CHAPTER IV

QUALITY OF WATER
4.1 Impurities in water, their classification and effects

4.1.1 Suspended Impurities

E.g. sand, silt, algae, virus

Characteristics:

They develop colour.

They make turbidity high. Suspended impurity is measured in terms of
turbidity.
They develop taste.
They invite diseases.
They are macroscopic or can be microscopic.

Removed by: Sedimentation or Chemical Treatment

4.1.2 Colloidal Impurities

Microscopic. Their size is between 10-3 mm to 10-6 mm.

Not removed by sedimentation
Develop charges (anions)
Cause colour in water and these impurities cause epidemics.
Have much less weight
They come in motion due to repulsion.

Removed by: +ve charge for neutralization and settlement

4.1.3 Dissolved Impurities

Dissolved impurities make bad taste, hardness and alkalinity. The concentration
is measured in PPM (parts per million) or mg/l and obtained by weighing the
residue after evaporation of the water sample from a filtered sample.

a. Salts of Ca and Mg
b. Minerals
c. Gases

Constituents Effects
a. Calcium and Magnesium
i. Bicarbonate Alkalinity
ii. Carbonate Alkalinity and hardness
iii. Sulphate
Hardness
iv. Chloride
Hardness, corrosion
b. Metals and Compounds
i. Lead Cumulative poisoning
ii. Arsenic Toxicity, poisoning
iii. Iron Oxide
 iv. Manganese Taste, red colour, corrosiveness, hardness
v. Barium Black or brown colour
vi. Cadmium Toxic effect on heart, nerves
vii. Cyanide
Toxic, illness
viii. Boron
ix. Selenium Fatal
x. Silver Affects central nervous system
xi. Nitrates Highly toxic to animals and fish
Discoloration of skin, eyes
Blue baby condition, infant poisoning, colour
and acidity
c. Gases
i. Oxygen Corrosive to metals
ii. Carbon Acidity, corrosiveness
iii. Hydrogen Sulphide
Odour, acidity and corrosiveness

4.2 Hardness and Alkalinity

Water is said to be hard when it contains relatively large amounts of

bicarbonates, carbonates, sulphates and chlorides of calcium and magnesium
dissolved in it. It is the property that prevents lathering of soap.

4.2.1 Types of Hardness

T
P
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p
m
ae
s
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f
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H
H
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Permanent hardness is due to the presence of sulphates, chlorides and nitrates
of calcium and magnesium and is also known as non-carbonate hardness
(NCH). Permanent hardness cant be removed by simple boiling but requires
special treatment of softening.

Temporary hardness is known as carbonate hardness (CH) and due to the

presence of carbonates and bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium. It can be
removed by boiling or by adding lime. On boiling, CO 2 escapes and insoluble
CaCO3 gets precipitated. So, temporary hardness causes deposition of Ca scales
in boilers.

Total Hardness (TH) = CH + NCH

 mg
ionconcentration x Eq . wt .of CaC O3
l
mgl ppm as CaC O3=
Eq . wt . of ion

Where, ion = Mg, Ca, Sr (Strontium)

Eq. wt. of Mg = 12.2, Eq. wt. of Ca = 20, Eq. wt. of Sr = 43.8, Eq. wt.
of CaCO3 = 50

Effects of Hardness:

1. Wasteful consumption of soap while washing and bathing.

2. Modifies colour if used in dyeing work and washing clothes.
3. Produces scale in steam boiler and its pipe which reduces heat transfer
and finally causes leak.
4. Causes corrosion and incrustation of pipelines and fittings.
5. Scale formation further causes corrosion, caustic brittleness, decreases
efficiency and danger of burst of pipe line and boiler.
6. Makes food tasteless, more fuel consumption and causes bad effects to
our digestive system.

Measurement of Hardness in Water:

Hardness of water is measured in ppm or mg/l of calcium carbonate present in

water.

Range (mg/l) 0 50 50 100 100 150 150 250 >250

Hardness Soft Moderately Slightly Moderately Hard
Level Soft Hard Hard
The hardness of water is also expressed as the degree of hardness. It may be
Clark Scale, French Scale or American Scale.

