MichelleChan

JSIS200AI

TA:PinarUlumaskan

November24,2014

TheSuccessesandFailuresoftheHaitianRevolution

Atitspeakinthemid18thcentury,theFrenchcolonyofSaintDomingue(orHaitiinthe

indigenousTanolanguage)wasthemostprosperouscolonyintheAtlanticworld.Witha

bustlingeconomylargelybasedonslavelabor,thecolonybroughtenormousprofitstoboth

landownersontheislandanditsmothercountryofFrance(Yang,lecture,2014).However,

growingdiscontentoverthehugesocioeconomicgapbetweenslavesandtheirownersaswellas

JacobinidealsoftheFrenchRevolutionculminatedintheonlysuccessfulslaverevolutionin

history,theHaitianRevolution.YetHaitipostrevolution,thoughfreefrombothFrenchrule

andtheinstitutionofslavery,waseconomicallydevastatedandremainstothisdayoneofthe

poorestcountriesintheWesternhemisphere.WhydidtheHaitianRevolutionsucceed,andhow

much,ifanything,diditcontributetothefollowingimpoverishmentofthecountry?

Understandingthisquestionnotonlyhelpstobroadlyunderstandthecausesandeffectsof

revolutions,butalsomightofferinsightsintoHaitisongoingstruggletodevelopfullyasastate.

InthispaperIdonotintendtomakethedirectconnectionthattheHaitianRevolutionledtothe

presentdayimpoverishmentoftheHaitiannation.Rather,IarguethattheHaitianRevolution

wasfirstsuccessfulbecauseofthespecificsocialsystemsinplaceatthetime,theintroductionof

FrenchRevolutionideals,andcommandingmilitaryleadershipfromwithin.However,the

successoftheHaitianRevolutionincreatingthefirstblackrepublicoftheWesternHemisphere
actuallyplayedapartinHaitisownlaterfailuresduetobothinternationalpressuresand

domesticmismanagement.

TounderstandtheeffectsoftheHaitianrevolution,itisfirstnecessarytoreviewthe

historyofEuropeancolonialruleintheregion.In1492,ChristopherColumbusbecamethefirst

EuropeantolandinHaiti.UnfortunatelyforthenativeTainopeople,Columbusnoticedthatthey

possessedgold;thisbeganahistoryofconquestbyEuropeanpowers,beginningwiththe

Spanishexploitationoftheisland.Bythe17thcentury,theislandsresourcesandnativepeoples

hadbeenalmostdecimatedbytheSpanishsaveforasmallportionontheeast,wherethecityof

SanDomingopresided(Girard,2002).TheSpanishstatesanctionedrobberywasthe

beginningofaneconomicpatterninHaitiwhere,asDr.PhillipeGirardnotes,thereckless

searchforquickriches,withitscompletedisregardforindividualhumansuffering,mayresultin

ashorttermcreationofwealth,butnotinlongtermdevelopment(Girard,2002,pg.1719).

Withpromisingpursuitselsewhere(namely,MexicoandPeru)andincreasingFrench

contentionfortheCaribbean,SpainrelinquishedcontrolofSanDomingo,whichbecameSaint

Domingue,toFrancein1767(Girard,2002).TheFrenchquicklytookadvantageoftheregions

tropicalclimateandfertilesoilsandplantedcropssuchascotton,indigo,coffee,andmost

importantlysugarcane.Theespeciallyintensivelaborsugarcanerequiredinitsplantingand

harvestingkilledthousandsofEuropeanindenturedworkers.Tosolvethelaborshortage,the

FrenchbegantoinsteadimportthousandsofAfricanslaves.Profitssoaredduetothecheaplabor

theslavesprovided;atitspeak,SaintDomingueaccountedforfortypercentofFrancesforeign

tradeandproducedtwofifthsoftheworldssugarandhalfoftheworldscoffee(Yang,Lecture

17).By1790,overninetypercentofSaintDominguespopulationwascomprisedofslaves,
occupyingthebottomofthesocialandpoliticalpyramid(DunnandMitchell,2015).Slaves

werebrutallyrepressed,especiallysosincetheywereeasilyreplaceablewithnewimported

slaves,asthemasterfounditmoreeconomicaltoworkhisslavestodeathandreplacethem

thantoencouragetheirreproduction(Ott,1973,pg.17).Plantationownerswerelargelyfreeto

doastheypleasedbecauseroyalgovernorswerenotespeciallymotivatedtoenforceFrenchlaws

overseas;this,inadditiontotheunforgivingclimateandgruelinglaborneededtoplanttropical

cropsledtoarguablythepoorestconditionsforslavesintheworldatthetime(Girard,2002).

