Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Introduction
The standardized testing procedure to perform a Mnard pressuremeter test (AFNOR, 2000) involves a
step by step loading of the soil, until the pressuremeter limit pressure p is reached. About ten loading
increments are generally required to achieve this.
The pressure-volumetric curve is used to compute the Mnard pressuremeter modulus, denoted by EM,
which is determined on the quasi-linear part of this curve within an interval defined by two specific pres-
sure values (p1 et p2), the first of which is roughly equivalent to the horizontal earth pressure at-rest p0,
and the second to the pressuremeter creep pressure pf.
The modulus EM is frequently used to estimate the displacement of geotechnical structures: for vertically
and/or horizontally loaded foundations, flexible earth retaining structures, and even as a first assessment
for embankment lying on compressible soil.
These calculations, which are specific to the Mnard pressuremeter, combine theoretical and empirical
elements. The main expressions that are proposed (for settlement of footings and piles, etc.) have been
compared with the displacement measured in loading tests conducted on real structures. Among the
works which can be mentioned are researches conducted by Louis Mnard and his associates (Mnard
and Rousseau, 1962; Mnard and Lambert, 1966) during the 1960s, and then some years later observa-
tions on structures (Bru et al., 1973) and trials conducted by the Laboratoire des Ponts et Chausses
(LPC) (Canpa and Depresles, 1990).
Although simpler expressions, i.e. for calculating the settlement of shallow foundations (Canpa, 1990),
are able to provide equally good results, the formulae proposed by Mnard have been considered suffi-
ciently accurate for the justification of usual structures and have been taken up in the French regulatory
texts (fascicule 62, 1993), the main difficulty being the determination of a relevant modulus for the prob-
lem in question.
In this context, it is worth mentioning that the pressuremeter modulus EM is very sensitive to the quality
of the boring in which the pressuremeter probe is inserted (as is, to a lesser extent, the limit pressure p).
Originally, boring conducted with a hand auger (in fine soils) with considerable precautions (for exam-
ple, injecting slurry into the borehole if necessary in order to support its walls) was considered to be the
technique that disturbed the soil the least. This boring procedure, which is unusable in many soils and
very limiting in the case of deep investigations, has largely been abandoned in favour of faster equipment
and therefore less costly execution, which is however considered by some to be destructive for the soil.
The large range of boring tools and machines has encouraged studies of how the boring mode affects the
characteristics obtained for the main types of soil and the development of recommendations, first of all
incorporated in the LPC test procedures and then in the French standard NF P 94-110-1.
However, good practice is not always followed (see Annex 1), and it must be admitted that some of the
values for the EM modulus (and the limit pressures p) that are to be found in geotechnical investigation
reports are completely unacceptable and underestimate the properties of the soil. This is a disservice to
the pressuremeter method, which is of great value and whose usefulness in the context of calculating the
settlement of shallow foundations was stated by R. Frank in the general report he presented in Florence
ten years ago (Frank 1991).
BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67 37
It is also important to bear in mind that even when the tests are well performed, the measured Mnard
modulus corresponds to an average modulus for the pressure range po pf. While this is acceptable
for some calculations (for example, estimating the settlement of small foundations under service loads),
the Mnard modulus cannot be applied blindly to any problem. In particular, it is clear that in the case
of displacements associated with small soil deformations (typically less than 1%), the Mnard pres-
suremeter modulus EM cannot be considered to be indicative of the behaviour of the soil.
Finally, we should bear in mind that design methods based on linearly elastic soil behaviour models
are becoming more prevalent, in particular because of increasing use of finite element computation
codes. To the extent that these are used in a reasonable manner, that is to say on condition that a suitable
elastic modulus is applied, the validity of these techniques has been demonstrated by forecasts and
measurements on structures, as is the case for the pressuremeter method. Furthermore, with the reserva-
tion mentioned above, they are permitted by the new standards (Eurocode 7, for example, AFNOR,
1996).
In practice, the elastic moduli that are used are drawn directly from the results of laboratory tests (for
example, undrained shear tests using the triaxial apparatus), or, as is frequently the case on economic
grounds or because of an inability to extract undisturbed samples, derived from in-situ tests (seismic and
pressuremeter tests in France, Standard Penetration Tests (SPT) or Cone Penetration Test (CPT) in other
countries) on the basis of theoretical and empirical formulae when the test measures a modulus of strain
(seismic, pressuremeter tests) or, if not, on the basis of exclusively empirical formulae (SPT, CPT, etc.).
In no case is a clear account given of the domain of application of these moduli or, even less, of the val-
idation of the calculations.
38 BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67
Fig. 2 - Expansion of a cylindrical cavity in an elastic-perfectly P (kPa)
plastic formation, Mohr Coulomb criterion (after Mestat, 1993b). 4
F
B
A
C
0 D
0 0,25 0,50 0,75 1,00 1,25 1,50 1,75
u(r1) (mm)
as they show clearly the elastic nature of the unloading-reloading curves over large ranges of stress,
which makes it possible to estimate the elastic modulus of the soil by theoretical means.
As the rheological models used were fairly simple in comparison with the complex behaviour of real soil
(nonlinear elasticity, dilatancy, confinement, creep), it is obvious that it is slightly more complex to
derive a modulus for an unloading-reloading cycle in a real pressuremeter test.
