“Types and causes of disease [ types of disease | Agents responsible for disease | Examples on syllabus Infectious Pathogens, e.g. viruses, bacteria, | Flu, typhoid, TB, AIDS, gonorrhoea, syphilis, fungi, protozoa, worms herpes, tapeworms, threadworms, dengue, ringworm, rabies Deficiency Malnutrition, lack of proper Vitamin A ~ night blindness nutrients, vitamins, mineral salts | Vitamin B - beri-beri Vitamin C ~ scurvy Vitamin D and calcium ~ rickets Iodine ~ thyroxine, growth Iron - anaemia Degenerative | Too much food - saturated fats | Atherosclerosis, heart disease, obesity, diabetes, Ageing cancer Inherited Genes via gametes from parents | Albinism, sickle cell anaemia, haemophilia, expressed in offspring colour blindness Mental Damage to brain function Anxiety, neurosis, stress and depression Self-inflicted’ | Own actions by smoking, Cancer; bronchitis, heart attack drug taking (e.g. heroin, alcohol) | Addiction, damage to nervous system, leading to crime and suicide[ Harmful effects of bacteria Useful bacteria al 1 Pathogens producing substances toxic to humans, e.g. typhoid bacterium 1 Decomposition of waste: carbon cycle (see pp. 12 and 132) 2 Pathogens parasitic on human tissues, e.g. leprosy bacterium 2 Nitrogen-fixing and nitrifying bacteria in nitrogen cycle (see p. 12) 3 Bacteria on decomposing food add toxins causing poisoning 3 Sewage disposal: decomposition of organic matter 4 Cause numerous diseases in plants and animals associated with humans 4 Ripening cheese, curing tobaccoThreadworms Pathogen Roundworm, Enterobius vermicularis Spread/vectors | Anus to mouth by hands Not washing hands after defecating Inhaling airborne eggs ‘Symptoms Hunger Pain from damage to intestinal wall Signs Diarrhoea, loss of weight and anaemia Worms expelled in faeces Control Thoroughly washing hands, body and around anus Clean clothes, bedding, remove household dust Proper disposal of faeces Treatment Drugs to remove head embedded in the intestine wall and expel wormLife cycle of pork tapeworm hooks attach to wall of small intestine suckers head pushes out new segment forming O segments absorb nutrients from intestine which are therefore lost to the host segments contain male and female reproductive organs bladder worm tapeworm in small intestine of man eggs MAN ripe segment breaks off and - is shed with pork eaten by man the faeces eggs hooks bladder worm in pig ae w pig as secondary We tyitannivy host eats the egg _~The tapeworm Pathogen Flatworm: Taenia solum for the pork tapeworm Spread/vectors | Undercooked meat Symptoms Hunger, pain from blockage of intestines Signs Loss of weight and signs of vitamin deficiency diseases Severe secondary infections may occur e.g. signs showing brain damage Controt Thoroughly cook meat and fish Meat inspection where sold Proper disposal of faeces Treatment Drugs to remove head from intestine wall and expel wormAsthma Inducers - allergens - pollen, dust mites, etc. Causes : Triggers - other airborne irritants, stress, exercise, etc. May be inherited Transmission/vector _| Airborne particles Signs Wheezing, coughing and shortness of breath Symptoms Inflammation of bronchiole tubes Control Avoid source, e.g. allergens or triggers Treatment Use of inhaler ~ corticosteroids Antihistamines to reduce inftammation Identify allergens and avoid themDiabetes Signs Sugar in urine, unconsciousness Symptoms. Causes Lack of insulin - unable to oxidise glucose Dizziness Treatment Overeating and a lack of exercise Obesity - excess stored carbohydrate Can be inherited Inject insulin taken from cattle or made in biotechnology Reduce carbohydrate intake, but take it regularlyInfluenza and bad colds | Pathogen Virus Spread/vector | Droplet infection from expired air By hand from infected surfaces to mouth [ signs Shivering, raised body temperature | Symptoms Headache, fever, sore throat, backache Control Good ventilation, avoid crowds Influenza: vaccine | Treatment | Warmth, rest, hot drinks, painkillersTuberculosis ‘Mycobacterium tuberculosis, a bacterium (bacillus) Pathogen Spread/vector | Airborne spores in droplet infection that can survive drying | Milk from infected cattle Signs Cough, later spitting blood Patient thin and pale with fever Toxins from tubercles destroy lung tissue Lung tubercles, detected by mass X-rays Antibodies detected by skin scratch test Symptoms Feeling weak Control Isolation of infected people found by the tests above ‘Avoid overcrowding, spitting and have good ventilation Pasteurisation of milk ‘Treatment BCG vaccine gives good immunity, antibiotic drug streptomycin g streptomyciTyphoid and cholera a Poor hygiene and houseflies infecting food and : disposal, are responsible forthe serious diseases chain: al a Cholera is more frequently spread by contaminated water while food spre ads typhoid. Pathogens 7 Typhoid: bacterium, flagellate bacillus Salmonella typhi Cholera: bacterium, vibrio, Vibrio cholerae Contaminated water and food; houseflies - faeces to food Carriers handling food - they