Withthehugemajorityofthepopulationinsuchoppression,itisalmostunsurprisingthata

revolutionwasboundtotakeplace.

ExaminingthesocialpyramidinHaitiatthetimefurthershowsmorecomplexitiesthan

aninitiallookmightimply.Infact,inequalityexistedbetweenEuropeansaswell.Onlyaselect

fewwerewealthylandowners,merchants,orcolonialofficers;themajorityofwhitespeoplein

Haitiwererelativelypoorincomparisonandmadetheirlivingmostlyasgovernmentworkers,

farmers,ortraders.BeneaththewhitesinthesocialpyramidwerefreedAfricansorthoseof

mixeddescent,knownasaffranchis.Affranchis,despitetheirstatusasfree,werestillsubject

tomuchdiscriminationandsocialinequity;forexample,theycouldnotmarryintowhite

families(DunnandMitchell,2015).Andaspreviouslydiscussed,slaves,whomadeupahuge

majorityofthepopulationlackedbasicrightsandweresubjecttogrievousabusesatthewhims

oftheirowners.Tensionsgrewtoahigh,motivatednotonlybyadifferenceofgeographyand

culturebutalsobyadifferenceorraceandcondition(Knight,2000,pg.103).Thesocialsystem

inHaitiwasinprimeconditionforanupheavalduetothelargeinequalitiesfoundprimarily

betweenAfricansandEuropeansthere.
 AcrosstheAtlanticOcean,ideaswerebrewingthatwouldcriticallytieintothe

beginningsofrevolutioninHaiti.ThoughthesituationinFrancewasdifferentthantheonein

Haitiformanyreasons,animportantsimilaritywasinthehugeinequityfoundinbothpolitical

systems.Thoseatthebottomofthesocialpyramid,whocomprisedalargemajorityofthe

population,hadlittle,ifany,politicalrights.Additionally,theburdenoftaxes,whichwas

collectedinefficientlyandunfairlythroughoutFrance,wasplacedmostlyonmillionsofpeasants

(McPhee,2006).Middleclassbourgeoisiewerealsodisaffectedwiththekingssovereigntyover

Franceandformedtheirownrepresentativebody,knownastheNationalAssembly.In1789,the

NationalAssemblywroteitsDeclarationoftheRightsofManandtheCitizen,whichdeclared

thatlibertyconsistsofthepowertodowhateverisnotinjurioustoothers(McPhee,2006,pg.

889).AdditionallyinfluencedbyideasoftheAmericanRevolutionandEnlightenment,the

documentdeclaredthatcitizens,nottheking,hadpower,andcitizenshadnaturalrightsto

liberty,property,security,andresistancetooppression(DunnandMitchell,2015,pg.589).

Theseideas,thoughinsomepartinspiredbypreviousEnlightmentthinkersandtheprecedent

theAmericanRevolutionset,wouldbringaboutenormouschangenotonlyinFrancebutinits

mostprizedcolony.

NewsoftheNationalAssemblyanditsDeclarationwasmetwithenthusiasticbutvarying

reactionsinHaiti.WealthylandownersviewedtheRevolutionasanopportunityformore

independentselfruleorevenbreakingawayfromFrance,astheUnitedStateshaddonewith

England,whilepoorwhiteswantedmoreequalitywiththewealthy.Affranchiswantedequality

withallwhites(DunnandMitchell,2015).Thesegroupsbegantofightamongthemselves,each

possessingdifferenthopesfortheoutcomesofarevolutioninHaiti.Slaves,however,werethe
mostinflamedbythepowerfulstatementsoftheDeclarationoftheRightsofManandthe

Citizen,andin1791believedthetimewasripetorevoltduetofalserumorsspreadingaboutthe

Kingsupcomingemancipationoftheslaves.Withpowerintheirhugenumbers,thefirstslave

uprisingoccurredthroughoutAugustofthatyear,whereslaveslootedplantations,murdered

planterfamilies,andsetfiretofarms(Girard,2002).Itisimportanttonotethatnotallslaves

actedwiththeintenttoendslavery,aneasybutoverreachinggeneralization.Thoughthe

abolitionofslaverywascertainlyaprimarygoal,ThomasOttnotesthatsomeslavesonly

wishedtoaltertheroutineofslavery,withsomeevenhavinggreatreverencefortheKingof

France,whorepresentedasortofgreatfatherimagetothem(Ott,1973,pg.71).Infact,even

theblackleaderswhoemergedduringtheinitialslaveuprisingsweredivided;bylate1792,due

toineffectiveorganizationofthemovement,whiteandmulattoforceshadsucceededinpushing

slavesbackontoplantationsorintohiding(Girard,2002).Thiswasasetbackfortheslaves,but

therevolutionwasstillbrewing.