Clarks Scale: 1 Cl = Power of soap destroying is equivalent to the effect of

14.254 mg of calcium carbonate present in one litre of water which causes
wastage of about 0.6 gm of soap in 1 litre of water (i.e. 14.254 ppm).

French Scale: 1 Fr = Power of soap destroying is equivalent to the effect of 10

mg of calcium carbonate present in one litre of water.

American Scale: 1 Am = Power of soap destroying is equivalent to the effect of

17.15 mg of calcium carbonate present in one litre of water.

4.2.2 Types of Alkalinity

Alkalinity is a measure of the acid-neutralizing capacity of water. It is an

aggregate of the sum of all titratable bases in the sample. When pH of water is >
7, it is said to be alkaline. Alkalinity in most natural waters is due to the presence
of carbonate (CO3--), bicarbonate (HCO3-), and hydroxyl (OH-) anions.
A l k a l
il n i t y
dk u e
ta o
Bl i c a r
bi o n a t
en
ii
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y

HC O3


Bicarbonate Alkalinity=

C O3


Carbonate Alkalinity=

Alkalinity caused by hydroxides is called hydroxide alkalinity or caustic alkalinity,

caused by carbonate is carbonate alkalinity and caused by bicarbonate is called
bicarbonate alkalinity.

4.2.3 Relation between Hardness and Alkalinity

1. When Total Hardness > Total Alkalinity

CH = Total Alkalinity

NCH = TH CH

2. When Total Hardness Total Alkalinity

CH = TH

NCH = 0

Problem:

The analysis of water from a well shows the following results in mg/l.

++ ++ + + - -- -
Ca = 65, Mg = 51, Na = 100, K = 25, HCO3 = 248, SO4 = 220, Cl = 18,
--
CO3 = 240

Find Total Hardness (TH), Carbonate Hardness (CH) and Non-Carbonate Hardness
(NCH).

Solution:
 65 x 50 51 x 50 mg
TH = + =371.52
20 12.2 l

248 240 mg
TA= + =603.28
1.22 0.6 l

Here, TA > TH

Hence, Carbonate Hardness (CH) = Total Hardness (TH) = 371.52

mg/l

Non-Carbonate Hardness (NCH) = 0

++
1. The analysis of a water sample shows the following results in mg/l. Ca =
++ + + - -- -
7, Mg = 12, Na = 20, K = 25, HCO3 = 68, SO4 = 7, Cl = 40. The
concentration of Sr is equal to hardness of 2.52 mg/l and the carbonate
alkalinity in water is zero. Calculate TH, CH and NCH.

2. Total hardness obtained from the analysis of water is found to be 117 mg/l.
The analysis further showed that the concentrations of all the three
principle cations causing hardness are numerically same. If the value of
CH = 57 mg/l, calculate:
i. NCH.
ii. The concentration of principle cation (Ca, Mg, Sr)
iii. Total Alkalinity (TA)

4.3 Living Organisms in Water

a. Algae
b. Bacteria
c. Virus
d. Helminthes or Worms

(Refer descriptions in any book.)

4.4 Water Related Diseases

4.4.1 Water borne Diseases

Water borne diseases are caused due to drinking water contaminated with
pathogenic microorganisms. Some of the most common water borne diseases
are typhoid fever, dysentery (amoebic and bacillary), gastro-enteritis, infectious
hepatitis, schistosomiasis, etc.
BW
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a. BACTERIAL DISEASES: Botulism, Cholera, E. coli infection, Dysentery,

Typhoid fever
b. PROTOZOAL DISEASES: Amoebiasis, Giardiasis
c. VIRUS DISEASES: SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome), Hepatitis A,
Poliomyelitis
d. HELMINTHIC DISEASES: Schistosomiasis, Swimmers itch

4.4.2 Water washed/hygiene Diseases

Water washed diseases are caused by poor personal hygiene and skin or eye
contact with contaminated water. Examples of water washed diseases include
scabies, trachoma and flea, lice and tick-borne diseases.

