1.

1 Introduction to Sustainability
Brundtland Commision: Established by the UN in 1983, headed by Dr Gro Burndtland, Prime Minister
of Norway
o Our Common Future: Humanity has the ability to make development sustainable to ensure
that it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs. The concept of sustainable development does imply limits not absolute
limits but limitations imposed by the present state of technology and social organization on
environmental resources and by the ability of the biosphere to absorb the effects of human
activity.
Nazli Choucri: Traditional patterns of industrial and economics activities are no longer viable, but
alternative models are not yet developed.
o The historial trajectory of the industrial West cannot serve as a model for the development of the
industrializing countries, but it cannot be discarded entirely. Ecological systems are severely
strained by the cumulative effects of past industrialization and car scarcely support added strains
due to future patterns of growth, but there are major uncertainties about what must be done and
how. In short, the international community as a whole is involved in global search for new modes
of development, new designs for social interaction, and new technologies for meeting evolving
needs, wants and demands.
Johan Holmberg: trade-offs between biological, economic, and social systems

Prosperity of all humanity of the present and for the future generation
Ethical dimensions of sustainability: True sustainable development should ensure equity, fairness, and
justice, not only within your own community and own country but should also consider effects outside
your country.
Three Tenets: Environment, Society and Economy (Planet, People, Profit)

Climate Change: storms, droughts, sea level rise, water unavailability

o Population & consumption growth
Species Extinctions:
o Loss of biodiversity, habitat, invasive species
Land Use Change:
o Deforestation, urban sprawl
Air Pollution:
o CO2 and GHGs accumulating in the atmosphere
o Air pollution (ozone, particulate matter, smog = visible air pollution composed of nitrogen oxides,
sulfur oxides, etc.)
 Social Instability: too much poverty in the face of excess

Sustainable Engineering: The process of using energy & resources at a rate that does not compromise
the natural environment, or the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Problems Engineers can help solve: Water supply, food production, energy production & consumption,
waste & management, air pollution, housing & shelter, transportation

Anthropocene: time point when human activities started to have significant impacts on earths
ecosystem
o Population, Food consumption & waste, CO2 concentration in air, Water Use, Fertilizer
Consumption, Paper Consumption, # of Motor Vehicles, Loss of Tropical Rainforests, Species
Extinction, Flooding, Ozone Depletion, Exploited Fisheries

June 2012, "Welcome to the Anthropocene a film about the state of the planet opened the UN's
Rio+20 summit on sustainable development.
Not just a designer, able to understand environmental impacts, able to understand impacts on home
communities, globally connected, able to understand impacts on the global communities
T-Shaped Engineer: Systems thinking, collaboration, communication across disciplines, a cathedral
builder, not a bricklayer

The concept of the T-shaped professional refers to individuals with both depth and breadth of knowledge.
It reflects a deep expertise in a single area, usually technical, complemented with a broad working
knowledge of multiple areas of inquiry, establishing a professional as capable of interacting with various
facets of an organization.
The engineering community has embraced the T-shaped concept as an ideal method to prepare practicing
engineering graduates for the global economy. This approach fosters individuals with a deep technical
understanding coupled with broader knowledge in the fundamentals of engineering design, innovation,
business, and leadership. Thus, the stem of the T indicates depth of knowledge in a discipline of science
or engineering and the top of the T indicates breadth of knowledge in areas such as business,
management, and communication. Such training prepares professionals for success negotiating the
corporate, global world of industry.
 Sustainability Process:

1.2 Quantifying Sustainability

Sustainability Indicator: A set of metrics based on verifiable data that can be used to communicate
important information related to sustainable design or development. Sustainable indicators are
measureable aspects of economics, environmental and social systems.
US-EPA suggested four major categories of indicators:
o Adverse Outcome Indicator: Indicates adverse outcome (Health impacts of air pollution; effects
of lead (Pb) in air include heart disease, neurological and kidney issues)
o Resource flow/consumption indicator: Indicates pressure related to consumption (Water
consumption in a manufacturing facility, Deforestation rate in a given region)
o System condition indicator: indicates state of a system (Infrastructure durability; service life of a
regular pavement vs. pavement built from recycled materials)
o Value creating indicator: Indicates the creation of value (Fuel efficiency of a vehicle)
 Sustainability Index
o A numerical-based scale used to compare alternative designs, processes or products with one
another.
o IPAT Equation:
Impact on Environment: Anything that contributes to diminishing the sustainable rate of
resource consumption and waste discharge.
Commoner et al. during 1970s suggested that human impact on environment is a
function of population (P), affluence (A), and technology (T).

