Faculty of Engineering

Department of Chemical Engineering

Cape Town Campus

(MODULE 1) - CPL300S

LECTURER: M. AZIZ
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COURSE OUTLINE

1. Mineralogy
Mineral Processing Statistics
Physical Properties
Mineral Classification
Mineral Occurrences

2. Particle technology
Particle size distributions
Sphericity
Mean particle size
Slurry density calculations

3. Comminution
Kicks Law, Von Ritters Law, Bonds Law
Primary crushers
Secondary crushers
Mill calculations

4. Classification (Hydro cyclone)

Cut point
Partition Curves
Partition curve models
Efficiencies (imperfection)

5. Flotation
Mechanics of flotation
Equipment
Froth Flotation cell

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6. Filtration
Batch filtration models
Fitting batch data to a model
Continuous filtration models

7. Sedimentation
Type I and Type II sedimentation
Sedimentation modelling
Thickening
Thickening model
Design of a thickener

8. Electrowinning
Basic electro-chemistry
Basic Electro chemistry calculations

9. Integrated Project

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Lecture 1

Mining and minerals in South Africa

South Africa, known throughout the world as a treasure trove, boasts an abundance of
mineral resources, producing and owning a significant proportion of the world's minerals.

South Africa's wealth has been built on the country's vast resources - nearly 90% of the
platinum metals on Earth, 80% of the manganese, 73% of the chrome, 45% of the
vanadium and 41% of the gold. Only crude oil and bauxite are not found here.

SA's share of world reserves & production

(Data source: Department of Minerals and Energy)

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The country is a leading producer of precious metals such as gold and platinum, as well
as of base metals and coal. It is the world's fourth-largest producer of diamonds.

And experts believe there is still considerable potential for the discovery of other world-
class deposits in areas that have yet to be fully exploited.

Contribution to the economy

With the growth of South Africa's secondary and tertiary industries, the relative
contribution of mining to South Africa's gross domestic product (GDP) has declined over
the past 10-20 years.

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Nonetheless, the industry is continually adapting to changing local and international

world conditions, and remains a cornerstone of the economy, making a significant
contribution to economic activity, job creation and foreign exchange earnings.

The sector accounts for roughly one-third of the market capitalization of the JSE, and
continues to act as a magnet for foreign investment in the country.

In 2009, according to the Chamber of Mines of South Africa, the industry contributed:

8.8% directly, and another 10% indirectly, to the country's gross domestic product
(GDP).
Over 50% of merchandise exports, if secondary beneficiated mineral exports are
counted.
About 1-million jobs (500 000 directly).
About 18% of gross investment (10% directly).
Approximately 30% of capital inflows into the economy via the financial account of
the balance of payments.
93% of the country's electricity generating capacity.
About 30% of the country's liquid fuel supply.
Between 10% and 20% of direct corporate tax receipts (together worth R10.5-
billion).

In 2009, South Africa's mining industry was the largest contributor by value to black
economic empowerment (BEE) in the economy, in terms of the value of BEE
transactions completed.

Read more:
http://www.southafrica.info/business/economy/sectors/mining.htm#ixzz1kwKSu7cs

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Place in the economy

South Africa's position as the world's largest gold producer - a position it held for over a
century - was usurped by China in 2007.

China's gold production for the year was estimated at 276 metric tons by London
precious metals consultancy GFMS, and at 270 tons by the China Gold Association.
South Africa, according to the Chamber of Mines of SA, produced 254 tons of the metal
in 2007.

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Gold, once a keystone to the South African economy, has diminished in importance as
the country's economy has diversified. In the 1970s and 1980s, gold exports were the
predominant source of foreign exchange earnings, with mining contributing around 14%
of total value added in the economy. This has shifted over time and, in 2007, mining and
quarrying contributed about 5.8% to the country's gross domestic product (GDP).

However, mining as an industry is still crucial to South Africa, with precious metals
contributing 65% to the country's mineral export earnings and 21% of total exports of
goods in 2006. The country supplies about 80% of the world's platinum.

The mining industry is also South Africa's biggest employer, with around 460 000
employees and another 400 000 employed by the suppliers of goods and services to the
industry.

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Transformation

Ownership, access and opportunity in regards to the country's mineral resources are
regulated by the Minerals and Petroleum Resources Development Act of 2002, which
recognizes the state's custodianship over the country's mineral resources.

Transformation is a key issue facing South Africa's mining sector. Equitable access to
mineral resources and opportunities has been legislated, with meaningful participation of
historically disadvantaged individuals the subject of the industry's black economic
empowerment (BEE) charter.

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Currently, more than 70% of the mining industry's labour force is black, while less than
5% of managerial positions are held by black people. Targets have been set by the
government and, by 2009, all mining companies will be expected to have 40% of
managerial positions held by previously disadvantaged South Africans.

Other targets over the next 10 years include the transfer of 26% of mining assets to
black-owned companies, and ensuring that 51% of future mining projects are controlled
by black-owned firms.

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Strengths

As a major mining country, South Africa's strengths include a high level of technical and
production expertise as well as comprehensive research and development activities.

The country has world-scale primary processing facilities covering carbon steel, stainless
steel and aluminium, in addition to gold and platinum. It is also a world leader of new
technologies, such as a ground-breaking process that converts low-grade superfine iron
ore into high-quality iron units.

This kind of beneficiation, or adding of value to raw mineral materials before export, has
been identified by the government as a major growth area. There are lucrative
opportunities for downstream processing and adding value locally to iron, carbon steel,
stainless steel, aluminium, platinum group metals and gold.

Industry leaders

Two of the world's biggest mining companies originated in South Africa. BHP Billiton, the
world's largest mining company, came after a merger between South African company
Billiton and Australian firm BHP.

Anglo American Plc, which has its primary listing in London and its secondary listing in
Johannesburg, owns many major subsidiaries, such as Anglo Platinum, Anglo Coal,
Impala Platinum and Kumba Iron Ore.

Diamond miner De Beers, also a South African company, is owned by Anglo American
and a consortium led by the Botswanan government. The world's top diamond producer
churned out about 51.1-million carats in 2007.

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Rise of the junior mining sector

The junior mining sector in South Africa was born of new legislation in the form of the
Mining and Petroleum Resources Development Act of 2006. The law enforced a "use it
or lose it" principle, stipulating that mining rights not used by mining companies to exploit
minerals in the ground would revert back to the state.

The legislation gave rise to the development of the junior mining sector in South Africa.
Unused mining rights held by mining groups, but not used for years, were awarded to
newly established junior companies that often showed themselves to be true mining
entrepreneurs.

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The advent of the legislation saw the launch in the same year of the Nedbank South
Africa Junior Mining and Exploration Index, an instrument tracking the performance of
junior miners operating in South Africa. The index aimed to raise the profile of the sector
that had been dominated by major mining houses for more than a century.

The dominance of the majors - including BHP Billiton, Anglo American, Impala Platinum,
Anglogold Ashanti, Anglo Platinum, Goldfields, Sasol, Harmony and Kumba - is still
reflected in the resources sector of the JSE. The top 13 companies by size constitute
over 95% of the total market capitalisation of all listed mining companies.

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The Junior Mining and Exploration Index, comprising 38 mid- and small-cap miners such
as Aquarius Platinum, Uranium One, Wesizwe, Platmin and Great Basin Gold, reached a
market capitalisation high of R130 395 602 (about US$18.3-million) on 6 March 2008
and, following the global financial crisis, a low R43 555 730 (about $6.1-million) on 3
February 2009.

However, the index recovered from the low of 931.89 points on 21 November 2008,
soaring to 1 602.28 on 15 September 2010, pointing to a steady recovery in the smaller
sector.

SA info reporter. Sources:

Readmore:
http://www.southafrica.info/business/economy/sectors/mining.htm#ixzz1kwL1dbn0

New developments

There are many new developments in the pipeline for South African mining. These
include:

Anglo-Australian miner Rio Tinto plans to build a US$2.7-billion (around R21-billion)

aluminium smelter at the Coega industrial development zone near Port Elizabeth in the
Eastern Cape. It would produce around 720 000 tons of aluminium a year, and would be
the largest greenfield investment in South Africa to date.

Russian billionaire Viktor Vekselberg has said he would be investing US$1-billion in

manganese production in South Africa. In September 2006, he announced plans to build
a manganese and ferroalloys plant at Coega. And early in 2008, United Manganese of
Kalahari, a South African venture part-owned by Vekselberg, announced plans to spend
US$200-million to develop an untapped deposit.

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Mining giant De Beers is building two new mines in South Africa. The first, at Voorspoed
in the Free State, is expected to start production towards the end of 2008, and will
produce about 700 000 carats a year. The second, already in production, is part of the
South African Sea Areas offshore marine mining division. The mining ship Peace in
Africa will produce about 200 000 carats a year.

Indian steel giant Tata Steel is constructing a R650-million high-carbon ferrochrome

plant at Richards Bay on the KwaZulu-Natal coast.

Article last updated: May 2008

SAinfo reporter. Sources:

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Miningweekly
Engineering news

www.miningweekly.co.za
www.engineeringnews.co.za

Not All Equities Are Down; Gold-Mining Stocks Rise This Week

Friday February 12, 2016 11:11

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Gold-mining stocks certainly fared better than the broader equity market during the first
four days of this week as mining shares that trade in North America surged on higher
precious-metals prices.

Mining stocks are helped when gold prices rise, of course, since this means greater
revenue for producers. Gold drew support from a tumble in the S&P 500, technical-chart-
related buying and reduced expectations for Federal Reserve rate hikes.

The Dow Jones Industrial Average and S&P both finished with their fifth consecutive
down day on Thursday and closed at two-year lows, in particular hurt by weakness in
financial stocks. By contrast, during the first four days of this week, the NYSE Arca Gold
Bugs index (HUI) was up 11.4662 points, or 7.8 %, to 159.3100. The Market Vectors
Gold Miners exchange-traded fund (GDX), which consists of stocks of gold-mining
companies, rose $1.32, or 7.7%, to $18.37.

As of Thursdays close, Comex April gold futures were at $1,247.80 an ounce, a gain of
$73.70, or 6.3%, for the week to date. Comex March silver was up 76.4 cents, or 5.1%,
over that time frame to $15.794.

Kinross Gold Corp. (NYSE: KGC) was one of the bigger gainers in a week in which the
company reported its fourth-quarter earnings. Shares rose 60 cents, or 26%. Kinross
reported lower all-in sustaining costs and a net loss of $841.9 million, although this was
largely the result of write-downs. Meanwhile, the company projected record 2016 output
of between 2.7 million and 2.9 million gold-equivalent ounces and lower AISC of
between $890 and $990 an ounce.

Cost curtailment helped earn Kinross favorable comments from analysts. Citi Research
said Kinross is managing overhead costs well and the bank raised its target price for
Kinross shares. Credit Suisse commented: We rate KGC outperform due to attractive
relative valuation and near-term FCF (free-cash-flow) yield, improving margins due to
currency tailwinds and gold price, and an improved production profile.

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The other big gold company to report this week, Agnico Eagle Mines Ltd. (NYSE: AEM),
posted only a modest gain despite an adjusted quarterly net profit. Shares climbed
$1.82, or 5%. This firm listed a fourth-quarter net loss of $15.5 million but, after special
one-time adjustments, had a profit of $3.9 million. The company also got favorable
analyst comments, with Credit Suisse saying it remains one of our top picks, while
BMO Capital Markets termed the earnings report positive. But then again, Agnico had
already gotten a lot of favorable press in recent months, described by Bloomberg late
last year as the winner in the race to shield profit from the slump in gold prices at that
time.

Coeur Mining Inc. (NYSE: CDE), a major silver producer, added 27 cents, or 11%,
during a week in which it also posted fourth-quarter results. Coeur lost $303 million in
the fourth quarter, but this was mainly the result of impairment charges. Meanwhile,
fourth-quarter AISC was down roughly 25% year-on-year. BMO upgraded its view on
Coeur to market perform, citing declining cash burn, a leveraged play to metal prices,
little risk to debt repayment and potentially declining costs.

Elsewhere, Endeavour Silver Corp. (NYSE: EXK) added 33 cents, or 24%. Shares of
Iamgold (NYSE: IAG), which reported its first mineral resource estimate for the Diakha
deposit in Mali, climbed 40 cents, or 21%. B2Gold (TSX: BTO) climbed 24 cents, or
20%. Pacific Booker Minerals (TSXV: BKM) climbed 29 cents, or 19%. Yamana Gold
Inc. (NYSE: AUY) gained 35 cents, or 15%.

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Harmony Gold Mining Ltd. (NYSE: HMY) rose 41 cents, or 18%. The South African
company gets a further boost from higher gold prices since the countrys currency has
been weak, meaning Harmony gets more rand for its metal with which to pay expenses,
improving profitability. In fact, earlier this month, Harmony said it was looking to make
acquisitions and repay debt after higher profits in the most recent quarter.

Many of the mining companies whose stocks suffered this week are largely involved with
industrial base metals, which were pressured amid economic concerns. On the London
Metal Exchange, three-month copper fell $173, or 3.7% during the first four days of the
week to $4,443 per tonne.

Against this backdrop, First Quantum Minerals Ltd. (TSX: FM) lost 95 cents, or 24%.
Freeport McMoRan Inc. (NYSE: FCX) fell 79 cents, or 14%. Both companies, which are
normally thought of as mainly copper producers although they also mine precious
metals, were among the biggest decliners this week after they had been among the
biggest winners the week before.

By Allen Sykora of Kitco News; asykora@kitco.com

Ref: http://www.kitco.com/news/2016-02-12

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common uses of minerals

Without mining none of the everyday products we take for granted would exist. If you
look beneath the surface, youll find that mining has something to do with just about
every thing we use.

your house comes out of a mine

The majority of the raw material used in building your home was furnished by the mining
industry. The foundation is probably concrete (limestone, clay, shale, gypsum, and
aggregate mining). The exterior walls may be made of brick (clay mining) or stone
(dimension stone mining). The insulation in the walls may be glass wool (silica,
feldspar, and trona mining) or expanded vermiculite (vermiculite mining). The interior
walls are usually wall board (gypsum mining). The lumber in the structure will be
fastened with nails and screws (iron ore mining and zinc mining). If the roof is covered
with asphalt shingles, the filler in the shingles is from a variety of coloured silicate
minerals from mining. Your fireplace is probably of brick or stone, lined with a steel box
(iron ore mining).

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Your sewer piping is made of clay or iron pipe (clay mining or iron ore mining). Your
electrical wiring is of copper or aluminum (copper mining or bauxite mining). Your
sanitary facilities are made of porcelain (clay mining). Your plumbing fixtures are
made of brass (copper and zinc mining), or stainless steel (nickel and chrome mining).
Your gutters of galvanized steel (iron ore mining and zinc mining). The paint is

manufactured with mineral fillers and pigments (from minerals obtained by mining). Your
windows are made of glass (trona, silica, sand, and feldspar mining). Your door knobs,
locks, and hinges are of brass or steel (copper, zinc, and iron ore mining). And finally
your mortgage is written on paper made from wood or cloth fibers, but filled with clay
(from clay mining).

your car

About 100 000 passenger cars are assembled in South Africa each year. Each car is
made up of about 15 000 parts, all of which require natural resources to make.

The average car weighs about 1 metric tonne (1000 kg). Of that approximately half is
steel (a combination of iron, carbon and manganese), 50 kg are aluminium, 10 kg copper
and 5 kg zinc. The bright plating on bumpers, etc, contains chromium as well.

The automotive industry uses almost a fifth (20%) of South Africa's steel production.

Since new air pollution laws have come into effect in many First World countries, about
1000 kg of platinum and associated elements are used annually for making automotive
catalytic converters. 80% of the platinum comes from South African mines.

