Contents

Particles Y1 Mechanics Y1
Strong force ------------------- 6 Scalars and vectors -------- 14
Antiparticles ------------------ 6 Components of forces ------ 14
Charged particles ------------ 6 Moments of forces ---------- 14
Feynman diagrams ---------- 6 Projectile motion ----------- 15
Standard model -------------- 7 Newtons laws of motion --- 15
Interactions ------------------- 8 Work, energy, and power -- 16
Falling objects -------------- 16

Quantum Y1
Electromagnetic waves ------ 9
Wave-particle duality -------- 9
Electrons and photons ---- 10
Spectra from gases --------- 10
Fluorescent tube ----------- 10
Photo-electric effect -------- 11
Stopping potential ---------- 11
Electricity Y1
Basic equations ------------
Circuits and components -
Internal resistance ---------
Resistivity -------------------
Resistance and heat -------
Waves Y1
Definitions ------------------ 17
Transverse/longitudinal -- 17
Resonance ------------------ 17
Progressive/standing ------ 18
Polarisation ----------------- 18
Interference ----------------- 19
Single slit -------------------- 19
Double slit ------------------- 19
Diffraction grating --------- 19
12 Snells law ------------------ 20
12 Total internal reflection ---- 20
12
13
13 Materials Y1
Solids ------------------------ 21
Density ----------------------- 21
Elasticity --------------------- 21
Young modulus ------------- 21

Practical
Variables -------------------- 59
Planning a practical -------- 59
Hypothesis ------------------ 59
Examples of practicals ----- 60
 Contents
Further mechanics Y2
Circular motion ------------- 22
Simple harmonic motion -- 23
Simple pendulum ---------- 24
Simple-mass system ------- 24
Driven systems ------------- 25
Damping --------------------- 25
Grav. & elec. fields Y2
Gravity is discovered -------
Universal gravitation -------
Derivations -----------------
Gravitational potential ----
Orbits and satellites -------
Keplers Laws ---------------
Graphs -----------------------
Comparing fields -----------
Particle in an electric field -
Magnetic fields Y2
Magnetic effects of currents 30
Charged particles ---------- 30
Introducing emf ------------ 31
Emf in straight wire -------- 31
Emf in rotating coil -------- 31
Permanent magnets ------- 31
Lenzs law ------------------- 32
Oscilloscopes --------------- 33
Transformers --------------- 33
Capacitors Y2
Introduction ----------------
Calculations ----------------
Dielectric --------------------
Water analogy --------------
Time constant --------------
Thermal Y2
Thermal energy ------------- 37
The ideal gas laws --------- 38
Kinetic theory --------------- 39
Nuclear physics Y2
History of the atom -------- 40
Types of radiation ---------- 40
Nuclear radius ------------- 41
26 Geiger tube ----------------- 42
26 Inverse square law --------- 42
26 Cloud chamber ------------- 42
26 Radioactive decay ---------- 43
27 Exponential decay --------- 44
27 Half life ---------------------- 44
28 Binding energy ------------- 45
29 Fusion and fission --------- 45
29 Nuclear fission reactors --- 46
Medical Y2
The heart -------------------- 47
The ear ---------------------- 48
The eye ---------------------- 49
Optics ----------------------- 50
Defects of vision ------------ 51
Ultrasound ------------------ 52
MRI imaging ---------------- 53
Pet scanning ---------------- 53
Gamma camera ------------ 53
X-rays ------------------------ 54
X-ray images --------------- 55
Tracers ---------------------- 56
34 Comparison of treatments - 57
34 X-ray treatments ----------- 58
35 Endoscopy ------------------- 58
35
36
 Data Sheet

2 A Level Physics Data sheet

A Level Physics Data sheet 3
4 A Level Physics Data sheet
A Level Physics Data sheet 5
 Force-distance
graph
Strong force
Three important facts
1. Does not depend on charge / only affects hadrons
2. Only occurs when particles are very close together
(only occurs in the nucleus)
3. If particles are too close, they repel
(stops nucleus collapsing)

Attraction: 0.0 0.5 Repulsion: 0.5 3.0

Antiparticles Annihilation
When a particle and its
Pair production
A photon with specific
antiparticle meet, their mass energy interacts with atom.
Every particle has an antiparticle
is converted into radiation Energy of photon creates a
Same rest mass
energy. particle antiparticle pair.
Opposite charge
Two photons are produced To conserve momentum,
Opposite quark structure
(in opposite directions to photon interacts with atom.
conserve momentum) 0 is rest energy of each
PET scan 0 is the rest energy of each particle. Minimum energy
Positron Emission Tomography particle. Minimum energy of of photon to create particle
A positron emitting isotope is put each photon produced is: antiparticle pair is:
into the blood stream and some
reaches the brain.
= =
The positron and its antiparticle the
electron annihilate before the
positron travels a few .
Gamma photons are produced and a
detector builds up picture of brain.