A increase @ higher rate in high HDI countries than low HDI countries

Applications of IPAT Equation: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has applied

IPAT to studies of CO2 level
CO2 emissions = Population (GDP/Population) (Energy/GDP) (CO2
/Energy)
I = CO2 emissions
P = Population
A = Consumption per person= (GDP/Population) (Energy/GDP )
T = Waste accumulation per unit consumption = (CO2 /Energy)

Population Growth Curves and Carrying Capacity Listen to Jonathan Tomkins lecture
Exponential (J-shaped) Population Growth Curve
o Exponential growth is continuous population growth in an environment where resources are
unlimited
o dN/dt = rN
o r = intrinsic rate of increase = per capita rate of increase = birth rate minus death rate;
o N = population size;
o dN/dt = rate of change in population size.
o Solution of the exponential equation:
N(t)=N0 exp(-rt)
N(t) = population at time t;
N0 = initial population
 Logistic (sigmoidal or S-shaped) Population Growth Curves
o Logistic growth is continuous population growth in an environment where resources are limited.
o dN/dt = rN [1 - N/K]
dN/dt = change in population size;
r = intrinsic rate of increase;
N = population size;
K = population carrying capacity
o Population grows slowly at first because there are few individuals. Then population grows faster
when there are more individuals. Finally, having lots of individuals causes growth to slow down
as resources are limited Population grows until it reaches population carrying capacity K, which is
the maximum number of people that an environment can support

o Solution of the logistic equation:

N << K dN/dt = rN (Exponential Growth)
N=K dN/dt = 0 (Carrying Capacity)
N = K/2 dN/dt is a maximum (Inflection Point)

Different Population Patterns:

o The current population growth is driven by fertility. Total fertility rate is a strong function of
region. The more developed countries have lower fertility rates than the less developed countries.
Carrying Capacity of the Earth: maximum rate of resource consumption and waste discharge that can
be sustained indefinitely in a given region without progressively impairing the functional integrity and
productivity of the relevant ecosystem.
o A sustainable economic system operating within earths carrying capacity demands the
following:
The usage of renewable resources is not greater than the rate at which they are
regenerated
The rates of use of non-renewable resources do not exceed the rates at which renewable
substitute are developed
The rates of population or waste production do not exceed the capacity of the environment
to assimilate these materials

Environmental Footprint: An impact on natural environment for our activity in the ecosystem
o Footprint indictors provide a measure of accounting between the natural world and human
consumption
o Footprint indicators: Ecological, Carbon, Water
o Ecological Footprint: A measure of human demand on the planets biologically productive land
and sea area
University of British Columbia and the Global Footprint Network have developed this
concept
Ecological footprint measures how much land and water area a human population
requires to produce the resources it consumes and to absorb the CO2 emissions
Ecological footprint relies on the concept of biocapacity
Biocapacity is the biologically productive land and sea area available to provide the
ecosystem services that humanity consumes

Ecological footprint (countries
of one million people or more)
Country Footprint per How many
person Earths?
Kuwait 8.9 global 5.1
hectares
Australia 8.3 4.8
United Arab Emirates 8.1 4.7
Qatar 7.0 4.0
United States of America 6.8 3.9
Canada 6.6 3.8
Sweden 6.5 3.8
Bahrain 6.2 3.6
Trinidad and Tobago 6.0 3.5
Singapore 5.9 3.4
o Carbon Footprint: Carbon footprint measures the total greenhouse gas emissions (CO2, CH4, O3)
caused directly and indirectly by a person, organization, event or product.
o Carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) is a measure used to compare the emissions from various
greenhouse gases based upon their global warming potential.

