CHEMISTRY

Table 1 SI Base Units

Physical quantity Name of the unit Symbol

Mass Kilogram Kg
Length metre m
Time second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric current Ampere A
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier Luminous Intensity Candela Cd
"Father of Modern Chemistry" Amount of substance Mole Mol

Table 2 SI Prefixes
SOME BASIC Multiple Prefix Symbol Multiple Prefix Symbol
CONCEPTS
1024 Yotta Y 10-1 deci d
Physical quantities and their mea- 1021 Zetta Z 10-2 centi c
surements in chemistry 1018 exa E 10-3 milli m
Measurement is the compari- 1015 peta P 10-6 micro
son of a physical quantity (to 1012 tera T 10-9 nano n
be measured) with a unit of 109 giga G 10-12 pico p
measurement, that is, with a 106 mega M 10-15 femto f
fixed standard. 103 kilo 10-18 atto
k a
In 1960, the General Confer- 102 hecto 10-21 zepto z
h
ence of weights and measures 10 deca 10-24 yocto y
da
(Generale des Poids et mea-
sures, (CGPM) adopted the In- Table 3 Derived Units
ternational system of units. (or
SI, after the French Le System Quantity Definition of Quantity Expression in terms
Internationale units) of SI base units
This system has seven SI base Area Length squared m2
units (Table 1) Volume Length cubed m3
In SI, large and small quanti-
Density Mass per unit volume kg / m3or kgm3
ties are expressed by using an
appropriate prefix (Table 2) Velocity Distance travelled per
with the base units. unit time m / s or ms 1
Derived units: The units of dif-
ferent physical quantities may Acceleration Velocity changed per m / s 2 or
be derived from the seven ba- unit time ms 2
sic units (Table 3).
 STATES OF MATTER
Matter is anything that has
mass and occupies space.
Liquids and gases belongs to
fluid state.
The gaseous state of a liquid
or solid is called vapour.
States of matter can be ex-
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THREE PHYSICAL STATES OF MATTER
Solid state:
1) Solids are rigid and have defi-
nite volume and shape.
2) Intermolecular force of attrac-
tion are very strong in solids.
3) In solids, the constituent par-
ticles (atoms, ions or mol-
ecules) are completely fixed to
their own position.
plained in terms of forces op-
erating among, the constituent
particles. These forces are
called intermolecular forces.
Matter can classify by its
physical state as well as its
chemical constitution.
4) In solids, kinetic energy of the
particles is very small.
5) Solids are almost incompress-
ible.
6) Solids are diffuse very slowly
compared to liquids and gases.
Liquid State:
1) Liquids have no definite shape
With respect to physical state
matter exists in three different
states - Solid, liquid and gas-
eous.
According to chemical consti-
tution matter can classify as
follows:
but have definite volume.
2) Liquids are less compressible
than gases, but more com-
pressible than solids.
3) In a liquid, the particles are
neither completely ordered nor
completely disordered.
4) Liquids diffuse faster than sol-
 ids but much slower than
gases.
5) Kinetic energy of particles in
the liquid state will be higher
than that in the solid state.
Gaseous state:
1) Gases have neither definite
volume nor definite shape.
They take the shape and vol-
ume of the container.
2) In gases, the particles are far
apart from one another.
3) The intermolecular forces of
attraction are very weak.
4) Gases are highly compressible.
5) Gaseous state is the least or-
dered state.
6) Change of temperature and
pressure causes considerable
change in volume.
7) Gas molecules possess very
high kinetic energy.
The state in which matter ex-
ists depends upon temperature
and pressure.
For example water is in the liq-
uid state at room temperature
and atmospheric pressure.
At 0C and atmospheric pres-
sure, it exists as a solid (ice).
When heated to 100C at at-
mospheric pressure, water is
converted into a gas (steam)
An element consists of only
one kind of atoms.
Molecules are identifiable
units of matter consisting of
two or more atoms of the same
element or of different elements
combined in a definite ratio.
Examples: hydrogen (H2), oxy-
gen (O2) etc.
In a compound two or more
than two different types of at-
oms are present. Example:
Water (H2O), Carbon di oxide
(CO2), Salt (NaCl) etc.