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To make car parts and to assemble the final products, a lot of specialized tools are
required. If it were not for metals such as chromium, nickel, titanium and vanadium, all of
which are mined in South Africa, machine tool supplies to the automotive industry (worth
more than R20 billion annually world-wide) would not exist.

The glass in the windows of a car is made from silica sand and limestone, both of which
are mineral commodities which are mined in the Western Cape Province.

Even the plastics in a vehicle are made from petroleum, which is a non-renewable
resource. At the Sasol plants in Sasolburg (Free State Province) and Secunda, coal is
converted to a whole range of plastics, some of which can be used for vehicle parts and
upholstery.

The petrol or diesel, oil, grease and other lubricants required for operation of a vehicle
are all petroleum derivatives and would not exist if no oil was produced. Some cars are
adapted to run on methane gas, which is mined off the South African coast near Mossel
Bay. Sasol produces about 3% of South Africas oil from coal.

The smooth tarmac roads we all drive on could not be built without commodities like tar,
gravel, and cement. Road gravel is produced in many open quarries in the Durbanville
region.

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THEREFORE, the next time you drive your car, remember that MINERAL
RESOURCES dug from the earth make it possible.

your bicycle

Did you know that without mining the bicycle would never have been made? In fact,
without mining none of the everyday products we take for granted would exist. North
America is the greatest consumer of minerals on earth. Each year, the average U.S.
citizen uses 18,160 kilograms of minerals. If you look beneath the surface, youll find that
mining has something to do with just about every thing we use.

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your computer

Did you Know? It takes more than 33 elements and minerals to make a computer!

Those vital computer ingredients consist of: aluminum, antimony, barite, beryllium,
cobalt, columbium, copper, gallium, germanium, gold, indium, iron, lanthanides, lithium,
manganese, mercury, mica, quartz crystals, rhenium, selenium, silver, strontium,
tantalum, tellurium, tin, tungsten, vanadium, yttrium, zinc and zirconium.

And, we cant forget the petroleum industrys role in the computer. Many of the
components noted above are housed in plastic!

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how a pencil is made

A pencil is manufactured from natural earth materials. It is made primarily of a wood

cylinder with a graphite core that we call "lead". The wood is usually from cedar trees
harvested from forests, primarily in the United States. The graphite is mined from various
localities, including Canada and Puerto Rico and is reinforced with clay mined mostly
from the southeast United States. The eraser is made from soybean oil farmed in the
southern United States and from latex extracted from trees in South America. The eraser
is reinforced with pumice mined largely in North America as well as sulfur, calcium and
barium from various localities. The metal band is aluminum or brass (copper and zinc)
which are mined in many countries around the world. The paint that coats the wood and
the lacquer to make it shine are made from a variety of different minerals and metals, as
is the glue that holds the wood together.

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GOLD PRICE STATS (Feb 2016)

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BRENT CRUDE OIL PRICE CHARTS (Feb 2016)

Brent Crude Oil 3 Months

Brent Crude Oil 5 year

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Oil: Intervention Coming?

Monday February 15, 2016

People are now beginning to realize that the slump in oil is a threat to global
economic stability. Sure, its good for consumers, but its bad for jobs and
financial stability which far outweighs the extra few bucks a week
consumers are saving at the pump.

The longer oil prices stay low, the closer we get to a wave of bankruptcies in
the oil industry. And that will quickly spill over into instability in banks,
drying up of credit, defaults of oil producing nations (Venezuela) and the
dominoes would begin to fall.

And as weve discussed, though the economic environment is very different

than 2008, the lack of firepower remaining at the central banks would make
this crisis potentially worse. Still, unlike 2008, there are easy fixes to the
current cheap oil threat.

Of course, we could get a production from OPEC. Thats what oil traders
have been waiting on, with bated breath, for the better part of this decline. It
hasnt happened, because the decline has been well calculated by OPEC
itself (namely Saudi Arabia, in efforts to wage a price war against new
producers the U.S. shale industry).

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Alternatively, as weve said, we could see China step in, as they did in
2009, and become a buyer of commodities (including oil). After oil plunged
from $147 to $32 in the throes of the global economic crisis, China stepped
in and gobbled up cheap commodities, taking oil quickly back above $100.

If not China this time around, perhaps the best candidates to intervene are
the Bank of Japan and/or the European Central Bank. This is what weve
argued is the easy fix. And the likely fix. At major turning points in markets,
if we look back historically, theyve been driven by some sort of intervention
(many times private or public policy driven).

When Europe was in turmoil in 2012 and Italy and Spain were facing
insolvency from a run up in their borrowing rates, ECB head Mario Draghi
stepped in and promised to do whatever it takes to save the euro. In
doing said, he forced bond market speculators that had been pressing
market interest rates higher in the vulnerable spots in Europe, out of the
market.

With that comment from Draghi, that was the line in the sand. If you bought
stocks that day, you nearly doubled your money in the German index over
the course of the next 33 months, will little to no pain -- same can be said
for U.S. stocks, which added more than 50% during that period.

Similarly, Japan picked up the baton and read from Draghis script late last
year (late September) when global stocks were falling sharply and
threatening to destabilize the world again. Japans Prime Minister Abe said
they would do whatever it takes to return Japan to robust sustainable
growth. Once again, the magic words put a bottom in global stocks and led
to a sharp rebound of 18% over the next three months in Japan -- and 13%
in U.S. stocks in a little more than a month.

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As central banks have manufactured economic recovery over the past

seven years, verbal intervention has been a critical tool that they've used,
and it has proven to work. Though you could argue that both verbal and
actual intervention have diminishing returns, and perhaps its beginning to
show. Nonetheless, today the head of the BOJ, Kuroda, had an emergency
meeting with his Prime Minister to discuss market moves. And Draghi, at
the ECB, is scheduled to speak on Monday before European Parliament.
Will they take advantage of the thinly traded U.S. holiday on Monday to fire
another verbal intervention bazooka? We shall see.

Ref: http://www.nasdaq.com

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Commodity prices

Wednesday March 01, 2017

www.miningweekly.com

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South Africa to build 6 new nuclear power plants

South Africa will have six new nuclear power plants by 2030, which will cost between
R400 billion and R1 trillion to build, according to a report by Reuters.
Energy Minister Tina Joemat-Pettersson told Parliament on 19 May that South Africa will
start the nuclear build programme in 2015, in a bid to generate an additional 9,600MW of
electricity. We expect to present the outcome of this procurement process to cabinet by
year-end, said Joemat-Pettersson. She said the operation will be carried out in a fair
and transparent manner.

Joemat-Pettersson also said the country will also re-establish its nuclear fuel cycle
industry, which would include developing uranium enrichment plants and nuclear fuel
production sites.

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Heated debate over nuclear power,

In a heated energy budget session, the Democratic Alliance (DA) gave Energy Minister
Tina Joemat-Pettersson a roasting and continuously disrupted her during her budget
speech in the National Assembly in Cape Town on Tuesday.
The disruptions focused on her nuclear policy as well as the abandoned independent
system and market operator (Ismo) bill. It prompted Joemat-Petterssons mid-speech
suggestion that the members on the left be given Ritalin for their lack of concentration
and the DAs response that she needs anti-depressants.
Joemat-Pettersson said the government approved the nuclear energy policy in 2008,
which provides for the expansion of the nuclear build programme in a coordinated
manner to address socio-economic needs and bolster the economy. However, the DA
said it was a confusing development.

We in the DA find the ministers announcement to go ahead with the nuclear build
programme to be downright confusing, premature and irresponsible, said DA shadow
deputy minister of energy Gordon Mackay.

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The Cabinet-approved IRP 2010 provides for 9 600 MW of electricity to be generated

through nuclear power, with the first unit commissioned by 2023, said Joemat-
Pettersson.
Vendor parades have been completed with all nuclear vendor countries that have
shown interest to participate in the nuclear new build programme, she said.

SAs nuclear preparedness deficient

Mackay said the International Atomic Energy Agency found South Africas nuclear
preparedness deficient in more than 40% of its assessment criteria, strongly indicating
that South Africa is simply not ready to expand its nuclear capability safely.

Echoing these findings are a series of reports from the World Association of Nuclear
Operators, which found the capacity of management staff at Koeberg to be sub-optimal
and identifying the cash crunch at Eskom as negatively impacting on long-term nuclear
safety at SAs sole nuclear power station.
This is to say nothing of the capacity constraints being experienced at the National
Nuclear Regulator a body that lacks the requisite skill to oversee any new build
programme. Perhaps we should remind the minister that ignoring the facts will not
change the facts. The truth is simple. There simply is no real case for expanded nuclear
capacity in South Africa.

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Joemat-Pettersson said the department would commence with the nuclear procurement
process in the second quarter of this financial year to select a strategic partner or
partners in a competitive, fair, transparent and cost effective manner.
We expect to present the outcome of this procurement process to Cabinet by year-end.

We will finalise the business model for the re-establishment of the nuclear fuel cycle
facilities to take advantage of our mineral resources and the beneficiation strategy of our
government.

Students to be sent to China, Russia

In preparation for the rollout the nuclear build programme, we have commenced with a
nuclear skills development and training programme. We will be sending students to
attend focused training in various countries.
In this regard, 50 trainees from government nuclear industry entities were sent to China
in April 2015 for phase 1 nuclear training, and plans are under way to send an additional
250 trainees to China.

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The Russian Federation has offered five new nuclear scholarships (at) masters degree
level in nuclear physics this year, while South Korea has a standing programme to train
South African students in masters programmes in nuclear engineering.
(MYBROADBAND, 19 May 2015)

https://mybroadband.co.za/news/energy/126814-south-africa-to-build-6-new-nuclear-
power-plants.html

Russian nuclear deal places massive liability on South Africans

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A nuclear agreement with Russia has far-reaching consequences for the budget the
Western Cape High Court heard on Friday, as it places all liability for a nuclear accident
on South Africa, while indemnifying Russia completely.

David Unterhalter, SC, appearing for Earthlife Africa and the Southern African Faith
Communities Environmental Institute, who are challenging governments nuclear
procurement process in court, said liability for nuclear accidents fell on South Africa
even if it occurred outside the country.

If the Russian company building the proposed eight new nuclear power stations had an
accident while transporting nuclear material from Vladivostok to Qatar, for instance,

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causing extensive damage, the Russian inter-governmental agreement made South

Africa liable for what could be massive costs.
South Africa bears the burden under the indemnity clause. A country making this kind of
offer would have to make very special provision for this in its budget, Unterhalter said.
Such liability was not even consistent with the Vienna Convention on liability for nuclear
damage, he said. So we have gone very far in seeming to court Russia and to say, We
will pay and we will indemnify, Unterhalter said.

The court is not being asked to decide on the merits of the Russian nuclear agreement,
as this would be beyond its powers. However, the contents are relevant as the court is
being asked to decide whether an international agreement of this nature should first
have been tabled in Parliament for approval, particularly because of the massive
financial implications. The litigants argue that tabling the agreement without
Parliamentary approval was unlawful as it did not comply with the Constitution and the
agreement should be set aside.
Counsel for Minister of Energy Tina Joemat-Pettersson, who tabled the Russian
agreement, argued that it did not need to come before Parliament, nor was there a need
to allow the public to make representations. This was because it fitted into the category
of agreements between countries that dealt with technical, administrative or executive
matters, which did not have extra-budgetary consequences.

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Marius Oosthuizen, SC, for the government, argued that the ministers tabling of it under
this category therefore did not contradict constitutional requirements.
One of the two presiding judges, ED Baartman, commented that a government guideline
indicated that international agreements which dealt with minor, everyday issues did not
need Parliamentary approval.

Are you saying the Russian agreement is a minor, everyday issue? she asked.
Oosthuizen replied that the Russian agreement would not constitute something that was
high on the South African agenda as it was about cooperation between governments on
an executive level.
The litigants are also asking the court to set aside the ministers determinations, made
under the Electricity Regulation Act, that South Africa needed 9 600 MW of new nuclear
power.
One was made in 2013, where the Department of Energy was the body that would buy
the nuclear power, and the other in 2016 that made Eskom the procurer.
Both are infected with administrative error and neither should survive, Unterhalter said.
The court heard submissions on whether the ministers decisions were administrative in
nature which meant they could be reviewed and set aside or whether they were
policy decisions, which could not be.
One of the tests in deciding whether a decision was administrative was whether it had
consequences and whether it affected anyone. Oosthuizen argued the decision to

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determine that South Africa needed 9 600 MW of nuclear power had not affected
anyones rights, but had merely imposed an obligation on the National Energy Regulator
of South Africa (Nersa) which had the statutory duty to issue electricity-generating
licences.
Judge LJ Bozalek said, You cant just look at this through the prism of Nersas rights.
You have to look at the rights of people. Oosthuizen replied, Yes. But that decision did
not affect my electricity bill by one cent. Baartman said, Not yet.
The case has ended. No date was set for judgment.

Engineering News, 27 February 2017

http://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article/russian-nuclear-deal-places-massive-
liability-on-south-africans-2017-02-26

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March against R1 trillion nuclear deal on 22 February

SUNNINGHILL Social justice organizations will march in Johannesburg and Cape

Town in protest against the R1 trillion nuclear procurement deal.

Social justice organizations will protest outside Eskom Megawatt Park in Sunninghill on
22 February to demand an end to the secrecy surrounding the South African
governments R1-trillion proposed nuclear procurement deal.

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Protestors will also march on Parliament and the Cape High Court in Cape Town. The
organizations believe there has been secret decision-making and a lack of public
consultation by the government, opening the door to massive corruption that could
bankrupt the country.

The organizers of the march including R2K (Right to Know), Earth life Africa
Johannesburg (ELA) and the Southern African Faith Communities Environment Institute,
said in a statement, For years we have seen service delivery issues take a back seat to
massive spending that does not improve the living standards of ordinary South Africans.

The nuclear deal will be the biggest procurement South Africa has ever seen and will
lead to increases in electricity pricing and minimal job creation in comparison to other
energy options, unless we unite to stop this outrageous expenditure. We demand a
peoples budget.

Fourways Review, 21 February 2017

http://fourwaysreview.co.za/255050/march-r1-trillion-nuclear-deal-22-february/

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Lecture 2
INTRODUCTION

South Africa is blessed with a wealth of minerals of which a large portion of the world
reserves occurs here. The largest occurrence is in the Witwatersrand Basin and the
Bushveld Complex. The major earners for South Africa are gold, coal, and platinum,
although golds contribution is declining. Although the minerals industry is our major
revenue earner, its benefits can also be measured in terms of job creation, creation of
infrastructure and the increasing the standard of living of the people of South Africa.

The minerals are primarily retrieved from the earth through some kind of mining process,
either sold as is on the commodity market or processed further. The Chemical Engineer
is involved in the processing of the mined minerals. The type of process will depend on
the type of mineral being mined as well as a number of other factors. The different
refining techniques applied can be categorised into different classes that can be
represented by Figure 1.

1. Importance of mineralogy to the processing of minerals

Identifying the minerals present in a deposit is an essential first step in evaluating its
potential as an ore body. However, this information on its own is not sufficient to enable
the selection of possible methods of mining and processing the minerals, or to determine
the economic viability of their use. To carry out process selection and detailed costing,
information on the following mineral characteristics is required:

(i) size and depth of the ore body below the surface,
(ii) orientation relative to the surface,
(iii) integrity / presence of geological faults, and
(iv) geographical location

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The ore body can be charactised on a macro bases as well as micro basis. The macro-
characteristics of the ore body largely influence the methods which are required to
remove the valuable material from the ground, so that it can be further processed. The
design of the mine is an important factor in determining the cost of the source material to
the processing plant.

The micro-characteristics of an ore are used to determine the methods that can be used
for the physical and chemical processing of the ore. This is why mineralogical
examination is important. It should identify all mineral phases which are present in the
ore. If the ore contains worthwhile amounts of more than one valuable mineral, it is
usually the object of mineral processing to separate them; similarly if undesirable
minerals, which may interfere with subsequent refining processes, are present, it may be
necessary to remove these minerals at the separation stage. Furthermore, the minerals
associated with those of value may also determine the process routes as the valuable
minerals themselves.