These factors nevertheless allow us to assume that P (kPa)
it is possible to measure a strain modulus over an 3
unloading-reloading cycle during pressuremeter
expansion which is characteristic of the behaviour
2,5
of soils undergoing small deformations, and that it
would be possible for a whole range of problems,
to use a modulus of this type directly for the calcu- 2
lations that assume a linear elastic behaviour of
the soil. 1,5
We should also mentioned the hope that some
researchers have expressed that a cyclic test will 1
be able to partially eradicate the effects of soil dis-
turbance. It is true that some other geotechnical
0,5
test procedures (plate bearing test, deep founda-
tion loading test, oedometer test, etc.) include an
unloading-reloading phase and the deformation 0
behaviour measured during this loop is exploited. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
u(r1) (mm)
In the rest of this paper, we will unfortunately see
that this academic hope has proved sterile and that Fig. 3 Expansion of a cylindrical cavity in an elastic-perfectly
plastic formation, Tresca criterion (after Mestat, 1993a).
soil appears to remember the disturbance to
which it has been subjected.
The network of Laboratoires des Ponts et Chausses (LPC) has conducted various experimental studies
of the feasibility of cyclic Mnard pressuremeter testing. These were conducted on in situ soils and have
dealt with the following topics:
the unload-reload pressuremeter test procedure,
the effect of the boring mode on the parameters obtained,
BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67 39
the accuracy of the cyclic modulus measurements,
the Ecyclic/EM ratios obtained for the main categories of soil,
application of the cyclic pressuremeter modulus to the design of structures.
This paper reports the results obtained by the Rouen and East Paris Laboratoires Rgionaux des Ponts et
Chausses (LRPC) with regard to the first four of these points.
* pc-pd 2 cu in the case of a purely cohesive soil and pc-pd pc.(2.sin)/(1 + sin) in the case of a purely frictional soil.
40 BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67
Fig. 4 - Unload-reload pressuremeter tests Raw results.
v (cm3)
Boissy - Sounding P1 - Z = 1,6 m v (cm3) Boissy - Sounding P4 - Z =1,6 m
500 500
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
0 0
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8
p (MPa) p (MPa)
a. Type L test stepped unloading. b. Type R test rapid unloading.
TABLE I
Unload-reload pressuremeter tests Boring modes used
BOREHOLES P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8
1.6 2.0 L R L R L R L R
Depth (m) 2.6 3.0 R L R L R L R L
3.6 4.0 L R L R L R L R
Note: Rapid unloading is denoted by R and stepped unloading by L.
TABLE II
Unload-reload pressuremeter tests Results obtained at each depth
p EM Ed Er
Er/EM Ed/EM EM/p
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
z = 1.6 m 2 m
Mean 0.65 8.37 34.25 35.50 4.36 4.86 12.54
Standard deviation 0.16 3.27 5.58 22.48 1.94 2.82 2.23
cv 0.25 0.39 0.16 0.63 0.45 0.58 0.18
z = 2.6m 3m
Mean 0.85 9.08 35.15 35.04 3.91 3.92 10.74
Standard deviation 0.09 1.62 7.95 8.21 0.87 0.85 1.47
cv 0.11 0.18 0.23 0.23 0.22 0.22 0.14
z = 3.6m 4m
Mean 0.73 7.36 24.48 24.12 3.29 3.32 10.03
Standard deviation 0.04 0.93 6.04 3.34 0.35 0.64 0.98
cv 0.05 0.13 0.25 0.14 0.11 0.19 0.10
BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67 41
In addition, Tables IIIa and IIIb give, for both unloading modes, the measured mean values, the standard
deviations and the coefficients of variation for each depth and throughout the thickness of the clay for-
mation.
Lastly, Figures 5a and 5b set out the values of the cyclic moduli measured using test procedure R (rapid
unloading) and L (slow unloading by steps) versus the modulus EM..
In spite of the fact that little data is available (four tests for each depth and each procedure), these Tables
and Figures elicit several remarks. First of all, we can observe that the secant moduli Er and Ed are three
to five times higher than the Mnard pressuremeter moduli EM and have values of the order of 25 to
40 MPa. In other terms, the volumetric changes during the unloading-reloading phases are very low (3
to 5 cm3 per cycle)*.
When the Er and Ed results obtained with the two unloading modes are compared, no significant differ-
ences as a result of rapid unloading are apparent (see Fig. 5a and 5b). Lastly, it is noteworthy that the
two test procedures lead to similar dispersions (cv = 0.2 to 0.3) which are of the same order of magnitude
as those observed for the modulus EM during standard tests (see Table III).
TABLE IIIa
Rapid unloading (Type R) - Results obtained at each depth and for the entire layer of clay
p EM Ed Er
Er/EM Ed/EM EM / p
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
z = 1.6 m 2 m
Mean 0.65 8.64 31.10 29.47 4.00 3.94 13.02
Standard deviation 0.16 3.26 4.74 6.74 2.41 1.36 2.05
cv 0.25 0.38 0.15 0.23 0.60 0.34 0.16
z = 2.6 m 3 m
Mean 0.85 8.76 29.66 30.63 3.62 3.46 10.33
Standard deviation 0.10 1.35 5.10 5.08 1.18 0.88 1.41
cv 0.11 0.15 0.17 0.17 0.33 0.25 0.14
z = 3.6m 4m
Mean 0.74 7.15 21.04 24.36 3.40 2.96 9.60
Standard deviation 0.05 0.84 2.20 3.98 0.26 0.36 0.51
cv 0.07 0.12 0.10 0.16 0.08 0.12 0.05
Entire layer (z = 1.6 m 4 m)
Mean 0.75 8.18 27.27 28.15 3.67 3.46 10.98
Standard deviation 0.13 2.04 6.01 5.65 1.43 0.96 2.03
cv 0.18 0.25 0.22 0.20 0.39 0.28 0.18
* V 2.66.Vs.(pc-pd)/E 10 cm3 over the range pc-pd, that is to say approximately 3 to 5cm3 on average per cycle which
ever modulus is measured (with available equipment, the current test procedure consists of (ten loading stepsages to reach p)
and (pc-pd)/Ecyclic ratios 1/300 to 1/500).