o Water Footprint: Water footprint is the amount of water we use throughout the day. It includes
the water we use directly (e.g., from a tap) and the water it took to produce the food we eat, the
products we buy, and the energy we consume.
Green water footprint: is water from precipitation that is stored in the root zone of the
soil and evaporated, transpired or incorporated by plants. It is particularly relevant for
agricultural, horticultural and forestry products.
Blue water footprint: is water that has been sourced from surface or groundwater
resources and is either evaporated, incorporated into a product or taken from one body of
water and returned to another, or returned at a different time. Irrigated agriculture,
industry and domestic water use can each have a blue water footprint.
Grey water footprint: is the amount of fresh water required to assimilate pollutants to
meet specific water quality standards. The grey water footprint considers point-source
pollution discharged to a freshwater resource directly through a pipe or indirectly through
runoff or leaching from the soil, impervious surfaces, or other diffuse sources.
Water footprint of a country is the volume of water needed to produce goods and services
consumed by the inhabitants of the country.
UNs Sustainable Developmental Goals - SDGs
Adopted in Fall 2015, and target is to meet these goals by 2030
1.End poverty and all its forms everywhere
2.End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture
3.Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages
4.Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all
5.Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
6.Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all
7.Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all
8.Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent
work for all
9.Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation
10.Reduce inequality within and among countries
11.Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable
12.Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns
13.Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts
14.Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development
15.Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat
desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss
16.Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and
build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels
17.Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development
 2.1 Sustainable Water

WATER is ESSENTIAL
PEOPLE required for basic needs to maintain human health
PROFIT required as raw material for production of marketable commodities (e.g. food, energy, etc.)
PLANET required for maintaining health of ecosystems

Global Water Issues: Water Pollution, Access to Clean Water and Sanitation, Food Security, Maintaining
Aquatic Ecosystem Services, Flood Hazard/ Response

The ability to provide and manage both water quantity and water quality so as to meet the needs of
humans and ecosystems while not impairing the needs of future generations to do the same.
o Availability of fresh water supplies: Throughout periods of drought to meet increase demands
from population and economic growth and have adequate supplies for future
o Existence of reliable infrastructure: For treatment and distribution of drinking water and
sanitation purposes, food, energy production, and industry
o Existence of stable institution: For integrated management of water resources to meet the needs
of humans and sustain the integrity of ecosystems.

Hydrologic Cycle
o The water cycle: Describes the movement of water from one reservoir to another
o More water evaporates from the oceans than fall on them --- this water runs off in our rivers and
streams and sustains our natural ecosystems
Pathways of water flow from one reservoir to another reservoir
o Evaporation: the process of converting liquid water from surface water sources to gaseous water
that resides in the atmosphere.
o Transpiration: when water is conveyed from living plant tissue, especially leaves, to the
atmosphere.
o Evapotranspiration = evaporation + transpiration
o Precipitation: water moves from the atmosphere to the surface of the earth
o Infiltration: through this process precipitation seeps into the ground
o Runoff: through this process water flows over saturated land or impervious surface
 Water Balance

Hydraulic Cycle
 Water Demand:
o Drinking and other domestic use (washing cloths, kitchen works, bathrooms)
o Food production (irrigation, livestock, fisheries)
o Industrial
o Hydropower
o Recreational

Water Consumption: Distribution of household water use

o Bathrooms (toilet, shower, faucet) is the largest user!
o Standard showerheads use 10 liters per minute and also require energy to heat the water
o A bathroom faucet generally runs at 8 liters per minute.
o Common types of leaks found in the home include worn toilet flappers, dripping faucets, and
other leaking valves.

o Per Capita Water Use

o Food Production Water Use
o Bottled Water:
The production of water
bottles uses 17 million
barrels of oil a year,
and it takes three times
the water to make the
bottle as it does to fill
it
Global consumption of
bottled water goes up
10 percent each year
A report by Food And
Water Watch says that
almost half of all
bottled water is derived
from tap water
 o Industrial Water Use:

