e n t a r y g l i m p s e o f t h e s a m e bliss a s
c o n s t i t u t e s t h e u l t i m a t e n a t u r e o f o u r self. B u t
t h e s e experiences of pleasure, b e c a u s e of their
e x t r e m e l y l i m i t e d a n d d e f i l e d n a t u r e , b i n d u s to a
l o w e r p l a n e o f life, i n s t e a d o f c o n t r i b u t i n g to o u r
advancement towards self-realisation. 33
B l i s s , n i r v a n a , e n l i g h t e n m e n t b e c o m e s y n o n y m o u s in
T a n t r i c B u d d h i s m - t h e total i m m e r s i o n o f t h e u l t i m a t e
n a t u r e o f t h e self a n d t h e n o t - s e l f in t h e o n e n e s s o f t h e
perfect b l i s s . 3 4
T h e s e x o - y o g i c spiritual practices - the erotic
m y s t i c i s m , s o m u c h m i s u n d e r s t o o d in t h e W e s t - a r e b a s e d
o n that principle, w h e n sexual bliss b e c o m e s divine bliss
a n d t h e i n s t r u m e n t f o r h i g h e s t spiritual a t t a i n m e n t .
B u d d h i s t T a n t r a h o l d s t h a t t h e h u m a n b o d y is t h e m i c r o -
c o s m that e m b o d i e s the truth of the macrocosm. Absolute
r e a l i t y c o n t a i n s all d u a l i t i e s a n d p o l a r i t i e s : n o u m e n o n a n d
p h e n o m e n o n , potentiality a n d manifestation, nirvana and
s a m s a r a , prajna ( w i s d o m - f e m a l e principle) a n d upaya
( m e t h o d t o a t t a i n w i s d o m - m a l e p r i n c i p l e ) , sunya (void)
a n d karuna ( c o m p a s s i o n ) . Within their o w n bodies Tantric
d i s c i p l e s a c h i e v e t h e r e u n i o n o f t h e t w o polar p r i n c i p l e s ,
that is the primordial unity w h i c h excludes all dismirtination
and includes all d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s . Or, in o t h e r words,
t h r o u g h t h e m e d i u m o f their b o d i e s t h e y t r a n s c e n d t h e
m u n d a n e , p h e n o m e n a l world and experience non-duality,
t h e c o m p l e t e n e s s p r e c e d i n g all c r e a t i o n , t h e G r e a t Bliss. All
T a n t r i c p r a c t i c e s , rituals a n d m e d i t a t i o n s - t h e s o - c a l l e d
sadhanas - have as their aim this realization.
This is t h e d i a l e c t i c o f o p p o s i t e s , t h e t h e m e of the
M a d h y a m i k a p h i l o s o p h y , the M i d d l e W a y , that e n c o m p a s -
s e s a n d e m b r a c e s all. B u t T a n t r i c d i s c i p l e s are m o r e c o n -
c e r n e d w i t h d i r e c t k n o w l e d g e o f t h a t s t a t e , a c h i e v e d in t h e
actuality of their practice.
R i g h t in t h a t m o m e n t w h e n t h e G r e a t C o m p a s s i o n
arises
E m e r g e s n a k e d l y a n d vividly t h e G r e a t V o i d n e s s .
L e t m e a l w a y s f i n d this u n m i s t a k a b l e T w o - i n - O n e
Path
A n d p r a c t i c e it d a y a n d n i g h t . 3 5
T h e T i b e t a n B u d d h i s t s y m b o l o f t h e T w o - i n - O n e is yab-
yum, t h e f a t h e r - m o t h e r d i v i n e c o u p l e in e m b r a c e , seen
r e p e a t e d l y in T i b e t a n s a c r e d art, a n d w h i c h b o t h i n s p i r e s
a n d e x p r e s s e s visually the experiences a n d visions of medita-
tion. L a m a G o v i n d a s t a t e s that in t h e s e s y m b o l s t h e r e is n o
a s s o c i a t i o n w h a t e v e r w i t h p h y s i c a l s e x u a l i t y . T h e y portray
o n l y the union of male a n d female principles - the eternal
female qualities, as those of the 'Divine Mother,' or Tran-
s c e n d e n t a l W i s d o m . '...Instead of seeking union with a
w o m a n o u t s i d e o u r s e l v e s , w e h a v e t o s e e k it within our-
selves...by t h e u n i o n o f o u r m a l e a n d f e m a l e n a t u r e in t h e
process of meditation.' 3 6
Lama G o v i n d a holds the view that
s e x u a l p o l a r i t y h a s to b e r e c o g n i z e d a s a m e r e i n c i d e n t of
u n i v e r s a l p o l a r i t y a n d h a s to b e o v e r c o m e . 3 7
O n l y if w e a r e a b l e to s e e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f b o d y
a n d m i n d , o f p h y s i c a l a n d spiritual i n t e r a c t i o n in
a u n i v e r s a l p e r s p e c t i v e , a n d if in this w a y w e
o v e r c o m e t h e T a n d ' m i n e ' a n d t h e w h o l e structure
of egocentric feelings, opinions, and prejudices,
w h i c h p r o d u c e t h e illusion o f o u r s e p a r a t e i n d i -
v i d u a l i t y , t h e n o n l y c a n w e rise i n t o t h e s p h e r e o f
Buddhahood. 3 8
A s s o m e m e d i c i n e is s w e e t t o taste a n d at t h e s a m e
t i m e c u r e s d i s e a s e , s o a l s o is t h e b l i s s c o m i n g o u t
of the combination of Prajna (wisdom) and Upaya
(compassion) - it d e s t r o y s t h e afflictions easily
a n d s m o o t h l y . . . . A g a i n , w h a t to o n e is a r o p e for
h a n g i n g o n e s e l f , is t h e r e m o v e r o f b o n d a g e to t h e
other. 4 0
A n o t h e r s c h o l a r , H e r b e r t G u e n t h e r , similarly a r g u e s in
f a v o r o f p l e a s u r e a s b e i n g a l i f e - e n h a n c i n g state. ' W e m a y
u s e s u c h p h r a s e s a s ' e c s t a t i c b l i s s ' o r ' g r e a t b l i s s ' t o refer to
the sense of freedom from the impoverishment brought
about by ego-centredness.' H e r e is h o w s o m e o f t h e
4 1
T h e A l l - B u d d h a - A w a r e n e s s w h i c h is e x p e r i e n c e d
within ourselves
Is c a l l e d G r e a t Bliss b e c a u s e it is t h e m o s t e x c e l l e n t
p l e a s u r e o f all p l e a s u r e s .
W i t h o u t bliss t h e r e is n o e n l i g h t e n m e n t , for e n -
l i g h t e n m e n t is b l i s s itself.
J u s t a s in d e e p d a r k n e s s t h e m o o n - s t o n e s p r e a d s
its light,
S o this s u p r e m e G r e a t Bliss in a m o m e n t dissipates
all m i s e r y . 4 2
H o w e v e r , t h i s is b y n o m e a n s h e d o n i s m ; q u i t e to t h e
c o n t r a r y it r e q u i r e s e x t r a o r d i n a r y d i s c i p l i n e , a n d it is o n l y
t h r o u g h c o n s i s t e n t discipline that true freedom is acquired.
O n t h e p a t h t o w a r d s f r e e d o m a n y p a s s i o n a n d desire m u s t
b e utilized a n d t r a n s f o r m e d into w i s d o m . T h i s is t h e very
b a s i c p r i n c i p l e o f a n y T a n t r i c practice. In this respect it is
s i m i l a r t o h o m e o p a t h y , w o r k i n g o n t h e p r i n c i p l e that like
c u r e s l i k e . T h e v e r y s a m e e l e m e n t that c a u s e s a d i s e a s e if
a p p l i e d in a p r o p e r d o s e m a y act a s a n a n t i d o t e a n d c u r e t h e
same disease.
T h e V a j r a y a n i s t will a l s o s a y t h a t t h e v e r y action
w h i c h b i n d s a m a n d o w n to t h e w o r l d o f infinite
m i s e r y m a y h e l p h i m t o attain liberation, if t a k e n
f r o m a d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e , i . e . , if t a k e n w i t h t h e
k n o w l e d g e of the Prajna and the U p a y a . 4 3
A s in h o m e o p a t h i c m e d i c i n e , s y m p t o m s a r e n o t s u p -
p r e s s e d b u t r a t h e r c a u s e d to e x a c e r b a t e t e m p o r a r i l y a s a
n e c e s s a r y step towards their complete elimination. T h u s
a n g e r is c u r e d w i t h a n g e r , d e s i r e w i t h d e s i r e , a n d s o o n ,
w h e n t r a n s m u t e d into w i s d o m . But w e are dealing here
w i t h a d o u b l e - e d g e d s w o r d : the w a y m a y lead to Ulumination
or p a t h o l o g y . For this reason the path cannot be followed
w i t h o u t the g u i d a n c e of a qualified compassionate teacher
w h o h i m s e l f h a s a t t a i n e d w i s d o m . T h i s is also t h e r e a s o n
w h y t h e t e a c h i n g s a n d actual practices have b e e n kept
s e c r e t : t o a c h i e v e t h e d e s i r e d effect a n d v a l u e , t h e y c a n b e
t r a n s m i t t e d only through a highly developed teacher, and
u n d e r p r o p e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s . B u t i n fact t h e y are b o u n d to
remain secret to the u n i n i t i a t e d for, like any esoteric
t e a c h i n g s , t h e y c a n b e c o m m u n i c a t e d o n l y gradually a n d
t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t o n e i s r e a d y to r e c e i v e t h e m , o r r a t h e r to
d i s c o v e r t h e m for oneself.
I n t h e p r o c e s s o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a n d t h e a c h i e v e m e n t of
h i g h e r s t a t e s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s n u m e r o u s a i d s are u s e d a n d
a g r e a t v a r i e t y o f w o r s h i p s a n d r i t u a l s p r a c t i c e d . T h e y are
all d e s i g n e d to i n v o l v e totally t h e t h r e e a s p e c t s of o u r
b e i n g , t h a t i s , b o d y , s p e e c h , a n d m i n d . T h e i r p u r p o s e is to
a c t i v a t e a n d c o n j u r e u p p o w e r f u l b u t d o r m a n t forces from
t h e d e e p l e v e l s o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s ; it is a c o n f r o n t a t i o n
w i t h o u r i n n e r m o s t n a t u r e to a w a k e n u s .
T h e t h r e e b a s i c a n d p r e v a l e n t m e t h o d s are: recitation of
m a n t r a s - sacred w o r d s - involving the speech; performance
o f ritual g e s t u r e s - m u d r a s - involving t h e b o d y ; meditation,
e s p e c i a l l y v i s u a l i z a t i o n o f a n d identification w i t h deities -
involving the mind.
I s h a l l r e t u r n to t h e s e m e t h o d s in a s u b s e q u e n t c h a p t e r ,
a n d d i s c u s s t h e m a n d t h e i r m e a n i n g in m o r e detail, a s well
a s t h e s y m b o l i s m a n d f u n c t i o n o f m a n d a l a s . A t t h i s p o i n t it
m a y suffice to state that:
T h e a i m o f all t h e T a n t r a s is t o t e a c h t h e w a y s
w h e r e b y w e m a y s e t f r e e t h e d i v i n e light w h i c h is
m y s t e r i o u s l y p r e s e n t a n d s h i n i n g in e a c h o n e o f
u s , a l t h o u g h it is e n v e l o p e d in a n i n s i d i o u s w e b o f
the psyche's w e a v i n g . 4 4
2 C. G. Jung
TWO AND A h a l f m i l l e n i a a f t e r B u d d h a a n d a b o u t a c e n t u r y
a g o , o n t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e g l o b e f r o m I n d i a , Carl G u s t a v
J u n g w a s b o r n . H e w a s b o r n a n d lived h i s e n t i r e life in
S w i t z e r l a n d , in t h a t l o v e l y , p e a c e f u l c o u n t r y in t h e h e a r t o f
Europe and the Western World, the country which has
k n o w n n o w a r s for m a n y , m a n y years. His parents a n d
a n c e s t o r s o n b o t h s i d e s w e r e traditional p e o p l e , d e e p l y
r o o t e d in t h e S w i s s soil a n d c u s t o m s w h i c h e n d u r e a n d
t o l e r a t e n o c h a n g e . H e l o v e d h i s c o u n t r y , b u t s i n c e early
a g e h e felt t h a t its b e a u t y b e l o n g e d to a s p a c e a n d a t i m e
t h a t far t r a n s c e n d e d t h e n a r r o w b o u n d a r i e s o f that tiny
n a t i o n a n d its i m m o v a b l e s o c i e t y . H i s v e r y first m e m o r i e s -
first i n t i m a t i o n o f s o m e t h i n g larger t h a n h i m s e l f - were
m e m o r i e s o f w o n d e r a s h e s t o o d in a w e s o m e c o n t e m p l a t i o n
of the blue waters of Lake Constance, and the white, snow-
c o v e r e d peaks of the majestic Alps. Already then he had a
s e n s e that this w a s the center of the universe - but not the
u n i v e r s e o f h i s p a r e n t s a n d t h e f e w million S w i s s - b u t o f a
v e r y p r i v a t e u n i v e r s e w i t h i n h i m s e l f w h i c h h e s a w mirrored
in t h e q u i e t w a t e r s o f t h e l a k e , a n d e x t e n d i n g to t h e p e a k s o f
t h e A l p s , a n d b e y o n d i n t o infinity. H e g r e w u p a s a s h y
s e n s i t i v e b o y , o f t e n at o d d s w i t h his p a r e n t s ' beliefs a n d
h i s t e a c h e r s ' d e m a n d s . H e felt b o t h v e r y special a n d at
t i m e s i n a d e q u a t e in s c h o o l in c o m p a r i s o n to his c l a s s m a t e s .
H e w a s e a s i l y h u r t a n d w a s p r o n e to o u t b u r s t s o f r a g e w h e n
i n j u s t i c e w a s d o n e t o h i m - w h e n , for e x a m p l e , his t e a c h e r
a c c u s e d h i m o f c h e a t i n g . B u t it w a s in s u c h m o m e n t s that
h e s o u g h t a n d f o u n d r e f u g e in his p e r s o n a l i t y N u m b e r
T w o , a s h e u s e d to call it. T h i s personality w a s his true
a u t h e n t i c self, reaching d e e p i n t o t h e r o o t s of m a n k i n d
itself, p e r h a p s e v e n b e f o r e m a n k i n d w a s .
S o m e w h e r e d e e p in t h e b a c k g r o u n d I a l w a y s k n e w
that I w a s two persons. O n e was the son of my
p a r e n t s , w h o w e n t to s c h o o l a n d w a s less intelli-
g e n t , a t t e n t i v e , h a r d - w o r k i n g , d e c e n t , a n d clean
than m a n y other boys. The other was grown up -
o l d , in fact - s k e p t i c a l , m i s t r u s t f u l , r e m o t e f r o m
t h e w o r l d o f m e n , b u t c l o s e to n a t u r e , t h e e a r t h ,
t h e s u n , t h e m o o n , t h e w e a t h e r , all living creatures,
a n d a b o v e all c l o s e to t h e n i g h t , to d r e a m s , a n d to
w h a t e v e r ' G o d ' w o r k e d directly in h i m . 4 5
M y life is w h a t I h a v e d o n e , m y scientific w o r k ; t h e
o n e is i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m t h e o t h e r . T h e w o r k is t h e
e x p r e s s i o n o f m y i n n e r d e v e l o p m e n t ; for c o m m i t -
m e n t to t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s f o r m s the
m a n a n d produces his transformations. M y works
c a n b e r e g a r d e d a s s t a t i o n s a l o n g m y life's w a y . 4 7
T h e r e w a s a p a r t i c u l a r l y p r e g n a n t t i m e in J u n g ' s life
w h e n n e w i d e a s w e r e g e r m i n a t i n g a n d w h i c h w e r e later to
o c c u p y h i m for t h e r e s t o f his life. T h i s w a s t h e p e r i o d
f o l l o w i n g h i s b r e a k w i t h F r e u d , w h e n for a w h i l e h e lost h i s
b e a r i n g s . It w a s a t i m e o f c o n f u s i o n , t u r m o i l , isolation,
loneliness - of i n n e r chaos. J u n g w a s assailed with con-
fusing d r e a m s , images, visions, a surge of unconscious
m a t e r i a l t h a t at t i m e s m a d e h i m d o u b t h i s o w n s a n i t y . A n d
i n d e e d , in a s e n s e it w a s n o t u n l i k e a p s y c h o t i c b r e a k . B u t it
w a s a l s o a c r u c i a l i n t e r s e c t i o n , a m o s t c r e a t i v e station a l o n g
h i s life's w a y . T h e s e w e r e the years of J u n g ' s confrontation
with his unconscious.
H e r e the vision of the y o u n g Siddhartha Gautama comes
b a c k to o u r m i n d . T h e well protected innocent prince sud-
d e n l y s h o c k e d b y t h e s i g h t s o f t h e tragic s i d e o f life -
s i c k n e s s , o l d a g e , a n d d e a t h - h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n to find
a n s w e r s t o t h e riddle o f life, first u n s u c c e s s f u l l y from l e a r n e d
m e n , a n d finally f r o m w i t h i n h i m s e l f , in d e e p m e d i t a t i o n
u n d e r t h e b o d h i t r e e . Similarly, J u n g c o u l d n o t find a n s w e r s
to his q u e s t i o n s either from Freud or a n y o n e else, or any
b o o k s a n d t h e o r i e s , a n d s o like S i d d h a r t h a , h e left b e h i n d
all o f t h e m , t o l o o k f o r a n s w e r s w i t h i n h i s o w n p s y c h e . In
h i s a u t o b i o g r a p h y J u n g tells u s h e h a d to u n d e r g o t h e
o r i g i n a l e x p e r i e n c e h i m s e l f . O n e d a y h e sat at h i s d e s k , let
h i m s e l f d r o p , a n d plunged into the depths of his psyche,
s u b m i t t i n g t o the s p o n t a n e o u s i m p u l s e s o f his u n c o n s c i o u s . 48
T h i s w a s t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f a n e x p e r i m e n t w h i c h lasted
f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s a n d p r o d u c e d a w e a l t h o f m a t e r i a l , later to
b e c o m e part of J u n g ' s m o s t important works, his most
creative contributions. T h r o u g h o u t that time h e not only
o b s e r v e d c a r e f u l l y b u t w r o t e d o w n , a n d e m b e l l i s h e d with
d r a w i n g s , h i s d r e a m s , f a n t a s i e s a n d v i s i o n s , a n d t h e y all
b e c a m e p a r t o f h i s f a m o u s R e d B o o k . B u t b e i n g t r a i n e d as a
s c i e n t i s t , h e felt t h e o b l i g a t i o n t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e m e a n i n g
o f all t h a t m a t e r i a l . 'I h a d to d r a w c o n c r e t e c o n c l u s i o n s from
t h e i n s i g h t t h e u n c o n s c i o u s h a d g i v e n m e - a n d t h a t task
w a s to b e c o m e a life's w o r k . ' 4 9
H e h a d to s h o w that his very
p e r s o n a l , subjective e x p e r i e n c e s w e r e potential experiences
o f all h u m a n k i n d f o r t h e y w e r e a n i n h e r e n t p a r t o f the
nature of the p s y c h e . 5 0
It w a s , t h o u g h , a r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a y
i n s c i e n t i f i c m e t h o d o l o g y , 'a n e w w a y o f s e e i n g t h i n g s . ' 5 1
A b o v e all J u n g h a d t o p r o v e t h a t h i s o w n e x p e r i e n c e s w e r e
r e a l , w h i c h o t h e r s c o u l d h a v e t o o : that the u n c o n s c i o u s
w a s a d e m o n s t r a b l e p s y c h i c reality, b u t w h i c h h a d its o w n
s t y l e a n d s p o k e its o w n l a n g u a g e , n a m e l y t h e u n i v e r s a l
language of images and symbols. Furthermore Jung became
a w a r e that the insights gained from the unconscious must
b e translated into an ethical obligation.
N o t t o d o s o is t o fall p r e y to t h e p o w e r p r i n c i p l e ,
a n d this produces dangerous effects which are
d e s t r u c t i v e n o t o n l y t o o t h e r s b u t e v e n to t h e
k n o w e r . T h e images of the unconscious place a
g r e a t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y u p o n a m a n . F a i l u r e to u n d e r -
s t a n d t h e m , o r a shirking of ethical responsibility,
deprives him of his wholeness and imposes a painful
fragmentariness on his life.52
T h i s t h o u g h t is r e m i n i s c e n t of B u d d h i s t e t h i c s , as e n u n -
c i a t e d in t h e ' E i g h t f o l d P a t h , ' t h a t is, r i g h t action a n d right
meditation. Personal suffering cannot be eliminated, and
i n d i v i d u a l w h o l e n e s s a c h i e v e d , w h e n ethical c o n d u c t is
n o t o b s e r v e d . J u n g understood, as B u d d h a pointed out
l o n g a g o , t h a t m e r e e g o - c e n t e r e d p u r s u i t s in d i s r e g a r d o f
o t h e r s l e a d t o c o n f u s i o n . T h u s k n o w l e d g e acquired t h r o u g h
contact with the unconscious - through 'right meditation' -
in o r d e r t o h a v e a n y s i g n i f i c a n c e , m u s t b e c o m e a n integral
p a r t o f o n e ' s life; it m u s t b e t r a n s l a t e d i n t o 'right a c t i o n . '
A f t e r a b o u t six y e a r s o f a fierce s t r u g g l e w i t h t h e d a r k n e s s
o f h i s u n c o n s c i o u s , J u n g b e g a n t o h a v e t h e first i n k l i n g s o f
light. The dawn appeared when h e started sketching
mandalas - one n e w mandala every day. A mandala, which
is t h e S a n s k r i t w o r d f o r circle, is t h e circular p a t t e r n f o r m
f o u n d in all e l e m e n t s o f n a t u r e , a n d in t h e arts a n d d a n c e s
o f all p e o p l e , t h r o u g h o u t history. It is also a n i m a g e residing
in the depths of h u m a n psyche which spontaneously
e m e r g e s a n d a s s u m e s m a n y d i f f e r e n t f o r m s . It u s u a l l y t a k e s
s h a p e in t i m e s o f d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d i n n e r c h a o s , a n d it is
n a t u r e ' s w a y o f restoring balance a n d order. J u n g discovered,
t h r o u g h his o w n experience, that each single mandala h e
d r e w w a s a n e x p r e s s i o n o f h i s i n n e r s t a t e o f b e i n g at that
p a r t i c u l a r t i m e . A s his p s y c h i c state c h a n g e d s o did t h e
m a n d a l a h e w o u l d s p o n t a n e o u s l y s k e t c h . H e c a m e to t h e
conclusion that the mandala represented 'Formation, Trans-
formation, Eternal Mind's eternal recreation.' 53
At the same
t i m e he realized that the efforts he pursued consciously,
p r o m p t e d s o t o s p e a k b y his p e r s o n a l i t y N u m b e r O n e ,
w e r e u n d e r m i n e d b y a s t r o n g e r force w h i c h c o m p e l l e d h i m
t o t a k e a d i f f e r e n t p a t h . In o t h e r w o r d s , h e c o u l d n o t c h o o s e
a g o a l , r a t h e r it c h o s e h i m .
I h a d to let m y s e l f b e c a r r i e d a l o n g b y t h e c u r r e n t ,
w i t h o u t a n o t i o n o f w h e r e it w o u l d lead m e . W h e n
I began drawing the mandalas, however, I saw
t h a t e v e r y t h i n g , all t h e p a t h s I h a d b e e n following,
all t h e s t e p s I h a d t a k e n , w e r e l e a d i n g b a c k to a
s i n g l e p o i n t - n a m e l y , to the mid-point. It b e c a m e
i n c r e a s i n g l y p l a i n t o m e t h a t t h e m a n d a l a is the
c e n t e r . It is t h e e x p o n e n t o f all p a t h s . It is the p a t h
to t h e c e n t e r , to i n d i v i d u a t i o n . 54
T h u s t h e f o r c e f u l a n d p e r s i s t e n t q u e s t i o n in h i s m i n d
w a s a n s w e r e d - t h e q u e s t i o n a s to w h a t this p r o c e s s is all
a b o u t , a n d w h a t its d e s t i n a t i o n is. T h e g o a l w a s t h e Self,
t h e a l p h a a n d o m e g a o f p s y c h i c d e v e l o p m e n t , for t h e S e l f is
t h e proto-image out of which the person emerges and the
culmination of his growth.
A n d t h e n J u n g h a d a d r e a m t h a t w a s b o t h s y m b o l i c of h i s
s i t u a t i o n a t t h e t i m e ( d a r k n e s s a n d isolation, b u t also
e m e r g i n g v i s i o n o f light a n d f l o w e r i n g o f n e w life), a n d
t h r o u g h its e l a b o r a t e i m a g e r y u n m i s t a k a b l y p o i n t e d to t h e
center, the Self, as the goal.