Forthemostpart,thesocialconditionsandideologiesneededfortheHaitianrevolutions

successwerestillinplace.Despitepossessingtheelementofsurprise,strongideology,and

massivenumbers,theslavesstillfailedintheuprisingsof1791(Girard,2002).Whatthe

movementnowlackedwasanorganizedandunifyingleader.EnterToussaintLouverture,a

Creoleexslavewhowasliterateandhighlygiftedinguerillawarfare.Louverturejoinedthe

revolutioninlate1791,quicklyworkinghiswayuptheranksfromdoctorsassistantto

commanderofanarmythatcouldrivalFrenchregulars(Ott,1973).Hewasacomplexcharacter,

devotedtoboththefreedomoftheslavesandhisownpersonalpower;infact,atthetimehehad

joinedtherevolution,hewasrelativelywealthyandevenrentedapieceoflandonwhichadozen
slavesworked(Girard,2002).Despitethis,Louverturesskillcouldnotbedenied;hisleadership

finallygaveblackarmiesacommandingmomentumthatwouldcontinuefortherestofthe

revolution.Louverturespowerwasfurtherenhancedbywisechoicesofablesubordinates,

notablyJeanJacquesDessalinesandMoyse,whorepresentedtheradicallimitsoftheHaitian

Revolution;thatToussaintharvestedtheirenergiesisatributetohisskill(Ott,1973,pg.79).

Withtheaidofhiswelltrainedarmiesaswellasthetropicscontributionofyellowfever,

LouvertureweakenedandpushedoutBritishandSpanishforcesinvadedtheislandinthemid

1790s.By1800,inaseriesofsmartpoliticalplaysandoustings,ToussaintLouverturehadbeen

namedthegovernorofSaintDominguebytheFrenchNationalAssembly.In1801,Louverture

pushedthroughaconstitutionwhicheffectivelygaveHaitidominionstatus(thoughnotfull

independence)andestablishedhimselfasgovernorforlife(Ott,1973).

However,thoughLouverturehadleadHaitianarmiestovictoryagainstBritishand

Spanishforces,thequestionoftrueindependencefromFrancestillremained.In1803

Louverture,whohadamassedtoomuchpowerforFrancesliking,wascapturedinaninvasion

orderedbyNapoleonandwassenttoprisoninParis,wherehelaterdied.Napoleonsattemptto

reinstituteslaveryinthecolonies(theFrenchNationalConventionhadliberatedoverseasslaves

in1794)inevitablyfailedasFranceeventuallyelectedtoconsolidateitsresourcesinits1803war

againsttheBritish.Atlonglast,afterfifteenyearsofrevolution,Haitideclaredindependence

fromFranceunderToussantsformerofficer,JeanJacquesDessalines(DunnandMitchell,

2015).ButanindependentHaitiwasnotanimmediatelysuccessfulone;infact,thelargely

illiterateHaitianpopulationfacedthepressingproblemofrebuildingaregionthathadbeen

devastatedbymorethanadecadeofwarandrebellion.
 WastheHaitianRevolutiontrulysuccessful,then,ifitcontributedtoalegacyof

impoverishmentinthenation?AndifcontributedtoHaitisfailureinstableeconomicand

politicaldevelopment,howmuchdiditdoso?ThoughtheHaitianRevolutionstandsinhistory

astheonlyexampleofasuccessfulslaverebellion,itisimportanttoaccessitsfailuresand

legacy.Thepointshouldbemadethatanationfreeoftheinstitutionofslaveryisbetteroffthan

onewithit.Additionally,Haitissuccessopenedwindowsforrevolutionsinothercountries,

whileaccentuatingthesensitivitytorace,color,andstatusacrosstheCaribbean(Wright,2000,

pg.114).Thefactremains,however,thatHaitifacedseriousproblemsinitsnewfound

independence.ConsiderbothdomesticandinternationalforcesthatreinforcedHaitispovertyin

thedecadesfollowingitsliberationfromFrance.