contain pathogens but show no signs Symptoms Body dehydration Stomach pains Spread/vectors Signs Gastroenteritis - inflammation of the intestines. Ulcers form Severe diarrhoea Vomiting, fever and a rash Death Control Proper disposal of faeces to avoid infecting water Chlorination of drinking water Hygienic food preparation Destroy houseflies that transmit the pathogens Jsolation and immunisation Trace carriers and treat with antibiotics Saline drip, because of loss of water with diarrhoea Tastment Antibiotics and other drugsInfluenza and bad colds Pathogen Virus Spread/vector | Droplet infection from expired air By hand from infected surfaces to mouth Signs Shivering, raised body temperature Symptoms Headache, fever, sore throat, backache Control Good ventilation, avoid crowds Influenza: vaccine Treatment Warmth, rest, hot drinks, painkillers.Tuberculosis Pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis, a bacterium (bacillus) Spread/vector | Airborne spores in droplet infection that can survive drying |_Milk from infected cattle Signs Cough, later spitting blood Patient thin and pale with fever Toxins from tubercles destroy lung tissue Lung tubercles, detected by mass X-rays Antibodies detected by skin scratch test Symptoms Feeling weak Control Isolation of infected people found by the tests above ‘Avoid overcrowding, spitting and have good ventilation Pasteutisation of milk Treatment BCG vaccine gives good immunity, antibiotic drug streptomycinPathogens Uoboid: bacterium, flagellate bacillus Salmonella typhi ‘olera: bacterium, vibrio, Vibrio cholerae Spread/vectors Contaminated water and food; houseflies - faeces to food Carriers handling food ~ they contain pathogens but show no signs Symptoms Body dehydration Stomach pains Signs Gastroenteritis - inflammation of the intestines. Ulcers form Severe diarrhoea Vomiting, fever and a rash Death Control Proper disposal of faeces to avoid infecting water Chlorination of drinking water Hygienic food preparation Destroy housefties that transmit the pathogens kolation and immunisation Trace carriers and treat with antibiotics Treatment Saline drip, because of loss of water with diarrhoea Antibiotics and other drugs LGonorrhoea Pathogen Gonococcus ~ bacterium Signs Discharge of pus from the penis Oviducts or sperm ducts blocked Inflammation of urethra, prostate & testis Signs of arthritis and heart disease Symptoms Burning and itching sensation when urinating Later stages cause sterility Treatment Penicillin injection or other antibioticsyphilis | Pathogen —_| Spirilla bacterium Signs Hard red ulcers. Later a body rash and eventual death if not treated Symptoms | Brain damage, insanity Treatment Penicillin injection or other antibioticGenital herpes There has been a vast increase in : the num| : virus without realising it, ber of cases of genital herpes. Many carriers transmit the m: . Condoms are not completely effective because they may not cover all parts of infected skin. Antiviral agents reduce but do not completely prevent symptoms and risks of spread. Genital herpes Pathogen Herpes simplex type 2 virus Signs Rash followed by blisters that open and form ulcers around genitals Symptoms | Itching, pain, severe headache, muscle ache Treatment | None effective, but drugs reduce symptoms and spread Antiviral agentspe ‘AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) Causative organism Human immuno-deficiency virus (HIV) signs/symptoms Weakened body resistance/immunity, hence death from other diseases (opportunistic) e.g. pneumonia, TB, cancer Cough, fever, skin rashes, swollen lymph glands, etc. Lack of white blood cells Method of spread Heterosexual intercourse Homosexual intercourse Drug addicts’ infected needles Blood contact/transfusions Congenital - from mother to fetus Breast milk to babyVECTORS OF DISEASE yh Ne, ns through air, water, food and contact as descrip, ny disease organisms. and bats are significant animal vectors ang th e Apart from pathogens passing to huma i "tiny vectors, particularly insects, transfer mat In the Caribbean mosquitoes, houseflies, rats methods to be described are taken to control them. Apart from their dangers as vectors, the nuisance of bites from mosquitoes is considerable, particularly the itching caused. The mosquito Mosquitoes directly trai is the species of mosquito which transmits the den; for blood. Only the female can bite and infect. which is the malaria vector, has the same life cycle and methods | parasite is a protozoan, Plasmodium, that causes fever by fey nsfer disease organisms to man, by biting, or piercing the skin, \gue virus pathogens, when biting hum, an SI The female Anopheles mosquito, disease transmission. The malarial on the red blood cells. Anopheles differs in that its eggs have air floats, the larva hangs parallel to the surface of the watery the adults settle with their abdomen angled upwards. The Aedes adult settles with the abdomen parallel, or resting on the surface. Mosquito biting skin, passing dengue