T h r o u g h t h i s d r e a m I u n d e r s t o o d that t h e S e l f is
the principle a n d archetype of orientation and
m e a n i n g . T h e r e i n lies its h e a l i n g f u n c t i o n . For
m e , t h i s i n s i g h t signified an a p p r o a c h to t h e c e n t e r
a n d therefore to the goal. O u t of this e m e r g e d a
first i n k l i n g o f m y p e r s o n a l m y t h . 5 5
t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t in m y life - in t h e m e v e r y t h i n g
e s s e n t i a l w a s d e c i d e d . It all b e g a n t h e n ; t h e later
d e t a i l s a r e o n l y s u p p l e m e n t s a n d clarifications o f
t h e m a t e r i a l t h a t b u r s t forth f r o m t h e u n c o n s c i o u s ,
a n d a t first s w a m p e d m e . It w a s t h e prima materia
for a lifetime's w o r k . 5 6
It w a s d u r i n g t h o s e y e a r s t h a t h e m a d e t h e d i s c o v e r y o f
the collective unconscious a n d developed the concepts of
t h e a r c h e t y p e s a n d t h e S e l f . B u t m u c h w o r k still lay a h e a d o f
h i m : all t h e f a n t a s i e s a n d m a t e r i a l t h a t h a d f l o o d e d h i m
f r o m t h e u n c o n s c i o u s a n d t h e i n s i g h t s h e g a i n e d n e e d e d to
b e b u i l t o n a solid f o u n d a t i o n o f scientific t h e o r y . T h a t
w o r k gradually unfolded as J u n g encountered alchemy.
I n a l c h e m y h e d i s c o v e r e d t h a t , u n l i k e in C h r i s t i a n i t y , t h e
f e m i n i n e p r i n c i p l e is a s i m p o r t a n t a s t h e m a s c u l i n e . T h e
s y m b o l s in a l c h e m y , 'those old acquaintances' of Jung,
fascinated h i m . 5 7
B u t h e b e g a n really to u n d e r s t a n d it after
r e a d i n g a C h i n e s e a l c h e m i c a l text, The Secret of the Golden
Flower. 58
T h i s w a s a l s o p r o b a b l y t h e b e g i n n i n g o f h i s inter-
e s t i n O r i e n t a l p h i l o s o p h i e s a n d spiritual t r a d i t i o n s . T o
J u n g 'the secret of the alchemy was in...the transformation
of personality through the blending a n d fusion of the noble
with the base components...of the conscious with the
unconscious.' 5 9
I n a l c h e m y h e f o u n d a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e to
h i s p s y c h o l o g y , w h i c h g a v e h i s w o r k a c o n f i r m a t i o n of its
v a l i d i t y . It w a s n o t h o w e v e r t h e e n d p r o d u c t of J u n g ' s
c r e a t i v e j o u r n e y , for h e did not stop with psychology: he
w e n t b e y o n d it.
COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS
J u n g ' s g r e a t e s t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o p s y c h o l o g y w a s his t h e o r y of
t h e collective u n c o n s c i o u s . H e a r g u e d that this c o n c e p t w a s
n o t a s p e c u l a t i v e idea o r a p h i l o s o p h i c a l postulate, b u t there
w a s a n e m p i r i c a l p r o o f for i t . 6 0
H e d e f i n e s the collective
u n c o n s c i o u s a s the p a r t o f t h e p s y c h e that o w e s its existence
exclusively t o heredity, a n d n o t t o personal experiences which
h a d b e e n c o n s c i o u s at o n e t i m e a n d t h e n d i s a p p e a r e d f r o m
c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e latter is t h e layer o f t h e p s y c h e w h i c h h e
c a l l s t h e p e r s o n a l u n c o n s c i o u s a n d w h i c h c o n t a i n s all t h e
material that the individual has merely forgotten or repres-
s e d , either deliberately or unintentionally. 61
Thus Jung
m a k e s the distinction between the personal unconscious,
t h e subjective psyche, and the objective psyche which he
c a l l s t h e i m p e r s o n a l , t r a n s p e r s o n a l , o r collective u n c o n -
s c i o u s . H e discovered the collective unconscious through
his o w n d r e a m s a n d visions, as well as those of his patients,
i n c l u d i n g f a n t a s i e s o f s c h i z o p h r e n i c s . H e o b s e r v e d that all
this material often contained mythological motifs and re-
l i g i o u s s y m b o l s . J u n g t h e n c a m e to t h e following c o n c l u s i o n :
In a d d i t i o n to o u r i m m e d i a t e c o n s c i o u s n e s s , w h i c h
is o f a t h o r o u g h l y p e r s o n a l n a t u r e a n d w h i c h w e
b e l i e v e t o b e t h e o n l y e m p i r i c a l p s y c h e ( e v e n if w e
tack o n the personal unconscious as an appendix),
t h e r e e x i s t s a s e c o n d p s y c h i c s y s t e m o f a collective,
u n i v e r s a l , a n d i m p e r s o n a l n a t u r e w h i c h is identical
in all i n d i v i d u a l s . T h i s collective u n c o n s c i o u s d o e s
n o t d e v e l o p i n d i v i d u a l l y b u t is i n h e r i t e d . It c o n -
sists o f pre-existent forms, the archetypes, which
can only b e c o m e conscious secondarily and which
g i v e d e f i n i t e f o r m to c e r t a i n p s y c h i c c o n t e n t s . 6 2
ARCHETYPES
A c c o r d i n g t o J u n g , a r c h e t y p e s - t h e c o n t e n t s of the collective
u n c o n s c i o u s - are a n a l o g o u s t o instincts. Both are f u n d a -
m e n t a l d y n a m i c f o r c e s in t h e h u m a n p e r s o n a l i t y w h i c h
p u r s u e their i n h e r e n t goals, in t h e p s y c h i c or physiological
o r g a n i s m s r e s p e c t i v e l y . J u n g a l s o r e f e r s to a r c h e t y p e s a s
primordial images, 'the most ancient and the most univer-
sal t h o u g h t - f o r m o f h u m a n i t y . T h e y a r e a s m u c h feelings a s
thoughts.' 6 3
B u t it s h o u l d b e s t r e s s e d that a r c h e t y p e s a r e n o t
i n h e r i t e d i d e a s ; t h e y a r e m e r e l y p r o p e n s i t i e s in t h e h u m a n
p s y c h e w h i c h c a n e x p r e s s t h e m s e l v e s in specific f o r m s a n d
m e a n i n g w h e n activated.
T h e r e a r e a s m a n y a r c h e t y p e s a s t h e r e a r e typical
s i t u a t i o n s in life. E n d l e s s r e p e t i t i o n h a s e n g r a v e d
these experiences into our psychic constitution,
n o t in t h e f o r m o f i m a g e s filled w i t h c o n t e n t , b u t at
first o n l y a s forms without content, representing
m e r e l y t h e possibility o f a certain type of perception
a n d action. W h e n a situation occurs which corre-
s p o n d s t o a g i v e n archetype, that archetype b e c o m e s
activated and a compulsiveness appears, which,
like a n i n s t i n c t u a l d r i v e , g a i n s its w a y a g a i n s t all
reason and w i l l . . . . 6 4
I n d e v e l o p i n g t h e c o n c e p t of a r c h e t y p e s a n d t h e i r d y n a -
m i s m J u n g q u o t e s a r e m a r k a b l e e x a m p l e : t h e g e n e s i s of t h e
i d e a o f c o n s e r v a t i o n o f e n e r g y , c r e d i t e d t o R o b e r t M a y e r in
t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e latter w a s n o t a p h y s i c i s t w h o
m i g h t b e naturally preoccupied with such a concept, but a
p h y s i c i a n , a n d t h e i d e a c a m e to h i m in a m o s t extraordinary
w a y , d u r i n g a v o y a g e in t h e t r o p i c s . H e r e is w h a t M a y e r
wrote about his experience and discovery:
I ' m f a r f r o m h a v i n g h a t c h e d o u t t h e t h e o r y at m y
writing d e s k . [ H e t h e n reports certain physiological
o b s e r v a t i o n s h e h a d m a d e . . . a s ship's doctor]. N o w ,
if o n e w a n t s to b e c l e a r o n m a t t e r s o f p h y s i o l o g y ,
s o m e k n o w l e d g e o f physical p r o c e s s e s is essential,
u n l e s s o n e p r e f e r s to w o r k at t h i n g s f r o m t h e m e t a -
p h y s i c a l s i d e , w h i c h I f i n d infinitely d i s g u s t i n g . I
t h e r e f o r e h e l d f a s t to p h y s i c s a n d s t u c k to t h e
subject with such f o n d n e s s that, although m a n y
m a y l a u g h at m e f o r t h i s , I p a i d b u t little a t t e n t i o n
t o t h a t r e m o t e q u a r t e r o f t h e g l o b e in w h i c h w e
w e r e , preferring to remain o n board w h e r e I could
work without intermission, and where I passed
m a n y a n h o u r a s t h o u g h inspired, t h e like of w h i c h
I c a n n o t r e m e m b e r either before or since. S o m e
f l a s h e s o f t h o u g h t t h a t p a s s e d t h r o u g h m e w h i l e in
t h e r o a d s o f S u r a b a y a w e r e at o n c e a s s i d u o u s l y
f o l l o w e d u p , a n d in t h e i r t u r n led t o f r e s h s u b j e c t s .
T h o s e t i m e s h a v e p a s s e d , b u t the quiet examination
o f t h a t w h i c h t h e n c a m e t o t h e s u r f a c e in m e h a s
t a u g h t m e t h a t it is a t r u t h , w h i c h c a n n o t o n l y b e
s u b j e c t i v e l y felt, b u t objectively p r o v e d . It r e m a i n s
to b e s e e n w h e t h e r this can be accomplished by a
m a n s o little v e r s e d in p h y s i c s a s I a m . 6 5
T h e q u e s t i o n t h a t J u n g a s k e d h i m s e l f is: w h e r e did t h i s
n e w i d e a c o m e f r o m a n d i m p o s e itself u p o n c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,
a n d w h a t is t h e force b e h i n d it that o v e r w h e l m e d t h e person-
a l i t y ? A n d t h e a n s w e r c a n b e f o u n d o n l y in a p p l y i n g h i s
t h e o r y o f a r c h e t y p e s , t h a t i s , t h a t ' t h e i d e a o f e n e r g y a n d its
conservation m u s t b e a primordial image that was dormant
in the collective u n c o n s c i o u s . ' 6 6
J u n g t h e n p r o c e e d s to
d e m o n s t r a t e that s u c h a primordial image indeed existed
s i n c e m o s t p r i m i t i v e t i m e s , e x p r e s s e d in m a n y d i f f e r e n t
f o r m s , as for e x a m p l e the idea of d a e m o n i s m , magic power,
soul's immortality, a n d m a n y others. T h e notion of energy,
its p r e s e r v a t i o n o r r a t h e r t r a n s m u t a t i o n , is t h e c e n t r a l c o n -
c e p t in all T a n t r a s .
THE SELF
J u n g a l s o r e f e r s to t h e S e l f a s b e i n g b o t h u n i t e m p o r a l a n d
u n i q u e , a n d u n i v e r s a l a n d e t e r n a l , the o n e e x p r e s s i n g m a n ' s
e s s e n c e , a n d t h e o t h e r b e i n g a G o d - i m a g e , an a r c h e t y p a l
symbol. 6 8
INDIVIDUATION
B e t w e e n t h e s t a g e s o f t h e self a s a s o u r c e in t h e b e g i n n i n g ,
a n d t h e s e l f a s a g o a l , in its u l t i m a t e d e s t i n a t i o n , t h e r e is a n
o n g o i n g c o n t i n u i t y o f d e v e l o p m e n t , w h i c h J u n g h a s called
t h e p r o c e s s o f i n d i v i d u a t i o n . It is t h e p r o c e s s of i n t e g r a t i o n
o f t h e personality. T h i s archetypal, universal psychic process
is a u t o n o m o u s a n d u n c o n s c i o u s , a n d it h a s r u n its c o u r s e
since immemorial t i m e . It reflects p s y c h e ' s striving to
h a r m o n i z e its c o n s c i o u s a n d u n c o n s c i o u s c o n t e n t s , a n d it
is t h e n a t u r a l a n d s p o n t a n e o u s u r g e for self-realization,
w h o l e n e s s , a n d t h e q u e s t for m e a n i n g . Collectively it h a s
b e e n e x p r e s s e d in t h e m u l t i t u d e s o f m y t h s a n d s y m b o l s in
w h i c h m a n k i n d h a s g i v e n o u t w a r d f o r m to its i n n e r e x p e r i -
e n c e s . O n a n i n d i v i d u a l level, a l t h o u g h t h e p r o c e s s a l w a y s
g o e s o n s i n c e t h e p s y c h e n e v e r r e s t s , it m a y r e m a i n p u r e l y
u n c o n s c i o u s , o r m a y b e c o m e a c o n s c i o u s task. W h e t h e r it
will l e a d in o n e d i r e c t i o n o r t h e o t h e r d e p e n d s o n t h e i n t e r -
v e n t i o n of consciousness. T h e difference between the two
r o a d s is t r e m e n d o u s , a n d t h e i r o u t c o m e far r e a c h i n g . In
o n e i n s t a n c e w h e n c o n s c i o u s n e s s is n o t i n v o l v e d , ' t h e e n d
r e m a i n s a s d a r k as t h e b e g i n n i n g . ' In t h e o t h e r instance ' t h e
p e r s o n a l i t y is p e r m e a t e d w i t h light' a n d c o n s c i o u s n e s s is
further extended and e n h a n c e d . 6 9
T h r o u g h a l c h e m y a n d its s y m b o l i s m J u n g b e c a m e a w a r e
t h a t t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f p e r s o n a l i t y t a k e s p l a c e in t h e
i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e e g o a n d t h e u n c o n s c i o u s , o u t of
w h i c h a n e w u n i f i e d b e i n g e m e r g e s . It is a n e w b e i n g , y e t
n o t e n t i r e l y n e w for it w a s a l w a y s t h e r e , b u t d o r m a n t a n d
hidden in t h e c h a o s o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . T h e process
requires an o p e n communication between the conscious
m i n d a n d its u n c o n s c i o u s c o u n t e r p a r t , a sensitivity to t h e
s i g n a l s o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s w h i c h s p e a k s in t h e l a n g u a g e o f
s y m b o l s . It is t h e c o n s t a n t d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n the o u t e r a n d
t h e i n n e r , t h e m u n d a n e life a n d its s y m b o l i c d i m e n s i o n s -
d r e a m s , fantasies, visions.
T h e a r d u o u s task o f c o n s c i o u s c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h t h e
u n c o n s c i o u s has the effect of expanding consciousness, of
d i m i n i s h i n g t h e s o v e r e i g n p o w e r s of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s , a n d
bringing about the renewal and transformation of person-
a l i t y . T h i s c h a n g e , w h i c h is t h e central o b j e c t o f a l c h e m y ,
a n d of J u n g ' s psychotherapy, comes about through the
principle w h i c h J u n g called the transcendent f u n c t i o n . 7 0
I n d e e d it is m o r e t h a n a n a r d u o u s a n d o f t e n painful task,
a s J u n g e x p e r i e n c e d h i m s e l f . It is a battle b e t w e e n t w o
o p p o s i n g f o r c e s , e a c h c o n t e n d i n g for its o w n rights, t h e
b a t t l e b e t w e e n r e a s o n a n d rationality v e r s u s c h a o s a n d
i r r a t i o n a l i t y . A t t h e s a m e t i m e it h a s to b e a collaboration
b e t w e e n the conscious a n d unconscious attitudes of the
p s y c h e : c o n s c i o u s n e s s m u s t h e e d its u n c o n s c i o u s c o u n t e r -
p a r t , m u s t l i s t e n to t h e i n n e r v o i c e s , s o t h a t t h e latter c a n
c o - o p e r a t e w i t h c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n s t e a d o f d i s t u r b i n g it.
ALCHEMY
It h a s b e e n g e n e r a l l y u n d e r s t o o d t h a t t h e p u r p o s e o f
alchemy w a s to p r o d u c e a m i r a c u l o u s s u b s t a n c e , gold,
p a n a c e a , elixir o f life. B u t in actuality, a b o v e a n d b e y o n d
t h a t , t h e v e r y e s s e n c e o f all alchemical w o r k w a s a spiritual
e x e r c i s e w h o s e goal w a s n o n e o t h e r t h a n spiritual trans-
f o r m a t i o n , liberation o f G o d from the d a r k n e s s of m a t t e r . 7 7
T h e b e w i l d e r i n g p r o f u s i o n o f c o m p l i c a t e d a n d often g r o -
t e s q u e a l c h e m i c a l s y m b o l i s m describes pictorially the p r o -
c e s s o f c h a n g e f r o m p s y c h i c sleep to a w a k e n i n g , a n d the
s t a g e s a l o n g that j o u r n e y . J u n g f o u n d in this s y m b o l i s m a n
illustration o f w h a t h e h a d called the p r o c e s s of individ-
u a t i o n : o n e ' s g r a d u a l u n f o l d m e n t from a n u n c o n s c i o u s to a
c o n s c i o u s s t a t e , a n d t h e healing p r o c e s s underlying i t . 7 7
In m e d i e v a l E u r o p e a n a l c h e m y , w h i c h h e d i s c o v e r e d b y
w a y o f C h i n e s e a l c h e m y , J u n g f o u n d t h e spiritual roots of a
W e s t e r n t r a d i t i o n t h a t a d d r e s s e d itself to t h e s a m e i s s u e s
w h i c h p r e o c c u p i e d h i m all h i s life. T h u s a l c h e m y p r o v i d e d
h i m w i t h a h i s t o r i c a l f o u n d a t i o n as w e l l as v a l i d a t i o n for
his o w n findings.
A s in J u n g ' s p s y c h o l o g y , o p p o s i t e s a n d their u n i o n play
a m a j o r r o l e in a l c h e m i c a l p r o c e d u r e . T h e u n i o n is the
m o t i v a t i n g f o r c e a n d t h e g o a l of t h e p r o c e s s . B u t at the
b e g i n n i n g of the process the opposites form a dualism,
c o n c e i v e d in n u m e r o u s t e r m s s u c h a s : u p p e r a n d l o w e r ,
c o l d a n d w a r m , spirit (soul) a n d b o d y , h e a v e n a n d earth,
bright a n d dark, active and passive, precious and cheap,
g o o d a n d e v i l , o p e n a n d h i d d e n , i n n e r a n d o u t e r , East a n d
West, god and goddess, masculine and feminine. 7 8
T h e p r i m a l o p p o s i t e s are c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d u n c o n s c i o u s -
n e s s w h o s e symbols are Sol a n d Luna - sun and moon - the
o n e r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e d i u r n a l a n d the o t h e r t h e n o c t u r n a l
s i d e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , t h e m a l e a n d f e m a l e principles. T h e
c o r r e s p o n d i n g a l c h e m i c a l s u b s t a n c e s a r e s u l p h u r a n d salt.
S u l p h u r , b e c a u s e o f its a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e s u n , is the
m a s c u l i n e p r i n c i p l e e x p r e s s i n g c o n s c i o u s n e s s . In alchemical
t e x t s it is r e f e r r e d to a s ' t h e m a l e a n d u n i v e r s a l s e e d , ' the
' s p i r i t o f g e n e r a t i v e p o w e r , ' t h e ' s o u r c e o f illumination a n d
all k n o w l e d g e . ' It h a s a d o u b l e n a t u r e : in its initial c r u d e
f o r m it is b u r n i n g a n d c o r r o s i v e , a n d h a s a n o f f e n s i v e o d o r ,
b u t w h e n t r a n s m u t e d , ' c l e a n s e d o f all i m p u r i t i e s , it is the
matter of our s t o n e . ' 7 9
S a l t , b e c a u s e o f its a s s o c i a t i o n with
t h e m o o n , is t h e f e m i n i n e principle a n d e x p r e s s e s v a r i o u s
a s p e c t s o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . Like its c o u n t e r p a r t s u l p h u r ,
s a l t c o n t a i n s a d o u b l e n a t u r e : in its u n r e f i n e d f o r m , c o m i n g
f r o m t h e s e a , it is b i t t e r a n d h a r s h , like tears a n d s o r r o w , yet
at t h e s a m e time it is the m o t h e r of w i s d o m w h e n transmuted.
A s t h e p r i n c i p l e o f E r o s , it c o n n e c t s e v e r y t h i n g . Salt is also
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e a r t h , a n d a s s u c h r e p r e s e n t s the G r e a t
M o t h e r a n d the archetype of the feminine deity.
S t a r t i n g w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l s u b s t a n c e , t h e prima materia
w h i c h c o n t a i n s t h e o p p o s i t e s , t h e a l c h e m i s t ' s task is to
h a r m o n i z e t h e m , to b r i n g t h e m into unity w h i c h culminates
in t h e ' c h y m i c a l m a r r i a g e , ' t h e c o n s u m m a t i o n of his w o r k .
J u n g p o s t u l a t e s t h a t o n a p s y c h o l o g i c a l level the u n i o n of
o p p o s i t e s cannot be achieved by the conscious ego alone -
by reason, analysis - that separates and divides; nor even
b y t h e u n c o n s c i o u s a l o n e - that u n i t e s ; it n e e d s a third
e l e m e n t , t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t f u n c t i o n . In t h e s a m e w a y , for
t h e c o n j u n c t i o n t o t a k e p l a c e , t h e a l c h e m i s t n e e d e d a third
factor, a m e d i u m , w h i c h w a s Mercurius (mercury). Thus
t h e r e i s s u l p h u r , t h e m a s c u l i n e p r i n c i p l e , salt, its f e m i n i n e
c o u n t e r p a r t , a n d m e r c u r y , t h e s u b s t a n c e t h a t is b o t h l i q u i d
a n d s o l i d . B y n a t u r e M e r c u r i u s is a n d r o g e n o u s a n d p a r -
t a k e s of b o t h the m a s c u l i n e and f e m i n i n e elements; in
h i m s e l f h e u n i t e s the spiritual a n d physical, the highest
and lowest.
A l c h e m y is full o f p a r a d o x e s - a s J u n g ' s w o r k is - s i n c e
p a r a d o x e s a r e t h e o n l y w a y r e m o t e l y to e x p r e s s t h e in-
e x p r e s s i b l e , t h e p h e n o m e n a o f t h e p s y c h e that c a n b e a p -
p r e h e n d e d o n l y t h r o u g h direct e x p e r i e n c e . 81
T h e mysterious
M e r c u r i u s is t h e p a r a d o x par excellence. T h e fertile i m a g i n -
ation o f the alchemists gave countless s y n o n y m s to Mercurius,
a n d t h e m o s t fantastic d e s c r i p t i o n s of h i s attributes. Here is
o n e e x a m p l e , t a k e n f r o m a n a l c h e m i c a l t r e a t i s e , in w h i c h the
alchemist asks nature to tell him about her son Mercurius, and
she responds:
J u n g r e c o g n i z e d in t h e m u l t i p l e a n d paradoxical a s p e c t s
o f M e r c u r i u s a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e self w h i c h is a
complexio oppositorum, a n d m u s t n e c e s s a r i l y b e s u c h if it is
t o s y m b o l i z e m a n ' s totality. T o J u n g , M e r c u r i u s represented
n o t o n l y t h e self but the individuation process as well, and
b e c a u s e o f t h e l i m i t l e s s n u m b e r o f his n a m e s , a l s o t h e
collective u n c o n s c i o u s . 8 2
T h e first p h a s e o f t h e a l c h e m i c a l p r o c e s s w a s t h e black
stage, nigredo, characterized by confusion, frustration,
d e p r e s s i o n , 'the dark night of the soul' of St. John of the
C r o s s , in w h i c h n e v e r t h e l e s s all potentialities a n d t h e s e e d s
o f f u t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t a r e c o n t a i n e d . T h e n a s t h e fire o f t h e
a l c h e m i c a l r e t o r t , t h e p s y c h i c fire, p u r g e s t h e e l e m e n t s , t h e
s e c o n d w h i t e p h a s e , albedo, is b r o u g h t a b o u t . It is t h e s t a g e
o f clarification a n d intensification o f life a n d c o n s c i o u s n e s s .
T h e f i n a l p h a s e is t h e r e d s t a g e , w h e n t h e d r a m a r e a c h e s its
c o n c l u s i o n : t h e c h e m i c a l p r o c e s s o f coniunctio, the appear-
a n c e o f t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s ' s t o n e , a n d at t h e s a m e t i m e t h e
c o m p l e t i o n o f p s y c h i c s y n t h e s i s - t h e e m e r g e n c e of t h e S e l f .
W h a t is t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s ' s t o n e , t h e lapis? It w a s said
t h a t it h e a l s a n d b e s t o w s i m m o r t a l i t y . T o J u n g ' t h e lapis is a
fabulous entity of cosmic dimensions which surpasses
h u m a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g . ' L i k e ' m a n ' s totality, t h e Self, [it] is
b y definition b e y o n d the b o u n d s of k n o w l e d g e . ' 8 4
H o w e v e r t o t h e a l c h e m i s t G e r h a r d D o r n , t h e lapis w a s
n o t t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e art. T h e final a n d h i g h e s t c o n -
j u n c t i o n w a s the union of the whole h u m a n being with
unus mundus, t h e o n e w o r l d . T h i s is w h e n t h e individual
p s y c h e t o u c h e s e t e r n i t y , t h e identity o f t h e p e r s o n a l w i t h
t h e t r a n s p e r s o n a l . It is t h e n u m i n o u s e v e n t , t h e m y s t e r y of
t h e unio mystica, o r in t h e O r i e n t a l t r a d i t i o n s , the e x p e r i -
e n c e s o f tao, samadhi, or satori 85
In h i s d r e a m s , a s w e l l a s t h o s e o f h i s p a t i e n t s , h e c o u l d at
times discern a portrayal of the mandala, symbolizing the
multiplicity of the p h e n o m e n a l world within an underlying
u n i t y . T h e m a n d a l a s y m b o l i s m r e p r e s e n t s the psychological
e q u i v a l e n t o f unus mundus, w h i l e its parapsychological
e q u i v a l e n t is J u n g ' s c o n c e p t o f s y n c h r o n i c i t y .
