Human reproduction

Sexual reproduction is the process involving the joining of the male and
female sex cells
Gametes- sex cells, produced in the sex organs
Gonads- sex organs
Fertilization- the fusion of male gametes and female gametes
Zygote- single cell
Primary sex organs- gonads- produce gametes
Secondary sex organs- store the gametes, bring them together for fertilization
and support the developing baby

Male reproductive system

Males gametes (sperm) are produced in the gonads or testes which are held in
the scrotum.
This holds the testes outside the body cavity because the production and
development of sperm requires a temperature that is about 2 degrees lower
then the normal body temp. therefore to enable sperm production, the testes lie
outside the body
Part description function
Testes Oval in shape Produce sperm and hormones
4.5cm long, 2.5cm wide
and 3cm thick
Lobules compartments 200-300 Compartments that hold tubes
filled with fine tubes
called seminiferous
tubules

Seminiferous tubules lined with cells Produce male gametes (sperm)

between the
seminiferous tubules are
clusters of interstitial
cells

Interstitial cells between the Secrete male hormone testosterone

semininferous tubules
they are clusters
Epididymis highly, folded tubule that Stores sperm while they finish maturing (for a
is against the rear surface month)
of each testes

Vas deferens tubule of epididymis Carries sperm to urethra

forms this and joins to
form urethra

Semen or seminal fluid is used to transport the sperm to the females body. It
also nourishes and aids the sperm

Semen is made from a mixture of secretions from three glands

Seminal vesicles- pair of pouch like organs and 5 cm. The fluid is rich in
sugars and about 60% of volume of semen
Prostate gland- 2 vaso deferens join the urethra. It is a single gland and it
surrounds the urethra just below the bladder. Secretes a thin, milky alkaline
fluid that becomes part of the semen
 Cowpers glands (bulbourethral glands) 2 small yellow glands located
beneath prostate. Secretes clear mucous which acts as lubricant and most
precedes the emission of seminal fluid

The urethra- transports urine and semen

The penis contains connective tissue with a very rich blood supply (erectile
tissue) and it contains many sponge like spaces which fill with blood during
sexual arousal
This causes in an erect and stiff penis, and it can be successfully introduced
into the vagina

Female reproductive system

Part Description Function

Ovaries Female gonads Ova is produced
Almond shaped gland
3cm in length located in
body
Stroma Connective tissue found in Contains germ cells
ovary
Surrounded by germ cells
Germ cells Surrounds the stroma
Enclosed in a follicle
Follicle Contains germ Surrounds and matures ova
cells(surrounds germ cells)
Numerous follicles
As a follicle matures it
moves to the surface of the
ovary and ruptures
Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis
Occurs in seminiferous tubules of the testes
Immature sperm cells line the seminiferous tubules called spermatogenesis
They contain 46 chromosomes(diploid)
They divide by mitosis provide a continuous source of new cells for the
production of sperm
Primary spermatocyte- some spermatogenia are pushed away from the edge
and they grow
These cells undergo the 1st stage of meiosis (reduction stage), to form 2
daughter cells with half the chromosome number (haploid) and are called 2nd
spermatocyte
A further meiotic division produces two spermatids each total of four
daughter cells
Spermatids have no tail and move towards the centre of the tubule as they
mature into spermatozoa
Maturing sperm are nourished by cells in the tubules called nurse cells
Takes about 72 days and continues through puberty