There are two fundamental operations in mineral processing, namely the release or
liberation of the valuable minerals from their waste gangue minerals, and the separation
of these valuable minerals from the gangue, the latter process being known as
concentration

2. Processed Minerals

After the minerals have been extracted from the earth, they must be converted into
metallic form. These minerals are usually mined with material that is not useful, gangue.
The cost of extraction of the metals will therefor increase with an increase in the amount
of gangue material. Methods were therefor developed to separate the unwanted
components. These mineral dressing or benefication techniques become very important
when the ore has to be transported. The costs of transportation increase with a
decrease in concentration. An increase in concentration also results in an exponential

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increase in metal loss in the rejected material. A balance is therefor obtained to

minimize the transportation cost with the minimum loss of material.

FIGURE 1 Mineral manufacturing process

ORE

Liberation
COMMINUTION

SEPARATION

CLASSIFICATION FLOTATION ELECTROSTATIC CONCEN. MAGNETIC CONCEN.

Concentration
DEWATERING

REDUCTION & REFINING

PYROMETALLURGY HYDROMETALLURGY ELECTROMETALLURGY

FINAL PRODUCT

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3. Manufacturing Process

3.1 Benefication process

The purpose of the benefication process is to separate the mineral from the gangue
material. The first step will be (i) comminution. The purpose of comminution is to
reduce the size of the ore. Crushing, primary and secondary, is applied to reduce the
size of the ore to intermediate sizes. Grinding, which include ball milling and rod milling,
is applied to grind the ore very fine.

The purpose of the (ii) separation process is to remove the mineral from the gangue
material. Different types of separation processes are applied. Classification applies the
difference in the settling rates of similar size particles with different densities. Examples
of this are jigs, spiral concentrators and centrifuges.

The second type of separation process is flotation, which depends on the modification of
the surface tension of the particles to alter the rate of settling. An example is the Denver
flotation cell.

The electrostatic and magnetic concentration processes utilize the difference in electrical
properties and magnetic properties respectively of the mineral and the gangue material.

(iii) Dewatering or Drying the concentrate is usually the final stage of benefication. The
product obtained from classification, flotation, and wet magnetic separation is a solid
suspended in a large volume of water. Dewatering of the ore is done usually in stages.
The first stage allows the solids to settle in large containers, thickeners. Centrifuges
achieve more rapid dewatering, but at higher cost. The remaining free water may then
be removed by vacuum or pressure filters.

The extend of dewatering is determined by the subsequent refining processes applied.

In the case of leaching, the residual moisture is no problem.

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3.2 Reduction and Refining

The ore is now ready for the final separation from the remaining gangue and for the
reduction to the metallic form. Ideally, the metal would be produced with the required
purity in a single step. In most cases, however, an impure metal is first produced in an
extraction or smelting stage. The impurities are then removed by refining to produce a
metal with the required composition. The types of processes used for this purpose can
be classified under three headings:

(i) Pyrometallurgy
(ii) Hydrometallurgy
(iii) Electrometallurgy

3.2.1 Pyrometallurgy

Pyrometallurgy involves the treatment of the ore at elevated temperatures. The ore is
heated and simultaneously reduced by solid carbon or gases such as CO or hydrogen.
In the case of sulfide ores, it is first roasted to convert the sulfides to oxides in an
oxidizing atmosphere below the melting point of the constituents.

3.2.2 Hydrometallurgy

The refining of minerals through hydrometallurgy involves the dissolution of the mineral
by leaching and then concentration of the dissolved mineral.
A wide range of recovery methods is employed. The simplest is cementation. This
involves the addition of a compound that will result in the formation of the metal. The
deposition of copper is a good example:

CuO H 2 SO4 CuSO 4 H 2 O

CuSO 4 Fe Cu FeSO4

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Another method is the recovery through ion exchange and solvent extraction. The ion
exchange resin (IER) (solid) and solvent extraction liquid (SEL) have organic functional
groups, which have a greater affinity for the dissolved mineral than the ion associated
with the group. The dissolved mineral is concentrated in the IER and the SEL, which is
separated from the water from which the mineral is later removed. The concentrated
mineral is the processed to obtain the refined mineral.

The same procedure can be followed for the adsorption of the dissolved mineral by an
adsorbent. The mineral is adsorbed by the adsorbent, activated carbon in the case of
gold. The concentrated gold is then later eluted from the carbon and refinined.

Other methods include precipitation by changing the pH of the solution. All these
methods require further refining by either melting or electrolysis of the concentrated
leach solution.

3.2.3 Electrometallurgy

Although electricity is an economical energy source to melt metals, its use for the
extraction and refining of metals is very expensive. The process is essentially the
passage of an electrical current between two electrodes immersed in a solution
containing the metal. The metal is deposited on the negative electrode in the cell. The
metal is usually in an aqueous solution, which may be produced, in a hydrometallurgical
operation, but it can also be contained in a mixture of fused salt, as in aluminum and
magnesium extraction.

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Lecture 3

MINERAL PROCESSING STATISTICS

Why is it necessary to have an understanding of statistics?

Sampling plays a very important role in mineral processing. Unless the technologist or
engineer has a reasonable grasp of statistical theory he will be unable to determine the
true value of an analysis.
Examples of statistical measurements that are designed to give the value of a particular
analysis/analyses are;

Determining an average
(The concentration of gold in the ore body)
( sample) / number of samples

Determining a standard deviation

(the concentration of gold in the ore body)
(sample - average) / number of samples

Very often we are called upon to determine a mathematical relationship between a set of
variables. Knowledge of some form of statistical regression will be necessary before this
exercise can be completed. An example of this will be

Linear regression
(power to a pump verses pumping rates)

pumping rates = cons. 2 x power + cons.1

Polynomial regression
(power to a pump verses pumping rates)
pumping rates = cons.3 x power2 + cons.2 x power + cons.1

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Simple examples

1. Five ore samples are taken from a number of places on the main reef. The
distance of each sample from the center of the reef core is noted along with the
gold content.

Sample No. Gold content (ppm) distance from core center

(m)

1 50 0.01
2 30 0.1
3 10 0.15
4 1 0.25
5 0 0.3

Lets determine the average gold concentration over the area we have tested;
(0.01 + 0.1 + 0.15 + 0.25 + 0.3)/ 5 = 0.162

2 2 2 2 2
0.01 0.162 0.1 0.162 0.15 0.162 0.25 0.162 0.3 0.162
5
Lets determine the standard deviation
=0.1038

Lets develop a straight-line equation that will give us the distance a specific gold
concentration will be from the center of the reef. The formula that gives us the cons.1 of
the linear equation is the following;

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LINEAR REGRESSION DERIVATION

Y = a1 + a 2 X

Where

Y X X XY
2

a1
N X X
2 2

And

N XY X Y
a2
N X 2 X
2

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(Y )(X 2 ) (X )(XY )
constan1
NX 2 (X ) 2

X Y XY X2
50 0.01 0.5 2500
30 0.10 3.0 900
10 0.15 1.5 100
1 0.25 0.25 1
0 0.30 0.00 0
sums 91 0.81 5.25 3501

cons.1= 0.2556

The formula that gives us the cons.2 of the linear equation is the following;

N (XY ) (X )(Y )
constant2
NX 2 (X ) 2

X Y XY X2
50 0.01 0.5 2500
30 0.10 3.0 900
10 0.15 1.5 100
1 0.25 0.25 1
0 0.30 0.00 0
sums 91 0.81 5.25 3501

cons.2 = -0.00515

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Hence we can say that the linear equation that will give us the distance a position is from
the center of the reef based the gold concentration will be the following;

0.2556 0.00515 x ppm = distance

0.3

line represented by equation distance

from reef

0.0

0.0 50

It may be easier to represent this data with a curved line or a second order polynomial.

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Do some of the following examples yourself;

X Y
65 68
63 66
67 68
64 65
68 69
62 66
70 68
66 65
68 71
67 67
69 68
71 70
Constant 1 = 35.82
Constant 2 = 0.476

X Y
1 2
2 5
3 7
4 9
5 26
Constant 1 = -5.8
Constant 2 = 5.2

Y = constant 1 + constant 2 x X

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Lecture 4
MINERALS AND ORES

What is a mineral?
A mineral is a natural inorganic substance that may be in the native or metallic
form eg. alluvial gold or platinum group metals. However in most cases minerals are
found complexed with other elements such as sulphides, carbonates and chlorides.
More reactive metals such as iron are almost always found in compound form such as
the oxide or carbonate.

What is an ore?
An ore is the term we use when referring directly to the presence of a geographically
defined mineral. In other words a certain spot on the landscape is said to be rich in a
certain mineral and therefore we say that an associated ore body is present.

Definitions:

Ore body
The rock that contains a valuable mineral(s) that can be extract profitably

Gangue minerals
The valueless mineral found in the ore

Tenor of ores
Amount of valuable metal in the ore

Waste
Rock which is mined together with the ore body that contains little or no valuable
minerals

Alloys
A substance with metallic properties that contains more than one element

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HOW DID ORE DEPOSITS COME TO BE WHERE THEY ARE?

Some 3000 4000 million years ago the body of matter that was becoming the earth
must have cooled to a stage at which most of the vapours had condensed to liquids and
some solidification was beginning.

At this stage considerable segregation had occurred under the action of gravitational and
chemical potentials. There was a large excess of metals over non-metals the net
conditions were reducing and the earth resembled the products of a gigantic smelting
operation with the excess of metals sinking to the centre of the planet under gravity.

As further cooling developed, oxide slags formed around the earth eventually becoming
a crust some 50-km thick. In this crust are found metals in many complexed forms, which
we refer to as ore bodies. It is from these ore bodies that we are at present, able to
obtain the many types of metals that are required in our industrialised and developed
world.

There is, in addition to this over simplified description of the worlds make up, another two
layers situated beneath the crust and around the metallic centre of the earth. These are
firstly, a sulphide rich layer we refer to as the Chalcosphere and on top of that an oxide
rich layer we refer to as siderosphere.

The various thicknesses are:

Charcosphere 1500 km
Siderosphere 7000 km
Crust 50 km

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Iron ores

Lets look specifically at iron ores.

For most engineering purposes an iron alloy (steel, cast iron, alloy steel, Stainless steel)
is the first and often the only logical choice. The most important ore minerals of iron are

Hematite : Fe2O3
Magnetite : Fe3O4
Woestenite : FeO
Limonite : Fe2O3.xH2O
Siderite : FeCO3

Iron ore is plenty full in South Africa. The Sishin ore body found in the Northern Cape is
well known. Up to a few years ago this body was being systematically mined and
transported by train to Saldana Bay where it was loaded on to ships bound mainly for the
Far East and Europe. The Corex plant that was built in Saldana Bay now receives most
of the iron ore and will eventually produce steel.

Aluminium ores
Aluminium is mostly mined as bauxite, Bauxite can be found in one of two forms
Gibbsite : (Al2O3.3H2O)
and Diaspore : (Al2O3.H2O)

copper ores
Copper is found in many different complexed forms the most abundant are complexed
with sulphur and oxygen

Sulphide copper ores

Chalcopyrite : CuFeS2
Chalcocite : Cu2S
Enargite : Cu3AsS4
Tennantite : Cu3AsS4

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Oxided copper minerals

Malachite : CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
Azurite : 2CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
Cuprite(red oxide) : Cu2O
Tenorite(black oxide): CuO

Malachite and Azurite are considered semi precious in some quarters. Malachite mines
in central Russia produce rock that is shaped into receptacles much like marble.

Other commonly referred to ores

Some minerals are sometimes found only in certain complexed forms examples are

Galena or lead Sulphide : PbS

Sphalerite or Zinc sulphide : ZnS

Cassiterite or Tin oxide : SnO2

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Lecture 5

MINERALOGY

What is Mineralogy?
It is the study of the crystalline structures of minerals.

Examples of minerals with structures:

Gold, silver, diamond, graphite, pyrite, marcasite, etc.

Examples of natural solids with no structure:

Granite, Limestone, wood , Coal, Basalt, etc.

What is a Mineral?
It is a naturally occurring, homogeneous solid with a definite, but not fixed composition,
and an ordered atomic arrangement that is formed by inorganic processes in a
crystalline phase.

What is Process Mineralogy?

It is the study of crystalline structures of minerals for the purposes of extracting the
valuable components.

What is Polymorphs?
Two minerals with the same composition, but different structures.

Example: Diamond and graphite are both pure carbon, different minerals.

That is why it is important to use mineral names rather than chemical formulas.

What is Isomorphs?
Minerals with the same structure and different composition.

Example : Gold and silver

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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

The most common rock-forming minerals can be identified based on the following
properties:

1. Crystal form and habit.(shape)

Recognizing crystal forms (a crystal face plus its symmetry equivalents) in the various
crystal systems. The crystal faces developed on a specimen may arise either as a result
of growth or of cleavage.(breaks along definite plane surfaces.)

In either case, they reflect the internal symmetry of the crystal structure that makes the
mineral unique.

The crystal faces commonly seen on quartz are growth faces and represent the slowest
growing directions in the structure.

A prism is a face that is perpendicular to a major axis of the crystal.

A pyramid is one that is not perpendicular to any major axis.

Crystals that commonly develop prism faces are said to have a prismatic or columnar
habit.
Crystals that grow in fine needles are acicular; crystals growing flat plates are tabular.

Crystals forming radiating sprays of needles or fibers are stellate. Crystals forming
parallel fibers are fibrous, and crystals forming branching, tree-like growths are
dendritic.

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2. Luster and transparency.

The way a mineral transmits or reflects light is a diagnostic property. The transparency
may be either opaque, translucent, or transparent. This reflectance property is called
luster.

Native metals and many sulfides are opaque and reflect most of the light hitting their
surfaces and have a metallic luster.
Other opaque or nearly opaque oxides may appear dull, or resinous.

Transparent minerals with a high index of refraction such as diamond appear brilliant
and are said to have an adamantine luster, whereas those with a lower index of
refraction such as quartz or calcite appear glassy and are said to have a vitreous luster.

3. Color and streak.

Metallic minerals are either white, gray, or yellow. The presence of transition metals with
unfilled electron shells (e.g. V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, and Cu) in oxide and silicate minerals
causes them to be opaque or strongly colored so that the streak, the mark that they
leave when scratched on a white ceramic tile, will also be strongly colored.

4. Cleavage, fracture, and parting.

Because bonding is not of equal strength in all directions in most crystals, they will tend
to break along crystallographic directions giving them a fracture property that reflects the
underlying structure and is frequently diagnostic.

A perfect cleavage results in regular flat faces resembling growth faces such as in mica,
or calcite.

A less developed cleavage is said to be imperfect, or if very weak, a parting.

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If a fracture is irregular and results in a rough surface, it is hackly. If the irregular fracture
propagates as a single surface resulting in a shiny surface as in glass, the fracture is
said to be conchoidal.

5. Tenacity

The resistance that a mineral offers to breaking, crushing, bending, or tearing Its
cohesiveness, is known as tenacity.

The following terms describe tenacity in minerals:

Brittle : A mineral that breaks or powder easily.

Malleable : A mineral that can be hammered out into thin sheets.
Sectile : A mineral that can be cut into thin shavings with a knife.
Ductile : A mineral that can be drawn into wire.
Flexible : A mineral that bends but does not resume its original shape when the
Pressure is released.
Elastic : A mineral that, after being bent, will resume its original position upon the
release of the pressure.

5. Specific Gravity

Specific gravity is a number that expresses the ratio between the weight of an equal
volume of water.

The specific gravity of minerals is frequently an important aid in identification, particularly

in working with fine crystals or gemstones, when other test will injure the specimens.