SYNCHRONICITY
All o f J u n g ' s d i s c o v e r i e s w e r e a c c o m p a n i e d b y d r e a m s or
s y n c h r o n i s t i c e v e n t s t h a t e i t h e r p o i n t e d t h e w a y or g a v e
him confirmation t h a t h e w a s p r o c e e d i n g in t h e right
d i r e c t i o n . A t t h e t i m e w h e n h e w a s diligently d r a w i n g
m a n d a l a s , h e p r o d u c e d a p a i n t i n g of a g o l d e n c a s t l e . T h e
p a i n t i n g w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t r i g u i n g b e c a u s e o f its C h i n e s e
q u a l i t y , a n d h e w a s p u z z l e d b y it. S h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d s h e
r e c e i v e d f r o m t h e s i n o l o g i s t R i c h a r d W i l h e l m a c o p y of The
Secret of the Golden Flower, a n o l d C h i n e s e a l c h e m i c a l text,
which marked the beginning of his fascination with
a l c h e m y . T h e event of receiving from Richard Wilhelm the
C h i n e s e m a n u s c r i p t w a s a synchronistic o n e , and further-
m o r e it w a s c o n n e c t e d w i t h a m a n d a l a p a i n t i n g of J u n g ' s .
T h i s s t r i k i n g c o i n c i d e n c e , this single e v e n t , c o n t a i n e d in
i t s e l f b o t h t h e m a n d a l a s y m b o l i s m a n d t h e principle o f
synchronicity, namely, the double expression of unus
mundus - psychological and parapsychological. And indeed
J u n g felt t h e p o w e r f u l e f f e c t o n e e x p e r i e n c e s in m o m e n t s of
e n c o u n t e r w i t h t h e unus mundus. T h i s e v e n t o c c u r r e d at t h e
t i m e w h e n t h e c y c l e o f his a l i e n a t i o n w a s d r a w i n g to a
c l o s e . In h i s a u t o b i o g r a p h y J u n g r e m e m b e r s : T h a t w a s t h e
first e v e n t w h i c h b r o k e m y isolation. I b e c a m e a w a r e o f a n
a f f i n i t y : I c o u l d e s t a b l i s h ties w i t h s o m e t h i n g a n d s o m e -
one.' 8 7
P e r h a p s it is n o t a m e r e c o i n c i d e n c e that J u n g for t h e
first t i m e a n n o u n c e d to t h e w o r l d his c o n c e p t o f s y n c h r o n i -
c i t y in a m e m o r i a l a d d r e s s to h i s friend R i c h a r d W i l h e l m ,
t h e m a n w h o p l a y e d s u c h a significant p a r t at a crucial
p e r i o d in J u n g ' s life.
S y n c h r o n i c i t y is t h e m o s t a b s t r a c t a n d m o s t e l u s i v e o f
J u n g ' s c o n c e p t s . J u n g d e s c r i b e s s y n c h r o n i c i t y as 'a meaning-
ful coincidence of two or more events, where something
o t h e r t h a n t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f c h a n c e is i n v o l v e d . " 8 8
The
c o n n e c t i o n s o f e v e n t s a r e n o t t h e result o f t h e principle o f
c a u s e a n d e f f e c t , b u t o f s o m e t h i n g e l s e w h i c h J u n g called a n
a c a u s a l c o n n e c t i n g principle. T h e critical factor is the m e a n -
i n g , t h e s u b j e c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e that c o m e s to t h e p e r s o n :
e v e n t s a r e c o n n e c t e d in a m e a n i n g f u l w a y , t h a t is, e v e n t s o f
t h e i n n e r a n d o u t e r w o r l d , t h e invisible a n d t h e tangible,
the m i n d a n d the physical universe. This coming together
at the right m o m e n t can h a p p e n only without the conscious
i n t e r v e n t i o n o f t h e e g o . I n s t e a d it is p r e p a r e d in t h e u n c o n -
s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e p s y c h e , a n d it is as t h o u g h t h e p s y c h e h a d
its o w n s e c r e t d e s i g n , irrespective of e g o ' s c o n s c i o u s w i s h e s .
S u c h s y n c h r o n i s t i c e v e n t s , o f s m a l l e r o r larger p r o p o r t i o n s ,
o c c u r t o m o s t p e o p l e in daily life, b u t a s w i t h d r e a m s , if w e
d o n o t r e c o g n i z e t h e m a n d p a y a t t e n t i o n to t h e m , t h e y
r e m a i n insignificant.
J u n g g i v e s e x a m p l e s f r o m h i s practice w h e n p a t i e n t s h e
w a s t r e a t i n g h a d u n c a n n y c o i n c i d e n c e s t h a t p u t t h e m in
t o u c h w i t h a d e e p e r t h a n c o n s c i o u s level o f e x p e r i e n c e , a n d
c o n v i n c e d t h e m in a d r a m a t i c , u n e q u i v o c a l w a y of t h e
r e a l i t y a n d l i m i t l e s s n e s s o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . O f particular
i n t e r e s t is t h e c a s e o f t h e y o u n g , w e l l e d u c a t e d w o m a n ,
w h o , w i t h h e r v e r y o n e - s i d e d logical m i n d , w a s stubbornly
u n r e s p o n s i v e t o J u n g ' s e f f o r t s to s o f t e n h e r rationalism.
O n e d a y a s s h e w a s telling h e r d r e a m o f t h e n i g h t b e f o r e ,
i n v o l v i n g a g o l d e n s c a r a b t h a t w a s g i v e n to h e r , a flying
i n s e c t p e r s i s t e n t l y k n o c k e d at t h e w i n d o w o b v i o u s l y a t -
t e m p t i n g t o e n t e r t h e r o o m . J u n g o p e n e d t h e w i n d o w , let
t h e i n s e c t i n a n d c a u g h t it. T h e i n s e c t t u r n e d o u t to b e a
golden-green beetle, very m u c h resembling the scarab
from the dream.
I n d e v e l o p i n g h i s c o n c e p t o f s y n c h r o n i c i t y , J u n g related
it t o t h e d i s c o v e r i e s o f m o d e r n t h e o r e t i c a l p h y s i c s , f r o m
w h i c h w e h a d l e a r n e d t h a t c a u s a l i t y a n d prediction are n o
l o n g e r v a l i d in t h e m i c r o p h y s i c a l w o r l d . 9 0
He concluded
t h a t t h e r e is a c o m m o n b a c k g r o u n d b e t w e e n m i c r o p h y s i c s
a n d his depth p s y c h o l o g y . 9 1
At the s a m e time J u n g w e n t
b a c k to a n c i e n t C h i n e s e p h i l o s o p h y a n d r e c o g n i z e d a c o r -
r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n s y n c h r o n i c i t y a n d t h e ineffable idea
o f tao. I n f a c t it w a s t h e / Ching, t h e C h i n e s e Book of
Changes, a n d its m e t h o d w i t h w h i c h J u n g h a d p e r s o n a l
e x p e r i e n c e t h a t w a s t o h i m a m a j o r inspiration in d e v e l o p i n g
the concept of synchronicity. T h e two seemingly opposite
f r a m e w o r k s , t h e r a t i o n a l scientific a n d t h e intuitive p h i l o -
s o p h i c a l , a r e b y n o m e a n s c o n t r a d i c t o r y . In h i s b o o k , The
Tao of Physics, F r i t j o f C a p r a a d d r e s s e s h i m s e l f to t h i s v e r y
p o i n t , a n d a r g u e s t h a t t h e r e a r e c l o s e parallels b e t w e e n
basic concepts of m o d e r n physics a n d Eastern mystical
t e a c h i n g s . T h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e o r e t i c a l p h y s i c s reveal a u n i -
v e r s e t h a t is a h a r m o n i o u s , u n i f i e d p r o c e s s , a d y n a m i c w e b
o f i n t e r r e l a t e d e l e m e n t s . T n i s is p r e c i s e l y t h e f u n d a m e n t a l
t h o u g h t in B u d d h i s t a n d T a o i s t p h i l o s o p h i e s . A n d to J u n g
s y n c h r o n i s t i c e v e n t s p o i n t to 'a p r o f o u n d h a r m o n y b e t w e e n
all f o r m s o f e x i s t e n c e . ' 9 2
W h e n e x p e r i e n c e d a s s u c h , it b e -
c o m e s a t r e m e n d o u s l y p o w e r f u l o c c u r r e n c e that g i v e s t h e
individual a sense of transcending time and space.
3 Methods in Jung's
Psychology and
Tibetan Buddhism
J u n g o b s e r v e d t h a t t h o s e o f his p a t i e n t s w h o s u c c e e d e d
in s e t t i n g t h e m s e l v e s free f r o m t h e b o n d a g e o f their life
p r o b l e m s a n d a c h i e v e d h i g h e r levels o f p s y c h i c d e v e l o p -
m e n t a n d i n t e g r a t i o n , in e s s e n c e did n o t h i n g b u t s i m p l y
a l l o w t h i n g s to h a p p e n . T h e y a l l o w e d their u n c o n s c i o u s to
s p e a k t o t h e m in s i l e n c e , a n d t h e y l i s t e n e d to its m e s s a g e s
p a t i e n t l y a n d g a v e t h e m t h e full a n d m o s t s e r i o u s a t t e n t i o n .
In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e y e s t a b l i s h e d a c o n s c i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p
with their unconscious processes.
T h e a r t o f l e t t i n g t h i n g s h a p p e n , action t h r o u g h
i n a c t i o n , l e t t i n g g o o f o n e s e l f a s told b y M e i s t e r
E c k h a r t , b e c a m e for m e t h e k e y that o p e n s the
d o o r to t h e w a y . W e m u s t b e a b l e to let t h i n g s
h a p p e n in t h e p s y c h e . F o r u s , this is a n art of
which most people k n o w nothing. Consciousness
is f o r e v e r i n t e r f e r i n g , h e l p i n g , c o r r e c t i n g , a n d n e -
g a t i n g , n e v e r l e a v i n g t h e p s y c h i c p r o c e s s to g r o w
in p e a c e . 9 6
W h e n t h e p s y c h i c p r o c e s s is a l l o w e d to g r o w in p e a c e ,
t h e u n c o n s c i o u s fertilizes t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a n d c o n s c i o u s -
n e s s i l l u m i n a t e s t h e u n c o n s c i o u s ; t h e interfusion a n d u n i o n
o f t h e t w o o p p o s i t e s r e s u l t in i n c r e a s e d a w a r e n e s s a n d a
b r o a d e n i n g o f p e r s o n a l i t y . J u n g p o s t u l a t e s that this c a n b e
b e s t a c c o m p l i s h e d w h e n t h e p r o c e s s is n o t r e g u l a t e d from
t h e o u t s i d e a n d t h e t h e r a p i s t d o e s n o t i n t e r f e r e w i t h the
o p e r a t i o n of n a t u r e . A s the w i d e r personality is being created,
consciousness increases, becomes transformed and a new
c e n t e r of personality e m e r g e s - the Self - while ego tend-
e n c i e s a r e d i m i n i s h e d . T h e n e w c e n t e r , like a m a g n e t ,
a t t r a c t s to it all t h a t g e n u i n e l y a n d a u t h e n t i c a l l y b e l o n g to
t h e u n i q u e n e s s o f p e r s o n a l i t y . T h e integrity a n d u n i t y of
t h e i n d i v i d u a l g r a d u a l l y e s t a b l i s h e s itself o u t o f its original
g r o u n d p l a n , a n d all that is u n e s s e n t i a l , s u p e r f l u o u s , s u p e r -
i m p o s e d , d r o p s a w a y . T h e e g o that h a s d e v e l o p e d in r e -
s p o n s e to t h e p r e s s u r e s a n d dictates o f t h e o u t e r w o r l d , a n d
t h e c u l t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t , at this p o i n t b o w s a n d gives w a y
to t h e p r e s s u r e s a n d u r g e s o f the i n d i v i d u a l ' s i n n e r w o r l d ,
his i n n e r being, his soul, the Self. T h u s the ego has been
s a c r i f i c e d to t h e S e l f ; t h e m u n d a n e e x i s t e n c e h a s a c q u i r e d a
meaning, the individual has come in touch with the
numinous. His initial unconscious condition has been
t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o h i g h e r c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a n d the r o u n d i n g
o f p e r s o n a l i t y , w h o s e s y m b o l is t h e m a n d a l a , h a s b e e n
accomplished.
H o w the harmonizing of conscious and unconscious con-
t e n t s h a p p e n s , n o o n e k n o w s , for it is a n irrational life
p r o c e s s . In J u n g ' s p s y c h o t h e r a p y there are n o fixed m e t h o d s
of t r e a t m e n t ; the m e t h o d s naturally develop as the work
p r o g r e s s e s , a n d in r e s p o n s e to t h e n e e d s o f t h e particular
i n d i v i d u a l . E v e r y i n d i v i d u a l is u n i q u e a n d u n p r e d i c t a b l e ,
a n d t h e r e f o r e J u n g e n j o i n s t h e r a p i s t s to free t h e m s e l v e s
f r o m all p r e c o n c e p t i o n s a n d t h e o r e t i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s , a n d
a b a n d o n all m e t h o d s a n d t e c h n i q u e s . 9 7
J u n g tells u s h e is
deliberately unsystematic, and only individual under-
s t a n d i n g is t h e m e t h o d , s o to s p e a k . ' W e n e e d a different
l a n g u a g e for every p a t i e n t . ' 9 8
It is e x a c t l y a s if a d i a l o g u e w e r e t a k i n g place
between t w o h u m a n b e i n g s w i t h e q u a l rights,
e a c h o f w h o m g i v e s t h e o t h e r credit for a valid
a r g u m e n t a n d c o n s i d e r s it w o r t h w h i l e to m o d i f y
the conflicting standpoints by m e a n s of thorough
c o m p a r i s o n a n d d i s c u s s i o n o r e l s e to d i s t i n g u i s h
t h e m clearly f r o m o n e a n o t h e r . 1 0 0
F i n a l l y , o n c e t h e e g o a n d t h e u n c o n s c i o u s h a v e c o m e to
t e r m s w i t h e a c h o t h e r a n d o n e n o w h a s t h e capacity to live
c o n s c i o u s l y , a n ethical attitude a n d obligation h a s to follow:
o n e n o l o n g e r c a n c o n d u c t o n e ' s life a s t h o u g h u n a w a r e o f
the hidden workings of the u n c o n s c i o u s . 1 0 1
It m u s t b e s t r e s s e d t h a t t h e principles o f J u n g ' s p s y c h o l o g y
are n o t applied as a m e t h o d of medical treatment but rather
of self-education. Psychotherapy, says Jung,
. . . t r a n s c e n d s its m e d i c a l o r i g i n s a n d c e a s e s to b e
m e r e l y a m e t h o d for treating t h e sick. It n o w treats
t h e h e a l t h y o r s u c h a s h a v e a m o r a l right to p s y c h i c
h e a l t h , w h o s e s i c k n e s s is at m o s t t h e suffering
t h a t t o r m e n t s u s all. F o r this r e a s o n , analytical
psychology can claim to serve the common
weal.... 1 0 2
In h i s p s y c h o t h e r a p y J u n g a i m s to b r i n g a b o u t in h i s
p a t i e n t s a s t a t e o f fluidity in w h i c h t h e y e x p e r i e n c e c h a n g e
a n d g r o w t h w i t h o u t b e i n g a t t a c h e d to a n y fixed c o n d i t i o n .
A t t h e s a m e t i m e h e e n d e a v o r s to a r o u s e in t h e m a s e n s e o f
t h e i r s u p r a p e r s o n a l c o n n e c t i o n s , to e n l a r g e their capacities
of awareness beyond personal c o n s c i o u s n e s s . 1 0 3
T h i s is
p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t for m o d e r n m a n w h o s e rational
a t t i t u d e h a s t h w a r t e d a n d r e p r e s s e d the spiritual d i m e n s i o n
o f life. J u n g s t r e s s e s t h a t t h e spiritual o r religious r e a l m o f
e x p e r i e n c e d o e s n o t r e f e r to a n y c r e e d , d o g m a , o r m e t a -
p h y s i c a l c a t e g o r y b u t is a f u n d a m e n t a l p s y c h i c f u n c t i o n o f
tremendous significance. 1 0 4
H e r e c o g n i z e s that t h e r e is n o
p e r s o n a l h e a l i n g w i t h o u t r e g a i n i n g a religious o u t l o o k o n
life. 1 0 5
O f c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n c e in t h e r a p y is t h e role o f t h e p s y c h o -
t h e r a p i s t , a n d t h e c l o s e r a p p o r t b e t w e e n t h e latter a n d t h e
p a t i e n t . T h e r a p y to J u n g is a dialectical p r o c e s s in w h i c h
t w o p s y c h i c realities c o n f r o n t e a c h o t h e r , a n d b o t h m u s t b e
a f f e c t e d a n d c h a n g e d in t h e e n c o u n t e r . 1 0 6
T h e therapist, n o
l e s s t h a n t h e patient, c a n n o t b e i m m u m e from the experi-
e n c e if t h e r a p y is to b e e f f e c t i v e . C o n c e p t s are i n s t r u m e n t s
o f p r o t e c t i o n f r o m e x p e r i e n c e , t h a n k s to w h i c h t h e therapist
c a n m a i n t a i n a c o n v e n i e n t d i s t a n c e , a n d b e s i d e s , t h e r e is
n o o b l i g a t i o n to c o n c e p t s . B u t , a s J u n g s a y s , ' t h e spirit d o e s
n o t d w e l l in c o n c e p t s / 1 0 7
Therapists equally should not
s h i e l d t h e m s e l v e s b e h i n d t h e s c r e e n of p r o f e s s i o n a l a u -
t h o r i t y , f o r b y t h i s a t t i t u d e t h e y d e p r i v e t h e m s e l v e s of
i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n g a i n e d t h r o u g h t h e c h a n n e l of t h e i r
unconscious. 1 0 8
A t t h e s a m e t i m e , J u n g is v e r y e a g e r to
a l l o w h i s p a t i e n t s t o b e c o m e p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y m a t u r e , self-
reliant and independent from the therapist. Like the
a l c h e m i s t ' s a p p r e n t i c e , p a t i e n t s c a n learn 'all the tricks of
t h e l a b o r a t o r y ' b u t u l t i m a t e l y m u s t e n g a g e in the opus
t h e m s e l v e s f o r ' n o b o d y e l s e c a n d o it for [ t h e m ] ' 1 0 9
S o , the
e n d l e s s p r o c e s s o f i n d i v i d u a t i o n h a s to g o o n long after
f o r m a l t h e r a p y h a s e n d e d . A n d s p e a k i n g f r o m the s t a n d -
p o i n t o f a p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t , J u n g tells u s t h e e n c o u n t e r s w i t h
t h e m a n y k i n d s o f p e o p l e h e m e t in h i s t h e r a p e u t i c w o r k
c o n s t i t u t e d for h i m invaluable learning experiences, and
t h e finest a n d m o s t significant interactions in his l i f e . 1 1 0
It is i m p o r t a n t to u n d e r l i n e t h a t i n d i v i d u a t i o n l e a d s n o t
o n l y t o a w i d e n i n g o f p e r s o n a l i t y , b u t a l s o to a b r o a d e n i n g
o f c o l l e c t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . C o n t r a r y to t h e belief of s o m e ,
i n d i v i d u a t i o n is n o t t a n t a m o u n t to isolation a n d abdication
o f social a n d ethical responsibilities; rather, personal con-
s c i o u s n e s s a n d collective a w a r e n e s s are e n h a n c e d concur-
r e n t l y in a n a t u r a l , s p o n t a n e o u s p r o g r e s s i o n . T h e p r o c e s s
of individuation, says Jung,
. . . b r i n g s to b i r t h a c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f h u m a n c o m -
m u n i t y p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e it m a k e s u s a w a r e o f t h e
u n c o n s c i o u s , w h i c h u n i t e s a n d is c o m m o n to all
m a n k i n d . I n d i v i d u a t i o n is a n a t - o n e - m e n t w i t h
o n e s e l f a n d at t h e s a m e t i m e w i t h h u m a n i t y , s i n c e
o n e s e l f is a p a r t o f h u m a n i t y . 1 1 1
H e r e w e m e e t o n t h e s a m e g r o u n d t h e B u d d h i s t idea o f
compassion, w h i c h is b u t t h e o t h e r a s p e c t o f w i s d o m :
w i s d o m a n d c o m p a s s i o n are the two sides of the s a m e coin,
one representing personal and the other transpersonal
consciousness, and both equally indispensable for the
attainment of enlightenment.
F i n a l l y , it m u s t b e n o t e d t h a t J u n g ' s w o r k is o f s u c h
t i m e l e s s n a t u r e a n d limitless proportion that it is impossible,
e v e n r e m o t e l y , t o c o n v e y its full flavor a n d m e a n i n g , a n d its
potential impact o n an individual psyche. Furthermore, his
w o r k , a l o n g w i t h h i s life, h a s g o n e t h r o u g h successive
s t a g e s o f u n f o l d i n g a n d d o e s n o t easily r e v e a l itself to casual
s t u d y o r t h r o u g h f o c u s o n o n l y o n e a s p e c t o f it, a n d least o f
all b y a n a l y z i n g h i s m e t h o d s . It a s k s to b e a p p r o a c h e d in its
t o t a l i t y , a n d e v e n t h e n it is n o e a s y task t o u n d e r s t a n d it.
H e r e is a n i n t e r e s t i n g c o m m e n t o n t h i s i s s u e , b y o n e o f
J u n g ' s d i s c i p l e s , Ira P r o g o f f :
P r o g o f f , in t h e c o u r s e o f h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h J u n g , told
h i m about these thoughts. After a lengthy discussion of the
i s s u e , P r o g o f f still r e s t l e s s , p o s e d t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n to
Jung:
P r o g o f f i n t e r p r e t s J u n g ' s r e f e r e n c e to a Z e n t o u c h a s
m e a n i n g that his w o r k has to b e cut to the essentials, and
t h a t it h a s t o b e a c h i e v e d b e y o n d r a t i o n a l i t y . 1 1 4
h i s o w n c o n s c i o u s n e s s in t h e c o u r s e o f m e d i t a t i o n u n d e r
t h e b o d h i t r e e , c o u l d n o t b e c o n v e y e d w i t h w o r d s . H e could
o n l y s h o w t h e w a y , t h e m e t h o d . In its v e r y e s s e n c e t h e w a y
is s i m p l e , a s it is n o t to b e l o o k e d for in h i d d e n , f a r a w a y
p l a c e s , in b o o k s o r s a c r e d s c r i p t u r e s , b u t in t h e v e r y d e p t h
of one's own self. 1 1 5
T h i s is n o d i f f e r e n t t h a n t h e w o r k o f t h e
alchemist's apprentice, or of Jung's patient.
W h e n t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s is realized
within the depth of the individual's psyche, then the meta-
p h y s i c a l c e a s e s to b e m e t a p h y s i c a l , a n d is e x p e r i e n c e d a s
intuitive, absolute k n o w l e d g e - illumination.
A s L a m a Govinda states:
. . . w h a t m a k e s m a n b l e s s e d is n o t b e l i e f (in t h e
s e n s e of the acceptance of a definite dogma), but
t h e b e c o m i n g c o n s c i o u s o f reality, w h i c h latter is
m e t a p h y s i c s t o u s o n l y for a s l o n g a s w e h a v e n o t
e x p e r i e n c e d it... v i e w e d f r o m w i t h o u t (as a s y s t e m )
B u d d h i s m is m e t a p h y s i c s ; v i e w e d f r o m w i t h i n (as
a f o r m o f reality) it is e m p i r i c i s m . In s o far a s ' t h e
m e t a p h y s i c a l ' is d i s c l o s e d u p o n t h e p a t h o f i n n e r
e x p e r i e n c e , it w a s n o t r e j e c t e d b y t h e B u d d h a , it
w a s o n l y r e j e c t e d w h e n it w a s t h o u g h t o u t u p o n
t h e p a t h o f s p e c u l a t i o n . M e t a p h y s i c s is a n e n t i r e l y
relative concept, w h o s e boundaries d e p e n d u p o n
the respective plane of experience, upon the re-
s p e c t i v e f o r m a n d e x t e n t of c o n s c i o u s n e s s . B u d d h a
o v e r c a m e m e t a p h y s i c s a n d its p r o b l e m s , n o t b y
m e r e l y i g n o r i n g t h e m , b u t in a n a b s o l u t e p o s i t i v e
m a n n e r , in t h a t , t h r o u g h t r a i n i n g a n d e x t e n s i o n o f
c o n s c i o u s n e s s h e p u s h e d back the boundary lines
o f t h e latter, s o t h a t t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l b e c a m e t h e
empirical. 1 1 6
H e r e I a m r e m i n d e d o f J u n g ' s s t a t e m e n t s that h i s w o r k is
b a s e d o n empirical facts, a n d on the other hand, the ac-
cusation b y s o m e - w h o misread his w o r k , or rather lacked
t h e e x p e r i e n c e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e reality o f it - that h e w a s
but a fuzzy mystic. M u c h of his work which was considered
' m y s t i c a l ' h a s b e e n v a l i d a t e d b y d i s c o v e r i e s of m o d e r n
s c i e n c e , a n d thus the metaphysical has b e c o m e empirical.