42 BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67
TABLE IIIb
Stepped unloading (Type L) - Results obtained at each depth and for the entire layer of clay
p EM Ed Er
Er/EM Ed/EM EM / p
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
z = 1.6 m 2 m
Mean 0.64 8.11 37.40 41.53 4.72 5.78 12.06
Standard deviation 0.19 3.76 4.86 32.21 1.63 3.81 2.61
cv 0.29 0.46 0.13 0.78 0.34 0.66 0.22
z = 2.6 m 3 m
Mean 0.84 9.40 40.63 39.45 4.20 4.39 11.16
Standard deviation 0.11 2.01 6.43 8.92 0.42 0.58 1.61
cv 0.13 0.21 0.16 0.23 0.10 0.13 0.14
z = 3.6m 4m
Mean 0.72 7.57 27.92 23.89 3.18 3.69 10.46
Standard deviation 0.03 1.09 6.98 3.16 0.42 0.69 1.21
cv 0.04 0.14 0.25 0.13 0.13 0.19 0.12
Entire layer (z = 1.6 m 4 m)
Mean 0.74 8.36 35.31 34.96 4.03 4.62 11.22
Standard deviation 0.14 2.44 7.92 19.36 1.13 2.24 1.85
cv 0.19 0.29 0.22 0.55 0.28 0.48 0.17
Er (MPa) Ed (MPa)
60 60
Cycle R
Cycle R
Cycle L
Cycle L
50 Er = 2,5 EM 50
Ed = 2,5 EM
Er = 5 EM
Ed = 5 EM
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
EM (MPa) EM (MPa)
The tests conducted show that there is no discernable difference between the two procedures we have
investigated when measurement uncertainty is taken into account. In view of the conventional way in
which moduli are calculated there is no advantage for the testing procedure to select a stepped unloading
phase (the also same applies to reloading but to a lesser degree).
We still need, of course, to consider the relevance and usefulness of mean cyclic modulus measurements.
However, this is a different matter. To measure the unloading modulus under very low volumetric
BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67 43
changes, the test procedure and equipment would need to be modified (it would probably be necessary
conduct tests at a constant rate of strain and/or use probes with a greater expansion capability, of the
order of between 1,500 and 2,000 cm3 in order to reduce measurement uncertainty).
To conclude, in order to determine the cyclic modulus with a sufficient degree of accuracy using the
equipment that is in normal use, the modulus in question should be determined over the complete range
of the cycle. In this case, rapid decompression of the soil is sufficient. It is this procedure which was
adopted for a possible standardized test (XP P 94-110-2) using existing equipment.
44 BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67
Influence of the boring mode on the cyclic modulus Er
Good quality boring, as has already been stated, is essential for the quality of the standard pressuremeter
test. A wide variety of factors determine the quality and reliability of the parameters measured by the
pressuremeter. Boring tools, the length of the boring passes and boring parameters all affect soil distur-
bance and influence the test results i.e. the limit pressure p and the modulus EM (the latter being gen-
erally more affected than the former). It is therefore essential to comply with the recommendations
which are reproduced in Annex 1 in order to obtain results which are indicative of real soil behaviour
and be able to use pressuremeter-based design methods.
One of the reasons a loading cycle was conducted during the tests was to investigate to what extent the
cycle was able to overcome the dispersion exhibited by EM values and provide much lower dispersion
for the modulus Er, irrespective of whether the mode of boring was acceptable or not.
For the tests described below, we therefore varied the boring techniques, from the one we have termed
the reference method (hand auger) to methods which are highly disruptive and obviously prohibited.
The Rouen LRPC conducted measurements in three soils (silt, very plastic clay, river sand).
Silt
The soil in question was aeolian low plasticity silt. This is a very common geological formation in Nor-
mandy, as it covers all the plateaux. The site which overlooks Le Havre (Le Mont Gaillard) has a layer
of between 4 and 5 metres thick of this silt, whose density increases with depth, as we know from pre-
vious studies in the area. Below the silt the soil becomes very much more dense and structured and con-
tains flint.
Three boring modes were tested, with one borehole for each mode; each was located at the summit of an
equilateral triangle with sides of 2 metres.
Mode 1 (HA). Hand auger in dry conditions, with a diameter of 63 mm.
The borehole, with a total length of 6 m, was bored by lengths of 1 m at a time, each metre requiring five
or six auger passes. Silt was therefore extracted, with practically no disturbance of the wall of the cav-
ity: This was the reference boring mode. A pressuremeter test was performed after each meter was bored.
Mode 2 (CFA). Continuous flight auger in dry conditions with a diameter of 63 mm, according to
the following procedure which minimized reaming of the cavity:
boring from 0 to 2.5 m with two pressuremeter tests performed at depths of 2 m and 1 m,
boring from 2.5 to 4.5 m with a pressuremeter test performed at a depth of 3 metres,
boring from 4.5 to 5.5 m, with a pressuremeter test performed at a depth of 5 metres.
This is the most frequently used boring mode in soil of this type.
Mode 3 (DTS). Three-blade desagregating tool with a diameter of 64 mm in a single pass, from 0
to 5 m, followed by subsequent conduct of pressuremeter tests, from bottom to top.