Water Consumption in USA

Water Sources
Water Resources:
Distribution of water on earths water reservoirs
o Oceans contain 97% of the water on the planet. Ocean water contains 35g/liter of minerals and salts.
Standard is 2g/liter.
o 69% of fresh water is available in glaciers, arctic and ant artic ice. Not obtainable for human use.
o Groundwater is the largest source of fresh water actively used by humans, accounting for 30% of
freshwater on the planet and 99% of the freshwater available for human use.
o Only 0.5% of the worlds total fresh water is available in surface waters (lakes, seasonal streams, creeks
and rivers)

Non-Renewable Resource Renewable Resource

Stock Limited Flow or rate limited
e.g, stocks of oil volume available e.g., solar energy use does not diminish the production
independent of the slow rates of renewal of next unit. Limited by amount available per unit time

Water demonstrates attributes of both renewable and non-renewable resource

o Human use of water has no effect on natural recharge rate renewable
o Fossil groundwater aquifers maybe non-renewable due to their slow recharge rates

Groundwater is the water found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil and sand. It is also found in aquifers
(large waterbody) between rocks or earth layers.
Groundwater:
o Water Table: The zone below which all pores are filled with water and water pressure is atmospheric
o Porosity: Volume of voids/total volume of the aquifer

Anthropogenic Negative Impacts on Groundwater:

Ogallala Aquifer in USA
Area ~ 160,000 sq. mi. and volume ~ 3.3 x 1015 gal, about the same size as Lake Superior.
Depth ranges from 100 200 ft in south to 400 ft in North
Overused for irrigation (>96%)

Development History
1800: Settlers +farming
Drought of 1930s led to development of groundwater resources for irrigation
1949: 480 million cu ft/d
1990: 1870 million cu ft/d

Saturated thickness the aquifers has changed by hundreds of feet due to over-pumping, i.e., mining the
water.
Generally, groundwater can be viewed as renewable resource, but it is nonrenewable when used in this
manner.
Recharge is 10 times less than withdrawal

Surface Water: Watershed and Runoff

A watershed is a land area that topographically collects rain water and drains to a particular point (outlet)
It is also called natural drainage basin/catchment area that collects and discharges surface water through one
outlet

Anthropogenic Negative Impacts on Surface Water

Aral Sea (68,000 km2) was the 4th largest lake
Aral Sea is a terminal lake fed by two rivers Amu Darya and Syr Darya
In 1918, Soviet govt. decided to divert river water to grow rice, melons, cereal, cotton
Diversion of water began in 1940
Today Uzbekhistan is one of the largest exporters of cotton
From 1960 1998, area shrank by 60% and volume by 80%
Fisheries and the communities that depended on them collapsed
Blowing dust from the exposed lakebed became a public health hazard
The salty dust blew off the lakebed and settled onto fields, degrading the soil.
Croplands had to be flushed with larger and larger volumes of river water.
The loss of the moderating influence of such a large body of water made winters colder and summers hotter
and drier.

Hydrograph runoff as a function of time

Runoff is a function of:
The area
The rainfall intensity
The characteristics over which the runoff occurs, including permeability, slope, vegetation etc.
Urbanization:
o disturbs natural environment
o increase amount of impervious area
Groundwater-Surface Water Interactions
As development (building, business, industry) intensifies, the development of either groundwater or surface
water also intensifies.
Research found that excess use of either water source affects other.

Effect of Groundwater Depletion on Surface Waters

Santa Cruz River south of Tucson Arizona

1942: Mesquite and Cottonwood Trees
1989: Disappearance of riparian vegetation
Water Table has declined more than 100 feet due to pumping
Groundwater development led to elimination of perennial stream reaches, wetlands and riparian ecosystems

2.2 Sustainable Water

PEOPLE required for basic needs to maintain human health
PROFIT required as raw material for production of marketable commodities (e.g. food, energy, etc.)
PLANET required for maintaining health of ecosystems

Water pollution is any condition caused naturally or by human activity that adversely affects the quality of a
stream, lake, ocean, or source of groundwater.
Water pollution adversely affects ECOSYSTEMS and LIFE in all forms of it (human, wildlife, livestock,
aquatic, etc.)