Charged particles Feynman diagrams

Electron volts (eV)
An electron volt is the energy
transferred when an electron is moved
through a potential difference of 1 volt
These mean nothing:
Lengths of lines, angles, sizes.
These are conserved at vertices:
Charge, energy, momentum, baryon number, lepton
number, sometimes strangeness

= . Strangeness
Strangeness is conserved in interactions where
strange particles are made.
= Strangeness is not conserved in interaction where
strange particles decay.

Similarities between all particles Neutrinos

All have rest mass Neutrinos carry away the missing energy from -
All affected by weak interaction decay They have no charge, hardly any mass, and
If charged all experience EM interaction billions of them pass through us every second.
6 A Level Physics Particles Y1
 Standard model
Baryons Mesons Leptons Bosons

1 -1 2
3 0 0
1 1 0
p p ? -1 e +1 e
uud uud uau dad strong

1 1 2 2
3 3 0 0 W+ W- Z
0 0 1 -1
n n -1 +1
udd udd uad aud weak

2 2
3 3 0 0
B +1 B -1 0
K 0
K -1 +1
das ads electromagnetic
Forces:
Strong 0 0
2 2
3 3 0 e 0 e
Weak 1
K -1
K H
Electromagnetic asu aus higgs boson
(charged particles) 0 0
0 0
Other names:
S +1 S -1 0 0 Virtual particles
0 0 Force carriers
Forces:
Strong
Weak L +1 L -1
Electromagnetic
(charged particles)
Forces:
Weak
Electromagnetic
Hadrons (charged particles)

A Level Physics Particles Y1 7

 Interactions

n n

W+ W-
p p
e- e-

Electron capture Electron-proton

collision

e- e+
p e n e

W- W+
n p

Beta minus decay Beta plus decay

e+ e-
n p

W+ W-
p e n e

Proton-antineutrino Neutron-neutrino
collision collision

8 A Level Physics Particles Y1

Electromagnetic waves
Introduction
Caused by oscillating charge
Transverse waves
Travel at 3x108 ms-1 in a vacuum

Wave-particle duality
* De Broglie wavelength Photons
= This equation can be used to calculate the Light travels in wave packets called photons.

wavelength of any particle. The energy of a photon depends on the
frequency of the light or radiation.
Phenomena that show wave-particle duality
= * h = the Planck constant
Electrons Light
Particles Carry charge Photoelectric effect Theres no time delay when an electron
Bend in magnetic field Sharp shadows absorbs energy from light. This fits into the
Maltese cross Photons particle model of behavior of light:
Light travels as photons which are
Waves Electron ring pattern in Diffraction
discharge tube No mass, travels at c
particles
diffraction Double slit experiment Photons transfer energy in discrete
packets (1 to 1 interaction)

A Level Physics Quantum Y1 9

 Electrons and photons
Collisions of electrons and atoms Collisions of photons and atoms
Electrons can transfer energy to atoms Photons can transfer energy to atoms
Electron is not absorbed by atom Photon is absorbed by atom
1. Elastic KE conserved during collision
2. Inelastic Some KE absorbed by atom
Excited gives electron exactly enough
energy to move up an energy level.

Atoms emit photons of

Ionised gives electron energy to escape
from atom. Extra energy = KE
Ground state is the lowest energy
state an electron can occupy
An excited atom is one that is at a
higher level than the ground state,
because an electron has jumped up
to a higher level
characteristic frequencies
Atoms have discrete energy levels
When electrons change levels they lose fixed
amount of energy equal to energy difference
between levels
Photons emitted with fixed amount of energy
E=hf so photons have discrete frequencies
Electron capture
Orbital electron interacts with a proton in nucleus
Occurs via the weak interaction

Spectra from gases Neutron formed and neutrino released

Reasons for emission spectra

Collisions
1. Electrons bombard atoms of vapour and give energy to electrons in atom
2. Electrons excited to higher energy levels
3. The more energy the electrons absorb the higher the energy levels reached
4. Electrons unstable at higher energy levels so fall back down and lose energy by emitting a photon
Formation of spectral lines
1. Photon energy = (energy frequency)
2. Spectral lines are at specific wavelengths atoms have discrete (quantised) energy levels
3. Each spectral line corresponds to an electron falling down to a lower energy state
4. Energy gap, = /
5. Larger energy gap means higher energy photon is emitted so shorter wavelength or vice versa
6. Many frequencies of photons because electrons return to lower levels by different routes
7. Photons of characteristic frequencies emitted from atoms of a particular element