4.4.3 Water based Diseases

Water-based diseases are caused by parasites found in intermediate organisms

living in contaminated water. Examples include dracunculiasis, schistosomiasis
and other helminthes. These diseases are usually passed to humans when they
drink contaminated water or use it for washing.

** Schistosomiasis is a water-based disease which is considered the second most

important parasitic infection after malaria in terms of public health and economic
impact.

4.4.4 Water vector Diseases

Due to vector like mosquitoes

E.g. malaria (mosquito injects protozoa), filariasis (elephantiasis) mosquito

carrier, no circulation of blood in joints, swelling of body parts

4.4.5 Transmission Routes

Transmission routes refer to the ways in which a healthy person gets attacked by
diseases.

a. Faecal-oral route
b. Penetration of skin
c. Due to vector
4.4.6 Preventive Measures

Improve the quality of drinking water at source, at the tap, or in the

storage vessel
Interrupting the routes of transmission
Protecting food from flies interrupts the faeces-flies-food route (at a
household level).
Chlorination of water interrupts the faeces-fluids-food and drinking water
route (at the community level).
Increase the quantity of water available. This allows better hygiene and
can thus prevent disease transmission from contaminated hands, food or
household utensils.
Changing hygiene behaviour.
Care in disposing of faeces. Safe and protective measures should be
adopted to avoid contamination and to destroy infectious organisms while
handling and disposing of infant and toddler faeces.
Proper use and maintenance of water supply and sanitation systems.
Good food hygiene.

4.5 Examination of Water

4.5.1 Physical Examination of Water (tests for temperature, colour and turbidity)

1. Test for temperature

The temperature of water to be supplied should be between 10C to 20C.
Temperature higher than 25C is considered objectionable.
Temperature of water can be measured with ordinary thermometers
graduated in 0.1C, range from 0 to 50C.
At depths greater than 15m, a thermocouple may be used.

2. Test for colour

 Colour can be measured against various standards or scales such as Hazen
or Platinic Chloride Scale, Burgess Scale or Cobalt Scale using a tintometer.
In older days, test for colour of water was performed solely through visual
inspection.

Test for Colour by Tintometer:

1. First, the apparent colour of water due to turbidity is removed by

centrifuging.
2. A tintometer has an eye-piece with two holes.
3. A slide of the standard coloured water is seen through one hole, while the
slide of the water to be tested is seen through the other hole.
4. A number of slides of standard colour in water are kept ready for
comparison.
5. The intensity of colour in water is measured in terms of arbitrary unit of
colour on the cobalt scale.

3. Test for Turbidity

Turbidity is a measure of resistance of passing of light through water. It is

imparted by the colloidal matter present in water. Units of turbidity in older days:

i. ppm in silica scale

ii. JTU (Jackson Turbidity Unit)
iii. FTU (Formagen Turbidity Unit)
iv. NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Unit)

Equipment: Turbidity Meter

4.5.2 Chemical Examination of Water (tests for pH, suspended, dissolved and
total solids)

1. Test for pH

The hydrogen-ion concentration or pH value of water is a measure of degree of

acidity or alkalinity of water. For water at 21C,

(H+) x (OH-) = 10-14

Water becomes acidic when concentration of H ions is increased and alkaline

when concentration of H ions is decreased.

pH=log 10 ( H ) =log 10 ( H1 )
For pure water, pH = 7.

For water with maximum acidity, pH value is zero, while for water with maximum
alkalinity, pH value is 14.
For potable waters, the pH value should between 6 and 9, and preferable
between 7 and 8.5.

2. Tests for Solids in Water

Total Solids - all solids in water. Total solids are measured by evaporating all of
the water out of a sample and weighing the solids which remain.

Dissolved Solids - solids which are dissolved in the water and would pass
through a filter. Dissolved solids are measured by passing the sample
though a filter, they drying the water which passes through. The solids
remaining after the filtered water is dried are the dissolved solids.
Suspended Solids - solids which are suspended in the water and would
be caught by a filter. Suspended solids are measured by passing sample
water through a filter. The solids caught by the filter, once dried, are the
suspended solids.
Settleable solids - suspended solids which would settle out of the
water if given enough time. Settleable solids are measured by
allowing the sample water to settle for fifteen minutes, then by
recording the volume of solids which have settled to the bottom of
the sample.
Nonsettleable solids - suspended solids which are too small and
light to settle out of the water, also known as colloidal solids.
Nonsettleable solids are measured by subtracting the amount of
settleable solids from the amount of suspended solids.