Specific gravity is measured by determining the weight in air (Wa) and the weight in
water (Ww) and computing specific gravity from SG = Wa / (Wa-Ww).

In practice this is done using a Jolly balance.

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6. Hardness

Hardness is the resistance that a smooth surface of a mineral offers to scratching. It is

dependant on the crystal structure. The stronger the binding forces between the atoms,
the harder the mineral.

The degree of hardness is determined by observing the comparative ease or difficulty

with which one mineral is scratched by another.

The following minerals arranged in order of increasing hardness comprise what is known
as the Mohs scale of hardness. ( standard scale was developed by Friedrich Mohs in
1812)

1. Talc 6. Orthoclase
2. Gypsum 7. Quartz
3. Calcite 8. Topaz
4. Fluorite 9. Corundum
5. Apatite 10 Diamond

This scale is approximately linear up to corundum, but diamond is approximately 5 times

harder than corundum.

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Occurrence of Minerals

Minerals occur most commonly and abundantly as rock constituents.

Rocks are devided into three main divisions:

1. Igneous
2. Sedimentary
3. Metamorphic

1. Igneous Rocks:
Are those that have formed by the cooling and consequent solidification of a hot mass of
rock material, a rock magma.

Magma is a melt that, in addition to the principal elements O, Si, Fe, Ca, Mg, na, K
contains water and minor amounts of many other elements.
As it cools there is, in general, a deginite order of crystallization of the various mineral
constituents.

Classification of rocks
(i) Relative amount of Silica.
(ii) The kind of feldspar
(iii) The texture, or size of the grain.

What is feldspar?
Plutonic?
Volcanic?

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2. Sedimentary Rocks:

The materials of which sedimentary rocks are composed have been derived from the
weathering of some previously existing rock mass.

Divided into mechanical and chemical sedimentation rocks.

Mechanical sediments such as gravel, sand, clay or mud have transported by streams
into a body of water and deposited in layers.

Chemical sediments dissolved by waters circulating through the rocks and brought
ultimately by these waters into the sea or lake.

3. Metamorphic Rocks

it is rocks which have undergone some chemical or physical change subsequent to their
original formation

Divided into Regional metamorphic rocks and Contact metamorphic rocks.

What is vein and vein minerals?

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Mineral Classification

Minerals have been classified on the basis of chemical composition.

1. Native elements
2. Sulfides
3. Sulfosalts
4. Oxides
4.1. Simple and Multiple
4.2. Hydroxides
5. Halides
6. Carbonates
7. Nitrates
8. Borates
9. Phosphates
10. Sulfates
11. Tungstates
12. Silicates

1. Native Elements

Only about twenty elements are found in the native state.

These elements can be divided into three categories.

1.1. Metals
1.2. Semimetals
1.3. Nonmetals

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1.1. The three common native metal groups:

(i) Gold group: gold, silver, copper

(ii) Platinum group: platinum, palladium, iridium, osmium
(iii) Iron group: Iron, Nickel

1.2. Semimetals: Arsenic, Bismuth

1.3. Nonmetals: Sulfur, Diamond, Graphite.

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Lecture 6

PARTICULATE SOLIDS

In mineral processing, we find that we have to deal extensively with particles that are not
spherical in shape. For example once we have milled our ore down to a slurry able
particle size distribution (10m < distribution < 200m) we can then proceed with further
processing. However, in mineral processing our particles are rarely spherical.

In fact due to the planer crystal structure of the vast majority of ores each particle is
normally quite flat in structure. So how exactly do we classify the size of our particles if
they are not spherical?

How round is a particle?

A frequently used measure of particle shape is sphericity () or phi. This measure we

use to give the degree of sphericity of a particle.

The sphericity value normally lies between 1 and zero with 1 being associated with a
perfectly spherical particle.

Perfectly spherical = 1
Perfectly flat = 0

Sphericity we describe as the ratio of surface area of sphere of same volume as particle
surface area.

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surface area of sphere of same volume as particle

surface area of particle

Lets calculate the sphericity of a cube

Our cube has a characteristic length of 1 and therefore has a volume of 1 unit and a
surface area of 6 units.

A sphere of the same volume (1 unit) will have characteristic dimension of

3
1
3 4 2 1.241

And the surface area of a sphere with a diameter of 1.2407 is equal to;

2
1.2407
4 4.836
2
And therefor we say that the sphericity will be the external area of the sphere over the
area of cube of same volume.

4.836
0.806
6.0

There are a variety of techniques to classify non-spherical particles from the perspective
of diameter; the most important and often used is that of equivalent sphere.

I.e. we say the characteristics of a particle are the same as the characteristics of a
spherical particle of such a size and that is the size we attribute to the particle.

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What characteristics do we use?

Equivalent volume.
Certainly from the perspective of volume displaced, it is reasonable to say that the
characteristic diameter of a particle is equal to the diameter of a spherical particle of the
same volume as that particle.

External surface area

From the perspective of mass transfer area (i.e. as would be applicable in the leach) it is
reasonable to say that the characteristic diameter of a particle is equal to the diameter of
a spherical particle of the same external surface area as the particle.

Surface area per unit volume

Similar to the last characteristic here we simply use more particles and give an overall
area available per unit volume

The sphere which will just pass through same aperture as particle

The sphere of same settling velocity in a specified fluid.

Another size is Ferets statistical diameter which is the mean distance apart from two
tangential parallel lines which are tangential to the particle in an arbitrarily fixed direction,
irrespective of the orientation of each particle coming up for inspection. Ferets diameter
is usually used under microscopic evaluation.

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How do we measure particle sizes?

Sieving
Particles passed through a succession of sieves from largest to smallest. Particles tend
to get caught on the sieve the apertures of which are smaller than the particle can pass
through.

Microscopic analysis
The particle size is simply examined under a microscope.

Sedimentation and elutriation methods

The particles rate of sedimentation/elutriation in a known liquid is then correlated to the
applicable size.

Laser diffraction
Particles are allowed to break a laser beam at a known speed. The duration for which
the beam is broken is an indication of the size of the particle.

X-ray or photo-sedimentometers

How do we represent particle size distributions?

On a frequency basis (not done often)

On an accumulative bases (usually used)

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On the frequency basis, we simply give the % on a mass basis, of a certain quantity of
solids that appears at various particle sizes i.e.

100%

Area under curve should add up to 100%

0%
10m 50m 100m 150m 200m

On the accumulative basis things are done slightly differently

A percentage of the sample mass is considered to be less than a given particle size
e.g. 10% of the particles present, on a mass basis are less than 100m in diameter
e.g. 50% of the particles present, on a mass basis are less than 100m in diameter.
The graphical representation of the accumulative system is;

100%

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0%
10m 50m 100m 150 200m

Mean particle size

There are a variety of ways in which mean particle size can be determined;

Average particle size based on surface area and this we determine using the following
relationship

1
ds
x
d

The mean surface diameter is defined as the size of particles d s which is such that if all
the particles are of this size, the total surface will be the same as in the mixture.

Example of calculating an equivalent diameter based on surface area;

ds x frac xl/dl

10 0.01 0.001
11 0.05 0.0045
12 0.1 0.00833
13 0.2 0.0153
14 0.3 0.0214
15 0.1 0.0067
16 0.1 0.0063
17 0.05 0.0029
18 0.05 0.0028
19 0.04 0.0021

sum 0.0714 invert this value 13.999

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Mean particle size based on length

This value we calculate in the following way;

x
d
dl
x
d 2

Using the same example as above we again calculate the mean particle size based on
length.

ds x frac xl/dl xl/dl2

10 0.01 0.001 0.0001

11 0.05 0.0045 0.000413
12 0.1 0.00833 0.0007
13 0.2 0.0153 0.0012
14 0.3 0.0214 0.0015
15 0.1 0.0067 0.0004
16 0.1 0.0063 0.0004
17 0.05 0.0029 0.0002
18 0.05 0.0028 0.0002
19 0.04 0.0021 0.0001

sum 0.0714 sum 0.005195

13.75 = (0.0714/0.005195)

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Agglomeration

Because it is necessary in mineral processing plants to transfer material from storage to

process, it is important to know how the material will flow. If the particles tend to
agglomerate poor flow properties may be expected.

The determination of particle size analysis would also be hampered if there is a tendency
for the material to agglomerate.

Agglomeration arises from the interaction between particles, as a result of which they
adhere to one another to form clusters.

The main mechanisms giving rise to agglomeration are;

1. Mechanical interlocking, This can occur particularly if the particles are long and thin
in shape in which case large masses may become interlocked

2. Surface attraction, Surface forces, including Van der Waals forces, may give rise to
substantial bonds between particles, particularly when particles are extremely fine and
their surface area is great compared to their mass.

3. Plastic welding, When irregular particles are in contact the forces between the
particle will be borne on extremely small surfaces and the very high pressures developed
may give rise to plastic welding.

4. Electrostatic attraction, Particles may become charged as they are fed into
equipment and significant electro-static charges may be built up, particularly on fine
solids.

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5. Effect of moisture, The presence of moisture could result in two actions. Moisture
situated between two particles could as a result of surface tension affects hold the two
particles together. Or moisture might dissolve some of the solid which might then
become a bonding agent.

6. Temperature fluctuations, Give rise to changes in particle structure and to greater

cohesiveness.

Angles of repose and friction

The angle of repose and friction for a particular type of particulate solid is of great
significance and can inform the technologist a great deal about the characteristics of
such a solid.

What is the angle of repose?

If particulate solids are poured onto a flat surface they generally from a cone. This cone
could have very steep sides or alternatively be relatively flat;

Steep sides flat sides

Angle of repose

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The cone of the left is a fairly steep cone and has a high angle of repose. The cone on
the right is flatter and hence has a low angle of repose.

The angle between the plane and the sloping side is referred to as the dynamic angle of
repose or poured angle. In practice however, the heap will no be exactly conical and
larger particles may accumulate at the bottom. Also note that the freer flowing the solids
are the smaller will be the angle of repose.

Angles of repose vary from about 200 for free flowing solids to as much as 600 for solids
with poor flow characteristics.

There is another method of determining the angle of repose.

A single layer of particulate solid is glued onto a flat surface. A second layer of the same
particulate solids is placed on top of this layer (not glued). The surface is tiled until the
second layer begins to move. At this point the angle of the surface to the horizontal we
say is the static angle of repose or the drained angle.

This method of determination is a little less practical then that of the cone.

The angle of slide (angle of friction)

An angle which is similar to the static angle of repose is the angle of slide which is
measured in a similar manner as the drained angle except that the surface is smooth
and is not coated with a layer of particles.

Moving solids Stationary solids

Angle of friction

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The above technique for locating the angle of friction is more of a theoretical nature than
practical.

A practical method for measuring the angle of friction employs a vertical tube, open at
the top, with a loosely fitting piston in the base. With small quantities of solid in the tube,
the piston will freely move upwards, but when a certain critical amount is exceeded no
force, however large, will force the solids upwards in the tube. With the largest movable
core of solids in the tube, the ratio of its length to its diameter is the tangent of the angle
of friction.

dt

solids
Lc

Piston head

The angle of friction is determined by the flowing formula

Lc / dt tan

Where tan is the angle of friction

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Transportation of solids

The variety of needs in connection with the conveying of solids has led to the
development of a wide range of equipment. This includes;

Gravity chutes, hoppers

Air slides
Belt conveyors
Screw conveyors
Bucket, chain elevators
Vibrating conveyors, (asymmetric vibration)
Pneumatic/hydraulic, conveying installations, (slurry)

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Lecture 7

BASIC CALCULATIONS IN
METALLURGICAL ENGINEERING

Slurries

Quite often it becomes necessary to determine the solids to liquid ratio in mineral slurry.
Mineral slurry is a mixture of a ground ore and water. In effect slurry is a thin mud which
can be pumped making the transport of the ore much easier. The density of the slurry
can be calculated from the densities of the solid and water provided the ratio of solid to
liquid is known or conversely the density of the slurry is known then the ratio of liquid to
water can be calculated.

Lets assume that we have silica slurry

The particles (or discontinues medium) are silica compounds mainly silicon oxide. We
assume

SG = 2.7 kg.dm-3

The suspending liquid (or continues medium) is water.

SG = 1 kg.dm-3

The silica and water exist in the slurry on a one to one mass basis i.e. for every kg of
water present there is a kg of solids. What is the density of this slurry?

In 100 kg of slurry 50 kg will be silica and 50 kg will be water

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50 kg of silica will have a volume of = 18.52 dm-3

(50kg / 2.7kg.dm-3)

50 kg of water will have a volume of 50 dm-3

(50 kg / 1 kg.dm-3)

Finally the slurry density will be calculated at 1.459 kg.dm -3;

mass 100kg
SG 3 3
1.459kg .dm 3
vol 18.52dm 50dm

It also becomes possible to calculate the ratio of solids to water present in slurry if the
density of the solid is known and the density of the slurry measured. Obviously the
density of the slurry will be some where between that of the water and that of the solids

Lets assume that we are given slurry that has an SG of 1.45 kg.dm-3.

Present in this slurry are water and silica solids.

Silica solids Water

SG = 2.7 kg.dm-3 SG = 1.0 kg.dm-3

The question we now ask is what the ratio of solids to liquid is.

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Lets assume that we have 1 liter (dm3) of slurry. We know that our liter of slurry will have
a mass of 1.45 kg.

Lets assume that a certain mass fraction is the silica. Lets call this fraction (x). The
water will then confirm to (1-x).

Lets calculate the volume of the water and solid of the sample.

1.45kg . x 1.45kg(1 x )
3
volume silica(dm 3 ) 3
volume of water (dm 3 )
2.7kg .dm 1kg .dm

Adding these two terms we should have the original volume we assumed 1 liter (dm 3)

1.45kg . x 1.45kg(1 x )
3
3
1liter (dm 3 )
2.7kg .dm 1kg .dm

If we now solve for x we find that it will be;

0.537 x 1.45 x 1 x 0.503

We can now say that the mass liquid ratio in our 1.45 SG slurry is a 50% by 50% solid to
liquid ratio.

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An exercise that will assist you

If you think that you may struggle with the calculation that has just been demonstrated
attempt the following exercise. It will be good practice for you.

Assume that in a plant you have potentially a mineral slurry which is composed of
magnetite SG = 5 kg.dm-3 and water 1 kg.dm-3. As you are designing this plant, you
would like to have a function that will give you the SG of this mineral slurry for a
particular ratio of solids to liquid. I suggest that you locate this function, or even just draw
a graph showing solids to liquids ratio vs slurry density. The function should look
something like this.

1
slurry
x / solid 1 x

Lets look at a more complicated example;

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Example I

A slurry stream consisting of solids and water is redirected into a 50litre bucket. It takes
7 seconds to fill and the net mass of fifty liters of slurry is found to be 80 kg. What is the
solids and water mass flow rates respectively if the solids density is 2700 kg.m -3?

Solution

What is the density of the slurry?

80kg / 50dm 3 1.6kg.dm 3

What is the ratio of solids to water? Lets complete a calculation based on 1 liter of
slurry.

1.6kg( x ) 1.6kg(1 x )
1dm 3 3

2.7kg .dm 1kg .dm 3

Solving for x we obtain X = 0.596

Therefore we find that the mass fraction of solids present in our 80 kg bucket will be
0.596 solid and 0.404 water.

Mass of solid present in the bucket

0.596 80kg 47.6kg

Mass of water in the bucket

80kg 47.6kg 32.5kg

Mass flow rates of solids and water respectively

47.6kg / 7 sec 6.81kg .s 1

32.5kg / 7 sec 4.62kg .s 1

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Example II

A thickener is fed with a slurry of density 1100 kg.m -3 at the rate of 10 liters per second.
How much water must be removed to obtain a slurry stream of density 1400 kg.m-3

Solution

Observe that the mass of slurry per time entering the thickener will be 11 kg.s -1

Lets assume the density of the solids to be 2.7 kg.dm -3. Now lets calculate the ratio of
solids to water in the feed slurry at a feed density of 1100 kg.dm-3.