Fluorescent tube
How it works:
The tube contains mercury vapour at low pressure. Electrons fired through the tube (voltage)
Fast moving electron collides with orbiting electron in mercury atoms; transfers energy
causing electron to rise up an energy level (electron has just the right amount of energy)
The excited electron drops back down to its original energy level, emitting a UV photon.
This UV photon hits orbital electron in phosphorous atom in coating; rises up an energy level.
Electron drops down again and emits a proton of lower frequency (yellow light)

10 A Level Physics Quantum Y1

Photo-electric effect
Put simply:
Light shone on surface of metal causes electrons to be
ejected from surface of a metal. Photons with higher
frequency have higher energy ( = )
Work function ()
Threshold frequency (0) is the minimum
frequency to cause photoemission.
No electrons emitted below 0 because:
Energy of photon depends on frequency
( = )
Below 0 photon does not have enough
energy to liberate an electron

The work function is the

minimum energy to
remove an electron from
metal surface

= + () *

KE of electrons varies up to maximum Frequency / intensity

Energy is needed to remove an electron from the surface Decreased frequency
Each electron absorbs one photon of energy E = hf Decreased energy of incident photons
An electron can escape from the surface if hf > Decreased maximum KE of electrons
KE of emitted electron from surface is hf Fewer deeper electrons escape
KE of electron from below surface is less than hf OR below threshold frequency so no
electrons emitted
Increased intensity
Particle nature Increased photons incident per second
Threshold frequency supports particle nature of EM waves Increased electrons emitted per second
Threshold frequency minimum frequency for emission
If frequency is below the threshold frequency, no emission
even if intensity increased
Because energy of photon is less than the work function
Light travels as photons - energy depends on frequency
Wave theory can not explain this as energy of wave
increases with intensity

Stopping potential (Vs)

The emitter gives out electrons. So its called a cathode.
It causes a current to flow in the circuit.
As we increase the e.m.f. of the power supply, the emitter
becomes positively charged (its connected to the positive
terminal of the supply)
So electrons leaving it are attracted back towards it.
By increasing the e.m.f. of the supply you can find the p.d.
where no electrons are able to cross the gap.
Even those with maximum energy, , cant do it.

= () = * Where: = charge on electron = stopping potential

= mass of electron = speed of electron

A Level Physics Quantum Y1 11

 Basic equations
* * * *
V E P E Q

I x R P x t V x I Q x V I x t

=

= * * =

Emf is the work done by a cell per unit

charge the potential difference across its
terminals when no current is flowing

Circuits and components

Light dependent resistors Series circuits rules
A diode is a The current is the same at all points in the circuit
semiconductor. The p.d. is shared between components
Other Larger resistance takes more p.d.
semiconductors Total voltage of cells in series is sum of their p.d.s.
Silicon The total resistance of resistors in series is the sum
Germanium of their individual resistances.

Forward bias
allows current Parallel circuits rules
to flow. The total current entering or leaving the supply is
the sum of the currents in each branch
The total p.d. across each branch is the same
Branches with bigger resistance take less current
Light dependent resistors
Light Lower resistance
= + + *
Thermistors
Heat Lower resistance

Internal resistance
Internal resistance is the resistance Terminal pd of cell decreases as current increases
Energy lost in internal resistance so pd is less
of the materials inside a cell
than emf
Pd across internal
= + * resistance increases
with current so more
Internal resistance cant be measured volts are lost
directly. It is found by plotting V against I,
varying I with a variable resistors.

= +

12 A Level Physics Electricity Y1

Resistivity
Calculating resistance Typical resistivity values
Resistivity is a constant for a material.
Type Material Resistivity () @
* 20C
=
Conductors Silver 1.6x10-8
The electrical resistance of a metal Copper 1.7x10-8
wire depends on:
Aluminium 2.8x10-8
Its length, ()
Its cross sectional area, (2) Constantan 4.9x10-7
Its resistivity, ()
Semi-conductors Germanium 4.2x10-1
Silicon 2.6x103
An ohmic resistor is a
component with constant Insulators Polythene 2x1011
resistance Glass ~1012
Epoxy resin ~1015

Resistance and heat

Superconductivity
Critical temperature (Tc) is the
When certain specialised materials are cooled below a
critical temperature, , they lose all resistance.
temperature below which a
Resistance decreases with temperature. substance has no resistance
Uses
A current flowing through such a material causes no heating effect on it and
so there is no voltage drop across the material. Once set in motion a current
in a superconductor will flow forever. Normally electromagnets waste a lot
of energy as heat because of the very large currents needed.
Super-conducting electromagnets can have huge currents making very
strong magnetic fields without needing high voltages to maintain them or
producing any waste heat. Used in MRI machine, or MAGLEV levitating train.