The amount of total solids should preferable be less than 500 ppm.

4.5.3 Biological Examination of Water (multiple tube and membrane fermentation

method), most probable number

MULTIPLE TUBE FERMENTATION TECHNIQUE

The coliform group of bacteria is defined as all aerobic and facultative anaerobic,
gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria that ferment lactose with gas and acid
formation within 48 hours at 35C.

1. Presumptive Phase

This test is based on the ability of coliform group (E-coli) to ferment the lactose
broth and producing gas.

Procedure:

i. Definite amount of diluted samples of water are taken in multiples of ten,

such as 0.1 ml, 1.0 ml, 10 ml etc. Then, the samples are placed in
standard fermentation tubes containing lactose broth and then kept in the
incubator at a temperature of 37C for a period of 48 hours.
ii. If gas formed is seen in the tubes, it is the indication of presence of E. coli
group and result is +ve. If no gas is formed, the result is _ve.
iii. ve result in presumptive test indicates the water is fit for drinking.
 2. Confirmed Phase

The other bacteria than E. coli present also may ferment in presumptive test so
the confirmed test to indicate E. coli is necessary. This test consists of growing
cultures of coliforms on media which suppress the growth of other organisms.

Procedure:

i. Small amount of incubated sample showing gas in presumptive test is

carefully transferred to another fermentation medium containing brilliant
green lactose bile broth and placed in the incubator at 37C for a period of
48 hours. If the gas is formed, there is presence of E. coli and then step 2
is followed.
ii. Again the small portion of incubated material showing gas in presumptive
test is marked as streaks on the plates containing Endo or Eosin-
methylene blue agar and the plates are kept in the incubator at 37C for a
period of 24 hours. If colonies of bacteria are seen after this period, it
indicates the presence of E. coli and completed test is necessary.

3. Completed Phase

This test is based on the ability of the culture grown in the confirmed test to
again ferment the lactose broth.

Procedure:

i. The bacterial colonies or cultures grown in the confirmed test are kept into
lactose broth fermentation tubes and agar tubes.
ii. The tubes are then kept in the incubator at 37C for a period of 24 to 48
hours. If gases are seen in tubes after this period, it indicates the presence
of E. coli and the test is +ve and it contains the pathogens, then detailed
tests are necessary for pathogens.
iii. If result is ve, it indicates the absence of E. coli and hence absence of
pathogens.

Example:

If we take 10 test tubes out of which 3 test tubes are positive after third test and
in each test tube, 1 ml of sample is kept,

No. of positive tubes = 3

ml of sample in negative tubes = 7

ml of sample in all tubes = 10

3
Hence , MPN per 100 ml= x 100=35.85 number of coliforms per 100 ml sample
7 x 10

MEMBRANE FILTRATION TECHNIQUE

The coliform group may be defined as comprising all aerobic and many
facultative anaerobic, gram -ve, rod-shaped bacteria that develop a red colony
with a metallic sheen within 24 hours at 35C on an Endo-type medium
containing lactose.

Take 50 ml sample of water and a filter paper.

The water is filtered through the filter paper.
Filter paper is kept in petidions glass plate along with M. Endo medium.
Incubate at 35C for 20 hours.
We can observe colonies of coliform.

no . of coliform colony
coliform colony per 100 ml= x 100
x

where, x = sample

Problems:

In water treatment plant, the pH values of incoming and outgoing waters

are 7.3 and 8.5 respectively. Assuming a linear variation of pH with time,
determine the average pH value of time.
There are two samples A and B of water, having pH values of 4.4 and 6.4
respectively. Calculate how many times sample A is acidic than sample B.
Find out the pH of a mixture formed by mixing the following two solutions.
Vol. 300 ml - pH = 7, Vol. 700 ml - pH = 5.

4.6 Water Quality Standard for Drinking Purpose

(refer from any book)