1.1kg( x ) 1.1kg(1 x )
1dm 3 3

2.7kg .dm 1kg .dm 3

We calculate (x) to be 0.1443 and therefor the water content (1-x) will be 0.8556

Lets calculate the ratio of solids to water in the feed slurry at a feed density of 1400
kg.dm-3.

1.4kg( x ) 1.4kg(1 x )
1dm 3 3

2.7kg .dm 1kg .dm 3

We calculate (x) to be 0.453 and therefor the water content (1-x) will be 0.546

Now in our thickener we are trying to make the solids fraction change form 0.1443 to
0.453

Lets work with 1 kg of feed to the thickener at a SG of 1.1 kg.dm -3 the fraction of solids
is 0.1443 to get it to 1.4 kg.dm-3 we need to find out what will be the total mass if 0.1443
becomes 0.453.

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This we calculate as so;

(0.1443 / 0.453) 1kg 0.3185kg

So we say that our feed has to reduce in mass from 1kg to 0.319kg which means that we
have to loose 0.681 kg of water;

1kg 0.319kg 0.681k

Now the flow rate into our thickener is 10 liters per second and therefore 11 kg.s -1

The amount of water that has to be disposed of will therefore have to be;

11kg.s 1 0.681 7.5kg.s 1

Which means that a thickener as described in the example will have to have a clear
water stream of 7.5kg.s-1 leaving at the top too achieve a slurry stream at the bottom
with a density of 1.4 kg.dm-3?

I suggest that you repeat this exercise but that you do it with a different solids
density. You will find that the answer is the same.

Exercise: (Solid density)

3.5 kg.dm-3
5.2 kg.dm-3

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Lecture 8

COMMINUTION

What exactly is comminution?

Comminution is the reduction in size of ore particles.

Because most minerals are finely disseminated and intimately associated with the
gangue, they must be initially unlocked or liberated before separation can take place.

Only by intense crushing and grinding of ore can this be achieved.

Although the art of comminution starts during the mining operation i.e. blasting and
scraping, we are only interested in the comminution that occurs during mineral
processing.

There are two distinct areas of comminution

1. Crushing
Traditionally used to reduce the size of particles from their largest sizes to
an intermediate size that can be fed to a milling unit

2. Milling
Traditionally the feed for a mill is the discharge of a crushing unit. The
discharge of a mill should be slurry-able particles.

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Principles of Comminution

Most minerals are crystalline materials in which the atoms are regularly arranged in
three-dimensional arrays. In the crystalline lattice of minerals, the inter atomic bonds are
effective only over small distances, and can be broken if extended by a tensile stress.

The presence of cracks or flaws in the structure assists and propagates the shearing of
the crystal structure. As the ore is a combination of gangue material and mineral it is not
unreasonable for cracks and flaws to be present.

Energy of size reduction

Energy that is physically exerted upon ore will be dissipated into any one of five
operations:
1 Elastic deformation
Certain crystal structures can in fact, store energy without breaking, and release this
energy when the stress is removed. Such behavior is known as elastic deformation.

2 Inelastic deformation
This is the deformation that actually results in the breaking of the ore into smaller
particles. It is desirable.

3 Elastic deformation of equipment

This is the energy absorbed by the temporary deformation of the equipment actually
doing the crushing. Normally white austenitic steel is used in the manufacture of hard
equipment surfaces so as to prevent this type of energy loss

4 Friction
This can be in the form of particle particle friction, or particle -machine surface friction

5 noise heat
Crushers and mills are well known for the noise levels they produce and they do tend to
get hot.

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Theoretical energy required to reduce particle size

The theory of Von Rittinger

Research into the energy required to reduce the average size of particles has a long
history, with the first theory being presented by Von Rittinger way back in 1867. His
theory in words stated the following;

THE ENERGY CONSUMED IN THE SIZE REDUCTION IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE

AREA OF THE NEW SURFACE PRODUCED

After much deliberation it has been accepted that the following equation gives the basic
energy consumed to reduce particle size;

dE
CLp
dL
Where
E = energy spent
L = the characteristic size of particle (length)
C = A constant
P = A constant

Von Rittingers law which we have already seen in words equates with the integrated
version of the basic energy consumed equation where p is taken as being -2

dE
CL p
dL
E L2

dE C L
2
dL
E 0 L1

L2 1 L11
E C
1 1
1 1
E C
L2 L1

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C is a constant that comprises two parts,

Kr = Rittingers constant (m4/kg)

fc = The strength of the material (N/m2)

The Kick theory

Kick was another scientist who also tried to come up with a model for energy
consumption during the breaking of rocks. He proposed his theory in 1885. He stated the
following.

THE WORK REQUIRED IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE REDUCTION IN VOLUME OF

THE PARTICLES CONCERNED

Mathematically this theory is similar to Von Rittingers, only the value chosen for P is
equal to 1. This integration results in the following equation.

L2
E K K f c ln
L1

Kicks law has been shown to be more accurate when there is a large amount of plastic
deformation before the fracture occurs and thus more accurate in coarse grinding
circuits.

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The Bond Theory

Bond proposed an all encompassing theory in 1952 which has been accepted by most
technologists and scientists as being realistic.

THE WORK INPUT IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE NEW CRACK TIP LENGTH

PRODUCED IN PARTICLE BREAKAGE, AND EQUALS THE WORK REPRESENTED
BY THE PRODUCT MINUS THAT REPRESENTED BY THE FEED

Interestingly enough Bonds law is once again similar to that of Von Rittinger and Kick.
However he chose a value for p which is the average of those chosen by Rittinger and
Kick i.e. 2/3

The result of the integration with p = -3/2 reveals the following equation;

100 1
E Ei 1
L2 L1 / L2

With some algebraic manipulation it becomes possible to locate the following equation. It
is known as the bond equation and is in standard use throughout the mineral processing
world (crushing).

10W i 10W i
W
P F
Where

W = is the work required for the task (kWhours/unite mass)

P = The diameter which 80% of the product passes(m)

F = The diameter which 80% of the feed passes(m)

WI = Bond index or work index specific to the ore

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10W i 10W i
W
P F

The work index is the comminution parameter which expresses the resistance of the
material to crushing and grinding; numerically it is the kilowatt hours per unit mass
required to reduce the material from theoretically infinite feed size to 80% passing 100
m.

10W i 10W i
W
100m
W Wi

Example

Dolomite mined on the west coast has a bond work index of 16 kilowatt hours/ton . It is
necessary to reduce the particle size distribution to 80% passing 75m. What will be the
amount of work in kilowatt hours required per kg of dolomite if the 80% passing size of
the mined ore is 10 cm?

10W i 10W i
W
P F

10 16 10 16
17.96kWhours / ton
75 100000

Answer must be 0.01796 kW hours /kg

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Lecture 9

PRIMARY CRUSHERS

As we have seen before, crushing can be split into two sub classes i.e. primary and
secondary. Some times there is also tertiary crushing but this is unusual and will not be
covered here. We now look at some primary crushers.

Primary crushers are heavy-duty machines, used to reduce the run-of-mine ore down to
a size suitable for transport and for feeding the secondary crushers. They are always
operated in open circuit with or without grizzlies.

There are two types of Primary crushers, jaw crushers and gyratory crushers

The jaws of the crusher are made from manganese steel, or Ni-hard, or Ni-Cr alloyed
cast iron. The hardness of the jaw reduces ware and tare. It also ensures that energy is
not consumed through elastic deformation.

In all crushers, provision must be made for avoiding the damage that could result from
un-crushable material entering the jaws.

Many jaw crushers are protected from such tramp material (usually heavy metal
objects) by an electrical over load cut out.

Jaw Crushers
The distinctive feature of this class of crusher is the two plates which open and shut like
animal jaws. The jaws are set at an acute angle to each other, and one is pivoted so that
it swings relative to the (other) fixed jaw.

There are three types of jaw crushers Blake, Dodge and Universal

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Blake - pivots at the top

Dodge - pivots at the bottom

Universal - pivots in the middle

Gyratory Crushers

The Gyratory crusher consistes essentially of a long spindle, carrying a hard steel
conical grinding element, with the head, seated in an eccentric sleeve. The spindle is
suspended from a spider

Fixed point

Solids in

Solids out

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SECONDARY CRUSHERS

Secondary crushers are much lighter than the heavy-duty, rugged primary machines.
Since they take the primary crushed ore as feed, the maximum feed size will normally be
less than 15 cm in diameter

Types of secondary crushers are; Cone, hammer, rotary coal breakers and role
crushers.

Cone crusher
In effect a cone crusher is a slightly modified gyratory crusher. The essential difference
is that the shorter spindle of the cone crusher is not suspended, as in the gyratory, but is
supported in a curved, universal bearing below the gyratory head or cone.

Feed in at the top

Collar

Discharge

Notice that unlike in the case of the gyratory crusher the cone crusher is only fixed at the
bottom.

The Symons cone crusher is the most widely used type of cone crusher. The typical
particle size leaving a cone crusher will be about 3 to 2 mm in equivalent diameter. The
size of particles leaving the cone crusher is adjusted by altering the height of the collar. If
the collar is moved further up this opens the gap width if the collar is moved further down
this decreases the gap width.

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Roller crushers

Roll crushers. Roll crusher, or crushing rolls, are still used in some mills, although they
have been replaced in most installations by cone crushers.

Roll crushers are useful for the secondary crushing of sticky frozen and less abrasive
feeds, such as limestone, coal, chalk, gypsum phosphate and soft iron ores.

The operation of rollers is straight forward. The standard spring roles consist of two
horizontal xylinders which each revolve towards each other

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FINE CRUSHING (MILLING)

This is simply a cylindrical vessel containing ore and a medium which may be steel balls,
steel rods, hard rock or just the ore itself to reduce the particles to a size of between 10
and 300m.

The cylinder rotates at a constant speed causing the ore and milling media to tumble
over itself and thus causing a reduction in the size of the particles. The speed of rotation
has an optimum speed which will be different depending on the milling media and ore
type.

SPEEDS OF MILL ROTATION

Essentially there are three speed regimes at which a mill can be operated. This is
not to say that all are correct and can be described as too slow, more or less
correct and too fast.

Too Slow
If a mill turns too slowly it is in, what we described as cascading mode. Under these
circumstances the contents of the mill slide over each other in a cascading manner.
Some abrasion occurs which might well result in inefficient breakage.

Correct speed

When the mill is turning at the correct speed the effect will be for the rising material to be
thrown inward and away from the inner surface of the mill. The material then falls back
on itself with some momentum, effectively causing greater breakage.

Too fast

Under these circumstances the mill turns so fast that the solids remain against the
internal surface of the mill as a result of centrifugal forces. Under these circumstances
there is no abrasion or breakage what so ever.

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CRITICAL SPEED OF A TUMBLING MILL

The definition of critical speed is the rotational speed (RPM) at which the theoretical
trajectory of the circulating particles would fall outside of the mill (i.e. the mill moves into
too fast mode)

At any rotational speed in excess of the critical speed the mill will resemble a horizontal
centrifuge and as we have seen no breakage will occur at all

How do we calculate the critical speed of a mill?

The critical speed of a mill is reached when the centrifugal force experienced by a
particle is equal to the gravitational force it is experiencing. The centrifugal force
experienced by a particle can be calculated in the following way

mV 2
centrifugal force
R

Where
m = the mass of the particle
V = the linear velocity of the particle
R = the radius of the circle of turn

The linear velocity of the particle that is actually on a circular course can be calculated
thus;

2RN
V
60
Where
N = revs per minute

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The gravitational force applicable on a particle, in opposition to the centrifugal force can
be calculated thus;

m. g. cos( ) gravitational force

where
m = mass of the particle
g = acceleration constant
= angle between vertical and effective radius

combining all of the equations present thus far we come up with the following equation;

4 2 N 2 R
cos 2
0.0011 N 2 R
60 g

When the diameter of the rod, or ball, is taken into account, the radius of the outermost
path is (D d)/2 where D is the mill diameter and d is the rod diameter in meters
Thus

Dd
cos 0.0011 N 2
2

The point at which the two forces equal one another will be where the angle effectively
becomes 0 (i.e. the same as dead vertical)

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Centrifugal force

Gravity force

This means that cos = 1 and therefor we locate the critical revs per second with the
following equation which is adapted from the pervious equation;

42.3
Nc rev . min 1
Dd

Where
Nc = the critical speed of the mill

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Lecture 10

TYPES OF MILLS

There are three basic types of mill ball mill, rod mill and autogenous mill.

In a ball mill breakage is cased by steel balls that are mixed in with the charge, in a rod
mill it is rods which span the length of the mill and in an autogenous mill there is no
breaking medium. Breakage is caused simply by the ore tumbling over itself.

Example of calculating the critical speed of a mill

A ball mill has steel balls in it that are approximately 1dm in diameter. The mill itself is
about 4 meters in diameter.

What will be the critical speed of this mill under these circumstances?
The same mill is presently operating at a speed of 21.3 RPM, if the diameter of the steel
balls is wearing at a rate of 0.05 meters per hour, how long it will be before the mill will
be at critical speed.

42.3 42.3
Nc 21.4rev . min 1
Dd 4 0.1

In one hour the new critical speed will be;

42.3 42.3
Nc 21.28rev . min 1
Dd 4 0.05

Therefore doing a linear extrapolation we say that the time taken for the balls to be at a
radius which will make 21.3 RPM equal to critical speed will be;

1hour x (21.4-21.3)/(21.4-21.28) = 0.833 hours

or fifty minutes

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Estimating the diameters of balls/rods (grinding media)

A very rough estimate for the diameter of grinding media as in the diameter of balls or
rods is the following relationship;

d k . D 0.51

Where
D = ball diameter
d = average feed diameter
k = constant which is ore specific
35 to 55

This relationship is not considered to be highly accurate. However, it serves as a starting

point from which greater accuracy can be achieved by trial and error.

Mill power consumption

There is an estimation for mill power consumption. Once again this relationship is only
an estimate and will serve as a good starting value if no other information is available.

2.5
D V S B
E ( kW ) 93 L
2.29 45 70 4.81
Where

L = length of mill (m)

D = diameter(m)

V = load volume (%)

S = % of critical speed

B = rd or balls (+- 5)

The relationship is entirely empirical and has developed out of operator experience.

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THE COST OF CRUSHING VERSES MILLING

An interesting phenomenon is that of the comparison of the cost of comminution in

crushers to comminution in milling units.

The cost of size reduction in a milling unit tends to become less per unit mass and fines
achieved.

Combined

Crushing cost

Cost

Milling cost

Increased fineness of crushing

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Example 1:

A material has its size reduced from an average of 50mm to an average of 20mm. The
power required was 17 kW per kg/s material crushed. How much energy will be required
to reduce the average size from 60mm to 15mm. Calculate also the bond index of this
material? There are three laws that give the relationship between energy consumed and
the average size reduction. Kicks, Bonds and Von Rittingers.

Lets first attempt this example above based on Kicks law

Remember it has been proven by subsequent researchers that Kicks law is more
accurate for larger sized particles (course particles)

Kicks law is the following

L1
E K K f c ln
L2
Kk and fc are unknown. But can be calculated from the existing data. The energy being
spent per kg of ore is calculated as follows;

17( kJ / s )
E ( kJ / kg ) 17( kJ / kg )
1( kg / s )
Solving for Kk and fc we get;

L1 50mm
17kJ / kg E K K f c ln K k f c ln
L2 20mm

K k f c 18.55(kJ / kg )

Calculating for the reduction from 60 mm to 15mm we get the

following;

60
E 18.55( kJ / kg ) ln 25.7( kJ / kg )
15

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As the mass of material being crushed is entering the crusher at a rate of one kg/s.
The rate of energy being used can be calculated at
25.7 kW(kg.s-1)-1 or 25.7kW.s/kg

Lets attempt to use Von Rittingers law;

You will recall that Von Rittingers law is far older than that of Kicks and is considered to
be more accurate when dealing with small particle sizes. Von Rittingers law states the
following;

1 1
E C
L2 L1

We calculate C in the same manner as with Kicks law.