HaitissuccessincreatingthefirstblackrepublicoftheWesternHemispherewasnot

wellreceivedbyEuropeanpowers.Jamaica,whichwasstillaBritishcolonydependentonblack

laboratthetime,wasfearfulofuprisings;GovernorEdwardEyredeportedHaitiansforalleged

disturbancesin1865,almostfiftyyearsafterHaitideclareditsindependence(Ott,1973).France

didnotrecognizethenewrepublicuntil1825.TheUnitedStates,duetooppositionintheSouth

whereslaverywasstillprevalent,didnotdosountil1862(DunnandMitchell,2015).In1852,

Franceadditionallydemandedwarreparationsof$150millionfrancs($21billion)thatwasnot

paidoffuntil1947(Yang,lecture,2014).Withnoforeignalliestosupporttheminrebuilding

andtheadditionaleconomicdifficultiesofrevitalizingtheeconomy,Haitiwaslefttosufferin

povertyformanymoreyears.

However,astemptingasitwouldbetoblameHaitispostindependenceproblemson

foreigngovernments,thisisnotthewholepicture.Evenwithoutforeignoppression,Haitifaced
seriousproblemsingovernment,economy,andsocietythatwerefurthercomplicatedbytherise

ofmilitarismanddictatorship.Haitiandictators,beginningwiththeruleofJeanJacques

Dessaline,believedthatthewhiteworldingeneralandFranceinparticularmightengulftheir

smallstate(Ott,1973).Buildingastrongmilitarydepletedthelaborforce,making

reconstructionverydifficult.Additionally,insteadofestablishinganewdemocraticsystem,

Dessalineandmanyofthosewhofollowedhimoptedtostayinthemilitarycontrolled

governmentthatallowedthemmaximalpower.HumanrightsinHaitididnotdrasticallyimprove

either;Dessaline,whointenselyhatedwhites,ledexterminationsofallwhitepeopleonthe

islandbeginningin1804(Ott,1973).Tothisday,racialhatredremainsatensetopicinHaiti

(Girard,2002).ProfessorGirardclaimsthatHaitianstendencytoblameforeignersforHaitis

troublesisaprimaryreasonfortheircountryspoverty,foritmakesitimpossibletofostera

spiritofenterprise(Girard,2002,pg.9).Thoughthisstatementmayseembold,corruptionand

mismanagementfromthoseinpowerwithinHaitididcontributetoalackofstableinstitutionsin

thedecadesfollowingHaitianindependence.

TheHaitianRevolutionstandsasaoneofakindeventinhistory;nootherslaveled

rebellionwassuccessfulinfreeingitspeoplefromcolonialpowers.TheHaitianRevolution

succeededinthisforseveralmainreasons.Forone,thegreatsocioeconomicinequalityand

abusessufferedbyslavesinHaitigavethemaclearpurposeandpassionforsocialupheaval.

CoincidingwiththissetofsocialconditionswasapoliticaluprisinginFrance,whereFrench

RevolutionidealsoflibertyandequalityincensedtheoppressedHaitiansfurther.Thesetwo

factors,finallypulledtogetherthroughstrongleadershipthroughmenlikeToussaintLouverture,

eventuallyenabledHaititobecomeindependentofFrancein1804.However,therevolution
cameatgreatcost.FifteenyearsofwarfaredecimatedHaitispopulationandnaturalresources,

andwhatwasleftofpreviousinstitutionshadtobecarefullymendedtogether,oftentimesfailing.

Unfortunately,acombinationofforeigninfluencesandineffectiveleadershipfromwithinHaiti

furtherimpoverishedthenation.ThoughtheHaitianRevolutionwasasuccessbymany

measures,thenatureoftherevolutionanditsaftermathalsocausedsufferingfortheHaitian

people.Ifanything,perhapstheHaitianRevolutionsgreatestsuccessistheexampleandhopeit

gaveformanyworldwiderevolutionarymovementstocome.

References

Dunn, R. E., & Mitchell, L. J. (2015). Panorama: A world history (Vol. 2). New York: McGraw-

Hill Education.

Girard, P. R. (2005). Paradise lost: Haiti's tumultuous journey from pearl of the caribbean to

third world hot spot. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Knight, F. W. (2000). The Haitian Revolution. The American Historical Review, 105(1), 103-115.

McPhee, P. (2006). French Revolution. Europe 1789-1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry

and Empire, 2, 884-889. Retrieved from Gale Virtual Reference Library database.

Ott, T. O. (1973). The Haitian Revolution, 1789-1804. Knoxville, TN: The University of

Tennessee Press.

Yang, A. A. (Presenter). (2014, November 7). Lecture 13 [Transcript]. Lecture presented in

University of Washington, Seattle, WA.