A compound is quite different
from a mixture.
Elements in a compound lose
their individual chemical char-
acteristics.
In a mixture, each of the con-
stituents retains its character-
istic property.
A mixture to a large extent
shows the combined beha-
viour of the substances pre-
sent in it.
The de-Broglie relation:
The French physicist Louis de
Broglie in 1924 postulated that
matter, like radiation, should
exhibit a dual behaviour.
He proposed the following re-
lationship between the wave
length of a material particle,
its linear momentum P, and
Planck constant, h
h h
p mv
The waves associated with
particles in motion are called
matter waves or de-Broglie
waves.
Different types of Solids
Type of solid Constituent
particles
Molecular Molecules
Metallic Atoms
Network or
Covalent Atoms
Ionic Ions
Heisenberg uncertainly principle:
It is impossible to determine
simultaneously both the posi-
tion and momentum of an ob-
ject with certainty.
It acquires significance when
applied to elementary particles.
Mathematically it can be stated
h
that p.x where p is
4
the uncertainity in momentum,
x is the corresponding un-
certainty in position and ' h ' is
Plancks constant.
Space lattice: It is a regular re-
peating arrangement of points
in space and forms the basis
of classification of all struc-
tures.
There are five types of two di-
mensional lattices.
They are hexagonal, square,
rectangualar, rhombic and par-
allelogram lattices.
Gas Laws:
Boyles law: The pressure of a
fixed amount of a gas varies
inversely with the volume if the
temperature is maintained con-
stant.
Mathematically the law repre-
sented as
P 1
V ( n ,T constant )or
V 1 ( n ,T constant )
P
Physical Electrical
nature conductivity
Soft Insulator
Hard Conductor
Hard Insulator
Hard but brittle Insulator
 ie,P constant / v
or PV constant (n & T constant )
Charles law: pressure remain-
ing constant the volume of a
fixed amount of a gas varies
directly with its absolute tem-
perature.
ie, VT
orV T constant( n, pconstant )
Avogadro law: It states that at
a given temperature and pres-
sure the volume of a gas is di-
rectly proportional to the
amount of gas.
ie ,V n( P and T constant )
orV constant n
Where ' n' is the amount of
substance.
In a generalised way we can
say: All gases containing equal
amounts of substance occupy
the same volume at the same
temperature and pressure
Ideal Gas Equation
Boyles law V P1 (n ,T constant )
Charles law V T ( n, Pconstant )
Avogadros lawV n( P , T constant )
Combining the three
V 1
T n
P
nT
ie , V P ments carried out by Lord
or V a constant nTP
This constant is known as univer-
sal gas constant and is denoted as
R protons.
R nT
Then ,V
P Particle
PV n R T
ie ,PV nRT
This equation is called ideal gas
equation.
ATOMIC
STRUCTURE
The term atom was introduced
by Ostward, means indivisible.
The structure of atom was
discovered by Niels Bohr
The first atomic theory was
postulated by John Dalton in
1808, a poor English School
master.
Plum Pudding (water melon)
model of atom was suggested
by J.J. Thomson.
Atoms link together in group
called molecules.
All substances are made of tiny
particles called molecules.
A molecule is the smallest
particle of a substance that can
exist independently.
The term molecule was
introduced by Avogadro.
The central part of atom is
called nucleus. Protons and
neutrons are present in
nucleus and electrons are
revolving around the nucleus
in definite path called orbits.
Presence of Protons was
observed by Goldstein in 1896
in a discharge tube with a
perforated cathode. Experi
Rutherford showed that
positive particles produced in
a discharge tube containing
hydrogen gas are same as
Mass Number is the sum of
Discoverer
electron J.J.Thomson
proton Rutherford
neutron J.Chadwick
nucleus Rutherford
John Dalton - English chem-
ist. Best known for his con-
tribution in modern atomic
theory, and his research into
colour blindness.
number of protons and
neutrons present in the
nucleus of an atom.
Atomic Number is derived
from Nuclear charge of atom,
hence it will be the number of
protons.
Electron is the fundamental
particle of matter or nature.