T h e r e a r e m a n y w a y s , m a n y p a t h s , l e a d i n g to liberation,
t h e g o a l o f all s c h o o l s of B u d d h i s m . In its b a r e e s s e n c e a n y
p a t h is t a n t a m o u n t to a radical t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of c o n s c i o u s -
n e s s , a s y m b o l i c d e a t h a n d rebirth f r o m a p r o f a n e to a
s p i r i t u a l m o d e o f b e i n g . ( O r , in t e r m s o f J u n g ' s p s y c h o l o g y ,
it w o u l d b e t h e sacrifice o f t h e e g o for t h e e m e r g e n c e of t h e
Self.)
In o r d e r to r e s p o n d to t h e d i f f e r e n t n e e d s a n d t e m p e r a -
m e n t s of different invididuals many methods have been
d e v e l o p e d . In T a n t r i c B u d d h i s m especially, t h e r e is a multi-
t u d e o f m o d e s a n d t e c h n i q u e s . T h e y a r e all d e s i g n e d to
affect the three aspects of a h u m a n being: body, speech,
and mind.
T h e c e n t r a l m e t h o d , a n d the o n e that w a s u s e d b y B u d d h a
h i m s e l f in h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s , is m e d i t a t i o n . In the
T a n t r i c p a t h , o r V a j r a y a n a , i n t h e b e g i n n i n g , as preliminary
p r a c t i c e s , t h e v a r i o u s m e t h o d s o f m e d i t a t i o n are f o l l o w e d
to calm, t a m e a n d discipline the mind, achieve one-pointed
c o n c e n t r a t i o n , cultivate mindfulness and awareness. O n
t h i s f o u n d a t i o n a m o r e c o m p l e x m e t h o d is practiced w h i c h
is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e V a j r a y a n a v e h i c l e , n a m e l y visual-
ization. In t h e act o f visualization m e d i t a t o r s c o n s t r u c t
m e n t a l images, of various degrees of complexity, repre-
s e n t i n g p e a c e f u l , b e a u t i f u l a n d w r a t h f u l , terrifying T a n t r i c
deities with w h o m they identify and w h o guide them
through the process.
E a c h d e i t y c o r r e s p o n d s to a vital force within the d e p t h of
t h e i n d i v i d u a l , a n d b y uniting with various deities, the
m e d i t a t o r m a k e s c o n t a c t w i t h t h o s e forces - positive or n e g a -
tive - a n d utilizes o r rather t r a n s m u t e s t h e m , to achieve
h i g h e r s t a t e s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e m e t h o d is b a s e d o n
a s s u m p t i o n s that are irrational a n d can o n l y b e grasped in the
w a y o n e can u n d e r s t a n d the irrational processess of life m e n -
t i o n e d earlier in discussing J u n g ' s m e t h o d of psychotherapy.
M e d i t a t o r s a r e g i v e n a d e i t y , c h o s e n a c c o r d i n g to their
s p e c i f i c n e e d s a n d spiritual c a p a c i t i e s . T h e y are i n s t r u c t e d
t o d e v o t e t h e i r fullest a t t e n t i o n to t h e f o r m o f t h e deity that
t h e y a r e t o c r e a t e in t h e i r m i n d . All t h e m i n u t e details o f the
i m a g e , in all its c o m p l e x i t y a n d c o l o r , a r e v i s u a l i z e d to t h e
p o i n t t h a t it b e c o m e s j u s t a s real a s t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r s t h e m -
s e l v e s . Indeed they not only contemplate the deity, they
i d e n t i f y t h e m s e l v e s as t h e d e i t y . F o r a m o m e n t t h e y h a v e
b e e n t r a n s f i g u r e d i n t o t h e divinity: t h e a r c h e t y p a l e s s e n c e
o f it h a s b e e n t r a n s f e r r e d i n t o t h e m . D u r i n g that t i m e of
identification with the deity they generate the so-called
' d i v i n e p r i d e , ' p r i d e t h a t o n e is B u d d h a . 1 1 7
T h e c o r e o f v i s u a l i z a t i o n c o n s i s t s in this u n i o n w i t h the
d e i t y . It is a d y n a m i c p r o c e s s in w h i c h t h e m e d i t a t o r s ' e g o ,
t h e i r o r d i n a r y c o n s c i o u s n e s s , is a b a n d o n e d a n d substituted
with the higher consciousness of the deity. O n e could say,
to u s e J u n g ' s l a n g u a g e , t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s e g o h a s b e e n
s a c r i f i c e d for t h e S e l f .
T h e p r o c e s s o f v i s u a l i z a t i o n is n o t a m a t t e r o r r e p r e s s i n g
the irrepressible parts of our psyche, the archetypal forms
t h a t u n i t e u s w i t h all o f h u m a n i t y o f all t i m e s , b u t r a t h e r to
m a k e contact with t h e m and gradually transform them so as
to a c h i e v e a h i g h e r s t a t e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e v a r i o u s
deities are s y m b o l s of the forces, positive and negative,
g o o d a n d evil, t h a t w a g e a battle in o u r p s y c h e . N o n e o f
t h e s e f o r c e s , t h e s e e n e r g i e s , is lost: e a c h is h a r n e s s e d a n d
t r a n s m u t e d i n t o p u r e a w a r e n e s s , p u r e spiritual e s s e n c e .
O r , t o u s e t h e a l c h e m i c a l l a n g u a g e , lead is t r a n s f o r m e d into
gold.
L e t u s l o o k at t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f o n e o f t h e deities:
A s a c o n t r a s t , let u s c o n t e m p l a t e t h e f o l l o w i n g i m a g e :
O n t h e d i s c o f t h e a u t u m n m o o n , clear a n d p u r e ,
y o u p l a c e a s e e d s y l l a b l e . T h e cool b l u e r a y s o f t h e
s e e d syllable e m a n a t e i m m e n s e cooling compassion
t h a t r a d i a t e s b e y o n d t h e limits o f s k y o r s p a c e . It
fulfills t h e n e e d s a n d d e s i r e s of s e n t i e n t b e i n g s ,
b r i n g i n g b a s i c w a r m t h s o that c o n f u s i o n s m a y b e
c l a r i f i e d . T h e n f r o m t h e s e e d syllable y o u c r e a t e a
M a h a v a i r o c a n a B u d d h a , w h i t e in color, w i t h t h e
f e a t u r e s o f a n aristocrat - an eight-year-old child
w i t h a beautiful, i n n o c e n t , pure, powerful, royal
g a z e . H e is d r e s s e d in the c o s t u m e of a medieval
k i n g of India. H e w e a r s a glittering gold crown
inlaid w i t h wish-fulfilling jewels. Part of his long
black hair floats o v e r his shoulders a n d back; the rest
is m a d e into a t o p k n o t s u r m o u n t e d b y a glittering
b l u e d i a m o n d . H e is seated crosslegged o n the lunar
disc w i t h his h a n d s in t h e meditation m u d r a hold-
i n g a vajra carved from p u r e w h i t e c r y s t a l . 119
A n d n o w let u s c o n t e m p l a t e a v i s u a l i z a t i o n , s u g g e s t e d
b y a c o n t e m p o r a r y T a n t r i c t e a c h e r , for t h e b e n e f i t o f t h o s e
d e v o t e d t o J e s u s C h r i s t . It is a purification p r a c t i c e of b o d y ,
speech and mind.
S i t , o r k n e e l if y o u like, in a c o m f o r t a b l e p o s i t i o n ,
r e l a x e d b u t w i t h y o u r b a c k straight. In y o u r m i n d ' s
e y e , v i s u a l i z e J e s u s b e f o r e y o u . H i s face h a s a
t r a n q u i l , p e a c e f u l a n d loving e x p r e s s i o n . A picture
of the resurrected Christ or of Jesus teaching may
b e u s e d as a m o d e l for this visualization.
T h e n visualize from the crown of his head m u c h
r a d i a n t , w h i t e light c o m i n g to y o u r o w n c r o w n .
T h i s w h i t e light is in t h e n a t u r e o f blissful e n e r g y
a n d a s it e n t e r s y o u r b o d y it purifies t h e p h y s i c a l
contamination, or sin, accumulated over countless
l i f e t i m e s . T h i s b l i s s f u l , w h i t e e n e r g y p u r i f i e s all
d i s e a s e s o f t h e b o d y , i n c l u d i n g c a n c e r s , a n d acti-
vates a n d r e n e w s the functioning of your entire
nervous system.
I n a s i m i l a r m a n n e r , a r e d light is v i s u a l i z e d ,
r a d i a t i n g forth f r o m J e s u s ' t h r o a t a n d e n t e r i n g
y o u r o w n , c o m p l e t e l y p e r v a d i n g y o u r vocal c e n t r e
w i t h t h e s e n s a t i o n o f b l i s s . If y o u h a v e a n y dif-
ficulties w i t h y o u r s p e e c h , a l w a y s telling lies, b e i n g
u n c o n t r o l l e d in w h a t y o u s a y , e n g a g i n g in slander,
u s i n g h a r s h l a n g u a g e o r t h e like - this blissful r e d
e n e r g y p u r i f i e s y o u o f all t h e s e n e g a t i v i t i e s . A s a
r e s u l t y o u d i s c o v e r t h e d i v i n e qualities o f s p e e c h .
T h e n f r o m J e s u s ' h e a r t infinite r a d i a n t b l u e light
c o m e s t o sink i n t o y o u r h e a r t , purifying y o u r m i n d
o f all its w r o n g c o n c e p t i o n s . Y o u r s e l f i s h a n d p e t t y
e g o , w h i c h is like t h e c h i e f o r p r e s i d e n t o f t h e
d e l u s i o n s , a n d t h e t h r e e p o i s o n s of g r e e d , h a t r e d
a n d i g n o r a n c e , w h i c h a r e like t h e e g o ' s m i n i s t e r s ,
a r e all p u r i f i e d in t h i s b l i s s f u l , b l u e r a d i a n c e . T h e
i n d e c i s i v e m i n d , w h i c h is s p e c i a l l y d o u b t f u l a n d
c a u g h t b e t w e e n ' m a y b e t h i s ' a n d ' m a y b e t h a t , ' is
c l a r i f i e d . A l s o p u r i f i e d is t h e n a r r o w m i n d , w h i c h
c a n n o t s e e totality b e c a u s e its f o c u s is t o o tight. A s
t h e light e n e r g y fills y o u r m i n d , y o u r heart b e c o m e s
like t h e b l u e s k y , e m b r a c i n g u n i v e r s a l reality a n d
all o f s p a c e . 1 2 0
O f c o u r s e , it s h o u l d b e k e p t in m i n d t h a t in t e r m s of
B u d d h i s t p h i l o s o p h y this statement w o u l d b e true on the
r e l a t i v e l e v e l o f reality o n l y . O n t h e u l t i m a t e level o f reality
e v e r y t h i n g is i n t r i n s i c a l l y v o i d .
I n t h e T a n t r i c sadhanas (spiritual e x e r c i s e s ) t h e m e n t a l
activity of meditation is a c c o m p a n i e d b y mantras and
mudras in w h i c h s p e e c h a n d b o d y t a k e p a r t .
M a n t r a s a r e s a c r e d s o u n d s , a u d i t o r y s y m b o l s , that h a v e
n o c o n c r e t e m e a n i n g , b u t like t h e s o u n d a n d r h y t h m o f
m u s i c a n d poetry h a v e the power of evoking profound
feelings a n d states of consciousness that transcend thought
a n d o r d i n a r y s p e e c h . T o the initiated the mantra speaks in
a v e r y d i r e c t , i m m e d i a t e w a y a n d h a s t h e capacity to call
f o r t h t h e d o r m a n t f o r c e s w i t h i n t h e m . T o o t h e r s it r e m a i n s
a secret. T h e m e r e recitation of a mantra without adequate
p r e p a r a t i o n a n d t h e p r o p e r m e n t a l a t t i t u d e is u s e l e s s , for
t h e s o u n d o f t h e m a n t r a is n o t m e r e l y p h y s i c a l b u t a b o v e all
is s p i r i t u a l . It h a s to b e p r o d u c e d b y t h e m i n d a n d h e a r d b y
the h e a r t . 1 2 2
M u d r a s a r e s y m b o l i c p o s t u r e s a n d g e s t u r e s in w h i c h
h a n d s a n d e a c h f i n g e r p a r t i c i p a t e in a m o s t r e f i n e d , e l e g a n t
a n d expressive manner, reminiscent of the movements of
Balinese dancers. T h e y are physical, outward expressions
of i n n e r states of b e i n g a n d , like the mantras w h e n used in
t h e p r o p e r c o n t e x t , a r e a n aid to m e d i t a t i o n , h e l p i n g t o
i n c i t e h i g h e r states o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . W h e n all t h r e e a s p e c t s
o f o n e ' s b e i n g - b o d y , s p e e c h , a n d m i n d - are simultaneously
i n v o l v e d a n d h a r m o n i o u s l y c o - o r d i n a t e d - in t h e p e r f o r -
m a n c e of m u d r a s , recitation of mantras, a n d d e e p medita-
t i o n - p r i m e v a l , u n i v e r s a l f o r c e s a r e a r o u s e d , a n d t h e effect
is t h u n d e r o u s . O n e e n t e r s a n o t h e r reality.
R i t u a l s a n d c e r e m o n i e s p l a y a s i g n i f i c a n t role in T a n t r i c
practice. Prostrations, offerings of incense and flowers,
c h a n t i n g , puja (ritual w o r s h i p ) , initiation rites, all o f t h e m
h a v e to b e regarded as forms of meditation and understood
f o r t h e i r s y m b o l i c m e a n i n g . T o h a v e t h e i r full e f f e c t , t h e y
h a v e to b e a p p r o a c h e d with a correct mental attitude and
with reverence.
A t y p i c a l c e r e m o n y h a s all t h e d r a m a t i c qualities o f i n -
c a n t a t i o n a n d m a g i c : it i s a f e a s t for all t h e s e n s e s a n d it
s t r i k e s at t h e d e e p e s t l e v e l s o f o n e ' s b e i n g . T h e r e is t h e blast
o f t h e h o r n s a n d T i b e t a n l o n g t r u m p e t s , t h e rattle of t h e
c l a p p e r - d r u m s , t h e s o u n d o f t h e b e l l s , t h e c h a n t i n g , recita-
t i o n o f m a n t r a s a n d s a c r e d t e x t s , t h e p r a y e r flags, t h e color-
ful r o b e s o f t h e l a m a s w h o s e p o s t u r e s , g e s t u r e s , a n d facial
e x p r e s s i o n s often m i r r o r t h o s e o f the deities in the sur-
r o u n d i n g thangkas (sacred i m a g e s ) ; t h e fragrance of i n c e n s e ,
f l o w e r s , c e r e m o n i a l u t e n s i l s , b o w l s w i t h sanctified w a t e r ,
t e a , fruit a n d o t h e r delicacies. It is a spectacle a n d e x p e r i e n c e
t h a t c a n n o t b e d e s c r i b e d , b u t n e i t h e r c a n it e v e r b e for-
gotten.
S i n c e l i b e r a t i o n c a n n o t b e a t t a i n e d b y w a y of b o o k s o r
abstract knowledge but only through experience, the need
f o r a h u m a n g u r u , o r spiritual t e a c h e r , is o f t r e m e n d o u s
i m p o r t a n c e . O n l y w i t h t h e h e l p a n d g u i d a n c e of a n o t h e r
h u m a n being can one's consciousness be awakened and
real p r o g r e s s m a d e . But this other h u m a n being must be a
t e a c h e r w h o is q u a l i f i e d a n d w h o h i m o r h e r s e l f is far a l o n g
t h e p a t h . H i s c o n d u c t , his k n o w l e d g e , t h e clarity o f his
m i n d , h i s w i s d o m a n d c o m p a s s i o n m u s t b e s u c h that h e
c a n s e r v e n o t o n l y a s a t e a c h e r , b u t a s a living e x a m p l e o f
the enlightened attitude. Gurus cannot transfer their
w i s d o m to the disciples, but their words, which resonate
b e y o n d the m e a n i n g of the ordinary words, can touch and
m o v e t h e d i s c i p l e s w h e n t h e y a r e r e a d y for t h e t e a c h i n g .
W h e n t h a t h a p p e n s it is a s if a k e y h a s o p e n e d t h e d o o r o f
p e r c e p t i o n in t h e i n n e r m o s t b e i n g o f t h e d i s c i p l e s , a n d
g r a d u a l l y t h e i r h o r i z o n s a r e w i d e n e d . It feels literally t h a t
c o n s c i o u s n e s s , t h e light, is e x p a n d i n g at e a c h c o n t a c t w i t h
t h e g u r u . T h e h u m a n guru, being the model of a complete
p e r s o n , is b u t t h e a r c h e t y p a l s y m b o l o f t h e S u p r e m e G u r u ,
or the principle of B u d d h a h o o d , and so the process goes on
i n t h e m i n d s o f t h e d i s c i p l e s till t h e i m a g e o f t h e g u r u h a s
b e e n i n t e g r a t e d w i t h i n t h e m s e l v e s . T h e disciple realizes
t h a t t h e t e a c h e r is n o t o u t s i d e b u t i n s i d e h i s p s y c h e , a n d is
n o n e o t h e r than his o w n Self.
T h e f u n c t i o n o f g u r u s , w h o a r e s o m e t i m e s a l s o called
s p i r i t u a l f r i e n d s , h a s m a n y a s p e c t s . L e t u s l o o k at t h e i m -
aginative text of the eleventh century Tibetan teacher and
philosopher Gampopa, d e s c r i b i n g t h e role o f spiritual
friends.
T h e s i m i l e s a r e t h a t spiritual f r i e n d s a r e like a
g u i d e w h e n w e travel in u n k n o w n territory, a n
escort w h e n w e pass through dangerous regions
a n d a f e r r y m a n w h e n w e c r o s s a g r e a t river.
A s t o t h e first, w h e n w e travel g u i d e l e s s in a n
u n k n o w n t e r r i t o r y t h e r e is t h e d a n g e r of g o i n g
a s t r a y a n d g e t t i n g lost. B u t if w e g o w i t h a g u i d e
t h e n t h e r e is n o s u c h d a n g e r , a n d w i t h o u t m i s s i n g
a single step w e reach the desired place....
In t h e s e c o n d simile dangerous regions are
h a u n t e d by thieves a n d robbers, wild beasts a n d
other noxious animals. W h e n w e go there without
a n e s c o r t , t h e r e is a d a n g e r o f l o s i n g o u r b o d y , life
o r property; but w h e n w e have a strong escort w e
reach the desired place without a loss....
F i n a l l y in t h e t h i r d simile w h e n w e c r o s s t h e
g r e a t r i v e r , if w e h a v e b o a r d e d a b o a t w i t h o u t a
b o a t m a n , w e a r e e i t h e r d r o w n e d o r carried a w a y
b y the current a n d d o not reach the other shore;
b u t if t h e r e is a b o a t m a n w e l a n d safely b y his
efforts. 1 2 3
J u n g k n e w w e l l o f t h e d a n g e r s o f t h e 'wild b e a s t s a n d
o t h e r n o x i o u s a n i m a l s , ' a n d t h e terror w h e n p l u n g i n g i n t o
the dark regions of one's unconscious, as he experimented
w i t h himself. A n d so did the alchemists before him. They
w e r e a l s o fully a w a r e o f t h e p o t e n t i a l p s y c h i c e x p l o s i o n
i n h e r e n t in t h e i r opus. N o doubt, both the alchemists and
J u n g w o u l d b e in full a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e w a r n i n g s o f t h e
Tibetan teacher.
F o l l o w i n g in t h e f o o t s t e p s o f S h a k y a m u n i B u d d h a n e v e r
t o i m p o s e h i s t e a c h i n g s o n o t h e r s , it is p a r t of t h e T i b e t a n
t r a d i t i o n t h a t i n s t r u c t i o n s h o u l d b e g i v e n o n l y in r e s p o n s e
to a sincere request and serious intent. Tibetan teachers
b e l i e v e t h a t t h e v e r y act o f s e e k i n g a n d r e q u e s t i n g h e l p
c r e a t e s t h e p r o p e r e n e r g y t h a t is c o n d u c i v e to receiving it,
a n d listening not only with ears but with the heart as
well. 1 2 4
AS DISCUSSED IN t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , visualization is o n e
o f t h e m a i n m e d i t a t i o n m e t h o d s in t h e V a j r a y a n a . The
d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f d e i t i e s v i s u a l i z e d in p e r s o n i f i e d f o r m a r e
e x p r e s s e d o u t w a r d l y in Tantric i c o n o g r a p h y , while inwardly
t h e y c o r r e s p o n d to different psychological states. By identify-
i n g w i t h t h e various deities o f the Tibetan B u d d h i s t p a n t h e o n
t h e p r o f a n e c o n s c i o u s n e s s is t r a n s c e n d e d into t h e k n o w -
l e d g e of the holy, a n d thus images b e c o m e symbols of
transformation. T h e anthropomorphic Tantric images are
r e g a r d e d a s a r c h e t y p e s , y e t b e c o m e real to t h e m e d i t a t o r .
A c c o r d i n g t o J u n g , a r c h e t y p e s come to life w h e n t h e y a r e
m e a n i n g f u l to an i n d i v i d u a l . 1 2 6
L i k e all p o w e r f u l s y m b o l s ,
T a n t r i c i m a g e s w h e n infused with emotion, gain n u m i n o s -
ity a n d s u p p l y m e d i t a t o r s w i t h e n e r g y t h a t carry t h e m a
s t e p forward into a n o t h e r psychological realm - the trans-
personal, spiritual
W h a t is t h e r o l e o f i m a g e s in t h e p r a c t i c e o f B u d d h i s m
w h o s e philosophical a n d metaphysical foundations are based
on the concept of emptiness?
In the w o r d s of Lama Govinda:
S i m i l a r l y J u n g tells u s t h a t a r c h e t y p e s initially a r e e m p t y
f o r m s b u t contain the possibility of certain perception and
a c t i o n , a n d w h e n a c t i v a t e d t h e y b e c o m e a p o w e r f u l force in
t h e life a n d b e h a v i o r o f a n i n d i v i d u a l . 1 2 8
Indeed, the arche-
t y p e m a y t a k e a n a u t o n o m o u s reality o f its o w n a n d t a k e
c o n t r o l o v e r t h e e n t i r e p e r s o n a l i t y . T h e vision m a y lead t o
a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n s o r scientific d i s c o v e r i e s , like the f a m o u s
c a s e of Kekule's discovery of the b e n z e n e ring. 129
But the
v i s i o n s c a n a l s o l e a d t o i n s a n i t y if t h e y a r e n o t i n t e g r a t e d
i n t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e d i v i d i n g line b e t w e e n t h e t w o
r o a d s is f r e q u e n t l y v e r y t h i n .
Tibetan Buddhists, as well as Jung, are aware of the
d a n g e r s i n v o l v e d , a n d t h e r e f o r e u r g e that p r o p e r safeguards
b e t a k e n . T a n t r i c visualization, or t h e s o m e w h a t c o m p a r a b l e
J u n g ' s active i m a g i n a t i o n t e c h n i q u e , b o t h require g u i d a n c e
o f a q u a l i f i e d t e a c h e r , o r a n a l y s t . F u r t h e r m o r e , in V a j r a y a n a
p r a c t i c e e v e r y visualization is p r e c e d e d a n d t e r m i n a t e d b y
meditation o n e m p t i n e s s a n d dissolution of images which
a c t s a s a p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t c o n t i n u e d identification w i t h
t h e s y m b o l s : t h e m e d i t a t o r is m a d e a w a r e that t h e deities
are products of imagination.
O n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d in T i b e t t h e m o s t p o p u l a r
d e i t y i s T a r a . S h e is t h e f e m i n i n e a s p e c t o f t h e B u d d h a .
I n T i b e t s h e is r e v e r e d a s t h e m o t h e r o f all B u d d h a s .
T a r a , in h e r e s s e n c e , s y m b o l i z e s t h e totally d e v e l o p e d w i s -
d o m t h a t t r a n s c e n d s r e a s o n . S h e is t h e B u d d h a o f e n l i g h t -
e n e d activity, the liberator w h o , by releasing o n e from the
b o n d a g e of egocentric passions, leads from the shores of
p r o f a n e w o r l d l y i n v o l v e m e n t ( s a m s a r a ) to t h e o t h e r s h o r e
o f illumination (nirvana). Tara appears in a variety of aspects:
the green Tara, red Tara, white Tara, etc., twenty-one of
t h e m , a n d e a c h c o r r e s p o n d i n g to slightly different archetypal
i m a g e s in t h e p s y c h e . I n J u n g i a n t e r m i n o l o g y s h e r e p r e s e n t s
t h e M o t h e r a r c h e t y p e . H o w e v e r , s h e is t h e i m a g e o f t h e
m o t h e r w h o h a s i n t e g r a t e d in h e r s e l f all t h e o p p o s i t e s ,
p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e . T h u s t o E r i c N e w m a n n (a d i s c i p l e o f
J u n g ) , Tara s y m b o l i z e s the highest form, the culmination
o f t h e f e m i n i n e a r c h e t y p e . S h e is ' t h e G r e a t G o d d e s s w h o ,
in the totality of h e r unfolding, fills t h e w o r l d from
its lowest elementary phase to its s u p r e m e spiritual
transformation.' 1 3 0
V a j r a Y o g i n i in T i b e t a n i c o n o g r a p h y is d e p i c t e d w i t h a
c u r i o u s e x p r e s s i o n t h a t is s i m u l t a n e o u s l y l o v i n g a n d s m i l -
ing, b u t also wrathful, thus revealing the essential ambiv-
alence of every archetype.