1 1
17( kJ / kg ) C
20mm 50mm

Solving for C we get 556.7 kJ/kg,

Calculating energy required to reduce from 60mm to 15mm we get;

Notice that there is only a marginal difference in energy calculated, between Kicks law

and Von Rittingers law.

1 1
28.3( kJ / kg ) 566.7kJ / kg
15mm 60mm

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Finally lets calculate the energy Bonds law requires achieving the same comminution.
Bonds law states;

10W i 10W i
W
P F

We are unaware of what W I is and hence we solve for it in the same way as before.
Solving for W I we get 654.1, substituting into the bond equation for the reduction of 60 to
15 mm we get the following;

10 10
17kJ / kg W i
20000m 50000m

10 10
26.7kJ / kg 654.1
15000m 60000m

Notice the units in this case. Traditionally the unit of length used is the micron. The units
of WI can be anything providing the units of energy remain the same.

And so we have our three values as suggested by our three laws

Von Rittingers law = 28.3 kJ/kg

Kicks law = 25.7 kJ/kg
Bonds law = 26.7 kJ/kg

We see how Bonds law is a good average value at any rate.

Lets try to calculate the Bond index using the bond equation and the correct units. The
correct units of the equation are;

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10W i 10W i
W
P F
Where

W = is the work required for the task (kWhours/ton)

P = The diameter 80% of the product passes (m)

F = The diameter 80% of the feed passes (m)

WI = Bond index or work index specific to the ore

The W value that we have calculated has been in kJ/kg, however in the standardized
version of the Bond equation the following units are used;
(kW hours/ton)

To convert from kJ/kg to kW hours/kg we do the following;

kJ/kg = kW/kg.s-1 or kW.s/kg. To convert to kW hours/kg we

multiply by hours/sec = 3600-1=0.000278 therefore

26.7 kW.s/kg x 0.000278 hours.s-1 = 0.0074226 kW.hours/kg

To convert to tons we have to multiply by 1000 kg/ton

0.00742 kW.hours/kg x 1000 kg/ton = 7.42 kW.hours/ton

Putting our calculated value into our bond equation and solving for W I we get the
following;

10 10
7.42kW .hour / ton W i
15000m 60000m

Solving for WI we get a value of; 181 which is a very high index indeed;

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Here are some common index values and the associated ore;

Barite 4.73
Coal 13.00
Dolomite 11.27
Quartz 13.57
Graphite 43.56
Emery 56.70
Limestone 12.74

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Lecture 11

Example 2:

A material of strength 32 MN/m2 was milled from an average particle size of 3mm to an
average of 120m in a ball mill. The power required for this operation was 18 kW per
kg/s. How much energy will be required to mill material from 2mm to 80m in the same
operation if the strength of the material is 44 MN/m2?

The strength of material given to us in this form means we can readily use Von
Rittingers and Kicks law.

Von Rittingers law

1 1
E fRKR
L2 L1

Where
Kr = Rittingers constant (m4/kg)
fc = The strength of the material (N/m2)

Calculating Rittigners constant from the first comminution data;

1 1
18000(W / kg .s 1 ) 32000000( N / m 2 ) K R
0.000120( m ) 0.003( m )

Notice the units*

Solving for KR we get7E-8 m4kg-1

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Solving for the harder material

1 1
36960(W / kg .s 1 ) 44000000( N / m 2 ) 7 E 8( m 4 .kg 1 )
0.000080( m ) 0.002( m )

Gives us a required power of 37kW/kg.s-1

Completing the same exercise with Kicks comminution law;

L1
E K K f c ln
L2

Once again calculating Kicks constant

0.003( m )
18000(W / kg .s 1 ) K K ( m 3 kg 1 ) 32000000( Nm 2 ) ln
0.000120( m )

Gives us Kc as being 1.75E-4 m3kg-1

Calculating the energy required to crush the harder material

0.002( m )
24785(W / kg .s 1 ) 1.75 E 4( m 3 kg 1 ) 44000000( Nm 2 ) ln
0.000080( m )

According to Kicks law the energy now required will be

25kW/kg.s-1

Notice the difference between the amounts of energy Kicks law predicts and that of Von
Rittingers law

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Example 3:

Material with W I = 19 kW/ton must have its size reduced from 4 mm to 200 m in a ball
mill at the rate of 7 tons per hour. Assume that there will be 20% losses of energy.
Derive effective design equations that relate mill length to diameter. The RD of the balls
you can assume to be 5.0 You can also assume that the charge volume will be at about
45%.

From laboratory tests it has been shown that the volume of solids in the mill at any time
should be at least 1.32 m3. What are the length and diameter of such a mill?

The first section of this problem is simply the direct application of the Bond law;

10W i 10W i
W
P F
Where

W = is the work required for the task (kWhours/ton)

P = The diameter 80% of the product passes (m)

F = The diameter 80% of the feed passes (m)

WI = Bond index or work index specific to the ore

10 19( kWhr / ton ) 10 19( kWhr / ton )

W 1
7 tons .hr
200m 4000m

10 19( kWhr / ton )
1

1
1

7 tons .hr 73000W
200m 4000m

Allowing for 20 % loss of power we calculate the power effectively at;

73000kW
91kW
0.80

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Our power consumption equation is as follows;

2.5
D V S B
power ( kW ) 93 L
2.29 45 70 4.81
Where

L = length of mill (m)

D = diameter(m)

V = load volume (%)

S = % of critical speed

B = rd or balls (+- 5)

Assuming that the mill will run at approximately 80% of critical speed.

2.5
D 45 70 5.0
power ( kW ) 93 L
2.29 45 70 4.81

91( kW )
93 L D 2.5 1.04
7.9

12.19 L D 2.5

1
0.134 D 2.5
L

Now if the volume of the charge is 1.32 m3 the volume of the mill should be

1.32 / 0.45 = 2.93m3. The relationship between length, diameter and volume should
be as follows;

( D / 2) 2 L V 2.93

We have two unknowns and two equations

1
0.134 D 2.5 ( D / 2) 2 L 2.93
L

Solving for L and D we get D = 4 m and L = 0.233 m

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Lecture 12

CLASSIFICATION

Classification is, after comminution, the most important aspect of minerals engineering.
For example if two types of ore are mixed together e.g. silica and magnetite and the
magnetite is desirable, it will be necessary to separate them. If the particle size
distribution of the silica and magnetite are the same then it is only the difference in
density that will make separation possible.

Alternatively if one were to be milling silica and the mill were operated in a closed circuit
i.e.

feed

re-circulation

hydro-

mill cyclone

product

flow of ore

The inverted hydro-cyclone on the right would be classifying particles on the basis of
their size. If operating efficiently the smaller particles would be allowed to pass away
from the circuit as they would be of the correct size, while the larger particles would be
forced to return to the feed of the mill to be further reduced in size.

The most important physical characteristic of a particle in a medium which could be used
to classify might be its terminal velocity. The concept of terminal velocity was studied by
two gentlemen and we will briefly examine their findings.

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The laws of stoke and Newton

Stoke in 1891 assumed the drag force on a spherical particle to be entirely due to
viscous resistance and deduced the expression.

Where
= 3.14159
d = diameter of particle
= viscosity of fluid
v = terminal velocity of solid
g = gravitational constant
s = density of the solid
f = density of fluid

notice that /6 x d3 = volume

Now for any particular system where the viscosity remains constant Stokes equation
could be simplified into the following;

v k1 d 2 ( s f )

Where k1 embodies all the constants in the system i.e. g, 3, f etc

Newton on the other hand deduced a different law;

0.055d 2 v 2 f gd 3 ( s f )
6

drag force gravity force

Notice that Newtons concept of drag is calculated differently.

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Newtons law can also be simplified to the following;

v k 2 d s f
1/ 2

Where k2 embodies all the constants in the system i.e. g, 3, f etc.

Stokes idea was that drag is caused entirely by viscous forces while Newton
deduced that drag force is entirely due to turbulent resistance.

In effect both laws show that the terminal velocity of a particle in a particular fluid is a
function only of the particle size and density. It can be seen that;

1. If two particles have the same density, then the particle with the larger diameter
has the higher terminal velocity.

2. If two particles have the same diameter, then the heavier particle has the higher
terminal velocity.

Consider two mineral particles of densities A, and B and diameters dA and dB

respectively, falling in a fluid of density f, at exactly the same settling rate. Their terminal
velocities must be the same, and hence from Stokes law;

This expression is known as the free-settling ratio of the two minerals, i.e. the ratio of the
particle size required for the two minerals to fall at equal rates.

(dA) 2 ( A f ) (dB ) 2 ( B f )
or

dA / dB B f / A f
1/ 2

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Similarly for Newtons law the free settling ratio of the large particles is;

(dA)( A f ) (dB )( B f )
or

dA / dB B f / A f

Example 1

Consider a mixture of Galena (RD = 7.5) and quartz (RD = 2.65) particles classifying in
water. For particles, obeying Stokes law, the free settling ratio is;

7.5 1 / 2.65 11 / 2 1.99 2

In other words a galena particle will have to be half the diameter of the quartz particle to
have the same terminal velocity.

For particles obeying Newtons law, the free settling ratio is;

7.5 1 / 2.65 1 3.94 4

In other words a galena particle will have to be a quarter of the diameter of the quartz
particle to have the same terminal velocity.

Who is correct?

Researchers have shown that Stokes law is more applicable to smaller particles while
Newtons law is more applicable to larger or courser particles.

Remember that Stokes law assumes the drag force to only be a result of the viscosity of
the fluid, which a reasonable assumption is providing that laminar flow is present. This
might well be the case for small particles.

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The general expression for free-settling ratio is;

n
dA B f

dB A f
Where n is a value 0.5 to 1.

On average n can be determined by the following relationships

Stokes law 50 m n = 0.5

Intermediate 50 m 5000 m 0.5 < n < 1
Newtons law 5000m n=1

Notice that particle sizes reached in mineral processing tend to be right across this
spectrum.

Problem
It is desired to separate a mixture of two materials (A and B) using a hindered settling
process. What is the minimum fluid density to be used if the relative densities of the A
and B are 7.2 and 2.3 respectively and the size range is 0.01 to 0.09 mm.

This problem effectively says that we have a mixture of A and B and that there are
particles present which vary in size from 0.01 to 0.09 mm of both A and B. Now the
maximum density fluid that we could use will have an RD of 2.3. Why?

Lets now assume that we have an A and a B particle that are identical in size. Obviously
the denser particle will fall more rapidly. We now want to know what density of fluid will
effectively cause the largest particle present of B (RD = 2.3) to fall at the same rate as
the smallest particle present of A (RD = 7.2).

In the medium of this density we will effectively get separation of our mixture.
Lets look at this problem in a different way.

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We have a tube that has a liquid passing upward through it. The velocity of this liquid we
refer to as being (v). In this tube we have a particle A and a particle B which have the
same densities as that given in the problem. (A = RD 7.2) (B = RD 2.3) We also need to
report that (v) is the terminal velocity of these two particles.

B A

The sizes represented here also relate to the sizes given in the problem. The A particle
is equal to 0.01 mm and the B particle is equal to 0.09 mm.

Now any A particle that is larger than 0.01mm will experience an increase in terminal
velocity and any particle that is smaller than 0.09 mm will experience a decrease in
terminal velocity.

B A

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In this manner, by locating the density of fluid that effectively causes the smallest particle
of the higher density ore to fall at the same speed as the largest particle of the lower
density, we can effectively separate out this mixture of ores.

The size of the particles are such that it is necessary to use Stokes law.

dA / dB B f / A f 1/ 2

( 2.3 ) 0.5 0.09 0.01(7.2 ) 0.5

2.240

This means that a fluid with an RD of 2.24 should be used to separate out this mixture.
The same calculation should be carried out for n equal to marginally more than 0.5 (say

dA / dB B f / A f 0.6

( 2.3 ) 0.6 0.09 0.01(7.2 ) 0.6

2.17
0.6) as the particle size range does go over 50 microns.

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Lecture 13

THE HYDROCYCLONE

A hydro cyclone is a continuously operating classifying device that utilizes centrifugal

force to accelerate the settling rate of particles. It is one of the most important devices in
the mineral industry.

Its main use in mineral processing is as a classifier of particles. It has been proven
extremely efficient at fine separation sizes. It is widely used in closed-circuit grinding
operations but has found many other uses, such as de-sliming, de-gritting, and
thickenining. It has also found acceptance for the washing of coal.

A typical hydrocyclone consists of a conically shaped vessel, open at its apex, or

underflow, joined to a cylindrical section, which has a tangential feed inlet. The top of the
cylindrical section is closed with a plate through which passes an axially mounted
overflow pipe.
overflow

vortex finder
Feed entrance

dc

Apex finder top view

Or spigot

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Typical dimensions are;

Inlet diameter dc/7

Overflow diameter dc/5
Vortex finder depth dc/3
Top section height dc/2
Underflow diameter dc/10

CLASSICAL THEORY OF HYDROCYCLONES

The classical theory of the hydrocyclone action is that particles within the flow pattern
are subjected to two opposing forces an outward centrifugal force and an inwardly
acting drag. The Centrifugal force developed accelerates the settling rate of the particles,
thereby separating particles according to size and specific gravity.

Faster settling particles move to the wall of the cyclone where the velocity is lowest and
migrate to the apex opening. Due to the action of the drag force, the slower-settling
particle move towards the zone of low pressure along the axis and are carried upward
through the vortex-finder to the overflow.

The study of the mechanism by which hydrocyclones classify particles is still very much
a bone of contention between hydrocyclone researchers even to this present day.

d50 (cut size)

The cut size of a particular hydrocyclone is defined as the diameter of a particle entering
the feed which has a 50% of reporting to the overflow and therfore 50% chance of
reporting to the underflow.

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Estimating the d50 (cut size) of a hydrocyclone.

Obviously it is beneficial to be able to calculate the cut size of a particular hydrocyclone

simply from the dimensions thereof. Such a correlation would also be useful for design
purposes. Over the last 50 years many people have proposed models that relate the
cyclone dimensions with the cut size.

The following estimation of the d50 (cut size) was postulated by Bradley

Dc
3

d 50 4.5 1.2
L s l
Where
Dc = diameter of cyclone chamber (cm)
= viscosity of liquid (centipoise, mNs/m2)
L = feed flow rate (l/min)
d50 = cut point in (m)

One of the problems of this relationship is the viscosity term which is not always easy to
determine. Apart from being an apparent viscosity, it is also possible that it might alter
with shear stress making for a very difficult value to determine. One of the oldest and still
used correlations is that of Dahlstoms

13.7( Do Di ) 0.68
d 50
Q 0.53 ( s l ) 0.5

Where
D0 = is the overflow diameter (cm)
DI = is the inlet diameter (cm)
Q = is the total flow rate (m3h-1)
s = RD of the solids
l = RD of the liquid
d50 = the cut point (m)

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CYCLONE EFFICIENCY AND PARTITION CURVES

The effective operation of a cyclone can be displayed in a partition curve. A partition

curve effectively shows the mass fraction on a percentage basis, of solids entering that
report that report to the underflow.

100

% 50
to underflow

0 d50
size of the particle (m)

The efficiency of the cyclone can be directly determined from the slope of the curve.
Look at the following example of a partition curve.

Perfectly efficient curve

Completely ineffective curve

Notice that our partition curve can take on two extreme forms. It can be completely flat
as in the case of the completely ineffective curve or it can be absolutely vertical as in the
perfect separation curve.

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Clearly the completely ineffective curve would be the result is there where no
classification at all. In practice a partition curve is normally situated somewhere between
these two extremes.