Public Awareness of Water Pollution

Cholera outbreak in 1854 in Soho, London
John Snow theorized that the cholera germ spread from shared wells pump in the community. The well was
nearby cesspools.
o 616 people had died from this outbreak

Lake Erie- Huge toxic algae bloom

Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, Ohio

o The river was saturated with sewage and industrial waste
o Several fires occurred from petroleum waste.
o Finally fire in 1969 as well as the Lake Erie situation triggered passing of the Clean Water Act in
1972
o The Clean Water Act mandated that all rivers be fishable and swimmable by 1983.
 o The river is now much cleaner and continues to improve.
o Fish populations are back. However,
o They are the pollution-tolerant species such as carp, suckers and bottom feeders.
o Unfortunately, they have tumors, eroded fins, deformities and lesions.
o Also, it still is not advisable to eat fish caught in the river more than once or twice a month,
depending on the species, because of the PCB and mercury levels found in the fish

Walkerton, Ontario May 2000

o E-Coli (bacteria) outbreak
o 7 DIED
o 2300 of 5000 became ill
o Farm runoff into an adjacent water well

North Battleford, Saskatchewan April 2001

o Cryptosporidium (protozoa) outbreak
o NO death
o 7000 became ill
o Water treatment plant only 2 km downstream of sewage plant, inadequate test of water

Canadian Water Quality Guidelines

Drinking Water Quality
Recreational Water Quality
Aquatic Life
Aquatic life in Sediments
Agricultural Water Use
Wildlife Consumers of Aquatic Biota

Water Pollution - Sources

Point Source Pollution
Factories (toxics, heavy metals)
Sewage treatment plants (organics, nutrients, pathogens, hormones)
Landfills
Leaking Underground Storage Tanks
Acid Mine Drainage
Construction sites

Non-point Source Pollution

Agriculture
Fertilizers
Pesticides
Herbicides
Street Refuse
Salt
Garbage
Major Pollutants
Physical (solids and sediments, heat)
Chemical
Toxic metals (zinc, mercury, lead, arsenic)
Synthetic and industrial organic pollutants (Pesticides, hormones, volatile organic chemicals)
Nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus)
Salts
Biological (bacteria, virus, protozoa, fungi, algae)

Quantitative Measures of Water Quality

Concentrations of solids, chemicals, etc. [mg/L]
Turbidity [NTU]
pH
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) [mg/L]
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) [mg/L]
Temperature [C]

Solids and sediments (turbidity, concentration)

Reduce the light
Carry chemicals (e.g. nutrients)
Affect the habitat

Heat (C)
Affects the chemistry
Changes the habitat

Microorganisms
Microorganisms are a natural part of the environment.
Microorganisms are the principal decomposers of natural and anthropogenic waste. They convert
organic waste in landfills to carbon dioxide, methane, and water.
Microorganisms also convert organic matters in water. In this process they use dissolved oxygen from
water, sometimes to the exclusion of other species .
A very small number of microorganisms, compare to all types of microorganisms, are pathogenic.

Biological Pollutants: Pathogenic Microorganisms

Pathogenic organisms are the organisms that excreted by human beings and other warm-blooded
animals.
Pathogenic organisms are difficult to identify because they are so few in numbers.
They are also so small that they can pass a filtration system.
Based on their sizes, shapes and cell structures, pathogens can be classified as bacteria, protozoa, viruses,
and helminths (worms).

Microorganisms classification based on source of oxygen

Aerobic
Aerobic organisms require molecular oxygen (O2) for respiration
Aerobic organisms typically utilize substrate more efficiently and more rapidly than nonaerobic
organisms
 Example: M. tuberculosis (TB) bacteria
Anaerobic
Anaerobic organisms dont need molecular oxygen. They obtain oxygen from nitrates, sulfates or protein
compounds
Example: E. coli. bacteria

Biological Pollutants: Algae

Algae are chlorophyll-containing organisms.
When excessive levels of nutrients enter a water body, excessive algae reproduction (algal blooms) may
occur.
Algae can cause negative taste and odor in drinking water.
Algal blooms cause reduction of dissolved oxygen available in the water.
Algal blooms are associated with an increase in fish mortality rates during hot weather when oxygen
levels are at their lowest.
Some algal blooms (cyanobacteria or blue-green algae) produce dangerous toxins (cyanotoxins).