Heaviest sub-atomic particle is
Neutron
Electrons and positrons have
same mass and opposite
charges.
Neutrons and Antineutrons
have no charge and no mass.
The dual nature of electron was
proposed by Victer de-
Broglie.
The dual nature of electrons
was experimentally provided
by I.H. Germer.
The radius of nucleons of an
atom varies in the order 1013
cm.
Isotopes are the different types
of atoms of the same element
having same atomic number
Charge
-ve
+ve
no charge
+ve
 The smallest atom Cathode rays are used in
known is Helium. Television.
The atomic size is about 105
The simplest atom is
times larger than the nuclear
Hydrogen. size.
The most abundant Wavelength of violet
element in the (VIBGYOR) is 3800A0 - 4300A0.
Universe is Hydrogen Wavelength of Red is 6500 A0
(2nd Helium) 7600 A0
The most valid atomic theory
was Wave mechanical model
and different mass numbers. of atom suggested by Max
Isotopes differ in the no. of The structure of atom was Planck.
neutrons. discovered by Niels Bohr(Danish Spectroscope is an instrument
Protium, Deuterium and physicist).
which analyses the wavelength
Tritium are the Isotops of
of emitted radiations.
Hydrogen. Valency is the combining
capacity of one atom to The radioactive liquid element
Protium has no neutron.
another. is Francium.
Deuterium has one neutron.
Tritium has two neutrons. Noble gases have zero valency. The radioactive gaseous
Isobars are atoms of different Hydrogen shows univalency. element is Radon.
The atomic number is first
elements having same mass Sodium and Potassium show
number and different atomic univalency. calculated by Moseley.
numbers. The common valency of carbon The most reactive element -
Eg: Argon - 40 and Calcium 40 is four. Fluorine
Isotones : are atoms of different Hydrogen produces largest
elements having different number of compounds (2nd -
atomic numbers, and mass Carbon)
The nucleus
numbers, but they should have The nucleus is at the centre of the
Cathode rays are discovered
same number of neutrons atom and contains the protons
by Julius Plucker.
eg: 31H and 42He, both contain and neutrons. Protons and
Anode rays are discovered by
two neutrons. neutrons are collectively known
Goldstein.
Nuclear Isomers : These are as nucleons.
Neutron was discovered by
the different types of atoms of
James Chadwick.
the same element having ent
ic le of a carbon 12 elem n-
different radioactivity Atom: The smal
le st pa rt ass of a Carbo
(a m u ): O ne twel vth of a m ts
constants. Unit and formul a w
ei gh
Atomic Mass r st ating atomic
The term isotope was a un it us ed fo nu cl eu s; defines
12 atom; m be r of pr ot ons in the
introduced by Soddy. er: nu
Atomic Numb ent.
Allotropes are different forms el em d are the
the identity of el ec tr on s ar e revolving an
of the same element with : Where
different physical appearances.
Atomic Orbital e in the atom.
y ac
pl
strongest of an at om.
eg: Red phosphorus and white s: Radius of an an
phosphorus oxygen and ozone.
Atomic Radiu gh ted average of
the masses of
ts.
ei g h t: W ei en t el em en
The most complex atom Atomic W as se s of at om s of differ
lative m 22x10 ) of atom
s,
element; The re
23

available from earth is N u m b er : T he number (6.0 po un d.

Avogadros mol e of any co
m
Uranuum - 238
ecul es or pa rt icles found in 1
mol
 Atom Structure ermost shell. This rule is called
Octet Rule.
Atom comprises a nucleus containing protons and neutrons and
electrons which revolve around it. The protons are positively charged, Rutherfords Atom Model
electrons are negatively charged. The neutrons have no charge. In this model, the electrons
Atomic Number is the number of protons (positively charged mass were assumed to be revolving
units) in the nucleus of an atom. around the nucleus in well-de-
Atomic Number = Number of protons fined orbits just like the plan-
or = Number of electrons (for a neutral atom)
ets move around the sun in
Atomic Mass or mass number
fixed orbits in solar system.