The Modeling of partitioning curve

There are many mathematical models that will portray the partitioning curve of a
hydrocyclone of which the following is an example

% 100 1 expd / d 50 0.115
3

Another example of a model is the following relationship that gives a symmetrical curve
about the d50 is;

d
exp 1
d 50
% 100
d
d exp 2
exp
50

Where is an empirical constant that has to be determined numerically.

IMPERFECTION

Imperfection is a term often used to denote the efficiency of a hydrocyclone. This

relationship relates to the slope of the partition curve in the central region which can be
estimated by taking the points at which 75% and 25% or the feed particle report to the
underflow. These are the d75 and d25 sizes respectively.

Imperfection is given by;

d 75 d 25
I
2d 50

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Example I

A hydrocyclone operating at steady state conditions produces a partition curve that

follows the following function;

d
exp 30 1
d 50
% 100
d
d exp30 2
exp 30
50

The solids being in the feed are silica particles with an RD of about 2.7. and has a feed
rate of about 1 m3h-1. The diameter of the overflow and inlet are 10 and 5 cm
respectively.

What is the imperfection of this hydrocyclone?

Lets start by determining the cut point of this cyclone using the following equation;

13.7( Do Di ) 0.68 13.7 (10 5) 0.68

d 50 150( m )
Q 0.53 ( s l ) 0.5 10.53 ( 2.7 1) 0.5

Placing the cut point value into the partition curve model and solving for 25% and 75%

we get the following;

144
exp 30 1
150 100
25
144
exp 30 exp30 2
150

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156
exp 30 1
150 100
75
156
exp 30 exp30 2
150

and therefore d75 = 156 (m) and d25 = 144 (m)

Calculating the imperfection

d 75 d 25 156 144
I 0.04
2d 50 2 150

Notice a number of facts;

Once you have determined the d75 you can simply assume the d50 to be the same
distance away from the d50 but on the other side.

The degree of imperfection in this hydrocyclone is exceptionally low. It is quite an

efficient hydrocyclone.

Exercise I

Take the same system as described in example I and determine the imperfection for
feed rates of 0.5, 1.5 and 2 m3 hr-1
0.5 is 0.037
1.5 is 0.037
2.0 is 0.036

You will notice that there is very little change of imperfection as a function of feed flow
rate.

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Lecture 14

Froth Flotation

Froth Flotation is a selective process for separating minerals from gangue by using
surfactants and wetting agents.

The selective separation of the minerals makes processing complex (that is, mixed) ore
bodies economically feasible.

The flotation process is used for the separation of a large range of sulfides, carbonates
and oxides prior to further refinement.

Phosphate and coal are also processed by flotation technology.

Mechanics of flotation

The following steps are followed:

1. Grinding to liberate the mineral particles
2. Reagent conditioning to achieve hydrophobic surface charges on the desired
particles
3. Collection and upward transport by bubbles in an intimate contact with air or
nitrogen
4. Formation of a stable froth on the surface of the flotation cell
5. Separation of the mineral laden froth from the bath (flotation cell)

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Froth flotation commences by comminution, which is used to increase the surface area
of the ore for subsequent processing and break the rocks into the desired mineral and
gangue (which then has to be separated from the desired mineral); the ore is ground
into a fine powder.

The desired mineral is rendered hydrophobic by the addition of a surfactant or

collector chemical; the particular chemical depends on the mineral is being refined - as
an example, pine oil is used to extract copper (see copper extraction).

This slurry (more properly called the pulp) of hydrophobic mineral-bearing ore and
hydrophilic gangue is then introduced to a water bath which is aerated, creating bubbles.

The hydrophobic grains of mineral-bearing ore escape the water by attaching to the air
bubbles, which rises to the surface, forming foam (more properly called froth).
The froth is removed and the concentrated mineral is further refined.

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Mechanical flotation cell used for mineral concentration

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o Numbered triangles show direction of stream flow.

o A mixture of ore and water called pulp [1] enters the cell from a conditioner, and
flows to the bottom of the cell.
o Air [2] or sometimes nitrogen is passed down a vertical impeller where shearing
forces break the air stream into small bubbles.
o The mineral concentrate froth is collected from the top of the cell [3], while the
pulp [4] flows to another cell.
o The Jameson cell uses neither impellers nor spargers, instead combining the
slurry with air in a down comer where high shear gives excellent bubble particle
contacting.

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Flotation equipment

Flotation can be performed in mechanically agitated cells, or in tall flotation columns.

Mechanical cells use a large mixer and diffuser mechanism at the bottom of the mixing
tank to introduce air and provide mixing action.

Flotation columns use air spargers to introduce air at the bottom of a tall column while
introducing slurry above. The countercurrent motion of the slurry flowing down and the
air flowing up provides mixing action.

Mechanical cells generally have a higher throughput rate, but produce material that is of
lower quality, while flotation columns generally have a low throughput rate but produce
higher quality material

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Simple flotation circuit for mineral concentration

Numbered triangles show direction of stream flow,

o Various flotation reagents are added to a mixture of ore and water (called pulp) in
a conditioning tank. The flow rate and tank size are designed to give the minerals
enough time to be activated.
o The conditioner pulp [1] is fed to a bank of rougher cells which remove most of the
desired minerals as a concentrate.
o The rougher pulp [2] passes to a bank of scavenger cells where additional
reagents may be added.
o The scavenger cell froth [3] is usually returned to the rougher cells for additional
treatment, but in some cases may be sent to special cleaner cells.
o The scavenger pulp is usually barren enough to be discarded as tails.
o More complex flotation circuits have several sets of cleaner and re-cleaner cells,
and intermediate re-grinding of pulp or concentrate.

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Diagram of a cylindrical froth flotation cell

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Lecture 15
FILTRATION

Filtration is an important part of mineral processing. At some stage of the process it will
be necessary to filter out liquid from solids i.e. after leaching. We shall now study the
concept of filtration and will examine a simple mathematical model that mimics the
filtration.

Filtration is the process by which a porous medium is used to separate solids from a
liquid. In general, the pores are larger than the smallest solid particles, so that effective
filtration is only achieved once an initial deposit of solids has been trapped in the filtering
medium. Filtration can occur in a batch wise operation or in a continuous operation

Compressed air

Filtered water

BATCH FILTRATION UNIT (FILTER PRESS)

feed

solids draw off

vacuum and water draw off

CONTINUOUS FILTRATION UNIT (DRUM FILTER)

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When purchasing filtration equipment certain properties tend to be important and need to
be taken into account. The properties of the fluid are important i.e. viscosity density and
corrosiveness. An extremely viscous or corrosive liquid will require accommodation.
The characteristics of the particles. A substance that very rapidly forms a compact and
not very porous cake when it settles out could be of some concern. Quantity of material
to be handled.

The rate of filtration

Just in most continuous process systems it is the rate at which the process occurs that is
of importance to process engineers. The rate of filtration is affected by the following
factors

The pressure drop across the filtration medium.

Obviously the greater the pressure drop the more rapid the rate of filtration.

The filtration area

The greater the area the greater the rate of filtration.

The viscosity of the liquid

The higher the viscosity of the liquid the slower the rate of filtration.

The resistance of the filter cake

If the filter cake has a great resistance to the flow of fluid through it, the rate of filtration
will be greatly reduced.

The resistance of the filter medium

A finer filter medium (cloth) will result in a purer filtrate (liquid). However, this will also
result in greater resistance to fluid flow and hence a slower rate of filtration.

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A MODEL FOR THE RATE OF FILTRATION

A gentleman by the name of Darcy derived a Law that relates the rate at which liquid
passes through a packed bed and a filtration medium. This we adapted to the concept of
filtration.

Darcys law states the following;

dV P . A

dt Rc Rm

Where ..1

P pressure drop across filter bed (Pa)

A area of filter bed (m2)
dynamic viscosity of filtrated (Pa.s)
V volume of filtrate passed at time t (m3)
t time (s)
Rc filter cake resistance to the flow of filtrate, it is a variable, (m -1)
Rm medium resistance to the flow of the filtrate, it is a constant, (m -1)

Notice that Darcy speaks about the rate of filtration being equal to dV/dt i.e. the rate at
which the volume of filtrate passes through the cake and filter medium. Therefor we
define the rate of filtration as the amount of filtrate formed against time. The reason we
use this manner of defining the rate at which we filter is because measuring the
volumetric flow rate at which a filtrate passes through a filter cake and filter medium is a
relatively simple task.

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UNDERSTANDING DARCYS LAW

Lets assume that we are looking at a specific batch filtration operation and try to apply
Darcys law to it.

Batch filtration

Compressed air

Filter medium slurry

Solid build up P
Filtered water

LOOKING MORE CLOSELY AT RESISTANCE

If we exclude the resistance presented in Darcys law we come up with a common sense

dV (m 3 ) P ( Pa ). A(m 2 )

dt (s ) ( Pa.s )
proportional relationship thus;

However, in order to institute a constant so as to develop a full equation we have to add

the resistance of the filter medium and filtrate to the system and hence we get as we
have already seen, Darcys full law thus;

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We know from Darcys law that the units of resistance will be (m-1). This we can check by
simple elimination.

The resistance presented by the filter (Rm) medium is constant for all intensive purposes
as the medium does not change in nature. The resistance of the filtered cake (Rc)
however will tend to increase with time as deposited filter cake increases in thickness.
Some how we will have to find a relationship

dV (m 3 ) P ( Pa ). A(m 2 )

dt (s)
( Pa.s ) Rc (m 1 ) Rm (m 1 )

between this changing resistance experienced by the cake and a specific resistance
which is a constant and associated with the type of solid being filtered.

SPECIFIC CAKE RESISTANCE

Lets begin by defining a specific resistance and calling it r. This specific resistance r
will be associated with a particular particulate solid and will probably be a function of
particle size distribution. This r will be per specific thickness of filter cake i.e.

Rc ( m 1 ) r ( m 2 ) thicknessof the cake( m )

Which means that the units of r must be m-2.

How do we relate the thickness of the filter cake to the volume of filtrate that has
passed through the filter medium?

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That relationship will be the following, where all the terms are constant except (V)
thickness

C V
Rc (m 1 ) r

A
S
Where ..2

r specific resistance (m-2)

C mass of solid associated with unit volume of filtrate (kg.m-3)
s density of solid (kg.m-3)
V volume of filtrate developed (m3)
A area through which filtration is occurring (m2)

C V
Rc (m 1 ) r
s A

Notice how the term on the right hand side equates to the cake thickness. CV will give
us the mass of solids associated with the volume of produced filtrate sitting on the
filtration medium, division by sA gives us the thickness of the mass of solids,
associated with the volume of filtrate, on the filtration medium. Combining equation 1 and
2 we achieve the following;

dV P . A

dt C V
r Rm

s A

Lets now simplify this equation and integrate so as to derive an algebraic equation.

dV P . A 2

dt C
r V ARm
s

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The variables are t, V. The constants are P,C,s,r,,Rm,A

P . A dt
Vt t
C
r . .V . ARm dV 2

Vt 0
s t 0

Vt
C
r . . .V
2

l
A. Rm . .V
P . A 2 .t
t t
t 0
2


Vt 0

Now if we are assuming a batch situation and we start from scratch then the amount of
filtrate that will have passed the filtration medium at time = 0, will be 0. The time at t = 0
will obviously be zero and hence our equation simplifies drastically.

Simplifying

Our two variables are V and t, it will be possible to linearise along the lines of these two
variables

C
r. . .V 2
s
A. Rm . .V P . A2 .t
2

by dividing through by V

r .C . . Rm .
V2 V t
2 s .P . A2
P . A

Notice that we now have a linear relationship between t/V and V.

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r .C . . Rm . t
V
2 s .P . A 2
P . A V

This means that if we plot the quantity of filtrate that passes through a filter cake and

r .C . .
slope
2 s .P . A2

medium against time divided by that volume we should achieve a straight line with a
slope that will be equal to;

Allowing us to calculate the r value for any particular solid.

Example 1:

In a laboratory batch filtration experiment, the following data was achieved;

Filtrate vol (m3) 17, 41.5, 73, 109,

Time (seconds) 632230, 1722250, 3552691, 5940500,

What is the specific resistance of the solid being filtered?

The viscosity of the water is 0.001 Pa.s, The filtration area is 1 m 2, the pressure drop
across the filter cake and medium is 100 Pa, the slurry density is 1400 kg.m -3, solid
density is 2700 kg.m-3.

Calculating the C value

The density of the slurry is 1400 kg.m-3.

In 1 cubic meter of slurry what will be the mass of solids. Assume the density of water to
be 1000 kg.m-3, and the mass of solids to be x

x = 635 kg, is the mass of solids associated with

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xkg (1400kg xkg )

1m 3 3

2700kg .m 1000kg .m 3

765 kg of water (1400 635). Or 0.765 m3 of water.

Therefor C = 635/0.765 = 830 kg/m3(nothing to do with density)

NOW DEVELOPING THE LINERAISED VARIABLES

V (m3) 17, 41.5, 73, 109

t/V (s/m3) 37190 41500 48667 54500

Determining the slope by linear regression we get 192

Solving for r;

r = 1.25E8 m-2

r .C . . r 830 0 .001
192 slope
2 s .P . A 2
2 2700 100 1

What about determining the resistance of the filter medium.

This we do by solving for the intercept by linear regression

and we get; 33928

Rm . Rm 0.001
intercept 33928
P . A 100 1

Therefor Rm = 3.393E9 m-1

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How will the determining of specific resistance and the filter medium resistance be
of importance to us?

By determining the specific resistance to filtration of a particular solid we will be in a

better position to design continuous filtration equipment. Or more importantly will be able
to predict the rate at which a particular particulate solid will filter on existing continuous
filtration units.

Problem 1.

Use the set of data given to determine the r and Rm factors.

Time(s) 6.2 14 25 38
vol (m3) 0.0005 0.001 0.0015 0.002

Assume the density of the RD of the solids to be 2.7 and water density to be 1000 kg.m -
3. Assume the filtration area of the batch unit to be 1m 3 and the viscosity of the liquid to
be 0.001 Pa.s. The pressure differential across the unit will be 200 Pa. The slurry being
filtered is at a density of 1300 kg.m-3.

Answer
r = 8.39E12, Rm = 1.98E9

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Lecture 16
SEDIMENTATION

With few exceptions, most mineral-separation process involves the use of substantial
quantities of water and the final concentration has to be separated from a pulp in which
the water/solids ratio may be high.

De-watering, or solid-liquid separation, produces a relatively dry concentrate for

shipment partial de-watering is also performed at various stages in the treatment, so as
to prepare the feed for subsequent processes.

De-watering methods can classified broadly into three groups; Sedimentation, filtration
and thermal drying.

In this section we look specifically at sedimentation.

Most metallurgical plants will have some sort of thickening unit that effectively makes
use of the phenomenon of sedimentation.

What is sedimentation?

Generally speaking, sedimentation is the settling of solid particles in a fluid, under the
force of gravity. An example would be a suspension of sand in water.

{in a hydrocyclone there also exists a form of sedimentation however the force acting on
the particles is centrifugal and is many times in excess of that of gravity}

Coe and Clevenger discovered that there are two types of settling they described as type
I and type II

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Type I sedimentation

This is the more common of the two and is characteristic by the presence of a constant
sedimentation rate zone

After an initial brief acceleration period, the interface between the clear liquid and
the suspension moves downwards at a constant rate and a layer of sediment
builds up at the bottom of the container.

Type II sedimentation

This type of sedimentation is less common, and occurs when there is a very wide range
of particle size distribution.