Female Aedes adult mosquito (x8) virus to blood Note the white stripes, hence the term, tiger mosquito. labium contracted into loop, suppers proboscis surface of skin proboscis piercing blood capillaryLife cycle of Aedes Todd ae atlas eae va IN ue thorax head antenna surface of water proboscis abdomen adult - feeding breathing tubes, mouth thorax Dengue wings TT agg ttt sce fn o : cc Aedes is endemic (always Kee present) in parts of the legs abdomen Caribbean with epidemics (outbreaks) of dengue occurring een see eal every 3 to 5 years. structures forming Infected Aedes may have arrived in the Caribbean in dust storms blown over in trade winds from ‘Africa. Worldwide some 50 to 100 million people are infected with dengue.Dengue Pathogens Viruses of 4 types, DEN 1-4 Spread/vectors Virulent strains cause dengue haemorrhagic fever Aedes mosquito biting skin to suck blood Symptoms Frontal headache, abdominal pains, joint and muscle pains ‘Signs Liver enlarges, blood clotting reduced with haemorrhaging Fever, sickness and vomiting Rash spreading from the torso to areas of the legs and face Death from DHF (dengue haemorthagic fever) Control Prevent adult mosquitoes biting infected patients Sleep under nets, use chemical skin repellents, e.g. Deet Destroy mosquitoes by: 1 killing adults with insecticide sprays 2 Killing larvae and pupae by spraying oil on stagnant water - surface tension is lost, they sink and drown 3. Introduce fish to feed on larva and pupa 4 Drain stagnant water, from gutters, puddles, tins, etc. so they have nowhere to breed 5. Killing larvae with Bacillus thuringiensis (this bacterium spreads from dead larva to infect and destroy others) Treatment Drugs such as acetaminophen but they only manage the fever Blood transfusions needed in severe cases e.g. DHF ; Take plenty of rest and fluids (there is no vaccine or effective way of killing the virus) Diagnosis Blood test showing platelet reduction and antibodies to the virusThe housefly as a vector of food-borne diseases The housefly is a vector for cholera, dysentery, typhoid and food poisoning, all also causing gastroenteritis. Housefly spreading microorganisms by feeding, their faeces, feet and hairs HEAD uc eye Feeding: Enzymes pass down the proboscis to antenna digest the food externally. The food is then sucked up through grooves. Bacteria picked up from previous meals on excreta or rubbish are left in pools of saliva on human food. Hairs on the body trap bacteria which are deposited on food. 4 Feet have claws and suction pads so the fly can N w grooves suck walk on walls and ceilings. These form a natural up liquid food trap for bacteria which are left on human food. cms sed a bacteria in dirt rom last mi 5 Faeces containing many bacteria may be left on ~N food or dropped onto food. To food The life cycle of the housefly Knowledge of the life cycle is essential to plan the methods of control and it also shows the vast numbers of flies that can develop from each mature female housefly. (Theoretical average offspring - 650 descendents ~ several miltion) (development rates at 30°C) p> adult x4 Sexually mature after 2 weeks * Females can lay up to 5 batches of eggs => oe &- Eggs x4 Pupaxe 100-150 laid in organic refuse Tissues re-organise to form adult, Hatch in 8 hous spiracles Adult emerges after 4-5 days mouth. hook Larva x 6 Pade Feeds on organic refuse (food, faeces, etc) Moults twice Forms pupa after 4-5 daysof control all adults by swatting, insecticide sprays, fly paper, etc. food. Prevent contamination by flies through proper food storage, screens, etc. breeding grounds such as organic rubbish heaps; use dustbins with lids. ry important in restaurants, food shops, markets and houses. methods 4 Destroy’ 2 coverall 3 Eliminate controlis ve Rats Food poisoning pat urine and faeces and dirt from their bodies may be deposited on human food, transmitting many pathogens. vention is important by keeping food stores rat-proof by sealing holes and having tight-fitting Pre’ doors. Concrete floors also help to keep rats out. Houses should be clean and free from refuse which would serve as rat food. Rats are very good climbers so that flanges and rat guards on walls are needed to keep them out. Structures limiting rat movement cable barrier bell-shaped metal flange. structure prevents prevents rat rat climbing climbing post cable to ship or wall Flea-borne typhus Typhus is a disease of rats, which is transmitted to man by a bite from the rat flea. Normally, such rat fleas bite other rats, but in the absence of these, they will bite humans. Plague Bacteria causing the plague are found in the blood of rats and are sucked up by the rat flea where they multiply in the flea’s stomach. When the rat dies, the flea jumps to another host, generally infecting another rat, but failing this, the rat flea may bite a human. Bacteria blocking the flea’s gullet are introduced into the human's skin. ‘The bacteria cause the lymph glands to become swollen and tender and if the blood becomes ‘infected, then septicaemia occurs usually resulting in death. Bacteria are also present in the flea’s faeces and these may enter cuts to infect humans. Humans can infect each other by droplet infection, or by human flea bites.Prevention Cleanliness and the use of insecticides will eliminate the danger of being bitten by rat fleas, Immunisation is by either using dead bacilli, or attenuated non-infective bacilli as vaccines, Sulphonamide drugs taken during the earlier stages of the infection destroy the bacteria. Leptospirosis (Weil's disease) Leptospirosis is a very painful disease caused by bacteria spread by contaminated rat urine. Leptospirosis (Weil's disease) Pathogen Bacteria Leptospira spirochaetes Spread/vectors | Rat urine contaminates food, or enters skin through a break Infected flea bites Other animal urine, e.g. dogs, bats, mice Symptoms Headache, limb and muscle pains Signs Fever and jaundice, signs of nerve, kidney and liver failure Control Destroy rats and fleas Avoid water with rat and other animal urine Treatment Antibiotics Painkillers and drugs to control the fever Rat control Rats can be killed by traps and using poisoned bait. Infestations of rats and finding dead rats should be reported to a Rodent Officer because expert advice is needed in their control. Dead rats may have carried the plague, shown when their fleas are tested for the bacteria. Bats Bats transmit the rabies virus to humans by accidental biting, or by passing pathogens in droplets through the air. Bats may infect domestic animals such as cats and dogs, which transmit the disease. . Infected dogs sometimes foam at the mouth, The virus lives in the salivary glands of the bat. In humans the virus multiplies in the muscles and then infects the nervous system and eventually the brain. The patient has paralysis of the throat, sometimes hydrophobia (fear of water) and without treatment a painful death. Immediate and progressive vaccinations are required, Bat excreta are also a medium for microorganisms, mainly transmitted to man by houseflies settling on it.Li _— Immunity means resistance to disease, The body’s immune system destroys pathogens that have gained entry into the body. An antigen isa large molecule, usually a protein, that stimulates lymphocytes to make and Telease antibodies to them. All cells including bacteria and viruses have antigens on their surfaces, Antibodies are large protein molecules, made by lymphocytes to destroy pathogens, Toxins also behave as antigens and the antibodies that are made are called antitoxins, An tibodies are Specific, they only combine with the particular antigen that produced them. A vaccine is a prepared antigen, usually a weakened pathogen (attenuated), which stimulates the lymphocytes to produce antibodies to provide immunity (e.g. the BCG vaccine for TB, Contains the weakened bacterium). Vaccination is the injection of vaccines to give immunity. Aserum antibody contains antibodies to pathogens produced elsewhere. Bb Senim — plasma minus Bi be Types of immunity Type Method obtained 1 Natural active innate immunity | Inborn immunity (inherited, so available when pathogens first met) 2 Natural passive immunity Antibodies passed from mother to fetus and baby (short lasting in the baby) 3 Natural acquired active Antibodies produced by a natural infection e.g. TB on recover immunity immunity results 4 Artificial active acquired Antibodies produced by a vaccine, e.g. TB vaccine stimulates immunity protective antibodies 5 Artificial passive acquired Serum injection contains antibody, e.g. antiserum to snake bites immunity and tetanus | Pram ni AM yn i> \ ° Das ya) ors Lal ae tnooke ‘ ie nit antibody . passive on afer two injections of cel eum Concentration of antibodies in the blood Active immunity antibody concentration after two injections of vaccine Concentration of antibodies in the blood m2 30 40 t 2nd injection ro. 4st injection passive immunity Immediate high level of antibody b ut level only lasts a short time, e.g. anti-tetanus lasts ‘few days. Antibody is prepared by injecting an animal (e.g. horse) with the pathogen, and extracting the antibodies made by the animal. Comparison of vaccines and anti-sera Vaccine ie 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 days Ast injection 2nd injection Activeimmunity 2046 5 It takes a few weeks for the antibody level to build up but immunity is long-lasting, e.g, anti- TB lasts 7 years. Vaccines are attenuated heating or other methods. Antiserum Gives active immunity Gives passive immunity Few weeks before antibody concentration is high Immediate high concentration of antibody Long lasting, e.g. anti-TB Short lasting, e.g. anti-tetanus Cultures of organisms made non-toxic by heat or antiseptics (attenuated) Extracted from blood plasma after immunisationClassification of drugs Narcotic drugs Heroin Sedatives Tranquillisers Stimulants Cocaine Hallucinogens Marijuana or cannabis, LSD, ecstasy Alcohol Beer, wine and spirits Nicotine Tobacco, cigarettes, cigars