Mass Number = Number of protons + number of neutrons
The orbital revolution is not
(ie, number of nucleons)
expected to be stable. To re-
main in a circular orbit the elec-
The densest element - Osmium electrons are shared and the tron would need to undergo ac-
shared pair of electrons are celeration. Therefore it will ra-
The lightest element - diate energy. The loss in en-
derived from only one atom.
Hydrogen ergy would lead to the shrink-
Paulis Exclusion Principle
The lightest metal - Lithium ing of the size of the orbit or it
This principle states that no will hit the nucleus. Such an
Actinometer is used to measure two electrons in atom can have
the intensity of radiation. atom cannot expect to be
the same set of all the four stable.
Chemical bonds quantum numbers.
Properties of
Union of the atoms of two or Hunds Rule of maximum Compounds
more elements by mutual Multiplicity
Compound is a pure substance
attraction is called chemical This rule states that pairing of that is composed of two or
bond. electrons in the orbitals of a more elements chemically com-
The bond formed by the particular sub-shell does not bined in definite and constant
transfer of electrons from one take place until all the orbitals proportions.
atom to another is called ionic of the sub shell are singularly The separation of a compound
bond or electrovalent bond. occupied. The singly occupied into its elements by chemical
In covalent bonds the atoms are orbitals must have the elec- means is called analysis.
linked together by the sharing trons with parallel spins. The formation of a compound
of electrons between the atoms. Aufbau principle by the union of elements is
Vander Waals bonds act According to this principle, called synthesis.
between molecules which are electrons are filled in various The common refrigerents are
brought close together. They orbitals in the increasing order Ammonia and Freon.
are the weakest bonds. of their energies. Non stick kitchen vessels are
The attractive force which Electrons have negative coated with Teflon.
binds the hydrogen atom of charge, protons have positive Teflon is chemically Tetra
one molecule with the charge and neutrons are flouroethylene
electronegative atom of another chargeless particles.
Photographic films are coated
molecule is called hydrogen Octet Rule with Silver Bromide.
bond.
For an atom to be stable, there Artificial rain is done by using
In co-ordinate bond the must be 8 electrons in the out- Silver Iodide.
 Phosphine (PH3) has the smell
of rotten fish.
Hydrogen sulphide gas has the
smell of rotten egg.
Bleaching Powder is
chemically calcium chloride
hypo chlorite (CaOCl2).
Bleaching Powder is a mixed
salt.
Egg shell, Marble, Limestone
etc contain Calcium Carbonate.
Coral reefs are made of calcium
carbonate.
Green house effect is created
by Carbondioxide, methane,
watervapour etc.
Dry ice is solid Carbondioxide.
Zinc Phosphide and Arsenic
sulphide are used as Rat poison
(rodenticide)
Laughing gas is Nitrous Oxide.
Benzyl chloride is used as tear
gas.
Sodium peroxide is used as
airpurifier in Submarines.
Tin Amalgam (Sn + Hg) is used
to coat on mirror.
Paper is chemically cellulose.
The most abundant carbohy
drate (organic compound)
present in nature is cellulose.
Cellulose is not absorbed by
humanbody, due to the absence
of cellulase in body.
Rust is chemically hydrated
ferric oxide.
(Fe2O3. x. H2O)
Freezing mixture contains
calcium chloride and sodium
chloride.
The gas responsible for Bhopal
gas tragedy was methyl iso
cyanate (MIC).
Fluorosis is due to the excess
intake of Fluoride salts along
with drinking water.
Fluorosis is first reported in
of F unda me ntal Particles
Properties es
Particl
Sub - Atomic these are positi
ve coun-
Anderson,
: Discovered by ith elec-
1. P os it rons
hl y un st ab le and combine w
ons. H ig
terpart of electr
in g - rays. i, these are
trons prod uc
ut ri no s : Po stulated by Ferm
and Anti-ne
2. Neutrinos ro mass and zero charge. ated by
particles of ze m es on s (m uones) : Postul
s (pions) and m u- between
3. Pi- meson les ha vi ng a m ass intermediate
e partic
Yukawa, these ar and the proton.
on t for the
that of the el ec tr
st ul ated by Kemmer to accoun .)
esons () : Po tons + neutrons
4. Neutral M th at of th e nucleons (pro
binding fo rc es
India in 1938 in Nellore Dist of Aspirin is called Wonder Drug.