The sedimentation rate progressively decreases throughout the whole operation

because there is no zone of constant composition

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A STANDARD THICKENER

This is a very simple unit operation which broadly speaking looks something like this;

Feed

Path of water

Water outlet

Path of solids

Solids outlet

In effect the slurry enters the top of the thickener the solids fall to the bottom under the
force of gravity. Once on the bottom the solids gradually make progress towards the
center of the thickener assisted by a low speed stirrer that rotates just above the bottom,
eventually leaving the bottom of the unit at its lowest point which is in the center.

THE SEDIMENTATION CURVE

A sedimentation curve for a particular particulate solid in a known fluid can easily be
determined in the laboratory.

The solid is placed in a measuring flask of fluid (water) and is shaken until the solids are
homogeneously dispersed throughout the measuring flask. The flask is then gently
placed on a flat surface and the solids are allowed to settle. If we observe the highest
sold and plot its vertical position against time we will develop a curve something like this;

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Sedimentation curve in detail

Height (t=0)

Constant rate sedimentation

Height

Point of inflection

Falling rate sedimentation

Height (t=)

Time

From this graph or from sedimentation data it is possible for a metallurgical engineer to
design a thickener. More appropriately it is possible to determine the horizontal area that
will be required to settle an amount of solids per unit time for a certain flow rate.

Notice that there is firstly a constant rate sedimentation curve (type I) this is then
followed by a point of inflection, there after a falling rate curve. The rate at any time we
would attribute to the slope of the curve and that is simply the derivative i.e.

d ( height)
rate of sedimentation
d ( time )

For design purposes it is the rate of constant sedimentation for a particular starting
concentration of solids that is important.

Standard design equation

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There is a standard design equation to determine the area required for the thickening

Q C
A 1
uc Cu
of a particular slurry stream i.e.

Where A horizontal cross-section of thickener required (m2)

Q volumetric feed rate to thickener (m3.s-1)

C fractional volumetric concentration of solids

uc sedimentation velocity at concentration C (m.s-1)

Cu fractional volumetric concentration of the solids in the under flow

Logic behind design equation

Before we attempt an example in which we apply our design equation lets look at the
logic that was used to develop it.

In the constant settling zone of a batch sedimentation tank of horizontal cross-sectional

area A, the volumetric rate of sedimentation of solids q is given by;

q(m 3 s 1 ) uc (ms 1 ) A(m 2 ) C

Where q is the volumetric settling rate of the solids

A the cross-sectional area of the batch tank

C the fractional volume concentration of solids

uc the velocity of the particles in the constant settling zone

Looking at the same thing from another perspective. Imagine that you are observing
particles falling through a constant settling zone. You can measure the velocity (uc) of

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these particles and you know the cross-sectional area (A) through which they fall and
you can therefor calculate volumetric flow. You now multiply the volumetric flow by the
volume fraction that represents solid (C). This now gives you the volumetric settling rate
of the solids (q).

Extending the relation ship to continuous operation

If we now switch the same operation to a continuous sedimentation operation we now

have to incorporate into the calculation the reality that the velocity of sedimentation will
now increase due to underflow (thickened pulp withdrawal). Lets assume that the
additional velocity will be incorporated in the term ur giving us a new relationship;

q uu ur A C
..1

Developing a similar equation at the underflow of the continuous sedimentation unit

(thickener) we achieve the following;

q uu ur A C u
..2

Where Cu and uu,are the corresponding volumetric solids fraction and particle
settling velocity at the outlet.

q
ur uu
AC u

Re-arranging this equation to make ur the subject;

And combining with equation 1 we achieve;

q
q uc uu A C
AC u
After a further re-arrangement we achieve;

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q uc C

A C
1C

u
If the sedimentation rate in the underflow is small compared with that in the settling zone
i.e. uu 0, then our equation simplifies to;

q u uu
c
A 1 1

C Cu
..3

Finally, we have to relate q, which is the volumetric solids flow rate undergoing
sedimentation, to what is being fed to our continuous sedimentation unit (thickener). For
this we use the following relationship;

q QC
..4

Where Q is the volumetric feed rate to thickener (m3.s-1)

Combining equations 4 and 3 we then achieve;

Auc C
QC
C
1
Cu

Re-arranging we get our design equation, thus;

Q C
A
1 C

uc u

Where A horizontal cross-section of thickener required (m2)

Q volumetric feed rate to thickener (m3.s-1)
C fractional volumetric concentration
uc sedimentation velocity at concentration C (m.s-1)

Cu fractional volumetric concentration in the under flow

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A MORE PRACTICAL FORM OF THE DESIGN EQUATION

In our design equation the two parameters that are the most difficult to obtain are that of
C and Cu, the volumetric solids ratio in the feed and under flow. These can be more
usefully re-arranged in terms of the mass ratio of liquid to solid in the feed (Y) and the
corresponding value (U) in the under flow. Thus;

For the feed

mass of water in feed (1 C )

Y
mass of solids in feed C s
..5

For the underflow

mass of water in under flow (1 C u )

U
mass of solids in under flow Cu s
..6

s = density of solid; = density of water

Substituting equations 5 and 6 into our design equation by making C and Cu the subjects
respectively we obtain the following relationship;

Q 1 U( s )
A 1
uc 1 Y ( s )

Which is a more useful version of the design equation.

There is an even more useful version of this equation.

Q 1 U( s )
A 1
uc 1 Y ( s )

Where we combine the terms and simplify

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Q 1 Y ( s ) 1 U ( s ) Q Y U ( s )
A
uc 1 Y (s ) uc 1 Y ( s )

Multiplying through by

Q Y U s
A
uc Y s
..7

Now we know that;

mass of water in feed (1 C )

Y
mass of solids in feed C s

So substituting this into equation 7 for Y in the denominator we achieve the following;

Q Y U s
A
uc (1 C )


C

Q Y U s Y U
A Q s
uc (1 C ) uc 1
1
C C

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Finally giving the most useful equation of all;

Q Y U C s
A
uc

In applying any of these versions of the design equation the technique is to

calculate the cross sectional area that will be required for all the concentrations of
solid to liquid that will likely be present in the thickener, then use the largest area.

The two important forms of the dynamic sedimentation equation are;

Q C
A 1
uc Cu

Where A horizontal cross-section of thickener required (m2)

Q volumetric feed rate to thickener (m3.s-1)
C fractional volumetric concentration
uc sedimentation velocity at concentration C (m.s-1)
Cu fractional volumetric concentration in the under flow

Q(Y U )C s
A
uc
Where

Y mass of water in feed/mass of solids in feed

U mass or water in underflow/mass of solids in underflow

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Example 1

A slurry containing 5kg of water per kg of solids is to be thickened to a sludge containing

1.5kg of water per kg of solids in a continuous operation. The amount of solids that
should be extracted per time is 1.333 kg.s-1. (i.e. should be in the underflow) Laboratory
tests using five different concentrations of the slurry yielded the following results;

Concentration (kg water/ kg solid)

5.0 4.2 3.7 3.1 2.5

Rate of sedimentation (m/s)

0.0002 0.00012 0.000094 0.000070 0.000050

You will notice that there is no volumetric feed rate give (Q), which we require for our
calculation however we can calculate volumetric feed rate if we assume a solid density
as we know how much solid must be entering the feed i.e. 1.333 kg.s -1 and we know that
the ratio of solid to liquid is (i.e. 1:5).

If we assume the density of the solid to be 2700 kg.m -3, then the density of the feed will
be;

1kg 5kg
1117kg .m 3 6kg 3

3
2700kg .m 1000kg .m

Solid feed is 1.333 kg.s-1, therefor based on the ratio of solid to liquid 1 : 5, the quantity
of water in the feed will be;

1.333kg.s 1 5 6.665kg.s 1

1.333kg.s 1 6.66kg.s 1 7.999kg.s 1

Therefor the total feed mass flow will be;

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Calculating the volumetric flow rate we simply divide the mass flow by the slurry density;

7.998kg .s 1
3
0.00716m 3 .s 1
1117kg .m

U is the mass of water over the mass of solid at the discharge and is fixed.

U = 1.5/1 = mass of water/mass of solid = 1.5

Y is the mass of water over the mass of solids at the point of sedimentation and will
vary between what happens at the feed up until the U ratio is approached.

We select Y values based on the laboratory sedimentation tests carried out

Y YU uc

Concentration water to overflow sedimentation rate

5.0 (-1.5) 3.5 2.00E-4

4.2 2.7 1.20E-4

3.7 2.2 0.94E-4

3.1 1.6 0.70E-4

2.5 1.0 0.50E-4

Calculating C

C is the volumetric fraction of solid in the feed.

5kg
water 3
0.005m 3
1000kg .m
Calculating value on a 6 kg basis, the water volume will be;

1kg
solid 0.00037m 3
2700kg .m 3

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Total volume

0.00037m 3 0.005m 3 0.00537m 3

And C

0.00037
C 0.0689
0.00537

Finally substituting all variables into the design equation we achieve;

Q(Y U )C s 0.00716 (Y U ) 0.0689 2700

A
uc uc 1000

Concentration (kg water/ kg solid) (Y)

5.0 4.2 3.7 3.1 2.5

Different duties solid liquid fractions (Y-U)

3.5 2.7 2.2 1.6 1.0

Rate of sedimentation1 (m/s) (uc)

0.0002 0.00012 0.000094 0.000070 0.000050

Calculated area required (m2) (A)

23.3 30.0 31.2 30.4 26.6

The highest area is 31.2 m3 and this should therefor be the design area.

Observe a short cut;

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We know that the following statement is true;

QC s solid feed rate on a mass basis 1.333kg.s 1

This means that this value could have been fed directly into the equation as this is what

(Y U )
A [QC s ]
uc
is in the square brackets;

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Lecture 17

ELECTROWINNING

The electrowinning process is strategically important in mineral processing. After the

valuable material has been extracted from the ore and is in ionic solution, it has to be
reduced to its elemental form so as to recover the metal e.g.

Cu++ + 2e Cu(s) or
Fe+++ + 3e Fe(s) or
Au+ + e Au(s)

As we can see from these half reactions this is mainly an electrical process. It is the final
hydro-metallurgical process before smelting and tapping, both of which are considered to
be pyro-metallurgical process.

Half reactions
In order to remind ourselves of the concept of half reactions lets do some
revision. In any redox chemical reaction, there will be a component that will
undergo oxidation and a component that will undergo reduction.

The following reaction is a half reaction showing copper undergoing oxidation;

Cu(s) 2e + Cu++
Oxidation we also remember as being the loss of electrons

The following reaction is a half reaction showing copper undergoing reduction;

Cu++ + 2e Cu(s)

Reduction is the gaining of electrons. We also speak of reducing an ion to its elemental
form i.e. copper ions to copper solid, gold ions to gold.

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In effect the concept of electrowinning one might describe as being that of using
electrical phenomena to reduce any cation atom to its elemental from and there in
remove it from solution.

The full redox reaction that is partially displayed in the reduction half reaction displayed
previously will be;

H2O + Cu++ 1/2O2(g) + Cu(s) + 2H+

or to be entirely practical and to bring in an anion

H2O + CuCl2(sol) 1/2O2(g) + Cu(s) + 2HCl

An electrowinning cell

A typical electrowinning cell will look something like the following;

Electrons travel

feed

anode

cathode

discharge

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Notice that the electrons travel from the power source to the CATHODE and then back
from the ANODE to the power source. This means that electrons are available at the
CATHODE hence a reduction reaction will occur while an oxidation reaction occurs at
the ANODE.

Generalised reactions
Our metal which requires one or more electrons to be reduced, depending on its
charge state will be reduce at the cathode and will therefor plate out upon this
electrode (settle out and form a solid mass).

In an electrowinning cell the following generalised reactions take place;

At the Cathode (reduction) : Mx+ + xe- M(s)

Where M is a metal

At the anode(oxidation) : 2H2O 4H+ + O2 + 4e-

This oxidation reaction at the anode is the predominant reaction; there are others that
may also occur. Oxygen gas will be generated at the anode and the release of hydrogen
ions will ultimately lower the pH of the solution surrounding the anode.

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Generalised equations in electowinning

A metal will have been leached from its ore by a cyanidation process and will therefor be
in the form of a complex metal cyanide ion in solution. You will remember from the
section on leaching that the valuable mineral will be complexed with the ore e.g.

CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 Malachite

Fe2O3 Hematite

ZnS Sphalerite

During the leaching process the cyanide ion will combine with the metal ion to form a
cyanide complex from the examples above we will probably achieve the following;

[Cu(CN)3]2- Tricyanocuprate (I)

[Fe(CN)6]3- Hexacyanoferrate (III) or Ferricyanide

[Zn(CN)4]2- Tetracyanozincate (II)

The half reaction that will therefor occur at the cathode of any electrowinning cell will be;

[M(CN)x]y-x + ye M(s) + xCN-

where M is the metal i.e. (Cu, Fe, Zn etc), y is the valency

For the example of iron;

[Fe(CN)6]3-6 + 3e Fe(s) + 6CN-

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ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA

In order to complete electrowinning calculations it will be necessary to remind ourselves

about basic electrical calculations.

Faradays Laws of electrolysis

(1) The mass of any substance liberated (given off as a gas) or deposited
(plated on the electrode) is proportional to the electrical charge ( i.e. the number
of coulombs) that has passed through the electrolyte.

(2) The masses of the different substances liberated or deposited by the same
quantity of electricity (i.e. by the same number of coulombs) are proportional to
the equivalent weights (mass numbers) of the various substances

The coulomb

The coulomb is a measurement of charge. One electron has a charge associated with it
of 1.602e-19 coulombs and therefor a mole of electrons (6.023e23) will have a charge
of;

1.602e-19 6.023e23 = 96488 coulombs

Amps

An amp is a measurement of current or electrical flow. One amp is a flow of 1 coulomb

per second or a flow rate of 96488 electrons per second.

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If we are able to measure the amps of a particular electrowinning circuit and the duration
for which this level of amperage has been present we can calculate the number of
electrons that will have been deposited at a CATHODE and hence the moles of metal
that will have formed. We should also be able to calculate the quantity of oxygen gas
that will have formed at the ANODE. As the quantity of electrons removed from solution
at the anode must equal the number of electrons available at the cathode.

Faradays

A Faraday (F) is the quantity of charge associated with one mole of electrons i.e.;

96488 coulombs

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Example 1:

A current of 15 amperes is employed for the duration of one hour in a Nickel solution
bath containing Tetracyanonickelate (II) or [Ni(CN)4]-2. The half reaction that displays the
reduction aspect of the redox, reaction that will occur, is;

[Ni(CN)4]-2 + 2e- Ni(s) + 4CN-

Assuming that the above half reaction occurs at 100% efficiency calculate the total
number of coulombs that will have passed to the cathode and the mass of nickel
deposited. The mass number of the nickel is 58.69 and has a valency of 2. The nickel
has an elemental solid density of 8900 kg.m -3. Calculate also the thickness of the plating
if the cathode consists of a sheet of metal 16 cm2 in area, which is coated on both faces.

Calculating the total coulombs that will have passed to the cathode;

15.0 (amps) 60 (s/min) 60 (min/hour) = 54000 coulombs

Calculating the number of moles of electrons passed to the cathode, or the number of
Faradays;

54000 (coulombs) / (96488 Coulombs/F) = 0.5597 F

Now Nickel has a valency of 2 mostly, and therefor on atom of Nickel will required two
electrons to be reduce to its elemental state. How many electrons will have been
deposited at the cathode

0.5597 6.023e23 = 3.371e23

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divide by 2 to get the number of nickel atoms that will have been reduced.

3.371e23 (electrons) /2 (valency of nickel) = 1.6855e23 Nickel atoms

Calculating the moles of Nickel deposited

1.6855e23/6.023e23 = 0.27985 (moles of nickel)

Mass of nickel deposited

0.27985 (moles of nickel) 58.69 (mass number of nickel)

= 16.42 g of nickel plated out

Calculating the thickness of the plated nickel

(16.42g / 8.9 g.cm-3) / (16 cm2 2faces) = 0.057 cm

M AZIZ CPL300S