Oogenesis

Production of ova in the ovaries

Begins before and after baby is born
Oogonia develop in the ovaries. These are diploid cells
At birth the ovary contains several hundred thousand oogonia which have
grown to become primary oocytes
Primary oocytes begin the first phase of meiosis but stop at prophase until
puberty
Each primary oocyte is surrounded by a single layer of cells forming a primary
follicle
At puberty follicles begin to mature
 The primary oocyte completes its 1st division of meiosis to form two haploid
cells. These are uneven in size. The larger one receives most of the cytoplasm
and is called the secondary oocyte. The smaller one is called 1st polar body
The secondary oocyte immediately begins the 2nd meiotic division but stops at
metaphase
When ovulation occurs the follicle ruptures and the secondary oocyte is
released
If it is fertilised by a sperm, meiosis is quickly completed
The 2nd stage of meiosis also produces cells of uneven size, and again the
smaller one is the 2nd polar body. The larger of the two develops into mature
ovum
The 1st polar body may also complete its 2nd meiotic division and produce 2
more polar bodies
All polar bodies disintegrate
A female only produces 1 ovum from every primary oocyte
And males produces for sperm from every primary oocyte

Differences between O and S

Spermatogenesis takes place in the testes of males, oogenesis takes place in the
ovary of the females.
Spermatogenesis produces small, motile spermatozoa whereas in oogenesis the
ovum is spherical, not motile and is much larger with more food reserves and
cytoplasm.
Spermatogenesis involves a metamorphosis stage called spermiogenesis, in
oogenesis there is no metamorphosis stage.
In spermatogenesis, 4 gametes are produced from each meiotic division, whereas in
oogenesis there is only 1 gamete produced from each division as the unequal
cytokinesis leads to the formation of polar bodies.
Spermatogenesis occurs in males (human males) continuously from puberty to
death whereas oogenesis starts in females at puberty and then occurs on a monthly
basis until the menopause. It takes 70 days for sperm to be produced in males.
 Ovarian cycle

It is a series of events that occurs in the ovaries under the control of

hormones from the pituitary gland situated in the brain
At birth a females ovaries contain about 400000 immature eggs which
remain in a resting phase until puberty
At puberty some primary follicles begin to enlarge and divide creating a
layer of cells around the developing ovum
These layers of cells secrete fluid unto the follicle causing it to continue to
enlarge
It then begins to move to the surface of ovary. Now is called secondary
follicle
Primary follicle secondary follicleovummature
folliclefluidruptured follicle corpus luteum corpus albicans
Ovulation- mature follicle bursts releasing ovum
After ovulation the ruptured follicle falls and forms an endocrine gland
called the corpus luteum (secretes hormones which influence the
development of endometrium)
If no fertilization corpus luteum degenerates into corpus albicans (mass of
fibrous scar tissue)
If fertilization occurs, corpus luteum develops and ovarian cycles cease

The menstrual cycle

Changes in the lining of the uterus (endometrium)

Menstruation is the monthly shedding of the lining of a womens uterus (more
commonly known as the womb)
Stages
Menstruation (1-4 days)
Uterine bleeding and shredding of endometrium (glands, blood vessels)
Pre ovulation\proliferation (5-12 days)
Endometrium repairs, then thickening. Ovarian follicles develops (developing of a
new lining )
Ovulation (13-15 days)
Rupturing of a mature follicle
 Secretion (16-20 days)
Secretion of water mucous by endometrium glands, cervix and uterine tubes
Unfertilized egg breaks down and corpus luteum develops
Uterus is ready for implantation
Pre menstruation (21-28 days)
Detoriation of endometrium
Corpus luteum degenerates

2 stages in an ovary

Follicular phase (0-14)

- development of follicles
- forming of glands and blood vessels in endometrium
- and is the menstrual and proliferative stage
- secretion of oestrogen by the ovarian follicle (follicular cells)
- In the menstrual and proliferation stage in the uterus

Luteal phase (14-28)

- development of corpus luteum
- secretion of oestrogen and testosterone
- secretion of mucous from glands
- in the secretory phase of stage in uterus
Link between ovarian cycle and reproductive hormones

1. When Follicle stimulating hormone released the follicle matures, grows and
produces (helps ovarian cycle)
2. Release Oestrogen in endometrium
FSH levels decrease
Lutenizing hormone increases
3. When LH is released ovum ruptures (ovulation), follicle changes to corpus
luteum and changes into a gland
4. Progesterone is produced by CL and oestrogen is produced
LH levels decrease
FSH levels decrease
5. If implantation occurs CL supports pregnancy for 3 months
6. If no implantation CL degenerates, menstruation occurs and lowers oestrogen
levels
Puberty