The results obtained are gathered together in Annex 3.1 (Tables IIIa to IIIc). Figures 6a and 6b show the
effect of the mode of boring on the values of the Mnard pressuremeter modulus EM and the cyclic
reloading modulus Er.
The Tables given in Annex 3.1 and Figure 6 elicit the following remarks:
In general, the hand auger provides the highest modulus values. On average, the EM and Er values
from the continuous flight auger (CFA) are 1.5 times lower than those from the hand auger
(EM = 10.8 MPa, Er = 33 MPa as opposed to EM = 7 MPa and Er = 20.4 MPa for the flight auger). The
desagregating tool (DTS), with a single 5 m metre boring pass leads to greater dispersion among results,
which vary from being slightly higher to very much lower than those obtained with the hand auger.
Irrespective of the boring mode, the Er/EM ratios remain at about 3. This shows that the unloading-
reloading cycle does not re-create an Er modulus which is independent of the mode of boring, and there-
fore does not eradicate the effect of disturbance.
It should also be noted that the number of tests conducted was very small and that the density of the silt
increases considerably with depth, as illustrated by the limit pressure p profiles (fig. 6d).
BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67 45
Fig. 6 - Effect of the boring mode on the strain modulus Silt.
EM (MPa)
Er (MPa)
0 5 10 15 20
0 0 20 40 60
0
MODE 1 (HA)
MODE 1 (HA)
MODE 2 (CFA)
MODE 2 (CFA)
1 MODE 3 (DTS) 1 MODE 3 (DTS)
2
Depth z (m)
Depth z (m)
2
3
3
4
4
5 5
a. Mnard pressuremeter modulus EM. b. Cyclic modulus Er.
pl (MPa)
Er / EM
0 0,5 1 1,5
1 2 3 4 5 6 0
0
MODE 1 (HA)
2
2
Depth z (m)
Depth z (m)
3 3
4 4
5 5
c. Er /EM ratio d. Limit pressure p.
46 BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67
Fig. 7- Effect of boring mode on strain modulus Clay.
EM (MPa) Er (MPa)
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
8 8
9 9
Depth z (m)
Depth z (m)
10 10
Er / EM Er / EM
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 2 4 6 8 10
8 0
9 10
Depth z (m)
Em (MPa)
10 20
MODE 1 : HA 1m pass
MODE 1 : HA 1m pass MODE 2 : CFA 1m pass
MODE 2 : CFA 1m pass 30 MODE 3 : CFA 1 pass
11
MODE 3 : CFA 1 pass MODE 4 : ROTOP 1m pass
MODE 4 : ROTOP 1m pass
MODE 5 : DTS 1 pass
MODE 5 : DTS 1 pass
MODE 6 : DTS 1m pass
MODE 6 : DTS 1m pass
MODE 7 : DST MODE 7 : DST
40
12
c. Er/EM ratio. d. Er/EM versus EM.
Tables IVa to IVg in Annex 3.2 set out all the results from each boring mode. Figures 7a and 7b show
how the boring mode affected the values of the Mnard pressuremeter modulus EM and the cyclic reload-
ing modulus Er. Figures 7c and 7d show change in the Er/EM ratios, with depth z and EM respectively.
BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67 47
TABLE IV
Boring modes used in the clay
Mode 1: Hand Auger, metre by metre (HA) Mode 5: Desagregating tool, in a single pass (DTS)
Mode 2: Continuous flight auger, metre by metre (CFA) Mode 6: Desagregating tool metre by metre (DTS)
Mode 3: Continuous flight auger, in a single pass (CFA) Mode 7: Driven slotted tube (DST)
Mode 4: Rotary percussion, metre by metre (ROTOP)
The highly destructive nature of modes 5 and 6 (desagregating tool without percussion) is apparent. This
provides very low EM modulus values, with limit pressures also being considerably affected (Table IV
Annex 3). In spite of Er/EM ratios which are higher than those obtained with the hand auger (approx-
imately 4 in one case and 2 in the other), the cycle does not completely eradicate soil disturbance and
the Er values remain below those obtained with recommended boring modes.
Direct driving (mode 7) leads to very high EM modulus values in comparison with the hand auger mode
and to an Er/EM ratio equal to 1, which is lower than the values of between 2 and 4 obtained with boring
modes 2, 3, 4 or even 1. At first sight, the cycle would seem to attenuate the effect of disturbance. In
reality, however, the considerable increase in pore pressures that occurs when the probe is driven is
doubtless partly responsible for this result.
In the case of modes 2, 3, 4 and 1, the values of EM (and to a lesser degree, those of Er) are relatively close
together. It should be noted that the Er modulus values obtained with mode 1, which is the most carefully
performed (reference boring method), are slightly lower than those obtained with modes 2, 3 and 4.
River sand
These tests were conducted at Honfleur on the southern bank of the Seine, and involved a thick layer
(about 15 m) of fine sand which lies underneath silty alluvium. This sand is below the water table and
the tests were conducted at depths of 6, 7 and 8 metres (Fig. 8).
Four boring modes were tested, with two boreholes per mode:
Mode 1 (HA): hand auger with injection of bentonite slurry, by means of successive passes of 1m
with conduct of a pressuremeter test after each pass,
Mode 2 (CFA): continuous flight auger with slurry circulation, by means of successive passes of 1
m with conduct of a pressuremeter test after each pass,
Mode 3 (CFA): continuous flight auger with slurry circulation, by means of a single boring pass and
with conduct of the pressuremeter tests from the bottom of the borehole to the top,
Mode 4 (ROTOP): rotary percussion drilling; by means of successive 1 m passes and conduct of a
pressuremeter test after each pass.