T h e T a n t r i c s y m b o l o f dakini has been sometimes com-
p a r e d in t h e W e s t w i t h J u n g ' s c o n c e p t o f o n e o f t h e m a j o r
archetypes, namely, the a n i m a . 1 3 4
T h e latter is usually refer-
red to as the female aspect of the male psyche. The anima
a p p e a r s in m a n y d i f f e r e n t f o r m s a n d h a s b o t h b e n e v o l e n t
a n d d e m o n i c aspects. S h e can be a guide and mediator,
l e a d i n g a m a n to h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n - or to his d o o m .
B u t t h e n o t i o n o f a n i m a is m u c h m o r e c o m p l e x . First o f
all, a n i m a d o e s n o t a p p l y e x c l u s i v e l y to a m a n ' s p s y c h e : a s
a n a r c h e t y p a l f i g u r e s h e c a n f u n c t i o n in t h e p s y c h e o f e i t h e r
g e n d e r . In t h e m a l e - o r i e n t e d W e s t e r n w o r l d , t h e c o n c e p t o f
a n i m a , a s t h e f e m i n i n e c o u n t e r p a r t o f the m a s c u l i n e p s y c h e ,
a n d t h e p r o p e r i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e t w o a s p e c t s , is crucial to
t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l b a l a n c e of the individual and the culture.
In t h e E a s t e r n w o r l d , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , the f e m i n i n e
q u a l i t y , t h e yin a s w e l l a s t h e yang, the masculine quality,
t h e g o d d e s s a s w e l l a s t h e g o d , h a v e b e e n integral parts o f
the culture. There could b e no god without a goddess; one
is u n t h i n k a b l e without the other. The most prevalent
i m a g e i n T a n t r i c i c o n o g r a p h y is t h e s y m b o l of yab-yum,
the god and goddess, father and mother, in ecstatic
e m b r a c e , s y m b o l i z i n g the perfect u n i o n of the masculine
a n d f e m i n i n e e l e m e n t s , t h e u n i o n o f o p p o s i t e s w h i c h is
the fundamental inner experience.
J u n g is r i g h t w h e n h e s a y s that t h e c o n c e p t o f a n i m a as h e
s t a t e d it is l a c k i n g in t h e E a s t e r n v i e w . 1 3 4
It s h o u l d b e
a d d e d , t h a t it is t h e n o t i o n o f a n i m a a s h e f o r m u l a t e d it in
h i s e a r l i e r w r i t i n g s , a n d a s it is m o s t c o m m o n l y u n d e r -
stood. In t h e E a s t t h a t c o n c e p t w o u l d b e s u p e r f l u o u s .
A n i m a , h o w e v e r , c a n b e t h e b r i d g e to t h e S e l f . A s s u c h , s h e
h a s a d e f i n i t e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e to t h e dakini, the e t h e r e a l
b e i n g w h o is b o t h t h e e s s e n c e a n d t h e carrier o f w i s d o m . In
t h a t s e n s e dakinis, a n d a c t u a l l y all T a n t r i c d e i t i e s , p e a c e f u l
a n d w r a t h f u l , d i v i n e a n d d e m o n i c , c a n b e l o o k e d at a s
m e s s e n g e r s a n d p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s of s u p r e m e w i s d o m , a n d
t h e r e f o r e t h e y f u n c t i o n a s c a t a l y s t s in t h e p r o c e s s o f i n t e -
g r a t i o n . O r , to p u t it differently, t h e y are n u m i n o u s person-
alities, embodiments of a r c h e t y p e s , e x p r e s s i n g different
attributes of the Self.
A dakini m a y at t i m e s h a v e a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e to the a r c h e -
t y p e o f t h e a n i m a , b u t m a y also just a s well b e the equivalent
o f t h e a r c h e t y p e o f t h e ' w i s e old m a n ' w h o r e p r e s e n t s
superior insight. A n d just as the image of Philemon, the
'wise o l d m a n ' a p p e a r e d t o J u n g a n d s e e m e d q u i t e real to
h i m , s i m i l a r l y a d e i t y a p p e a r s real to t h e m e d i t a t o r . T h e
d i f f e r e n c e is, h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e dakini, o r d e i t y , is n o t a
s p o n t a n e o u s a p p e a r a n c e , a s J u n g ' s vision of P h i l e m o n w a s .
It is i n s t e a d a d e i t y t h a t t h e g u r u b e s t o w s o n the s t u d e n t
d u r i n g i n i t i a t i o n to facilitate his o r h e r p r o g r e s s , a n d it is
c h o s e n in a c c o r d a n c e with the individual's specific needs,
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d c a p a c i t i e s . S u c h a d e i t y is called yidam,
a n d b e c o m e s the student's guardian and mentor - the 'wise
o l d m a n . ' It h a s b e e n s a i d t h a t a dakini 'provides hidden
intimations from deeper layers of one's b e i n g . ' 1 3 6
H e r e the
dakini w o u l d reflect t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e a n i m a , w h i c h J u n g
d e s c r i b e s as a personification of the u n c o n s c i o u s , 1 3 7
and
h a v i n g the connective qualities of E r o s . 1 3 8
W i t h a t r u l y tragic d e l u s i o n . . . t h e o l o g i a n s fail to
s e e t h a t it is n o t a m a t t e r o f p r o v i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e
of the light, but of blind people w h o do not k n o w
t h a t t h e i r e y e s c o u l d s e e . It is h i g h t i m e w e realize
t h a t it is p o i n t l e s s to p r a i s e t h e light a n d p r e a c h it
if n o b o d y c a n s e e it. It is m u c h m o r e n e e d f u l to
t e a c h p e o p l e t h e art o f s e e i n g . F o r it is o b v i o u s t h a t
far t o o m a n y p e o p l e a r e i n c a p a b l e o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a
c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s a c r e d f i g u r e s a n d their
o w n p s y c h e ; t h e y c a n n o t s e e to w h a t e x t e n t t h e
e q u i v a l e n t i m a g e s a r e lying d o r m a n t in their o w n
unconscious. 1 3 9
T o J u n g it is e v i d e n t t h a t t h e s o l u t i o n to this p r o b l e m ,
t h a t i s , to d e v e l o p t h e c a p a c i t y for i n n e r vision a n d e x p e r i -
e n c e t h e mysterium magnum, t h e c o s m i c reality, c a n b e
a c h i e v e d o n l y b y m a k i n g c o n t a c t w i t h t h e p s y c h e . In o t h e r
w o r d s , the p s y c h e , or the m i n d as Tibetan Buddhists would
s a y , is t h e v e h i c l e o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n .
T h e sacred images - w h e t h e r those of the Tibetan pan-
t h e o n , o r t h e m o d e r n w o r l d , or of a n y m y t h o l o g y o f a n y
time a n d place - are the c o m m o n heritage of humanity and
a r e p r e s e n t in e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l . A n d J u n g f o u n d o u t in his
t h e r a p e u t i c p r a c t i c e t h a t c o n t e m p o r a r y m e n a n d w o m e n in
t h e W e s t e r n w o r l d s p o n t a n e o u s l y p r o d u c e d , f r o m their
u n c o n s c i o u s , images that w e r e part of mythologies of re-
m o t e places a n d ancient times, and that these images could
h a v e a p r o f o u n d a n d p o w e r f u l effect o n t h e individual. In
the act of vision, of contact with the symbol, they could be
r e n e w e d a n d their p s y c h i c e n e r g y transformed, a fact Tibetan
B u d d h i s t s h a v e k n o w n for c e n t u r i e s .
A s m e n t i o n e d earlier, J u n g ' s particular approach to p s y c h o -
t h e r a p y w e n t b e y o n d g o a l s a n d m e t h o d s a s traditionally
u n d e r s t o o d a n d p r a c t i c e d ; t o h i m p s y c h o t h e r a p y is ulti-
m a t e l y a n a p p r o a c h t o t h e n u m i n o u s . It is o n this g r o u n d
that J u n g a n d Tantra meet; they penetrate and transform
t h e s a m e p s y c h i c realities.
T h e process of individuation, or psychological develop-
m e n t , l e a d s p r o g r e s s i v e l y f u r t h e r a w a y f r o m t h e e g o to t h e
S e l f , f r o m t h e u n c o n s c i o u s to c o n s c i o u s n e s s , f r o m t h e p e r -
s o n a l t o t h e t r a n s p e r s o n a l , t h e h o l y , t h e realization that t h e
m a c r o c o s m is being mirrored in the microcosm of the h u m a n
psyche.
T h e task is the r e d e m p t i o n of the Self, the psychic totality,
t h e lapis, ' t h e great treasure that lies h i d d e n in the cave of
the unconscious,' 1 4 0
p e r s o n i f i e d in t h e B u d d h a , in V a j r a -
Yogini, t h e Sleeping Beauty, suffocated by the ego. A n d the
t a s k c a n b e a c c o m p l i s h e d a c c o r d i n g to J u n g , w h e n the
a r c h e t y p a l s y m b o l , t h e S e l f , is m a d e c o n s c i o u s a n d is d i s -
e n g a g e d f r o m t h e u n c o n s c i o u s identification w i t h t h e e g o .
In o t h e r w o r d s , the Self, G o d , the Buddha, Vajra Yogini has
t o b e r e d e e m e d b y h u m a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h i s is t h e ulti-
m a t e g o a l o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t in t h e f r a m e w o r k
of Jung's psychotherapy.
T h e n o t i o n t h a t m a t t e r , s y m b o l i z i n g t h e t e m p o r a l reality
o f t h e e g o , is h i d i n g G o d w a s part o f a G n o s t i c m y t h , a n d
a l s o t h e u n d e r l i n i n g t h e m e in a l c h e m y . 1 4 1
T h e alchemical,
in c o n t r a s t t o t h e C h r i s t i a n w o r k o f r e d e m p t i o n , is a n active
e n d e a v o r w h i c h is r e m a r k a b l y similar t o t h e B u d d h i s t atti-
t u d e . In a l c h e m y , s a y s J u n g , ' m a n t a k e s u p o n h i m s e l f t h e
d u t y o f c a r r y i n g o u t t h e r e d e e m i n g opus, a n d attributes the
s t a t e o f s u f f e r i n g a n d c o n s e q u e n t n e e d o f r e d e m p t i o n to t h e
anima mundi i m p r i s o n e d in m a t t e r . ' 1 4 2
B u t t h e w o r k o f r e d e m p t i o n , w h e t h e r in a l c h e m y , in
T a n t r a o r J u n g , c a n n o t b e left to n a t u r e ; it requires c o n s c i o u s
e f f o r t . A b o v e all it m u s t b e a living e x p e r i e n c e , it m u s t take
p l a c e in t h e m i d s t o f life. T h e a l c h e m i s t s b e l i e v e d that ' t h e
s u b s t a n c e that h a r b o r s t h e divine secret is e v e r y w h e r e . . . e v e n
in the m o s t loathsome filth.'143
T a n t r i c B u d d h i s t s similarly
b e l i e v e t h a t e v e r y e v e n t a n d situation, g o o d o r evil, c a n
b e c o m e a v e h i c l e o f spiritual t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . N o t h i n g is to
be rejected. A n d J u n g ' s psychology too welcomes every
a s p e c t o f t h e p s y c h e , r e j e c t s n o p a r t of it, a n d s e e k s it in t h e
d e p t h a n d t h e h e i g h t , d a r k n e s s a n d light, a n d in s i m p l e
o u t e r a n d i n n e r e v e n t s o f e v e r y d a y life.
m a n y s t i m u l a t i n g i d e a s a n d d i s c o v e r i e s , b u t also m a n y
fundamental insights.' 1 4 4
The Tibetan Book of the Dead is
o s t e n s i b l y a b o u t d e a t h a n d d y i n g , w i t h i n s t r u c t i o n s to t h e
s o u l o f t h e d e p a r t e d d u r i n g f o r t y - n i n e d a y s of peregrination
till n e w b i r t h .
I n a m o d e r n c o m m e n t a r y , basically a d d r e s s e d to the W e s t -
e r n w o r l d , C h o g y a m T r u n g p a R i n p o c h e calls it ' T h e Tibetan
B o o k o f B i r t h , ' t h e r e b y m a k i n g t h e p o i n t that birth a n d
d e a t h a r e f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e s that r e c u r c o n s t a n t l y in
this l i f e . 1 4 5
T h e m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r d bardo is d e r i v e d f r o m
bar w h i c h m e a n s 'in b e t w e e n , ' a n d do w h i c h m e a n s ' i s l a n d '
o r ' m a r k . ' It is t h e r e f o r e 'a sort o f l a n d m a r k w h i c h s t a n d s
between two t h i n g s , ' 1 4 6
a n d it r e f e r s to a n i n t e r m e d i a t e
s t a t e , a p e r i o d o f t r a n s i t i o n . W e r e c o g n i z e h e r e t h e idea o f
t h e i n t e r m e d i a r y , t w i l i g h t level o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s o r t h e
t w i l i g h t p e r i o d at s u n s e t o r d a w n , w h e n d a y t u r n s into
n i g h t o r v i c e v e r s a . T h e s e a r e b o r d e r l i n e s t a t e s ; t h e y are
t i m e s o f c r i s i s , w h e n t h e t e n s i o n is at its p e a k , b u t w h i c h
are also m o s t p r e g n a n t psychologically, since they are times
w h e n c h a n g e c a n m o s t readily o c c u r . I n h e r e n t in s u c h
s t a t e s is t h e o p p o r t u n i t y for t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . In t h e crack
b e t w e e n t w o w o r l d s - o f t h e living a n d t h e d e a d , o f d e a t h
a n d r e b i r t h - lies t h e s u p r e m e o p p o r t u n i t y . A c c o r d i n g t o
t h e Bardo Thodol, it is at t h e m o m e n t i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g
d e a t h t h a t t h e m i n d is c a p a b l e o f a t t a i n i n g liberation. A t
t h a t m o m e n t o n e r e a c h e s t h e subtlest level of c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,
t h e c l e a r light m i n d , b u t b e c a u s e o n e is n o t familiar w i t h it
o n e m i s s e s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to u s e it to g a i n e n l i g h t e n m e n t ,
a n d instead d e s c e n d s progressively back into the world of
t h e u n c o n s c i o u s a n d a n e w birth, w h e n t h e w h e e l of s a m s a r a
a n d s u f f e r i n g s t a r t s all o v e r a g a i n . In its j o u r n e y t h r o u g h
t h e u n d e r w o r l d t h e m i n d e n c o u n t e r s at first beautiful, p e a c e -
ful, a n d later frightening, wrathful deities. T h e teaching of
t h e Book is t h a t t h e y a r e b u t p r o j e c t i o n s o f t h e m i n d w h i c h
n e e d t o b e r e c o g n i z e d a s s u c h , t h a t is, a s e m p t y f o r m s a n d
i l l u s o r y i m a g e s . T h e c o n f u s i o n is t h e n t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o
transcendental wisdom.
T o J u n g it w a s s e l f - e v i d e n t t h a t ' t h e w h o l e b o o k is c r e a t e d
o u t of the archetypal contents of the unconscious.' T h e
w o r l d o f g o d s a n d spirits, a c c o r d i n g to h i m , is t h e collective
unconscious within u s . 1 4 7
B y i n t r o d u c i n g this b o o k to t h e
W e s t e r n w o r l d , J u n g a c k n o w l e d g e d its h i g h p s y c h o l o g i c a l
s i g n i f i c a n c e , its r e m a r k a b l e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p h e n o m -
e n o n o f p r o j e c t i o n , a n d its p h i l o s o p h i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s : t h e
t r a n s i t o r i n e s s o f t h e p h e n o m e n a l , relative w o r l d , a n d p e r -
m a n e n c e o f t h e e t e r n a l a b s o l u t e reality. T h r o u g h his c o m -
m e n t a r y h e m a d e t h e Book a s r e l e v a n t to c o n t e m p o r a r y
W e s t e r n e r s a s it w a s t o t h e r e m o t e a n d s e c l u d e d society of
Tibet centuries ago.
T o d a y , in a s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t m a n n e r , T r u n g p a R i n -
p o c h e t h r o w s light o n t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f Bardo Thodol and
l o o k s at it f r o m a n o t h e r s t a n d p o i n t . H e interprets the experi-
e n c e o f bardo in t e r m s o f t h e six r e a l m s o f e x i s t e n c e in
B u d d h i s t m y t h o l o g y - t h e r e a l m s of: ' h e l l , ' t h e ' h u n g r y
g h o s t , ' the 'animal,' the ' h u m a n , ' the 'jealous gods,' and
t h e ' g o d s ' - a n d r e l a t e s t h e m to c o r r e s p o n d i n g a s p e c t s o f
o u r p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t a t e s . T h e ' r e a l m of hell' is the state of
a n g e r w h i c h b e c o m e s self-destructive. T h e 'hungry ghost
r e a l m ' is t h e c o n d i t i o n o f i n s a t i a b l e h u n g e r for p o s s e s s i o n s .
T h e ' a n i m a l r e a l m ' r e p r e s e n t s t h e a b s e n c e o f m y s t e r y ; it is
the world of security and comfort, predictable and me-
c h a n i c a l . T h e ' h u m a n r e a l m ' is t h e w o r l d of p a s s i o n a n d
u n c e a s i n g pursuit of pleasure and wealth. The 'realm of the
j e a l o u s g o d s ' is t h e w o r l d o f p a r a n o i a a n d i n t r i g u e . Finally,
t h e ' r e a l m o f t h e g o d s ' is t h e s t a t e o f p r i d e a n d n a r c i s s i s m ,
intoxication with one's e g o . 1 4 8
A l l t h e s e r e a l m s a r e p o r t r a i t s of this w o r l d of s a m s a r a , of
f r u s t r a t i o n a n d s u f f e r i n g . In t h e deities t h e soul m e e t s , w e
r e c o g n i z e o u r familiar g o d s o f daily living w h o h a u n t u s
a n d a f f e c t u s all t h e t i m e if w e d o n o t a c k n o w l e d g e t h e m .
T h a t m e a n s w e m u s t b e c o m e conscious of them, integrate
t h e m , a n d d e v e l o p a n e t h i c a l a t t i t u d e , if w e are to live
complete and meaningful lives. Otherwise, as with
t h e v i s i o n s i n t h e j o u r n e y t h r o u g h the bardo, w e can g o
p r o g r e s s i v e l y d e e p e r i n t o t h e u n c o n s c i o u s until w e reach
t h e total d a r k n e s s , the point of no return.
THE MANDALA
T h e m a n d a l a , t h e m y s t i c circle, is a v e r y i m p o r t a n t a n d
s i g n i f i c a n t s y m b o l in T i b e t a n B u d d h i s m . It is o n e o f t h e
m o s t a n c i e n t s y m b o l s w h i c h a c c o r d i n g to J u n g can b e traced
to paleolithic t i m e , 1 4 9
a n d c a n b e f o u n d in all p l a c e s a n d all
a g e s . T h e m o s t e l a b o r a t e a n d artistic m a n d a l a s h a v e b e e n
c r e a t e d b y Tibetan Buddhists. T h e y are images containing
s y m b o l s o f o p p o s i t e s g r o u p e d a r o u n d a central n u c l e u s ,
a n d their structure a n d design express both the world pro-
j e c t e d o u t s i d e a n d t h e i n n e r w o r l d o f t h e p s y c h e . T h u s to
t h e d i s c i p l e t h e y reveal t h e interplay of forces w h i c h operate
in t h e c o s m o s a n d w i t h i n h i s o w n m i n d .
T h e T i b e t a n m a n d a l a s are not m e r e aesthetic compositions;
t h e y are religious a n d philosophical symbols with the pre-
c i s e m e a n i n g fixed b y t r a d i t i o n . W e a r e told t h a t ,
. . . e v e r y detail in t h e m is significant a n d d o e s n o t
d e p e n d o n a r b i t r a r y m o o d s or w h i m s o f a n artist,
b u t is the o u t c o m e of centuries of meditative experi-
e n c e a n d a conventional language of symbols as
p r e c i s e a s t h e s i g n l a n g u a g e o f m a t h e m a t i c a l for-
m u l a s , w h e r e n o t o n l y e a c h s i g n , b u t a l s o its p o s -
i t i o n w i t h i n t h e f o r m u l a d e t e r m i n e s its v a l u e . 1 5 0
In o t h e r w o r d s , h e r e m a n d a l a s h a v e b e e n b o r n o u t of visions
a n d interior experiences of highly advanced meditators
a n d in a v e r y s p e c i a l , spiritually c r e a t i v e e n v i r o n m e n t .
J u n g , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h r o u g h his p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s
a n d in his w o r k with patients had observed the same motif
of mandala occurring spontaneously w h e n the psyche was
in t h e p r o c e s s o f r e i n t e g r a t i o n , f o l l o w i n g t h e t i m e of d i s -
e q u i l i b r i u m . In t h o s e i n s t a n c e s t h e a u t h o r s o f m a n d a l a s
c o u l d not possibly have had any knowledge of Tibetan
B u d d h i s m . J u n g s a w t h a t in h i s s c h i z o p h r e n i c p a t i e n t s
' m a n d a l a s y m b o l s a p p e a r v e r y f r e q u e n t l y in m o m e n t s o f
p s y c h i c d i s o r i e n t a t i o n a s c o m p e n s a t o r y o r d e r i n g factors.
T h i s a s p e c t is e x p r e s s e d a b o v e all in t h e i r m a t h e m a t i c a l
structure.' 1 5 1
H e c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e m a n d a l a is a n a r c h e -
t y p e of order, of psychic integration and wholeness, and
a p p e a r s a s a n a t u r a l a t t e m p t at s e l f - h e a l i n g . B u t it w a s in
t h e d r e a m s a n d active imagination of his patients w h o were
o n t h e i r j o u r n e y to i n d i v i d u a t i o n t h a t J u n g f o u n d m o s t
surprising evidences of the formation of mandalas. The
c o n t e n t s o f t h e s e v i s i o n s e x p r e s s in a s y m b o l i c w a y t h e
v i o l e n t c l a s h e s o f o p p o s i t e s a n d their e v e n t u a l reconciliation
w h e n t h e S e l f e m e r g e s at t h e c e n t e r o f t h e p s y c h e a n d is
r e p r e s e n t e d b y a n i n n e r m o s t p o i n t . T h e h a r m o n y w h i c h is
t h e n established has a n u m i n o u s quality.
In T a n t r i c B u d d h i s m t h e d i s c i p l e s , a f t e r b e i n g initiated,
a r e g i v e n specific i n s t r u c t i o n s o n h o w to visualize the m a n d -
ala, w h i c h portrays the peaceful a n d wrathful deities, the
c l a s h i n g forces of existence, the primordial impulses and
p a s s i o n s , a s w e l l a s t h e s p a r k o f divinity - all lying in t h e
d e p t h s of the psyche. By mentally entering the mandalas
they explore the gross and subtle workings of their
m i n d s , t h e i r u n c o n s c i o u s , a n d gradually a p p r o a c h their
o w n i n n e r m o s t nuclear c e n t e r w h e r e all opposites are united.
The whole p r o c e s s is e x p r e s s e d b y m e a n s o f c o m p l e x
s y m b o l s , recapitulating the drama of psychic fragmenta-
t i o n , d i s i n t e g r a t i o n a n d r e i n t e g r a t i o n : f r o m duality, m u l t i -
plicity, psychic fragmentation after the primeval uncon-
s c i o u s o n e n e s s , to p s y c h i c reintegration, n o n - d u a l i t y , p u r e
consciousness.
D e s p i t e t h e infinite variety of mandalas, w h e t h e r produced
b y T a n t r i c m e d i t a t o r s , o r in t h e d r e a m s a n d active i m a g i n a -
t i o n o f J u n g ' s p a t i e n t s , o r i n d i v i d u a l s a n y w h e r e in t h e
world, we f i n d in t h e m a fundamental conformity of
p a t t e r n , f o r t h e y o r i g i n a t e in t h e collective u n c o n s c i o u s ,
c o m m o n t o all m a n k i n d . T h e y a r e s y m b o l s o f u n i t y , re-
c o n c i l i n g o p p o s i t e s o n a h i g h e r level o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . A t
t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e y a r e a m e a n s o f e x p r e s s i o n o f a universal
reality, a n d b y b e i n g expressed and contacted they produce
p r o f o u n d e f f e c t s i n d u c i n g t r a n s f o r m a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e s . In
t h e m a n d a l a m o t i f J u n g s a w ' o n e o f t h e b e s t e x a m p l e s o f the
universal operation of an a r c h e t y p e . ' 1 5 2
5 Tantric Buddhism and
Jung: Connections,
Similarities, Differences
INTRODUCTION
I n t h i s c h a p t e r I p r o p o s e first t o d i s c u s s t h e c o n c e p t u a l a n d
methodological equivalents b e t w e e n the two systems, and
i d e n t i f y t h e p o i n t s w h e r e t h e y m e e t , w h e r e t h e y are similar
o r p a r a l l e l , a n d w h e r e t h e y differ. N e x t , I i n t e n d to e x a m i n e
J u n g ' s v i e w o f E a s t e r n t r a d i t i o n s in t e r m s o f their r e l e v a n c e
t o t h e W e s t e r n w o r l d , a n d h i s a s well a s t h e T i b e t a n B u d -
d h i s t s ' v i e w r e g a r d i n g t h e p o s s i b l e d a n g e r s i n h e r e n t in
p r a c t i c i n g T a n t r a . F i n a l l y , I s h o u l d like to c o m m e n t o n t h e
i s s u e s of ethics a n d their potential impact on the world
c o m m u n i t y , w h i c h a r e a n i m p o r t a n t a n d integral a s p e c t of
both systems.