When a person reaches sexual maturity

Females (11-14)
Oestrogen responsible for :
Breasts
Broadening of hips
Female contours
Voice deepens a little
Pubic hair- armpits and groin
Sex organs enlarged

Males (15-16)
Testosterone
Facial and chest hair
Increase in size of larynx
Lengthning of vocal cords
Pubic hair- armpits and groin
Sex organs enlarge

Sexual intercourse

Male
When sexual arousal has occurred, the sperm in the epididymis move to the prostate
gland and the seminal vesicle via the vas deferens. They are nourished at the prostate
and seminal vesicle and then by the contracting of the epididymis, prostate, and vas
deferens the sperm move out of the penis via urethra into the cervix of vagina.
(ejaculation)

Female
When arousal in female occurs the erectile tissue fills with blood near vaginal
opening. This reduces the size of the opening which increases stimulation for penis.
Increase in mucous secretions for use as lubricant for penis

The sperm is ejaculated through the cervix and into the uterus where they make their
way to the uterine tubes. Muscular contractions and the beating of the cilia on the
lining of the cells of the tubes help move the ovum down the tubes
Fertilization

Cells of corona radiata are held together by an acid

The head of the sperm contains an enzyme that breaks down the acid of the
corona radiata
Many sperm needed for the break down of the corona radiata
When one sperm penetrates egg, egg forms a fertilization membrane so no
sperm can enter
The male pro nucleus (head of sperm) moves towards females pro nucleus
The ovum completes its 2nd meiotic division and nucleus of egg develops into
female pro nucleus
Male pro nucleus fuses with female pro nucleus to form single nucleus with
diploid number of chromosomes (46)
Fertilized egg called a zygote

Implantation

Process in which the egg implants into the uterus wall and its journey to the
uterus and in the uterus
Within a few hours of conception, tiny hair-like structures called cilia push
the zygote towards the uterus. During this journey to the uterus, the zygote
starts the process of cell division
 At around 4 days, the zygote is a 16-cell mass and it enters the uterus where it
floats freely for about 2 days
Cleavage is the term used for the rapid division of cells that happens in the
first 24-48 hours after fertilization.
At around 6 days, the zygote has become mass of more than 100 cells called a
Blastocyst and it has the shape of a hollow ball with inner and outer layers.
The out layer will become the placenta and the inner layer will become the
feotus.

The zygote implants (attaches) to the wall of the endometrium at around 10

days. After implantation, the zygote is officially known as an embryo.
 Embryonic membranes two month foetus

protect and nourish embryo

Four membranes
Amnion
secretes amniotic fluid
protection (shock absorber)
maintain constant temp
baby can move freely
Chorion
Surrounds embryo and other 3 membranes
Made from the outer cells of blastocyst and mesodermal cells
Becomes the main part of the featul position of the placenta

Placenta

Substances are exchanged between the foetal and maternal blood supplies by
diffusion and active transport

The umbilical cord contains 2 umbilical arteries- They carry the deoxygenated blood
from foetus to mother
A single umbilical vein- carries oxygenated blood from the mother to foetus
Blood from mother enters the placenta though the uterine arteries, and flows
through the blood spaces where he exchange of substances occurs and leaves
again through the uterine veins
Oxygen and nutrients from mother diffuse into foetal blood and wastes leave
foetus by diffusing into maternal blood
Many villi for large SA of exchange
Umbilical cord attaches placenta to baby
1st trimester (1-12 weeks)
No period
Swelled breasts
Enlarged nipples
Nausea
Pressure on bladder

2nd trimester (13-28 weeks)

Enlarged uterus
Blood volume and heart rate increase
Movement of baby week 18

3rd trimester (29-40 weeks)

Sharp pains due to kicking
Uncomfortable
Lower back pain
More rest needed for big weight