The results of these tests are summarized in Tables VIa to VIe in Annex 3.3. Of the twenty-four tests
that were conducted, three were at a depth of eight metres and were not taken into account, in view of
the very high limit pressures that were measured. These tests involved much more dense layers of sand
in the lower part of the tested formation (1.35, 1.70 and 1.70 MPa).
Although statistical analysis is made impossible by the small number of tests, we can nevertheless
observe that in general the boring modes have a considerable influence on the Er measurements, even if
the dispersion with regard to the cyclic modulus seems lower than that for the pressuremeter modulus
EM and the limit pressure p.
48 BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67
Fig. 8 - Effect of boring mode on strain modulus Sand.
EM (MPa)
0 2 4 6 8 10
5
7
Depth z (m)
MODE 1 : HA 1m pass
9 MODE 2 : CFA 1m pass
MODE 3 : CFA 1 pass
MODE 4 : ROTOP 1m
10
a. Pressuremeter modulus Mnard EM.
Er (MPa)
0 10 20 30 40 50 pl (MPa)
5 0 0,5 1 1,5 2
5
6
6
7
Depth z (m)
7
Depth z (m)
8 8
BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67 49
and the tests performed at a same depth on each site ( 1 m at Bourron-Marlotte and Jossigny, 1.5 m
at Chatenay-sur-Seine).
Tables which set out the main results are to be found in Annex 4. The characteristics of the tested soils
and the dispersion in the measurements of the pressuremeter modulus EM and the cyclic modulus Er are
given below.
Fontainebleau sand
This is a marine formation (Stampian stage) consisting of fine quartzous sand with grains of practically
the same size. Outcrops occur essentially in the South of the Paris Region. The main characteristics of
this material (particle size distribution, density) are given in Table V.
TABLE V
Characteristics of the tested Fontainebleau sand Bourron-Marlotte
Particle size Unit weight Shear strength
The modulus dispersions of the pressuremeter tests performed are set out on Figures 9a and 9b.
TABLE VI
Mean characteristics of the silt Jossigny
1% 4% 75 % 35 24 26.5
VI b Laboratory shear strength measured on saturated samples using the triaxial apparatus
cu ' c'
(kPa) (degr) (kPa)
38 32 12
50 BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67
Fig. 9 - Repeatability of results Fontainebleau sand (Bourron-Marlotte).
30
250
25
200
20
150
15
100
10
5 50
0
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Test number
Test number
20
5
4 15
3
10
5
1
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Test number Test number
a. Pressuremeter modulus EM. b. Cyclic modulus Er.
BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67 51
Senonian chalk
This is a carbonated Upper Cretaceous rock with a calcium carbonate content of 98%. At the Chate-
nay-sur-Seine site, its consistency is that of a paste in which are embedded, locally, harder blocks of the
order of a few decimetres in size.
The laboratory shear characteristics of this chalk are unknown, as it is very difficult or even impossible
to extract undisturbed samples. The pressuremeter characteristics of the experimental site are given in
Table VII.
Figures 11a and 11b give the modulus dispersions that were observed during the cyclic pressuremeter test
investigation. It should be noted that on several occasions, the cyclic modulus could not be calculated due
to the fact that a significant volumetric change was not measured during the unloading-reloading loop.
TABLE VII
Mean pressuremeter characteristics of the chalk Chatenay-sur-Seine
p pf EM
Soil layer
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
EM (MPa)
Senonian chalk Er (MPa) Senonian chalk
30
180
Mean : 12,6 MPa Mean : 67,1 MPa
Standard deviation : 6,4 MPa Standard deviation : 37
7,4 MPa
cv = 0,54 160
cv = 0,56
25
140
20 120
100
15
80
10 60
40
5
20
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Test number Test number
a. Pressuremeter modulus EM. b. Cyclic modulus Er.
52 BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67
is 0.2 for Fontainebleau sand and Brie plateau silt, for both p, and Er. It is slightly higher (cv 0,5) in
the chalk formation for EM and Er. This is due to the heterogeneous nature of this layer which consists
of blocks set in a softer matrix. It should nevertheless be noted that the dispersion of p is low in all cases
(cv (0,2) because of the applied deformations (R/R0 (40% for p; R/R0 (5% for EM) and the volume
of soil that are loaded during a pressuremeter test.
Cohesive soil
In the case of purely cohesive soils, with linearly elastic and plastic behaviour, the relationship between
the ultimate limit pressure (denoted by pu what follows in order to avoid confusion with the pressurem-
eter limit p) and the shear modulus G of the soil is written as follows (Combarieu, 1995):
G
p u p 0 = c u 1 + n ----- ,
c u
p u p 0
------------------- 1
G cu cu
or ------------------- = ------------------- e
p u p 0 p u p 0
where
cu is the undrained cohesion,
p0 is the horizontal earth pressure at the test depth.