Chemical Pollutants
Synthetic and Industrial Organic Pollutants
o ~ 100,000 synthetic pollutants in use
o Hazardous at even below detection limits
o Examples:
Pesticides
PAHs (incomplete combustion of fossil fuels)
PCBs (electrical industry)
Organic solvents (manufacturing)
Phthalates (plasticizers)
DBPs (disinfection by products such as trihalomethane)

Nutrients
Eutrophication
Excessive Nutrients
Excessive emissions of nitrogen and phosphorus in the water mainly because of excessive use of
fertilizers in agriculture and inadequately treated sewage and industrial waste
Increases the growth rate of aquatic plants, algae, and microorganisms
Causes significant oxygen deficit in water as the higher than normal levels of plant matter settle to the
bottom of the water body
Microorganism concentrations increase as they use the dead plant matter as a substrate, and oxygen
levels decrease (HYPOXIA) as the plant matter decays
o Eg. nitrogenloading effect on the Chesapeake Bay

Eutrophication and Hypoxia

Hypoxia a Global Problem
Hypoxia: Oxygen Concentrations < 2 mg/L
Hypoxic Regions - Dead Zones
marine life cannot be supported due to low oxygen levels
Range in size from 1 Km2 to 70,000 Km2
Occurrence of dead zones is a natural phenomenon
but anthropogenic activities have enhanced the size and duration

Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen that is present in the water.
It is used as a measure of aquatic health
The higher the dissolved oxygen the greater the diversity of life can be accommodated
When oxygen concentrations are in equilibrium with the oxygen in the atmosphere, the aqueous solution
is saturated with oxygen
Saturation DO (DOs) = 9 mg/L at 20 C
Critical levels of DO are 4-5 mg/L
Oxygen deficit in water can be computed by deducting prevailing DO from potential saturation
concentration (Deficit = DOs DO)
DO in water is a function of:
Temperature (inversely proportional)
The consumption rate or deoxygenation rate in the water due to uptake from microorganisms and higher
organisms (inversely proportional)
Atmospheric pressure (proportional)
Re-aeration or how quickly oxygen is reabsorbed and mixed in the water body (proportional)

Minimum dissolved oxygen (DO) requirement for different species

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

The most widely used parameter of organic pollution is BOD5
BOD5 is the amount of oxygen needed by microorganisms for biochemical oxidation of organic matter
(substrate)
BOD value is used to understand the presence of microorganisms in water and to quantify water
quality related to organic pollutants

Standard BOD 5 day test

Tests the total amount of oxygen required (consumed) by microorganisms in 5 days of degradation in a
sample containing an organic waste material.
Water samples containing microorganisms such as raw sewage, treated unchlorinated effluent from a
wastewater facility or natural waters do not require the addition of extra microorganisms (Seed).
Water samples with no microorganisms such as tap water or industrial strength wastewater require
additional microorganisms through a seed.

Take water sample and dilute it with distilled water containing nutrients and saturated oxygen (typical dilution
is 2%) ;
Measure the initial temperature and dissolved oxygen content this is known as DOo ;
Fill 5 bottles with the diluted mix and create a water tight seal;
Maintain constant (known) temperature;
On each of the following 5 days, one bottle is opened and the remaining DO is measured. These are known as
DOt where t indicates the time or date of opening.
Unseeded:

Seeded:

BOD5 = Standard 5 day BOD (mg/L)

DOi = Initial measure of dissolved oxygen (mg/L)
DOf = Final measure of dissolved oxygen (mg/L)
P = Volume of the sample/(volume of sample + diluted water) (ml)
Bi = Initial measure of dissolved oxygen in the blank bottle (mg/L)
Bf = Final measure of dissolved oxygen in the blank bottle (mg/L)
BOD Equation

Lo = Ultimate BOD (the final BOD as t )

k = reaction constant or BOD exertion rate
k is a function of:
Temperature
Type of organics present
Quantity of microorganisms