Maternal diet

Requirement Reason Food source

Folic acid Cell division Whole grain breads,
Protein production cereals, leafy green veges
Calcium Bone growth and baby Dairy
teeth
Vitamin A Normal cell growth Yellow and green veges
Iron Blood cell production Red meat, green veges
Protein Structural materials Meat, dairy, nuts

Avoid- raw fish, unfresh foods, soft cheese, pre packed food

Teratogenic agents
Substance that causes physical defects in embryo
E.g. some hormones, antibiotics, drugs
Watching baby

Ultra sound

High frequency sound waves to produce image of baby

Probe placed on abdomen and sound waves reflected from feotel tissue to
obtain echoes of what is inside uterus
Determines sex of baby, and any defect e.g. spina bifida

Fetoscopy

Looking at foetus from telescope like instrument

Inserted into uterus through abdominal wall
Foetus examined for missing ears, absent limbs

Hormonal intervention

If progesterone levels drop due to inadequate progesterone production then a

premature delivery or miscarriage could result
Women affected are given progestin helps mother retain foetus

3 stages of labour

Stage 1 of labour

contractions of the uterus wall opens up the uterus 10 cm

10-12 hours approx
amniotic sac breaks
cervix opens wide enough for babys head to pass through
a show- discharge of mucus mixed with blood which has come away from
the cervix where it has formed a plug
regular and strong contractions

Stage 2 of labour

baby passes through birth canal

the uterus, cervix and vagina are now a continious birth canal
pushing of babies head
babies head emerging from vagina (crowning)
when baby is out mucus must be cleared from nose and mouth of baby
baby must start to breathe and cry
episiotomy- small cut made to widen opening of vagina to prevent tearing

Stage 3 of labour
 baby is a separate person
once baby Is breathing the umbilical cord is cut of
contractions continue until the placenta is expelled
the mother may be given an injection of syntometrine to speed up process and
to prevent excess loss of blood

left side pump O blood to body

right side pump DO to lungs

foetal blood returns to heart through liver and inferior vena cava
most of the blood bypasses liver and flows through vessel called ductus
venosus and inferior vena cava
blood flows into the right atrium of heart and it may-
Flow into right V and then to lungs
From from RV though ductus arteriosus(lung bypass to aorta) (carries O2 blood to
body)
Flow through opening called foremen ovale and in LA

Motor development

Cephalocaudal
Head to foot development e.g. raise head, grasp
Proximodistal
 Outwards development. Movements of part of limb closest to body comes first
e.g. control forearm then fingers
Gross to specific
Larger muscle movements then the finer movements
e.g. whole arm movement, then grasp a ball with hand, then picking up object
between thumb and finger

Socilisation- learning to behave in a manner accepted by others

Infertility

Infertility is the inability to conceive a child after 12 months of regular

sexual intercourse without the use of birth control. There are two types of
infertility; primary infertility and secondary infertility
Causes in females - Pelvic inflammatory disease, endometriosis
Causes in males- Autoimmunity, Chronic prostate infections

Artificial insemination
Success rate- 70-80%
Major risk- transmission of disease from the donor to the receiver
All donors are screened for STIs, genetic diseases, mental problems or
general health
The physical characteristics of the donor are the closest to the partners
When ovulation is expected a women visits the doctor. The next 3-4 days the
donors semen is injected into the upper vagina of the women
3 seminations per month for 3 months are necessary for successful conception
insemination is done on day of ovulation and this is detected by testing the LH
surge in the blood or urine

In vitro fertilization
mature eggs are removed from the mother by laparoscopy
sperm are added to an egg which is stored in a glass dish in a lab (fertilization)
it is incubated until it grows (3 days)
after fertilization the dividing cells are implanted into the uterus
excess embryos are frozen for future use

Gamete intrafallopian transfer

it is a variation of IVF
the sperm and the egg are mixed together and are then immediately transferred
into the uterine tubes
it is done in one procedure- not in 2 like IVF
it is a natural way of fertilization