The following expression relates the conventional limit pressure p (doubling of the initial cavity diam-
eter) and the shear modulus G of the soil:
G
p p 0 = c u 1 + n ------------ ,
2c u
p p0
----------------- 1
G cu cu
or ----------------- = 2 ----------------- e
p p0 p p0
p p0
----------------- 1
E cu cu
or alternatively ----------------- = 5,32 ----------------- e with = 0.33
p p0 p p0
BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67 53
TABLE VIII
Cyclic pressuremeter tests
Summary of the results obtained by the Rouen and Melun LRPCs
p (MPa) EM (MPa) Er (MPa) Er/EM EM / p Er/ p
TABLE IX
Unload-reload pressuremeter tests
Typical characteristic ratios Er/EM and Er/ p
Soil Er/EM Er/ p
Figure 12a compares the theoretical results, given by the above relationship, with the experimental data
obtained at the clay sites (Romainville clay and Gault clay) and the Brie silt site. Figure 12b compares
the measured Er modulus values with the theoretical modulus values E derived from the measured limit
pressure and the cohesion values obtained from laboratory tests or measured in situ. As can be seen, in
general the use of the cyclic modulus Er as an elastic modulus provides a good approximation of the the-
oretical pressuremeter expansion results.
54 BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67
Fig. 12 - Pressuremeter theory Cohesive soils.
E/pl* ou Er/pl*
E calculed (MPa)
100 100
Theoretical
Green clay
Green clay
Gault clay
Gault clay
75 Brie silt
Brie silt 75
Calculed = measured
50 50
25 25
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0 25 50 75 100
pl* /cu Er measured (MPa)
a. E/p versus p/cu. b. Comparison between the calculated modulus E
and the measured modulus Er.
However, this conclusion cannot be extended to displacement calculations for geotechnical structures,
as the soil deformation generated by structures can be very different from those associated with the
cyclic modulus (R/R0 10-2) measured during a conventional pressuremeter test*.
G(z) m()
p ( z ) = a ( ) z ---------------------------------------------------
2 z a() m()
where
a() = max [1; K0.(1 + sin)],
sin ( 1 + sin )
m ( ) = -------------------------------------------- ;
1 + sin
in which
is the angle of internal friction,
is the angle of dilatancy,
E
G is the shear modulus, G = ------------------------,
2 (1 + )
is the unit weight of the soil,
K0 is the coefficient of earth pressure at rest.
* Use of the cyclic modulus Er as an elastic modulus for displacement calculations for various geotechnical structures is
another differnet problem. In this case, it is necessary to compare the displacement calculation of structures and their real
behaviour while giving an account of the calculation method used in each case. This is not covered by this paper.
BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67 55
We therefore have:
1
G p --- -1
m
----- = 2 m -----------------
p a z
or alternatively:
1
E p --- -1
m
----- = 5.32 m ----------------- with = 0.33
p a z
Figure 13a is a plot of the theoretical relationship E/p versus (p/.z) for a friction angle range
(37 degrees 43 degrees) which corresponds to laboratory measurements of the Honfleur sand*.
This diagram also shows the experimental results for Er/p which were measured taking hydrogeological
conditions into account (water table at a depth of 1.5 m) and using the unit weights ( = 18 kN/m3 above
the water table and 19,5 kN/m3 below the water table) reported by Combarieu (1995).
E/pl or Er/pl
100 E calculed (MPa)
100
Theoretical 37
Theoretical 43 River sand
75 River sand
75 calculed = measured
50
50
= 40
25
25
a() = 1 et = - 30
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 25 50 75 100
pl / z
E r measured (MPa)
a. E/p versus (p/z). b. Comparison between the calculated modulus E
and the measured modulus Er.
As can be seen, the Er/p ratios are between 25 and 50 and lie within the range of the theoretical E/p
curves obtained using the relationship given above. In Figure 13b, the measured modulus Er is compared
with the theoretical modulus E derived from the mean internal angle of friction of river sand. Here too,
there is good agreement between the cyclic modulus Er and the theoretical elastic modulus.
Lastly, it should be noted that when p(z) = .z.p (which is practically the case for purely frictional
soils), the ratio E/p is constant, which is replicated experimentally for the EM/p ratios.
Conclusions
The execution of a large number of cyclic pressuremeter tests with the Mnard apparatus, with the addi-
tion of an unloading-reloading loop to the standardized procedure, has led us to the following conclusions:
performing the unloading phase by steps does not allow us to obtain reliable intermediate deforma-
tion modulus results with the equipment used for standard pressuremeter tests;
* Whose in-situ cohesion can be assumed to be nil, unlike other sands such as the Fontainebleau sand, for example.
56 BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67
the mean (secant) modulus over one cycle that is determined with the procedure described in this
paper is little affected by rapid unloading;
as long as the recommended test procedure is followed, the dispersion factors for the mean cyclic
modulus are similar to those for the conventional pressuremeter modulus EM;
including an unloading-reloading cycle in the pressuremeter test procedure does not provide a means
of salvaging an incorrectly performed test. In particular, disturbance of the borehole walls which
affects the value of the modulus EM also affects the value of the modulus Er calculated from the reload-
ing curve;
the comparisons we have conducted (in particular those concerning the Er/p ratio) with the theoret-
ical cavity expansion expressions derived from an elastic-perfectly plastic soil model, appear to validate
some knowledge that has been derived from the pressuremeter tests, that is to say that the EM/p and
Er/p ratios remain constant with depth in the case of a homogeneous formation;
the values of these ratios nevertheless depend on the nature and density of the soil. It is therefore pref-
erable to measure the modulus Er directly by means of a cyclic pressuremeter test rather than to derive
its value on the basis of correlation with the pressuremeter modulus EM,;
lastly, it should be remembered that this study is part of a larger research project that concerns the
determination of the shear modulus of soil with reference to its deformation and the calculation of the
displacement of geotechnical structures. For this reason, application of the cyclic pressuremeter modulus
to the design of structures has not been covered in this paper. At this stage, we can nevertheless state
that, as long as certain conditions are satisfied, the use of the cyclic modulus instead of Youngs modulus
gives good results and is quite adequate for calculating the displacement of certain types of geotechnical
structure. Encouraging calculations have already been performed and validated. A future paper will deal
with this topic.