AP. Aspirin is chemically Acetyl
Copper oxy chloride is used as Salicyclic Acid.
fungicide in pepper plants. Ordinary Portland Cement
Silver iodide is used to make (OPC) contains the major
artificial rain component Calcium oxide
Acid rain is caused by the (Lime)
pollution of environment due to White paints are made by using
nitrogen oxide and sulphur- Titanium dioxide.
dioxide. The whitest compound ever
Aluminium is used to make known is Titanium dioxide.
CDs. Titanium is referred as
Aluminium and its compounds wondermetal. Titanium is used
are amphoteric.
to make Air Crafts.
Oxides are binary compounds
Nitrous oxide is used as an
of Oxygen and metals or non
anaesthetic
metals.
Acidic oxides show the Tranquilizers are chemicals
used as medicine for mental
properties of Acids. eg: Carbon
disorderness.
dioxide, sulphur dioxide,
phosphorus pentoxide etc. Barbituric Acid and its salts are
Basic oxides are generally used a Tranquilizers.
metallic oxides. Sodium compound used in
eg: Calcium oxide, Sodium respiratory equipments and
peroxide, magnesium oxide, etc. submarine is sodium peroxide.
Neutral oxides are neither Sweetest sugar is Fructose
acidic nor basic. (present in Fruits).
eg: 1. Nitrous oxide (N2O) Honey contains Glucose and
2. Carbon monoxide (CO) Fructose
Amphoteric oxides are showing Rocket propellent contains fuel
both the properties of acids and and oxidiser.
bases. Rocket fuel is liquid Hydrogen.
eg: Aluminium oxide (LHG)
Zinc oxide, Water Fuel of the future is Hydrogen.
 Analgesics are the drugs used Flint glass contains lead chro- Rat poison is zinc phosphide.
for relieving pain. mate. Lead chromate is used as The aluminium compound used
eg: Aspirin pigments called chrome yellow. in fire extinguishers is alum.
Antipyretics are the chemicals Rising of dough in the process Calcium compound used in
used to bring down body of manufacture of bread is freezing mixture is calcium
temperature. eg: Paracetamol, through the action of carbon chloride.
Aspirin dioxide. The chemical used as a fixer
Disinfectants: Chemical used The gas responsible for green in photography is sodium
to kill micro-organisms. eg: house effect is carbon dioxide. thiosulphate.
Phenol Ferromagnetic powder is Liquid sodium is employed as
Antibiotics: Chemicals coated in tape recorders. a coolant in nuclear reactors.
extracted from microorganisms Dry ice is solid carbon dioxide. Diffusion of light in the atmo-
(fungi, mold, bacteria) and can
Carbon dioxide is used in fire sphere takes place due to wa-
be used to distroy some other
extinguishers. ter vapour.
microorganisms.
eg: Streptomycin, Penicillin, Cryolite is a double fluoride of Ferrous sulphate crystals are
Chloroamphenicol. aluminium and sodium. known as Green vitriol.
Antiseptics : Chemicals that Silver halides are used in pho- The main constituents of pearl
can be applied to living tissues tographic plates because they are calcium carbonate and
to destroy microorganisms. are readily reduced by light. magnesium carbonate.
eg: Dettol
The element which is used to
coat the photocopying drum
of Xerox is selenium.
Silicon, Germanium etc used in
the manufacture of transistors
and IC chips due to their semi
conductivity.
Water gas a mixture of Carbon
monoxide and Hydrogen is
used as Industrial fuel.
Producer gas a mixture of
Carbon monoxide and Nitrogen
is used as Industrial Fuel.
Coke is the refined form of coal
(contains the element carbon)
Bathing salt is sodium
carbonate used to reduce the
hardness of water.
Baking Powder is mixture of
sodiumbicarbonate and Tartaric
Acid salt.
Hydrogen sulphide is a gas
with the smell of rotten egg.
Coral reefs are made of calcium
carbonate.
Impure sodium carbonate ob-
tained in the industrial process
is called black ash.