C o n s c i o u s n e s s n e e d s a c e n t r e , a n e g o to w h i c h
s o m e t h i n g is c o n s c i o u s . W e k n o w o f n o o t h e r k i n d
of consciousness, nor can we imagine a conscious-
n e s s without an ego. There can be no conscious-
n e s s w h e n there is n o o n e to say:'/ a m c o n s c i o u s . ' 1 5 6
M a n ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s w a s c r e a t e d to t h e e n d that it
may (1) r e c o g n i z e . . . i t s descent from a higher
u n i t y . . . ; (2) p a y d u e a n d careful r e g a r d to this
s o u r c e . . . ; (3) e x e c u t e its c o m m a n d s intelligently
a n d r e s p o n s i b l y . . . ; a n d (4) thereby afford the psyche
a s a w h o l e t h e o p t i m u m d e g r e e of life a n d d e v e l o p -
ment.... 1 5 8
T h e u n c o n s c i o u s is t h e p s y c h i c a r e a w i t h a n u n l i m i t e d
s c o p e . It is t h e ' m a t r i x o f all p o t e n t i a l i t i e s , ' 162
a n d it is b e s t
i m a g i n e d a s a fluid s t a t e w h i c h h a s a life of its o w n , a n d
w h o s e a c t i v i t y is a u t o n o m o u s a n d i n d e p e n d e n t . ' T h e u n -
c o n s c i o u s p e r c e i v e s , h a s p u r p o s e s a n d i n t u i t i o n s , feels a n d
thinks as does the conscious m i n d . ' 1 6 3
Jung defines the
c o n t e n t s of the unconscious as follows:
T h e n o t i o n o f s t o r e c o n s c i o u s n e s s clearly c o r r e s p o n d s to
J u n g ' s c o n c e p t o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . Like J u n g ' s description of
t h e u n c o n s c i o u s , L a m a G o v i n d a a r g u e s that alaya-vijnana
. . . c o n t a i n s d e m o n i c a s well a s d i v i n e qualities,
c r u e l t y a s w e l l a s c o m p a s s i o n , e g o t i s m a s well a s
s e l f l e s s n e s s , d e l u s i o n a s w e l l a s k n o w l e d g e , blind
p a s s i o n a n d darkest drives as well as profound
l o n g i n g for light a n d l i b e r a t i o n . 1 6 9
A n d in d i s c u s s i n g t h e T a n t r i c e x p e r i e n c e L a m a G o v i n d a
states:
It is n o t s u f f i c i e n t to i d e n t i f y o u r s e l v e s w i t h t h e
o n e n e s s o f a c o m m o n origin o r a potential B u d d h a -
h o o d , unless w e take the decisive step toward the
transformation a n d reintegration of the divergent
tendencies or elements of our p s y c h e . 1 7 0
W h e n w e try to c o m p a r e , a s J u n g d i d , t h e B u d d h i s t
c o n c e p t o f e n l i g h t e n e d m i n d w i t h t h e collective u n c o n -
scious or the higher consciousness, we encounter enormous
o b s t a c l e s d u e to t h e fact t h a t all t h e s e c o n c e p t s h a v e m a n y
different aspects, a n d are ambiguous a n d controversial.
F u r t h e r m o r e w e are dealing here with two different cate-
gories: philosophical and metaphysical on one hand, and
p s y c h o l o g i c a l o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y n o real
c o m p a r i s o n c o u l d b e m a d e . Y e t , in e i t h e r s y s t e m , B u d d h i s t
o r J u n g ' s , t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s r e p r e s e n t o n l y abstract k n o w -
l e d g e , a n d d o not a n d cannot express the profound experi-
e n c e t h a t is t h e a i m o f b o t h , n a m e l y individual t r a n s f o r m a -
tion, achieved by transcending the m u n d a n e existence, and
thereby attaining liberation or self-realization. In that
m o m e n t o f t r a n s c e n d e n c e t h e k n o w l e d g e c e a s e s to b e p h i l o -
s o p h i c a l o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l : it is t h e indescribable, direct,
immediate knowledge beyond words and thoughts, the
e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e v o i d ( s u n y a t a ) , t h e n u m i n o u s , t h e Self,
o n e n e s s of m a n and God.
J u n g r e f e r r e d t o this e x p e r i e n c e , in o n e w a y o r a n o t h e r ,
t h r o u g h m u c h o f his w r i t i n g s , b u t h e articulated it m o s t
e l o q u e n t l y in h i s Septem Sermones ad Mortuos - Seven
S e r m o n s to the D e a d - written during the period of his
c o n f r o n t a t i o n with the unconscious. This brief but extra-
o r d i n a r y w o r k , r e p l e t e w i t h p a r a d o x e s , is strikingly r e m i -
Spiritual Transformation JJ
n i s c e n t o f B u d d h i s t t h i n k i n g . In fact it e c h o e s t h e w o r d s o f
The Heart Sutra, ' f o r m is e m p t i n e s s , e m p t i n e s s is f o r m , ' o r
f r o m The Lankavatara Sutra, t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t ' s p a c e is
f o r m , a n d . . . a s s p a c e p e n e t r a t e s i n t o f o r m , f o r m is s p a c e . ' 1 7 1
A n d n o w t h i s is J u n g s p e a k i n g :
N o t h i n g n e s s is t h e s a m e a s f u l l n e s s . In infinity full
is n o b e t t e r t h a n e m p t y . N o t h i n g n e s s is b o t h e m p t y
a n d f u l l . . . . A t h i n g t h a t is infinite a n d e t e r n a l h a t h
n o q u a l i t i e s , s i n c e it h a t h all q u a l i t i e s . 1 7 2
One r e c o g n i z e s in p l e r o m a t h e B u d d h i s t c o n c e p t of
e m p t i n e s s , a s w e l l a s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t T a n t r i c c o n c e p t of
p o l a r i t y a n d its i n t e g r a t i o n , w h i c h is at t h e v e r y h e a r t o f
e v e r y V a j r a y a n a m e d i t a t i v e practice. A t t h e s a m e time J u n g ' s
c o n c e p t o f t h e ' t r a n s c e n d e n t f u n c t i o n ' is a d e v e l o p m e n t a n d
p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e principle o f p l e r o m a . It s h o u l d b e
n o t e d t h a t J u n g w r o t e Septem Sermones ad Mortuos at t h e
t i m e w h e n h e h a d n o t y e t d i s c o v e r e d t h e E a s t e r n traditions.
SPIRITUAL TRANSFORMATION
. . . w i t h i n t h e s o u l f r o m its p r i m o r d i a l b e g i n n i n g s
t h e r e h a s b e e n a d e s i r e for light a n d a n i r r e p r e s -
s i b l e u r g e to rise o u t o f t h e p r i m a l d a r k n e s s . . . t h e
p s y c h i c p r i m a l n i g h t . . . i s t h e s a m e t o d a y a s it h a s
b e e n for countless millions of years. T h e longing
f o r l i g h t is t h e l o n g i n g for c o n s c i o u s n e s s . 1 7 6
F o r t h e B u d d h i s t t h e r e is p r e s s u r e t o w a r d s B u d d h a h o o d ,
w h i c h is m a n ' s q u i n t e s s e n t i a l n a t u r e , a n d for J u n g it is t h e
u r g e t o w a r d s w h o l e n e s s . In b o t h i n s t a n c e s it entails a l o n g ,
a n d f o r J u n g a n e v e r - e n d i n g j o u r n e y , w h i c h is u n i q u e to
e a c h i n d i v i d u a l a n d w h i c h c a n b e a c c o m p l i s h e d o n l y in t h e
m i n d . I n T a n t r i c B u d d h i s m in particular, t h e m i n d is t h e
k i n g w h o s e p o w e r is u n l i m i t e d . J u s t like t h e a l c h e m i s t w h o
can c h a n g e metal into gold, the mind can transform any
e v e n t i n t o t r a n s c e n d e n t a l w i s d o m a n d u s e it a s a m e a n s to
a t t a i n e n l i g h t e n m e n t . A n d t h a t m a j e s t i c p o w e r lies w i t h i n
u s , n o w h e r e e l s e , a n d n o t a p a r t f r o m u s , b u t to r e c o g n i z e it
w e n e e d the key of consciousness.
A c c o r d i n g to the teaching o f Tantric B u d d h i s m , enlighten-
ment, l i b e r a t i o n , c a n b e a t t a i n e d in t h e p r e s e n t life. It
c o n s i s t s o f a f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e in o u r perception of reality,
' t h e t u r n i n g a b o u t in t h e d e e p e s t s e a t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , '
w h e n t h e T o r s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s h a s t u r n e d its a t t e n t i o n
t o w a r d s t h e u n i v e r s a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s . It is t h e 'intuitive
e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e i n f i n i t e a n d t h e a l l - e m b r a c i n g o n e n e s s of
all t h a t i s . ' 1 7 7
T h e experience can also be described as a
discovery of a world b e y o n d the ordinary world of appear-
ances, in w h i c h all o p p o s i t e s n o l o n g e r e x i s t . In t h i s
open s p a c e , o n e a b a n d o n s all l i m i t a t i o n s ; t h e r e is n o
Spiritual Transformation 79
e x c l u s i v e n e s s , n o t h i s o r t h a t , b u t this a n d t h a t , e v e r y t h i n g
is i n c l u d e d , n o t h i n g r e j e c t e d . T h i s is t h e w o r l d o f n o n -
duality, pleroma, from which everything originates, and
i n t o w h i c h e v e r y t h i n g d i s a p p e a r s . B u d d h i s t s call it s u n y a t a ,
e m p t i n e s s , t h e o p e n s p a c e w h i c h c o n t a i n s b o t h the principle
of causality and synchronicity.
In its d e e p e s t m e t a p h y s i c a l s e n s e , it [ s u n y a t a ] is
t h e p r i m o r d i a l g r o u n d , t h e e v e r - p r e s e n t starting
p o i n t o f all c r e a t i o n . It is t h e principle o f u n l i m i t e d
p o t e n t i a l i t y . . . . O n t h e intellectual p l a n e sunyata is
t h e relativity o f all t h i n g s a n d c o n d i t i o n s , i n s o f a r
a s n o t h i n g e x i s t s i n d e p e n d e n t l y b u t o n l y in r e -
l a t i o n s h i p to o t h e r s - a n d ultimately in relationship
to t h e w h o l e u n i v e r s e . T h i s relationship is m o r e
t h a n a m e r e c a u s a l , t i m e - s p a c e relationship; it is
o n e of a c o m m o n ground and a simultaneous pres-
e n c e o f all factors o f e x i s t e n c e . . . . 1 7 8
F r o m t h e T a n t r i c p o i n t o f v i e w e a c h b e i n g c o n t a i n s the
w h o l e u n i v e r s e . T h e r e is n o separation o f the individual a n d
u n i v e r s a l m i n d , t h e m i n d n o t b e i n g subject to time a n d
s p a c e limitation. T o d a y t h e discoveries of m o d e r n physics
reveal the basic view of the world as o n e of unity, inter-
r e l a t i o n , a n d i n t e r p e n e t r a t i o n o f all t h i n g s a n d e v e n t s . 1 7 9
All t h e B u d d h a - l a n d s a n d all t h e B u d d h a s t h e m -
s e l v e s , a r e m a n i f e s t e d in m y o w n b e i n g . . . . 1 8 0
. . . t h a t u n k n o w n q u a n t i t y in m a n w h i c h is a s u n i -
v e r s a l a n d w i d e a s t h e w o r l d itself, w h i c h is in h i m
b y n a t u r e a n d c a n n o t b e a c q u i r e d . Psychologically,
this c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e collective u n c o n s c i o u s . . . . 1 8 1
T h e c o l l e c t i v e u n c o n s c i o u s is t h e r e a l m o f t h e p s y c h e
w h e r e n o n - d u a l i t y prevails, b u t w h i c h contains, like sunyata,
t h e p r i n c i p l e o f u n l i m i t e d p o t e n t i a l i t y . T h u s to J u n g t h e
p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e u n i v e r s e a r e r e f l e c t e d in t h e p s y c h e .
It i s . . .a f u n d a m e n t a l m i s t a k e to i m a g i n e that w h e n
w e s e e t h e n o n - v a l u e in a v a l u e o r t h e u n t r u t h in
The Middle Way and the Madhyamika 81
t h e t r u t h , t h e v a l u e o r t h e truth c e a s e s to exist. It
h a s o n l y b e c o m e relative. E v e r y t h i n g h u m a n is
relative because everything rests on an inner p o -
larity.... 1 8 3
I n i n t u i t i o n a c o n t e n t p r e s e n t s itself w h o l e a n d
c o m p l e t e , w i t h o u t o u r b e i n g a b l e to e x p l a i n or
discover h o w this content c a m e into existence.
. . . I n t u i t i v e k n o w l e d g e p o s s e s s e s a n intrinsic c e r -
tainty a n d c o n v i c t i o n . . . . 1 8 6
T h e c e n t r a l p o i n t i n t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f N a g a r j u n a is t h e
rule of t h e M i d d l e W a y , w h i c h in practice m e a n s : " t o see
t h i n g s as t h e y are, to recognize the possibility of deter-
m i n i n g t h i n g s differently from different standpoints and
t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e s e d e t e r m i n a t i o n s c a n n o t b e s e i z e d as
absolute." 1 8 7
T h e M a d h y a m i k a teaches that
. . . t o r e a l i z e t h e u l t i m a t e is n o t to a b a n d o n the
m u n d a n e b u t t o l e a r n t o s e e it ' w i t h t h e e y e of
w i s d o m ' . . . W h a t n e e d s to b e a b a n d o n e d is o n e ' s
p e r v e r s i o n s a n d false c l i n g i n g s . . . . T h i s a p p l i e s n o t
o n l y t o a c t u a l life b u t t o w o r d s , c o n c e p t s , u n d e r -
standing, systems of u n d e r s t a n d i n g . 1 8 9
EGO AND NON-EGO
. . . i s n o t s a m e n e s s o r u n q u a l i f i e d i d e n t i t y , b u t an
o r g a n i c r e l a t i o n s h i p , in w h i c h d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a n d
u n i q u e n e s s o f f u n c t i o n a r e a s i m p o r t a n t a s that
ultimate or basic unity.
I n d i v i d u a l i t y a n d u n i v e r s a l i t y are n o t m u t u a l l y
e x c l u s i v e v a l u e s , b u t t w o s i d e s o f t h e s a m e reality,
c o m p e n s a t i n g , fulfilling, a n d c o m p l e m e n t i n g each
o t h e r , a n d b e c o m i n g o n e in t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f e n -
l i g h t e n m e n t . This experience does not dissolve
t h e m i n d i n t o a n a m o r p h o u s All, b u t r a t h e r b r i n g s
t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t t h e individual itself c o n t a i n s '
t h e totality f o c a l i z e d in its v e r y c o r e . 1 9 1
B o t h B u d d h i s m a n d J u n g h a v e a s their p r i m a r y c o n c e r n
relief o f s u f f e r i n g . In fact t h e w h o l e B u d d h i s t s y s t e m h a s
evolved around that core idea initially formulated by
B u d d h a in t h e F o u r N o b l e T r u t h s t h a t all life is suffering,
b u t t h e r e c a n b e a n e n d to it. In M a h a y a n a B u d d h i s m t h e
i d e a l o f t h e B o d h i s a t t v a , t h e s y m b o l o f c o m p a s s i o n , is the
u l t i m a t e e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e u n d e r l y i n g c o n c e r n to lead e v e r y
b e i n g t o f r e e d o m f r o m s u f f e r i n g , to e n l i g h t e n m e n t .
J u n g t o o tells u s in h i s a u t o b i o g r a p h y a n d t h r o u g h o u t his
w r i t i n g s t h a t h e is c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e h e a l i n g o f h u m a n
suffering. ' W e do not profess' he says,
M a n h a s to c o p e w i t h t h e p r o b l e m o f s u f f e r i n g .
T h e O r i e n t a l w a n t s to g e t rid of suffering b y casting
it o f f . W e s t e r n m a n tries to s u p p r e s s suffering
w i t h d r u g s . B u t s u f f e r i n g h a s to b e o v e r c o m e , a n d
t h e o n l y w a y t o o v e r c o m e it is to e n d u r e it. W e
l e a r n t h a t o n l y f r o m h i m [the C r u c i f i e d C h r i s t ] . 1 9 3
T h e c o g n i t i v e f u n c t i o n , t h o u g h , is n o t m i n i m i z e d in
J u n g , o r in B u d d h i s m . According to the Tibetans, 'Intellectual
u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n c r e a s e s t h e p o w e r o f t h e rational m i n d
a n d this increases the p o w e r of formal m e d i t a t i o n . ' 1 9 7
After
l i s t e n i n g t o t h e t e a c h i n g d i s c i p l e s m u s t try to u n d e r s t a n d it
t h r o u g h r e a s o n b e f o r e t h e y c a n t r a n s f o r m it i n t o living
r e a l i t y . A n d t h e n if it d o e s n o t c o r r e s p o n d to t h e i r e x p e r i -
e n c e o f l i v i n g reality t h e y s h o u l d a b a n d o n it. Is t h a t n o t
w h a t J u n g tells u s w h e n h e m a i n t a i n s t h a t a c o n s c i o u s
u n d e r s t a n d i n g m u s t p r e c e d e t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e of e g o h o o d ?
A n d f u r t h e r m o r e , is h e n o t in h i s p s y c h o l o g y primarily
c o n c e r n e d w i t h p r a c t i c a l r e s u l t s t h a t m u s t b e justified b y
t h e s u b j e c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e p a t i e n t h e is t r e a t i n g ?
T h e F i r s t N o b l e T r u t h , w h i c h is t h a t t h e n a t u r e o f life is
s u f f e r i n g , m u s t first b e clearly u n d e r s t o o d b e f o r e a n y t h i n g
e l s e c a n b e d o n e . It h a s b e e n s a i d t h a t t h e p a t h l e a d i n g to
liberation is c o m p l e t e d t h r o u g h intellectual, a s well a s m o r a l
a n d s p i r i t u a l p e r f e c t i o n . In t h e B u d d h i s t practice o f m i n d -
f u l n e s s o n e is c l o s e l y a t t e n t i v e t o t h e activities of t h e m i n d ,
i d e a s a n d t h o u g h t s , s e n s a t i o n s a n d f e e l i n g s . A n d in T a n t r a
e s p e c i a l l y , all t h e h i d d e n t e n d e n c i e s , p r o j e c t i o n s , m u s t b e
k n o w n a n d experienced before they can b e transmuted into
wisdom.
In Jungian analysis o n e m u s t deal with one's shadow, the
d a r k rejected part of the psyche, detect projections a n d
e g o c e n t r i c a i m s . T h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e e m o t i o n a l t u r m o i l is
n o t r e p r e s s e d o r d e v a l u e d , b u t t h e e n e r g y that is c o n t a i n e d
t h e r e is utilized in t h e p r o c e s s o f c h a n g e . Similarly in Tantric
p r a c t i c e s t h e e n e r g y o f t h e e m o t i o n s , like a n g e r , desire,
a v e r s i o n , e t c . , is m o b i l i z e d to t r a n s m u t e t h e p a s s i o n . B o t h
s y s t e m s f u l l y r e c o g n i z e t h e p o t e n t i a l d e s t r u c t i v e n e s s of
h i d d e n u n c o n s c i o u s t e n d e n c i e s . For that r e a s o n t h e total
p s y c h e m u s t b e a p p r o a c h e d , its dark a s well as its light
a s p e c t s , p e r s o n i f i e d in T a n t r a b y p e a c e f u l a n d w r a t h f u l
d e i t i e s , r e p e a t e d l y c o n s t r u c t e d a n d d i s s o l v e d in o n e ' s v i s -
u a l i z a t i o n . O n e is c o n t i n u a l l y facing t h e conflict of o p p o s i t e s
in t h e e f f o r t t o t r a n s c e n d t h e m . T h i s is t h e p u r p o s e of t h e
sadhanas ( m e d i t a t i o n e x e r c i s e s ) , w h i c h are b a s e d o n a p r o -
found understanding of depth psychology.
I n J u n g i a n a n a l y s i s , t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t function is the c o m -
p a r a b l e p r i n c i p l e t h a t is a i m e d at in t h e dialectic p r o c e s s
b e t w e e n a n a l y s t s a n d a n a l y s a n d s . T h e latter o n t h e i r w a y to
i n d i v i d u a t i o n a r e r e c o n c i l i n g t h e conflicting p a r t s o f their
p s y c h e , t h e split b e t w e e n t h e c o n s c i o u s e g o a n d t h e u n c o n -
s c i o u s a n d r e a c h i n g b e y o n d all pairs of o p p o s i t e s .
In b o t h s y s t e m s t h e a d e p t , o r t h e a n a l y s a n d , m u s t e v e n t u -
ally b e c o m e i n d e p e n d e n t from outside support. T h e m e t h o d s
u s e d in w o r k i n g o n i n n e r growth vary infinitely, depend-
ing on the person, the time, and the circumstances.
B u d d h a u s e d a d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e to t e a c h t h e s a m e truth to
different people, being aware of the importance of
i n d i v i d u a l characteristics a n d n e e d s . 'Since individuality
. . . is absolutely u n i q u e , unpredictable, and uninter-
p r e t a b l e , ' J u n g s t r e s s e s , ' t h e t h e r a p i s t m u s t a b a n d o n all h i s
preconceptions and techniques. . . , ' 1 9 8
T h e i n t e g r i t y of
t h e p s y c h e o f t h e o t h e r is h i g h l y r e s p e c t e d a n d n e v e r to b e
violated by imposing one's o w n definitions and pre-
c o n c e i v e d i d e a s . I n t h i s m a n n e r t r u e c o m m u n i c a t i o n can
b e e s t a b l i s h e d . T h i s i s J u n g ' s v i e w , b u t it is also in the
spirit of the Madhyamika philosophy.
T r a n s f o r m a t i o n c o m e s about through the vehicle of sym-
b o l s . J u n g r e c o g n i z e d t h a t ' a n y i m a g i n a t i o n is a p o t e n -
tiality,' 1 9 9
a n d t h r o u g h h i s m e t h o d of active i m a g i n a t i o n
f o u n d a w a y of healing a n d transforming the personality.
Similarly in Tantric meditation the initiate becomes impreg-
n a t e d w i t h t h e s y m b o l s v i s u a l i z e d , t h e d e i t i e s - all different
s y m b o l s o f B u d d h a - a n d is t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o B u d d h a .
I n t h e T a n t r i c m o d e l J u n g d i s c e r n e d a n a n a l o g y to his
p s y c h o l o g y o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . H e p o i n t s o u t that Tantra
deals with contents which are 'constantly reproduced by our
u n c o n s c i o u s in this f o r m o r a n o t h e r . . . . T h i s is not mysticism,
t h i s is p s y c h o l o g y . ' 2 0 0
N o t e s h o u l d b e m a d e o f t h e p o w e r f u l s y m b o l o g y that
T i b e t a n B u d d h i s t s u s e in their i c o n o g r a p h y (thangkas), their
s a c r e d t e x t s , a n d t h e i r rituals, all d e s i g n e d to e x p r e s s t h e
i n e x p r e s s i b l e a n d t o e v o k e certain e x p e r i e n c e s that transport
t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o h i g h e r levels o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s b e y o n d
m u n d a n e r e a l i t y . T h e t e a c h i n g s a r e d o n e in a style that is
p o e t i c , i m a g i n a l , a n d o f t e n r e p e t i t i v e . In h i s w r i t i n g s J u n g
also m a k e s a b u n d a n t use of repetition, circumambulation,
p a r a d o x e s , a n d a v o i d s a l a n g u a g e a n d style that is p u r e l y
r a t i o n a l . H e tells u s t h a t ,
. . . i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e living p r o c e s s o f t h e p s y c h e , I
d e l i b e r a t e l y a n d c o n s c i o u s l y give p r e f e r e n c e to a
d r a m a t i c , m y t h o l o g i c a l w a y of t h i n k i n g a n d s p e a k -
i n g , b e c a u s e t h i s is n o t o n l y m o r e e x p r e s s i v e b u t
a l s o m o r e e x a c t t h a n a n a b s t r a c t scientific t e r m i n -
ology.... 2 0 1
REDEMPTION OF GOD
. . . b e l i e v e s in t h e d i v i n e p r i n c i p l e in m a n , the in-
b o r n s p a r k o f light (bodhi-citta) e m b o d i e d in h i s
c o n s c i o u s n e s s as a yearning toward perfection,
toward completeness, toward Enlightenment. To
p u t it p a r a d o x i c a l l y , it is n o t G o d w h o c r e a t e s
m a n , b u t m a n w h o c r e a t e s G o d in h i s i m a g e , i . e . ,
the idea of the divine aim within himself, which
h e r e a l i z e s in t h e fires o f s u f f e r i n g f r o m w h i c h
c o m p a s s i o n , u n d e r s t a n d i n g , love a n d w i s d o m are
born.