REFERENCES
Norme franaise NF P94-110-1, Essai pressiomtrique Mnard, Partie 1: Essai sans cycle, AFNOR, janvier 2000,
43 pages.
Norme franaise XP ENV 1997-1, Calcul gotechnique Partie 1: Rgles gnrales, AFNOR, dcembre 1996,
112 pages.
BRU J.-P., BAGUELIN F., GOULET G., JZQUEL J.-F., Prvision de tassement au pressiomtre et constata-
tion, Proc. VIIIe Congrs international de Mcanique des sols et des travaux de fondation; tome 1.3, Moscou, 1973,
pp. 25-31.
CANPA Y., Fondations superficielles, Facteurs empiriques de portance et de tassement, Pressiomtre normal,
Sujet de recherche 1.17.02.0, mai 1990.
CANPA Y., DEPRESLES D., Catalogue des essais de chargement de fondations superficielles sur sites par les
LPC (1978 -1990), Sujet de recherche 1.17.02.0, dcembre 1990.
CANPA Y., Essais pressiomtriques avec cycle de dchargement-rechargement. Influence du mode opratoire,
Sujet de recherche 2.24.05.4 de la commission technique 24, Mcanique des sols, roches et fondations, 1996.
COMBARIEU O., Lessai pressiomtrique et la rsistance au cisaillement des sols, Bulletin de liaison des labora-
toires des Ponts et Chausses, 196, mars-avril 1995 pp. 43-51.
COMBARIEU O., CANPA Y., Essais pressiomtriques Mnard avec boucle de dchargement-rechargement.
Analyse des procdures et des rsultats dessais, Sujet de recherche 2.24.19.3 et 2.24.02.4 de la commission tech-
nique 24, Mcanique des Sols, roches et fondations, 1995.
Fascicule 62 Titre V, Rgles techniques de conception et de calcul des fondations des ouvrages de gnie civil, Min-
istre de lquipement, du logement et des transports, 1993.
FRANK R., Quelques dveloppements rcents sur le comportement des fondations superficielles, Xe Congrs
europen de Mcanique des sols et des travaux de fondation, Florence, 1991, 28 pages.
MNARD L., ROUSSEAU J., Lvaluation des tassements. Tendances nouvelles, Sols Soils, 1, 1962, pp. 13-30.
MNARD L., LAMBERT Ph., tude exprimentale dun massif de fondation soumis des vibrations, Sols Soils,
17, 1966, pp. 9-30.
MESTAT Ph., Analyse thorique dun cycle dchargement-rechargement dans le problme de lexpansion dune
cavit cylindrique dans un matriau lastoplastique de Tresca, rapport interne, LCPC, janvier 1993.
BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67 57
MESTAT Ph., Analyse thorique dun cycle dchargement-rechargement dans le problme de lexpansion dune
cavit cylindrique dans un matriau lastoplastique de Mohr-Coulomb, rapport intene, LCPC, janvier 1993.
MESTAT Ph., Validation du progiciel CSAR-LCPC en comportement mcanique non linaire, vol. 1: Fonda-
tions superficielles et tunnels, tudes et recherches des laboratoires des Ponts et Chausses, Srie Gotechnique,
GT 58, juin 1994.
MONNET J., KHLIF J., tude thorique de lquilibre lasto-plastique dun sol pulvrulent autour du pressiom-
tre, Revue franaise de gotechnique, 73, 1994, pp. 3-12.
WROTH C.P., British experience with the self-boring pressuremeter, Proc. 1st Symp. Pressuremeter and its Marine
Applications, Paris; Colloques et sminaires 37, Ed. Technip, 1982, pp. 143-164.
58 BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67
ANNEX 1
Drilling techniques for pressuremeter boreholes (NF P 94-110-1)
TABLE I
Recommendations laid down in the standard NF P 94-110-1 (Table C1 p 34)
Preboring mode Soil
Soil type Rotary drilling* Driving and other displacement
BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67 59
ANNEX 2
Cyclic pressuremeter tests Influence of the test procedure
TABLE II
Unloding-reloading test procedure
Summary of results (Green Romainville clay at Boissy-Saint-Lger)
BOREHOLE P1
z p pf EM Ed Er EM / p p /pf Er/EM Ed/EM Mode
(m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
1.6 0.74 0.42 9.5 39.1 41.5 12.8 1.8 4.4 4.1 L
2.6 0.79 0.43 6.8 31.2 36.3 8.6 1.8 5.3 4.6 R
3.6 0.73 0.44 6.8 24.3 25.9 93 17 38 36 L
BOREHOLE P2
z p pf EM Ed Er EM / p p /pf Er/EM Ed/EM Mode
(m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
1.7 0.51 0.32 5.2 30.2 39.0 10.2 1.6 7.5 5.8 R
2.7 0.75 0.43 8.5 39.5 40.6 11.4 1.7 4.8 4.6 L
3.7 0.68 0.43 6.2 18.2 22.0 9.2 1.6 3.5 2.9 R
BOREHOLE P3
z p pf EM Ed Er EM / p p /pf Er/EM Ed/EM Mode
(m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
2 0.4 0.30 3.4 39.4 14.6 8.6 1.3 4.2 11.5 L
3 0.75 0.43 9.0 22.2 24.0 12.0 1.7 2.7 2.5 R
4 0.68 0.44 6.5 23.4 19.6 9.5 1.5 3.0 3.6 L
BOREHOLE P4
z p pf EM Ed Er EM / p pl/pf Er/EM Ed/EM Mode
(m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
1.6 0.81 0.41 11.8 37.7 25.6 14.6 2.0 2.2 3.2 R
2.6 0.99 0.56 12.0 50.0 50.9 12.2 1.8 4.2 4.2 L