T h e u n f o l d m e n t o f individual life in the u n i v e r s e
h a s n o o t h e r a i m a p p a r e n t l y b u t to b e c o m e c o n -
s c i o u s of its o w n d i v i n e e s s e n c e , a n d since this
p r o c e s s g o e s o n c o n t i n u o u s l y , it r e p r e s e n t s a p e r -
p e t u a l b i r t h o f G o d o r , t o p u t it i n t o B u d d h i s t
t e r m i n o l o g y , t h e c o n t i n u o u s arising of Enlightened
Beings, in each of w h o m t h e totality of the
universe becomes conscious. 2 0 2
H e r e w e f i n d a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y parallel to J u n g ' s t h o u g h t
that ' t h e c r e a t o r . . . n e e d s M a n to illuminate his c r e a t i o n ' 2 0 3
a n d t h a t t h i s w o r k c a n b e a c c o m p l i s h e d o n l y in t h e i n d i v i d -
u a l p s y c h e , w h i c h is t h e carrier o f t h e d i v i n e s p a r k .
L e t u s l i s t e n t o J u n g s p e a k i n g o n this s u b j e c t :
A l t h o u g h t h e d i v i n e i n c a r n a t i o n is a c o s m i c a n d
a b s o l u t e e v e n t , it o n l y m a n i f e s t s e m p i r i c a l l y in
t h o s e relatively few individuals capable of e n o u g h
c o n s c i o u s n e s s to m a k e ethical d e c i s i o n s , i . e . , to
d e c i d e for t h e G o o d . T h e r e f o r e G o d c a n b e called
g o o d o n l y in a s m u c h a s H e is a b l e to m a n i f e s t H i s
g o o d n e s s in individuals. His moral quality d e p e n d s
u p o n i n d i v i d u a l s . T h a t is w h y H e i n c a r n a t e s . I n -
d i v i d u a t i o n a n d individual e x i s t e n c e are i n d i s p e n -
sable for the transformation of G o d the C r e a t o r . 2 0 4
H o w e v e r , t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the M a h a y a n a B u d d h i s t
a n d J u n g is t h a t in J u n g ' s t h o u g h t t h e u n c o n s c i o u s c a n
n e v e r b e totally c o n s c i o u s a n d t h e p r o c e s s o f i n d i v i d u a t i o n
is n e v e r c o m p l e t e d , w h e r e a s to t h e B u d d h i s t it is p o s s i b l e to
k n o w all o f t h e u n k n o w a b l e a n d b e c a m e fully enlightened.
W e s h o u l d b e r e m i n d e d h e r e , that in h i s entire work Jung
i s o n l y c o n s i d e r i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x p e r i e n c e s that c a n b e
e s t a b l i s h e d e m p i r i c a l l y a n d is n o t d e a l i n g w i t h m e t a -
physical categories. Therefore, Jung states,
. . . w h e n G o d o r t h e T a o is n a m e d a n i m p u l s e o f t h e
s o u l , o r a p s y c h i c s t a t e , s o m e t h i n g h a s b e e n said
about the knowable only, but nothing about the
u n k n o w a b l e , about which nothing can be deter-
mined. 2 0 6
O n e c a n f i n d m a n y p a r a d o x e s a n d i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s in J u n g ' s
w r i t i n g s , a n d his views of Eastern traditions are a good
e x a m p l e o f t h i s . A t t i m e s J u n g is s p e a k i n g in f a v o r o f
E a s t e r n traditions, praising their w a y s of approaching the
p s y c h e a n d their intuitive w i s d o m , which the W e s t lacks,
a n d at o t h e r times h e w a r n s Westerners against the dangers
o f e m b r a c i n g a s y s t e m t h a t is f o r e i g n to t h e i r c u l t u r e .
P e r s o n a l l y I a m a m a z e d at J u n g ' s penetrating u n d e r s t a n d -
ing (despite occasional misconceptions) of the Eastern
s y s t e m s , i n c l u d i n g t h e T i b e t a n tradition, w i t h o u t h a v i n g
h a d t h e b e n e f i t o f d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h t h e latter a n d w i t h o u t
e x p e r i e n c i n g their m e d i t a t i v e practices. I a m just a s a m a z e d
t o d a y at s o m e o f t h e T i b e t a n l a m a s ' k e e n p e r c e p t i v e n e s s
a n d s e n s i t i v i t y t o t h e W e s t a n d its lifestyle. I h a v e o f t e n
p o n d e r e d o v e r it, a n d I s u g g e s t that in b o t h c a s e s this is d u e
t o t h e i n t u i t i v e w i s d o m o f a clear, u n p r e j u d i c e d mind
w h i c h is c a p a b l e o f t r a n s c e n d i n g historical a n d cultural
b a r r i e r s a n d r e a c h i n g valid c o n c l u s i o n s .
J u n g s e e s v a s t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e Eastern a n d W e s t -
e r n s t a n d p o i n t s a n d r a i s e s the q u e s t i o n of the possibility a n d
advisability of imitating each o t h e r . 2 0 7
Along with this
c o n t e n t i o n , h e a l s o tells u s that in t h e h u m a n p s y c h e t h e
collective unconscious 'possesses a common substratum
t r a n s c e n d i n g all differences in culture a n d c o n s c i o u s n e s s . ' 210
T h i s u n c o n s c i o u s p s y c h e , b y v i r t u e o f b e i n g c o m m o n t o all
h u m a n beings, contains 'latent predispositions towards
identical r e a c t i o n s . ' 2 1 1
I n d e e d J u n g is a w a r e of t h e c l o s e
parallels between Eastern and Western p s y c h o l o g y . 2 1 2
His
concern, t h o u g h , is t h a t W e s t e r n e r s will a d o p t E a s t e r n
v a l u e s from their usual extroverted position, and m a k e
d o g m a s out of them, rather than seek those values within
t h e m s e l v e s , in their p s y c h e . H e finds that the core of Eastern
t e a c h i n g s c o n s i s t s in i n w a r d looking o f t h e m i n d , w h i c h in
itself h a s a self-liberating p o w e r . H e is v e r y critical of the
W e s t e r n e r s w h o m e r e l y a t t e m p t to i m i t a t e a n d w h o s e e n -
d e a v o r s remain superficial a n d therefore useless, and m o r e
t h a n t h a t , e v e n d a m a g i n g to t h e i r p s y c h e . J u n g r e m a r k s :
O n e c a n n o t b e t o o c a u t i o u s in t h e s e m a t t e r s , for
w h a t w i t h t h e i m i t a t i v e u r g e a n d a positively m o r -
b i d a v i d i t y to p o s s e s s t h e m s e l v e s o f o u t l a n d i s h
f e a t h e r s a n d d e c k t h e m s e l v e s o u t in this exotic
p l u m a g e , far t o o m a n y p e o p l e a r e m i s l e d into
s n a t c h i n g at s u c h ' m a g i c a l ' i d e a s a n d a p p l y i n g
t h e m e x t e r n a l l y , like a n o i n t m e n t . P e o p l e will d o
a n y t h i n g , n o m a t t e r h o w a b s u r d , in o r d e r to a v o i d
facing their o w n s o u l s . 2 1 3
J u n g s a y s t h a t t h e b a s i c p r o b l e m , w h e t h e r in t h e Eastern
o r W e s t e r n w o r l d , 'is n o t s o m u c h a w i t h d r a w a l from the
o b j e c t s o f d e s i r e , a s a m o r e d e t a c h e d attitude to desire as
s u c h , n o m a t t e r w h a t its o b j e c t . ' 2 1 5
In this respect h e fully
u n d e r s t o o d o n e o f t h e principal postulates o f T a n t r a , that it
is n o t d e s i r e a s s u c h , b u t lack o f control, p o s s e s s i v e n e s s , a n d
a t t a c h m e n t t o d e s i r e that b r i n g s a b o u t a c o n f u s e d state of
m i n d , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y suffering. H e n c e the n e e d to s e e all
p h e n o m e n a as impermanent and empty.
J u n g c a n n o t c o n c e i v e o f t h e possibility o f achieving total
n o n - d u a l i t y , a state of a t - o n e m e n t . ' O n e c a n n o t k n o w s o m e -
t h i n g t h a t is n o t d i s t i n c t f r o m o n e s e l f . . . . I t h e r e f o r e a s s u m e
t h a t , i n t h i s p o i n t , E a s t e r n i n t u i t i o n h a s o v e r r e a c h e d it-
self.' 2 1 6
In m a k i n g this s t a t e m e n t J u n g s e e m s to forget that
h i s o w n c o n c e p t s a r e o f t e n irrational a n d p a r a d o x i c a l , a n d
b e s i d e s t h a t , n o n - d u a l i t y o n a t r a n s p e r s o n a l level d o e s n o t
e x c l u d e i n d i v i d u a l i t y o n a c o n v e n t i o n a l level o f e x i s t e n c e .
F u r t h e r m o r e experiences of non-duality are not u n k n o w n
in t h e W e s t e r n t r a d i t i o n t o o . I a m referring h e r e to t h e
disciplines a n d contemplative exercises of medieval m o n -
a s t i c life, w h e n t h e i n d i v i d u a l for a m o m e n t felt in Unity
w i t h G o d , o r r a t h e r was G o d , 2 1 7
like t h e T a n t r i c m e d i t a t o r
w h o b e c o m e s the deity h e visualizes.
I n m a n y w a y s J u n g c o m e s c l o s e r to E a s t e r n s y s t e m s t h a n
t o W e s t e r n traditions d e s p i t e h i s insistence that W e s t e r n e r s
s h o u l d stay with their o w n traditions, their symbols a n d
m y t h o l o g y . A l o n g with the Buddhists, he rejects dogmas
a n d in h i s p s y c h o l o g y , like in B u d d h i s t t e a c h i n g , it is o n l y
t h e s u b j e c t i v e , i n n e r e x p e r i e n c e t h a t validates t h e t h e o r y .
J u n g h i m s e l f h a d p r o f o u n d i n n e r e x p e r i e n c e s , a n d it is
f r o m t h e d e p t h o f h i s s o u l t h a t h e g a i n e d direct i m m e d i a t e
k n o w l e d g e w h i c h h e t h e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o h i s w o r k . I n that
r e s p e c t h e w a s f o l l o w i n g t h e g n o s t i c tradition. T h e latter
h a d i n s p i r e d a n d i n f l u e n c e d h i m b e f o r e E a s t e r n traditions
Jung's View of Eastern Traditions 95
c a m e t o h i s attention. S c h o l a r s h a v e s u g g e s t e d that H i n d u or
B u d d h i s t traditions i n f l u e n c e d gnosticism, although there is
n o conclusive e v i d e n c e . 2 1 8
It m a y b e that t h e h u m a n m i n d
i n d e p e n d e n t l y p r o d u c e d similar or identical ideas in t w o
d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d . T h i s w o u l d o n l y confirm J u n g ' s
c o n c e p t o f t h e c o m m o n structure of the p s y c h e , transcending
cultural differences. B u t w h a t e v e r its origin, gnosticism h a s
m o r e t h a n superficial parallels with B u d d h i s m .
I n c o m p a r i n g t h e s e t w o s y s t e m s o n e finds m a n y analogies.
S o m e o f t h e m o s t s a l i e n t o f t h e s e i n c l u d e t h e idea o f h u m a n
l i b e r a t i o n t h r o u g h i n t e r n a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ; of t h e p s y c h e
c a r r y i n g w i t h i n i t s e l f t h e p o t e n t i a l for l i b e r a t i o n ; of the
e m p h a s i s o n t h e p r i m a c y o f i m m e d i a t e e x p e r i e n c e ; a n d of
t h e n e e d f o r initial g u i d a n c e b u t t h e e v e n t u a l f r e e d o m f r o m
a n y external authority. Both systems also see the disciples'
o w n m i n d s a s t h e i r g u i d e a n d it is t h e r e that t h e y m u s t
d i s c o v e r t h e t r u t h . A f u r t h e r similarity is t h e b e l i e f t h a t n o t
s i n b u t i g n o r a n c e , lack o f s e l f - k n o w l e d g e , is t h e s o u r c e of
suffering a n d enslavement by unconscious impulses: the
o n e w h o r e m a i n s i g n o r a n t lives in illusion a n d c a n n o t
experience fulfilment. A n d , of course, the discovery of the
d i v i n e w i t h i n is c e n t r a l t o e a c h : t h e o n e w h o achieves
g n o s i s is n o l o n g e r a C h r i s t i a n b u t b e c o m e s C h r i s t . 2 1 9
H e r e is a p a s s a g e f r o m t h e G n o s t i c G o s p e l o f P h i l i p that is
r e m a r k a b l e in its similarity to t h e f u n d a m e n t a l Tantric view:
. . . Y o u s a w t h e spirit, y o u b e c a m e spirit. Y o u s a w
C h r i s t , y o u b e c a m e C h r i s t . Y o u s a w [the F a t h e r ,
you] shall b e c o m e Father...you see yourself, and
what you see you shall [become]. 220
It a p p e a r s o b v i o u s t h a t B u d d h i s t a n d G n o s t i c C h r i s t i a n
symbols express the same inner experiences and, whether
t h e d i s c i p l e a d o p t s o n e o r t h e o t h e r , t h e e s s e n t i a l q u e s t for
m e a n i n g a n d s p a t i a l a n d t e m p o r a l t r a n s c e n d e n c e is t h e
s a m e . T h e r e f o r e w h e n J u n g p e n e t r a t e d t h e d e p t h of his
p s y c h e a n d t h e r e b y g a i n e d a c c e s s to direct k n o w l e d g e aris-
ing out of his o w n transformative experience, he became a
l i n k in t h e c h a i n o f a n c i e n t m y s t i c a l traditions, B u d d h i s t
a n d C h r i s t i a n . O r t o p u t it d i f f e r e n t l y , in t h e d e p t h of t h e
collective u n c o n s c i o u s - or the h e i g h t of his supra-conscious-
n e s s - J u n g m e t t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e medieval Christian
mystic, a M a s t e r Eckhart, a n d that of the Tantric master.
T h e w o r d s expressing the ineffable experience, the union
w i t h t h e O n e M i n d , o r w i t h G o d ( w h i c h is b e y o n d w o r d s
a n y w a y ) a n d t h e t o o l s u s e d in t h e p r o c e s s m a y differ, b u t
t h e c o r e o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e d o e s n o t : in t h e h e a r t o f it, for t h e
briefest m o m e n t , t h e g a p b e t w e e n v a r i o u s traditions is
c l o s e d . A n d it is precisely t h e r e that I a m looking for parallels
b e t w e e n Jungian and Tantric systems. The methods and
t e c h n i q u e s t h a t J u n g d e v e l o p e d in t h e c o n t e x t of, a n d to
conform with, the Western tradition a n d mythological
images, a n d with the socio-cultural conditions of contem-
p o r a r y E u r o p e a n d A m e r i c a , are less i m p o r t a n t . T h e y reflect
o n l y t h e n e c e s s i t y t o r e m a i n r o o t e d in o n e ' s o w n c u l t u r e ,
w h i c h Jung recognized, and which Tibetan Buddhists
w o u l d a c k n o w l e d g e t o o . A n d m o s t o f all, e v e r y B u d d h i s t
w o u l d b e i n p e r f e c t a g r e e m e n t w i t h J u n g ' s s t a t e m e n t that
' W e m u s t g e t at t h e E a s t e r n v a l u e s f r o m w i t h i n a n d n o t
f r o m w i t h o u t , s e e k i n g t h e m in ourselves. . . . ' 2 2 2
DANGERS
B o t h J u n g a n d T a n t r i c B u d d h i s t s a r e a w a r e o f t h e latent
r i s k s i n h e r e n t in t h e p r a c t i c e o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e m e t h o d s .
J u n g r e p e a t e d l y w a r n s u s o f t h e p o s s i b l e d a n g e r o u s effects
w h e n releasing unconscious contents without proper safe-
g u a r d s a n d p r e c a u t i o n s , a s it m a y o v e r w h e l m c o n s c i o u s n e s s
a n d c a u s e its c o l l a p s e , r e s u l t i n g in s e r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s ,
e v e n p s y c h o s i s . H e c o m p a r e s t h e potential explosive p o w e r
o f t h e a r c h e t y p e s to that of the released atom, a n d h e says:
T h e a r c h e t y p e s h a v e t h i s peculiarity in c o m m o n
with the atomic world, which is...that the more
d e e p l y t h e investigator p e n e t r a t e s into t h e u n i v e r s e
of microphysics the m o r e devastating are the ex-
plosive forces he finds enchained t h e r e . 2 2 3
F o r t h i s r e a s o n , a s a l r e a d y n o t e d , it is of crucial i m p o r t a n c e
to h a v e a strong, well-developed psychic structure before
c o n f r o n t i n g t h e u n c o n s c i o u s s o m e n t a l equilibrium c a n b e
maintained.
T a n t r i c m a s t e r s i s s u e v e r y s i m i l a r w a r n i n g s , n a m e l y , that
the m e t h o d s they teach are profound but also extremely
p o w e r f u l a n d therefore hazardous unless the proper prepa-
r a t i o n s a r e m a d e a n d t h e d i s c i p l e is l e d i n t o t h e p r a c t i c e
g r a d u a l l y u n d e r t h e g u i d a n c e of a qualified teacher. T h e y
f u r t h e r m o r e s t r e s s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f relating at all t i m e s to
t h e a c t u a l i t y o f o n e ' s e x p e r i e n c e , to t h e s o l i d , e a r t h y a s p e c t
of i t . 2 2 4
T h i s is w h e r e J u n g w o u l d a g r e e : h e k n e w s o well
h o w c r u c i a l it w a s for h i m t o k e e p o n w i t h h i s daily w o r k ,
m a i n t a i n c l o s e c o n t a c t w i t h h i s family, a n d fulfil his o t h e r
o b l i g a t i o n s w h i l e in t h e m i d s t of his o w n confrontation with
the unconscious.
T i b e t a n B u d d h i s t s u r g e W e s t e r n e r s n o t to a b a n d o n t h e
v a l u e s o f t h e i r o w n c u l t u r e . In fact a p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f o n e ' s o w n c u l t u r e a n d b e i n g d e e p l y r o o t e d in it - t h e y
w o u l d s a y - is a prerequisite for venturing into a n d benefiting
f r o m p r a c t i c e s o f a f o r e i g n tradition. T h e r e is a l s o a l w a y s
t h e d a n g e r o f g r a s p i n g t h e literal rather t h a n t h e intrinsic
m e a n i n g o f s y m b o l s a n d rituals, a n d t h e r e b y g o i n g astray
a n d g e t t i n g lost in o n e ' s practice.
T a n t r i c i m a g e s visualized in meditation r e p r e s e n t a r c h e -
t y p e s a n d therefore particular caution is n e e d e d in dealing
w i t h t h e m . A s e v e r y a r c h e t y p e h a s a double aspect - a light
a n d a d a r k o n e - t h e p o w e r o f its dark side w h e n it suddenly
e m e r g e s f r o m t h e d e p t h o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s m a y c a u s e delu-
s i o n a l f a n t a s i e s a n d loss of touch w i t h reality. For example,
t h e a r c h e t y p e o f t h e G r e a t M o t h e r c o n t a i n s s u c h paradoxical
a s p e c t s a s n u r t u r i n g a n d creative, a s well as devouring and
d e s t r u c t i v e . A fragile individual w h o s e consciousness is not
well d e v e l o p e d m a y b e c o m e disoriented b y the e m e r g e n c e of
t h e a r c h e t y p e in its u n e x p e c t e d terrifying a s p e c t . 2 2 5
I have
b e e n a w i t n e s s to this u n f o r t u n a t e effect o n W e s t e r n students,
o n m o r e t h a n o n e occasion, at intensive meditation courses.
ETHICAL ISSUES
A t i s h a , t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y I n d i a n s a g e , r e s p o n s i b l e for a
r e v i v a l o f B u d d h i s m in T i b e t , said: ' W h e n t h e c o n t a i n e r
a n d its c o n t e n t s a r e filled w i t h w r o n g s , c h a n g e this a d v e r s e
c i r c u m s t a n c e into the path to full a w a k e n i n g . ' 2 2 6
This a d m o n -
ition c o u l d j u s t a s well b e m a d e to t h e p e o p l e of t h e t w e n t i e t h
c e n t u r y . T i b e t a n s t o d a y r e c o g n i z e that since w e are living in
a n a g e o f d e g e n e r a t i o n w h e n b o t h the e n v i r o n m e n t - the
c o n t a i n e r - a n d its i n h a b i t a n t s - t h e c o n t e n t s - a r e polluted
a n d a f f l i c t e d w i t h e n o r m o u s a n d d a n g e r o u s p r o b l e m s , this
is e s p e c i a l l y t h e t i m e to u s e t h e prevailing situation as an
e n c o u r a g e m e n t t o cultivate o u r m i n d s , t r a n s f o r m o u r o u t -
look, or as they say, to change the adverse circumstances
into t h e path to l i b e r a t i o n . 2 2 7
J u n g o n t h e o t h e r h a n d w a s a l s o e x t r e m e l y c o n c e r n e d , in
t h i s t i m e o f c o n f u s i o n , w i t h t h e fate of o u r civilization a n d
t h e d a n g e r o f h u m a n i t y d e s t r o y i n g itself. H e d i s c e r n e d ,
h o w e v e r , that
W e a r e l i v i n g in w h a t t h e G r e e k s called Kairos - t h e
right t i m e - f o r a ' m e t a m o r p h o s i s of the g o d s . ' . . . S o
m u c h is at s t a k e a n d s o m u c h d e p e n d s o n t h e
psychological constitution of modern m a n . ' 2 2 8
A c c o r d i n g t o J u n g - a n d this is t h e s a m e idea that T i b e t a n
B u d d h i s t s are proposing - the c h a n g e m u s t begin with
i n d i v i d u a l s , in their o w n p s y c h e , their greatest i n s t r u m e n t .
T o J u n g that implies self-knowledge, k n o w i n g the dark
s i d e o f t h e p s y c h e , t h e u n c o n s c i o u s a s well a s its c o n s c i o u s
a p s e c t s , a n d to r e c o n c i l e t h e polarities. W i t h o u t this k n o w -
l e d g e , u n c o n s c i o u s c o n t e n t s c a u s e p r o j e c t i o n s a n d illusions
t h a t falsify o u r r e l a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r s , a n d t h a t is w h e r e the
w a r s b e g i n . ' R i g h t a c t i o n c o m e s f r o m right t h i n k i n g , a n d
.. . t h e r e is n o c u r e a n d n o i m p r o v i n g o f t h e w o r l d that d o e s
not begin with the individual h i m s e l f , ' 2 2 9
says Jung. The
r i g h t a c t i o n a n d r i g h t t h i n k i n g , is t h a t n o t w h a t B u d d h a
t a u g h t 2500 y e a r s a g o ?
T h e m o r e c o n s c i o u s w e b e c o m e o f o u r u n c o n s c i o u s drives
a n d act accordingly, the less contaminated with projections
a r e o u r r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e w o r l d , a n d t h e m o r e o p e n w e are
to e n t e r into c o m m u n i c a t i o n , yes, even c o m m u n i o n with
it. J u n g t a l k s o f s o c i e t y ' s n e e d for a n affective b o n d , t h e
p r i n c i p l e o f caritas, t h e C h r i s t i a n l o v e of t h e n e i g h b o r . H e
w a r n s u s t h a t : ' W h e r e l o v e s t o p s , p o w e r b e g i n s , a n d viol-
ence, and terror.' 2 3 0
C o m p a s s i o n is t h e b a s i c e l e m e n t in B u d d h i s t p h i l o s o p h y
a n d p s y c h o l o g y , a n d in T i b e t a n B u d d h i s m it is i n s e p a r a b l e
f r o m w i s d o m , t h e e n l i g h t e n e d state o f m i n d . T o d a y t h e
D a l a i L a m a , w h o is r e g a r d e d a s t h e i n c a r n a t i o n o f A v a l o k i -
t e s h v a r a , t h e B u d d h a o f c o m p a s s i o n , is teaching a n d bringing
t o t h e W e s t e r n w o r l d , w h e r e v e r h e g o e s , t h e ideal o f c o m -
p a s s i o n a s a m e a n s to a c h i e v e h a r m o n y in t h e w o r l d , a n d a s
t h e principle of universal responsibility.
T h e B u d d h i s t c o n c e p t o f v o i d n e s s ( s u n y a t a ) is s o m e t i m e s
misinterpreted in t h e W e s t a s i m p l y i n g a n n u l m e n t of
ethical considerations. J u n g suspected that Westerners'
a t t e m p t a t d e t a c h m e n t a s a w a y o f liberation, w h i c h t h e y
l e a r n e d f r o m y o g i c p r a c t i c e s , w a s o n l y a w a y o f liberation
from moral responsibilities. 2 3 1
B u d d h i s m is o n e o f t h e m o s t h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d ethical a s
w e l l a s p s y c h o l o g i c a l s y s t e m s . Ethical i s s u e s a n d individual
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a r e a l w a y s a n d w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n a n integral
p a r t o f its p h i l o s o p h y a n d p r a c t i c e . T h e rule a p p l i e s to all
s c h o o l s a n d of course to Tantric B u d d h i s m as well.
A n d J u n g , a p s y c h o l o g i s t a n d p h y s i c i a n , in all his m u l t i -
d i m e n s i o n a l w o r k , a n d h i s e n t i r e life, h a s consistently
r e m i n d e d m a n - t h e o n l y c a r r i e r o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s - of h i s
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d e t h i c a l o b l i g a t i o n to t r a n s f o r m h i m s e l f ,
o r shall I s a y , to transform G o d .
Conclusion
IN DRAWING t o a c l o s e , I s h o u l d l i k e t o m a k e a f e w p o i n t s
t o h i g h l i g h t t h e c o n c l u s i o n s r e a c h e d i n m y a t t e m p t to
u n d e r s t a n d a n d find p o s s i b l e parallels b e t w e e n B u d d h i s m
and Jung's psychology.
T h e t w o s y s t e m s w e r e b o r n a n d d e v e l o p e d in a r e a s widely
a p a r t f r o m e a c h o t h e r , g e o g r a p h i c a l l y , historically, a n d c u l -
t u r a l l y , a n d w e r e s e p a r a t e d in t i m e b y a s p a n o f t w o a n d
a h a l f m i l l e n i a . Y e t b o t h , d e s p i t e all the differences, are con-
c e r n e d with the same human problems, and have found
t h a t s o l u t i o n s a r e to b e s o u g h t , u n i q u e l y , within t h e p s y c h e
of each individual.
T h e o v e r r i d i n g c o n c e r n of B u d d h i s m is termination of
suffering. J u n g ' s m a j o r task w a s the healing of man's
psychic wounds. However, the Buddhist believes that
t o t a l d e l i v e r a n c e f r o m s u f f e r i n g i s p o s s i b l e ; J u n g ' s v i e w is
t h a t s u f f e r i n g i s i n t h e n a t u r e o f life a n d i s e v e n a n e c e s s a r y
i n g r e d i e n t that can never b e completely eliminated.
T h e u l t i m a t e g o a l i n b o t h s y s t e m s i s for u s to b e c o m e
w h a t w e t r u l y a r e . F o r t h e M a h a y a n a B u d d h i s t that m e a n s
to a c h i e v e B u d d h a h o o d ; every b e i n g without exception
h a s t h a t p o t e n t i a l . F o r J u n g it m e a n s to a c h i e v e w h o l e n e s s ,
r e a l i z e o n e ' s Self, w h i c h is an urge i n h e r e n t in the psyche.
The path to B u d d h a h o o d is e x t r e m e l y l o n g , b u t it is
believed t h a t b y p r a c t i c i n g T a n t r i c m e t h o d s it c a n be
r e a c h e d w i t h i n a s i n g l e life t i m e . F o r J u n g , t h o u g h , self-
r e a l i z a t i o n is a n e v e r e n d i n g p r o c e s s .
P r o g r e s s i v e d e v e l o p m e n t of consciousness through in-
t r o s p e c t i o n is t h e initial g o a l o f b o t h B u d d h i s m a n d J u n g ' s
p s y c h o l o g y . B u t t h e B u d d h i s t m a i n t a i n s that c o n s c i o u s n e s s
c a n b e d e v e l o p e d fully s o t h a t n o u n c o n s c i o u s c o n t e n t c a n
d i s t u r b t h e m i n d , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y perfect control a c h i e v e d
- t h e s t a t e o f p u r e a w a r e n e s s . C o n s c i o u s n e s s to t h e B u d -
d h i s t is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b l i s s : k n o w i n g is h a p p i n e s s , u n -
k n o w i n g is s u f f e r i n g . J u n g d o e s n o t b e l i e v e that p u r e c o n -
s c i o u s n e s s , uncontaminated by the unconscious, can ever
b e attained. Furthermore, integration of the unconscious
i n t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s , t h e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n o f o p p o s i t e s , entails
n o t e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s , o r t h e c o n t r o l o f it, b u t
a c o n c e s s i o n to both aspects of the psyche.
T h e p r i n c i p l e a n d u s e o f o p p o s i t e s is f u n d a m e n t a l in
J u n g ' s m o d e l , a s it is in B u d d h i s m , a n d is particularly
e m p h a s i z e d in T a n t r i c p r a c t i c e s .
B o t h s y s t e m s r e q u i r e t h a t e v e r y a s p e c t o f t h e individual
b e i n v o l v e d in t h e p r o c e s s ; n o t h i n g is to b e r e j e c t e d . K n o w -
l e d g e a n d intellectual understanding are important, espec-
ially i n t h e initial s t a g e s o f t h e p a t h , b u t t h e y h a v e to b e
c o m p l e m e n t e d b y f e e l i n g a n d intuition, a n d t h e i n s i g h t
1
g a i n e d i n t h e c o u r s e o f c o m t e m p l a t i o n o r m e d i t a t i o n h a s to
b e translated into action a n d become a moral duty.
T h e path starts and ends in the psyche, the mind. Jung
c l a i m s h e does not m a k e philosophical or metaphysical
statements and that his work is b a s e d on empirical
e v i d e n c e s only. B u d d h i s m b y contrast, b e i n g a religion,
necessarily deals with philosophical and metaphysical
c a t e g o r i e s . H o w e v e r , B u d d h a h i m s e l f r e f u s e d to a n s w e r
questions pertaining to the nature of the Absolute,
k n o w i n g that philosophical arguments create discord and
c o n f u s i o n a n d d o n o t a d d t o t h e s o l u t i o n of s u f f e r i n g , t h e
p r i m a r y p r o b l e m . H e t a u g h t i n s t e a d t h e M i d d l e W a y , later
to b e e l a b o r a t e d b y the M a d h y a m i k a school, whose basic
a t t i t u d e i s f r e e d o m f r o m d o g m a t i s m a n d t h e dialectical
a p p r o a c h , a t t e m p t i n g to r e s o l v e t h e o r e t i c a l conflicts b y
r i s i n g to a h i g h e r standpoint.
T h i s i n a w a y is J u n g ' s a p p r o a c h to h i s o w n w o r k a n d
practice. T h e r e are n o definitive theories, nor therapeutic
m e t h o d s a p p l i c a b l e i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y to e v e r y o n e , s i n c e
e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l i s u n i q u e i n h i s o r h e r specific s i t u a t i o n .
At the s a m e time in assisting the person through his
c o n f l i c t s , a n d o n h i s j o u r n e y to i n d i v i d u a t i o n , J u n g w o u l d
a p p l y t h e m e t h o d o f first b r i n g i n g to c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d
o b j e c t i v e l y o b s e r v i n g t h e facts o f h i s i n n e r a n d o u t e r life;
t h e n , b y u s i n g i m a g i n a t i o n amplifying them, and raising
t h e c o n f l i c t a n d d i l e m m a t o a h i g h e r level of c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,
leading from t h e p e r s o n a l to t h e t r a n s p e r s o n a l - the
a p p r o a c h to t h e n u m i n o u s .
I n b o t h T a n t r a a n d J u n g ' s s y s t e m s y m b o l s are a b u n d a n t l y
m a d e u s e of, a s v e h i c l e s a n d m e a n s o f transforming o u r
a w a r e n e s s a n d o u r o r d i n a r y reality into a significant o n e . In
T a n t r i c B u d d h i s m s y m b o l i c i m a g e s a n d visualization prac-
t i c e s a r e specifically d e f i n e d b y tradition, a l t h o u g h there is
latitude g i v e n to the meditator, a n d generally creative imagin-
a t i o n is e n c o u r a g e d a n d fostered. J u n g ' s m o d e l , having m u c h
l e s s o f a tradition, allows a purely individual, unstructured
w a y o f exercising o n e ' s imagination in the service of develop-
i n g s e l f - k n o w l e d g e . B o t h w a y s l e a d to t h e S e l f - t h e c e n t e r ,
the heart of the mandala.
B u d d h i s t teachings a n d J u n g ' s therapeutic methods are
i n v a r i a b l y a d a p t e d t o t h e specific n e e d s , c o n d i t i o n s a n d
c a p a c i t i e s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ; t h e g u r u a n d t h e therapist a r e
g u i d e s o n the w a y . T h e y are never regarded as ultimate
a u t h o r i t i e s : t h e p s y c h e o r m i n d o f t h e individual - t h e o n l y
i n s t r u m e n t t h r o u g h w h i c h o n e e x p e r i e n c e s reality - is t h e
s o l e a u t h o r i t y . I n B u d d h i s m o n e is c o n s t a n t l y u r g e d to test
w i t h o n e ' s e x p e r i e n c e t h e validity o f t h e t e a c h i n g , and
a d o p t o r r e j e c t it in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h o n e ' s o w n f i n d i n g s .
S i m i l a r l y J u n g h a s e n o r m o u s r e s p e c t for t h e integrity of t h e
p s y c h e , a n d a t r u s t in its c a p a c i t y to f u n c t i o n o b j e c t i v e l y -
w h e n n o t i n t e r f e r e d w i t h - a n d t h u s t o lead t h e i n d i v i d u a l
t o w a r d s h i s true d e s t i n a t i o n , h i s Self.
B o t h s y s t e m s w a r n a g a i n s t d a n g e r s a n d u r g e t h e initiate
to take necessary precautions and safeguards w h e n con-
tacting p o w e r f u l inner forces, potentially disruptive to the
p s y c h i c s t r u c t u r e o f t h e p e r s o n a l i t y . For this r e a s o n T i b e t a n
B u d d h i s m , e s p e c i a l l y in its T a n t r i c f o r m , h a s traditionally
o b s e r v e d a m e a s u r e of secrecy.
I n b o t h s y s t e m s p a s s i o n s , e m o t i o n s , positive o r negative,
a r e n o t s u p p r e s s e d b u t t r a n s f o r m e d in t h e m i n d b y utilizing
the very energy they contain.
Contradictions, paradoxes, and imaginal language
a b o u n d in J u n g ' s w o r k a n d in B u d d h i s m in g e n e r a l , a n d
T a n t r i c B u d d h i s m in particular, but neither Jung nor Bud-
d h i s t s a r e c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h a t . T h e y are r e g a r d e d as
m e a n s o f p o r t r a y i n g t h e f u l l n e s s a n d r i c h n e s s o f life a n d
d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f p e r c e i v i n g i t , w h i c h c o n v e n t i o n a l lan-
g u a g e w i t h i t s l i m i t a t i o n s is u n a b l e to e x p r e s s .
T a n t r a ' s c h i e f c o n c e r n is spiritual g r o w t h , a n d t h e r e m a r k -
a b l e T a n t r i c w a y i s o n e n o t o f a s c e t i c i s m b u t of fully e x p e r i -
e n c i n g life in all its j o y , s p o n t a n e i t y a n d creativity. A n
e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f it, h o w e v e r , is t h e m e n t a l a t t i t u d e , that is,
t h e s e l f l e s s m o t i v a t i o n t h a t u n d e r s c o r e s e v e r y f o r m of B u d -
d h i s t p r a c t i c e . In T a n t r a a n d in J u n g ' s m o d e l t h e m u n d a n e
a n d s p i r i t u a l d i m e n s i o n s o f life a r e c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d ; in
f a c t t h e y a r e t w o s i d e s o f t h e s a m e reality t h a t n e e d to b e
reconciled.
I n J u n g ' s w o r k , t h e e l e m e n t o f c o m p a s s i o n , t h e principle
o f E r o s , is n o t e m p h a s i z e d , a s it is in T i b e t a n B u d d h i s m ,
a l t h o u g h h e too is k e e n l y c o n c e r n e d with the fate of h u m a n -
i t y , a n d a b o v e all t h a t o f t h e i n n e r m a n . A s a p s y c h o l o g i s t
a n d physician h e k n o w s that w e can heal ourselves only by
relinquishing ego-centered pursuits, and connecting our-
s e l v e s t o a l a r g e r c o n t e x t o f life. In t h e p r o c e s s o f it, in o u r
d e p t h s , o n t h e a r c h e t y p a l level w h e r e t h e r e is n o separation,
w e b e c o m e r e l a t e d t o t h e rest o f h u m a n i t y a n d c o m p a s s i o n
s p o n t a n e o u s l y arises. Nevertheless, Jung's psychology by
n e c e s s i t y h a s to h a v e a l e s s e n c o m p a s s i n g s c o p e t h a n B u d -
d h i s m , a p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d e t h i c a l s y s t e m that h a s also a
religious basis.
Y e t it h a s b e c o m e o b v i o u s t o m e t h a t T i b e t a n B u d d h i s t s
a n d C. G . J u n g - a n d the alchemists - each coming from
t h e i r o w n u n i q u e d i r e c t i o n s , are pointing to u s , b y m e a n s of
t h e i r o w n u n i q u e w o r d s a n d s y m b o l s , a w i s d o m that is
u n i v e r s a l . It h a s b e e n s a i d t h a t t h e W e s t h a s a w e a l t h of its
o w n s y m b o l s a n d t h e r e is n o n e e d to s e e k o t h e r s in t h e E a s t .
I n d e e d it w o u l d b e a p i t y a n d a g r e a t loss to reject t h e rich
W e s t e r n s y m b o l i s m . Y e t E a s t e r n s y m b o l s are fresh to the
W e s t e r n m i n d a n d t h e r e f o r e p o s s e s s a g r e a t e r c a p a c i t y to
i n s p i r e a n d stimulate the imagination, while unfortu-
nately for m a n y in the W e s t our symbols have become
o s s i f i e d a n d t h u s h a v e lost t h e i r i n t r i n s i c m e a n i n g . T h e
s t i r r i n g s of the soul can c o m e from m a n y different sources,
d o e s it r e a l l y m a t t e r w h i c h is t h e o n e ? If it is true that the
u l t i m a t e w i s d o m is o n e a n d t h e s a m e , w h e t h e r d i s c o v e r e d
in o n e ' s B u d d h a - n a t u r e , the Self, or the Philosopher's
S t o n e , w e s h o u l d b e a b l e to find in s e e m i n g l y r e m o t e a n d
e s o t e r i c t r a d i t i o n s v a l u e s w h i c h s p e a k to u s i n a l a n g u a g e
t h a t i s r e l e v a n t to t h e W e s t e r n w o r l d . P e r h a p s J u n g ' s m o d e l
w i l l b e p r e f e r a b l e t o s o m e W e s t e r n e r s , as c e r t a i n of its
f o r m s a n d a s p e c t s m a y b e m o r e e a s i l y a d a p t e d to t h e i r
n e e d s a n d l i f e s t y l e . S o m e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , will find a
g r e a t e r a f f i n i t y t o t h e T i b e t a n m o d e l . A n d s o m e o t h e r s still,
w i l l p e r c e i v e n o c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o a n d will b e
immeasurably e n r i c h e d b y the treasures they both so
g e n e r o u s l y offer.
T h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e T i b e t a n s in t h e W e s t m u s t b e m o r e
t h a n t h e r e s u l t o f a h i s t o r i c a l turn o f e v e n t s that b e g a n in a
t r a g e d y . I p e r c e i v e in it a n o t h e r t a n g i b l e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f
t h e l a w o f o p p o s i t e s : t h e a b y s m a l d e t e r i o r a t i o n of m o r a l
a n d s p i r i t u a l v a l u e s in o u r materialistic a n d militaristic
civilization h a d to p r o d u c e its c o u n t e r - b a l a n c e , the p r e s e n c e
o f t h e h o l y m e n f r o m T i b e t , w h o d e s c e n d e d f r o m t h e t o p of
the w o r l d into the valleys of the Western hemisphere. As
J u n g a l r e a d y s e n s e d a n d p o i n t e d to u s , t h e r e is m u c h to
l e a r n f r o m t h e E a s t . T i b e t a n l a m a s w i t h their p r o f o u n d
w i s d o m and compassionate hearts, their serene manners
a n d g e n t l e s p e e c h , h a v e m u c h to t e a c h u s . A n d especially in
t h e i r s i l e n t m e d i t a t i o n s t h e y s p e a k to u s , e a c h o n e of u s
i n d i v i d u a l l y , in a d i r e c t a n d forceful w a y . B u t m o s t o f all,
t h e y are living symbols of enlightened beings - of the
h i g h e s t a s p i r a t i o n s a n d a t t a i n m e n t of w h i c h m a n is capable.
It is t h e i r v e r y p r e s e n c e a m o n g u s that is t h e u n i q u e a n d
m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e T i b e t a n tradition t o t h e
Western world.
W h e n the roaring, giant iron birds flew a n d brought the
T i b e t a n s i n t o o u r m i d s t , it m a r k e d n o t o n l y t h e fulfillment
o f a n a g e - o l d p r o p h e c y : it w a s a s y n c h r o n i s t i c m o m e n t in
w h i c h t h e w o r l d s o f spirit a n d m a t t e r c a m e t o g e t h e r . Birds,
s y m b o l s o f f r e e d o m , in t h e i r i r o n f o r m b e c a m e t h e v e h i c l e s
o f s o m e e x t r a o r d i n a r y h u m a n b e i n g s w h o , in t h e i r m i n d s
a n d h e a r t s a r e c a r r i e r s o f t r u e spiritual f r e e d o m in its living,
actualized f o r m . S o , the iron birds have joined their spiritual
counterparts.
CODA
It is e x t r e m e l y difficult t o u n d e r s t a n d T a n t r i c B u d d h i s m ,
a n d it is e v e n m o r e difficult to w r i t e a b o u t it, s i n c e its
f o u n d a t i o n lies n o t in k n o w l e d g e b u t in individual e x p e r i -
e n c e . T h e s a m e is t r u e o f J u n g ' s w o r k . T h u s I a m painfully
a w a r e o f t h e i n a d e q u a c y , a n d t h e o m i s s i o n s a n d inevitable
d i s t o r t i o n s t h a t a b o o k like t h i s m u s t c o n t a i n .
F r o m t h e o u t s e t I h a v e b e e n a l s o well a w a r e t h a t t h e task I
h a v e g i v e n m y s e l f w a s t r e m e n d o u s l y ambitious, considering
t h e l i m i t l e s s p r o p o r t i o n s o f t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r . B u t it w a s
e v e n m u c h m o r e t h a n t h a t : t h e task w a s a w e s o m e . T h e r e
w a s n o p o s s i b i l i t y o f e n c o m p a s s i n g it all, a n d c o n v e y i n g
the n u m i n o u s , as well as the dynamic, flowing, ever-
c h a n g i n g a s p e c t o f it, w h i c h is primarily t h e w a y I h a v e
experienced both systems.
W i t h this in m i n d , for a l o n g time I could n o t start writing.
I c o u l d s e e t h e i m a g e o f t h e f u t u r e w o r k in m y i n n e r vision,
b u t I c o u l d n o t p u t it i n t o w o r d s . T h e n I h a d a d r e a m in
w h i c h a voice g e n t l y w h i s p e r e d to m e : T h e S e l f a n d P a d m a . '
T h e Self a n d P a d m a , the Western and Eastern symbols of
s p i r i t u a l u n f o l d m e n t a n d totality - this w a s w h a t m y b o o k -
t o - b e w a s all a b o u t . W h a t e l s e n e e d e d to b e said: it w a s all
t h e r e , t o l d in f o u r b r i e f w o r d s . B u t this w a s o n l y t h e b e g i n -
n i n g . A n d t h e d r e a m w a s a signal t h a t I c o u l d n o w start
writing. Shortly afterwards I e m b a r k e d on the journey.
I n d e e d it w a s like a j o u r n e y , l o n g , h a r d , a n d t o r t u o u s , with
s o m e m o m e n t s o f n e a r d e s p a i r , a l t e r n a t i n g with t h o s e o f
exhilaration. I s o o n r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e act o f writing a n d
b u i l d i n g t h i s b o o k w a s like a m e d i t a t i v e p r o c e s s . It w a s like
a n a l c h e m i c a l opus t o o , s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e massa confusa, and
l e a d i n g u p t h r o u g h t h e v a r i o u s s t a g e s to final crystallization
i n t o its e s s e n c e . A n d a l o n g t h e w a y , as the w o r k w a s building,
its i n n e r m e a n i n g w a s g r a d u a l l y u n f o l d i n g to m e .
After I had g o n e a r o u n d and around a long, tedious road,
i n t e r m i t t e n t l y g e t t i n g lost a n d finding m y w a y back, slowly,
a n d p a i n f u l l y o r j o y o u s l y c i r c u m a m b u l a t i n g , I c a m e to t h e
s a m e p o i n t I s t a r t e d f r o m , b u t this t i m e t h e m e s s a g e w a s
i m p r i n t e d deeply into m y mind and soul:
CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 5
BUDDHISM
U n l e s s i n d i c a t e d o t h e r w i s e , all w o r d s a r e S a n s k r i t .
alaya-vijnana ' s t o r e c o n s c i o u s n e s s , ' t h e s o u r c e o f all c o n -
s c i o u s n e s s in a p e r s o n , a c c o r d i n g to the Cittamatra school
of Buddhist tenets
Arhat o n e w h o h a s attained c o m p l e t e liberation from suffer-
ing, has attained nirvana
Avalokiteshvara the Buddha of compassion
bardo t h e s t a t e b e t w e e n d e a t h a n d rebirth
bodhicitta t h e e n l i g h t e n e d m o t i v e or a t t i t u d e p o s s e s s e d b y
B o d h i s a t t v a s : t h e d e s i r e to b e c o m e a B u d d h a in o r d e r to
b e n e f i t all b e i n g s
Bodhisattva an enlightenment-bound being
Buddha a fully e n l i g h t e n e d b e i n g ; o n e w h o h a s o v e r c o m e
all n e g a t i v i t i e s a n d c o m p l e t e d all g o o d qualities
dakini ( T i b e t a n : khadoma) a s y m b o l i c b e i n g in female form,
w h o e m b o d i e s b l i s s a n d w i s d o m a n d acts as a spiritual
helper
Dharma spiritual t e a c h i n g s ; t h e d o c t r i n e of t h e B u d d h a ;
universal law
enlightenment t h e s t a t e o f b e i n g a B u d d h a , w h e n all duality
is t r a n s c e n d e d i n t o a b s o l u t e u n i t y ; t h e eradication o f all
n e g a t i v e s t a t e s o f m i n d a n d a c c u m u l a t i o n of all positive
qualities
Hinayana early school of Buddhism, southern Buddhism,
o f w h i c h T h e r a v a d a is t h e o n l y s u r v i v i n g s y s t e m
karma t h e l a w o f c a u s e a n d effect; t h e c o n s q u e n c e s of o u r
120 Glossary
t h o u g h t s , s p e e c h a n d a c t i o n s in this a n d f u t u r e lives
karuna compassion
Mahayana later schools of B u d d h i s m ; northern Buddhism
Manjushri the Buddha of wisdom
mantra sacred word, auditory symbol
mudra ritual s y m b o l i c g e s t u r e
nirvana the state b e y o n d suffering; freedom from karma
a n d d e l u s i o n a n d r e p e a t e d rebirth in s a m s a r a
padma l o t u s b l o s s o m ; t h e s y m b o l o f spiritual u n f o l d m e n t
prajna s u p r e m e k n o w l e d g e a n d intuitive, liberating wisdom;
female principle
sadhana spiritual exercise
samadhi a d e e p state o f u n d i s t u r b e d s i n g l e - p o i n t e d c o n c e n -
tration
samsara cyclic e x i s t e n c e o f c o n t i n u o u s , u n c o n t r o l l e d rebirth
i n t o t h e v a r i o u s r e a l m s o f e x i s t e n c e ; cycle o f c o n t i n u o u s
mental a n d physical suffering
satori ( J a p a n e s e ) in Z e n B u d d h i s m a n o t h e r n a m e for e n -
lightenment
skandhas a h u m a n b e i n g ' s aggregates: body, feelings, per-
c e p t i o n s , i m p u l s e s a n d e m o t i o n s , acts o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s
sunyata e m p t i n e s s , v o i d n e s s ; all p h e n o m e n a a r e said to b e
e m p t y o f i n h e r e n t e x i s t e n c e , o r e x i s t e n c e f r o m their o w n
s i d e ; t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f all p h e n o m e n a
Tantra t h e e s o t e r i c t e a c h i n g s o f B u d d h a that l e a d quickly to
e n l i g h t e n m e n t ; t h e m e t h o d s a n d p r a c t i c e s *for quickly
attaining enlightenment; Vajrayana
Tao (Chinese) eternal way of the cosmic order
Tar a a f e m i n i n e a s p e c t o f B u d d h a m i n d
thangka (Tibetan) religious painting usually executed on
c l o t h a n d f r a m e d in b r o c a d e
up ay a m e t h o d ; m a l e p r i n c i p l e
vajra (Tibetan: dorje) d i a m o n d , a d a m a n t i n e sceptre, symbol
o f i n d e s t r u c t i b i l i t y ; t h e m a l e p r i n c i p l e o f action
Vajrayana t h e ' d i a m o n d v e h i c l e ' to e n l i g h t e n m e n t , part of
the M a h a y a n a ; Tantric school of Buddhism
Vajra Yogini a d a k i n i o f t h e h i g h e s t r a n k , d e p i c t e d in bril-
liant r e d c o l o u r a n d s u r r o u n d e d b y a h a l o o f flames
yidam ( T i b e t a n ) a m a l e o r f e m a l e deity, or B u d d h a , i n v o k e d
in c e r t a i n T a n t r i c m e d i t a t i o n p r a c t i c e s
JUNG
Radmila Moacanin
Wisdom is a publisher of books on Buddhism
and other spiritual and philosophical traditions.
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