3.6 0.76 0.43 7.1 22.2 24.1 9.4 1.8 3.4 3.1 R
BOREHOLE P5
z p pf EM Ed Er EM / p p /pf Er/EM Ed/EM Mode
(m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
.1.7 0.83 0.42 12.3 40.9 86.8 14.9 2.0 7.0 3.3 L
2.7 0.95 0.62 9.4 33.9 31.7 9.9 1.5 3.4 3.6 R
3.7 0.74 0.44 8.3 38.3 23.5 11.2 1.7 2.8 4.6 L
BOREHOLE P6
z p pf EM Ed Er EM / p p /pf Er/EM Ed/EM Mode
(m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
1.9 0.51 0.31 6.6 26.5 23.9 12.8 1,6 3.6 4.0 R
2.9 0.79 0.42 9.7 36.0 36.8 12.3 1.9 3.8 3.7 L
3.9 0.73 0.43 7.0 23.3 21.3 9.6 1.7 3.0 3.3 R
BOREHOLE P7
z p pf EM Ed Er EM / p p /pf Er/EM Ed/EM Mode
(m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
1.6 0.6 0.40 7.2 30.2 23.2 11.9 1.5 3.2 4.2 L
2.6 0.91 0.64 9.8 31.2 30.5 10.8 1.4 3.1 3.2 R
3.6 0.74 0.45 8.7 25.7 26.6 11.8 1.6 3.0 2.9 L
BOREHOLE P8
z p pf EM Ed Er EM / p p /pf Er/EM Ed/EM Mode
(m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
2 0.76 0.43 11.0 30.0 29.5 14.5 1.7 2.7 2.7 R
3 0.83 0.48 7.3 36.9 29.5 8.8 1.7 4.0 5.0 L
4 0.8 0.43 8.3 20.5 30.0 10.3 1.8 3.6 2.5 R
60 BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67
ANNEX 3
cyclic pressuremeter tests Influence of boring mode
SILT
TABLE IIIa
Silt Hand auger Mode 1
Depth p EM Er
Er/EM EM / p Er/ p
(m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
TABLE IIIb
Silt 63 mm Continuous flight auger Mode 2
Depth p EM Er
Er/EM EM / p Er/ p
(m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
TABLE IIIc
Silt Three blades desagregating tool 64 mm Mode 3
Depth p EM Er
Er/EM EM / p Er/ p
(m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
TABLE IIId
Silt Results from all tests
p EM Er
Er/EM EM / p Er/ p
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67 61
CLAY
TABLE IVa
Clay Hand Auger, metre by metre Mode 1
Depth p EM Er
Er/EM EM / p Er/ p
(m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
TABLE IVb
Clay Continuous flight auger metre by metre Mode 2
Depth p EM Er
Er/EM EM / p Er/ p
(m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
TABLE IVc
Clay Continuous flight auger in a single pass Mode 3
Depth p EM Er
Er/EM EM / p Er/ p
(m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
TABLE IVd
Clay Rotary percussion, metre by metre Mode 4
Depth p EM Er
Er/EM EM / p Er/ p
(m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
TABLE IVe
Clay Desagregating tool in a single pass Mode 5
Depth p EM Er
Er/EM EM / p Er/ p
(m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
62 BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67
TABLE IVf
Clay Desagregating tool, metre by metre Mode 6
Depth p EM Er
Er/EM EM / p Er/ p
(m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
TABLE IVg
Clay Driven slotted tube Mode 7
Depth p EM Er
Er/EM EM / p Er/ p
(m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
TABLE IVh
Clay Results from all tests
Depth p EM Er
Er/EM EM / p Er/ p
(m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
SAND
TABLE Va
Sand Hand Auger, pass of one metre Mode
Depth p EM Er
Er/EM EM / p Er/ p
(m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67 63
TABLE Vb
Sand Continuous flight auger, passes of one meter Mode 2
Depth p EM Er
Er/EM EM / p Er/ p
(m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
TABLE Vc
Sand Continuous flight auger, single pass Mode 3
Depth p EM Er
Er/EM EM / p Er/ p
(m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
TABLE Vd
Sand Rotary percussion, passes of one meter Mode 4
Depth p EM Er
Er/EM EM / p Er/ p
(m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
TABLE Ve
Sand Results from all tests
Depth p EM Er
Er/EM EM / p Er/ p
(m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
64 BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67
ANNEX 4
Cyclic pressuremeter tests Repeatability of tests
SAND
TABLE VI
Fontainebleau sand Complete results
Test p EM Er Ed
Er/EM EM / p Er/ p Ed/EM
number (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67 65
SILT
TABLE VII
Brie plateau silt Complete results
Test p EM Er Ed
Er/EM EM / p Er/ p Ed/EM
number (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
SENONIAN CHALK
TABLE VIII
Senonian chalk Complete results
Test p EM Er Ed
Er/EM EM / p Er/ p Ed/EM
number (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
66 BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67
SENONIAN CHALK
TABLE VIII
Senonian chalk Complete results
Test p EM Er Ed
Er/EM EM / p Er/ p Ed/EM
number (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSES - 233 - JULY-AUGUST 2001 - RF. 4381 - PP. 37-67 67