Filament lamp switching on Increasing current

A filament lamp is most likely to fail as it is switched on When increasing the current through a bulb,
Resistance of lamp will be lower when first switched on power is not as high as expected
Initial current will be larger Temperature increases
Sudden rapid change in temperature Higher resistance
Higher power rating

A Level Physics Electricity Y1 13

 Scalars and vectors
A scalar has only magnitude A vector has magnitude and direction

Scalars examples Vectors examples

Distance, Speed, Energy, Power, Voltage, Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, Force, Weight,
Temperature Momentum

Adding vectors Direction matters

Method 1: Lay the vectors nose to tail
Method 2: Parallelogram v=2 v=-2
Method 3: Using trig (only if vectors are at right angles)
If vectors form a closed loop, they are in equilibrium. v=0 v=12

Acceleration Displacement / distance

Negative: deceleration
s (Displacement)
*
=
d (Distance)

Components of forces
cos + cos = = =

Finding component Finding component

no right P Q with right Q
angle angle
a b
Remember:
Cos is cosy
with the line.

W=mg
P

Moments of forces
Moment = force perpendicular distance () = *
between line of action of force and the point

For a body in equilibrium, the total clockwise

Couples
Moment of a couple = Fs
moment about any point is equal and opposite
to the total anticlockwise moment

14 A Level Physics Mechanics Y1

Projectile motion
A Projectile is an object only acted upon by the force of gravity

Rules Solving horizontally

_
Always accelerating downwards at 9.81 2 Use =
Vertical and horizontal motion are completely independent (no acceleration)
They have a constant horizontal velocity
is the only link between their horizontal and vertical motion. Solving vertically
In practice objects dont travel as far because air resistance Use SUVAT
causes horizontal deceleration (acceleration)

= +
= + * s missing *
v missing

= +
*
a missing = + * t missing

Newtons laws of motion

Newtons 1st law
Every object will continue in uniform velocity or remain stationary
unless acted on by an external resultant force

Resultant forces can cause objects to change velocity (including direction) or change shape.

Newtons 2nd law

Force is equal to the rate of change of * *
= =
momentum

If a resultant external force acts on an object, it will accelerate. More massive objects require larger forces to
accelerate.
Force time graphs:

= =

Within a closed system, with no external

forces acting on it, momentum is conserved

Newtons 3rd law

Every action has an equal and opposite reaction

What the object feels is the same as what the object pushing it feels, even if there is a resultant force.

A Level Physics Mechanics Y1 15

 Work, energy, and power
= * Power is the rate of energy transfer = -

Work A field is a region around an

Work is done when energy is transferred object that will cause
If something can supply or feel a force, it can do work another object to feel a force

= Work done at an angle is a force

is the direction of

* = cos * travel
=

Efficiency EGP converted to EK

No machine or energy transfer is 100% efficient Happens when an object moves in a
Energy lost: gravitational field
Energy is transferred to heat/sound in suroundings
Friction (specific location) 2 = 2 + 2
Air resistance 2 = 2
Work done against or by a resistive force =

In an elastic collision momentum and kinetic energy are conserved

In an inelastic collision momentum is conserved but not kinetic energy

Falling objects
Velocity independent of mass Drag and terminal velocity
Falling object, negligible air resistance Acceleration is maximum (9.81 ms-2) at the beginning
All GPE lost is transferred to KE Velocity increases and then becomes constant
No GPE transferred to heat (terminal velocity)
= mass cancels Two forces are weight and drag
= Weight initially greater than drag
Resultant force ( ) causes acceleration
Drag force increases with speed
Use a plane instead of freefall Forces become balanced
When investigating motion of falling object Acceleration reduces to zero
Freefall is too quick
No accurate method to time freefall
Air resistance

16 A Level Physics Mechanics Y1

Definitions Frequency () is the number of
complete wavelengths passing a
Wavelength () is the distance point in a second
between two adjacent crests
*
Amplitude A () is the maximum =

displacement from the mean
position. Waves with a bigger
amplitude carry more energy. Period () is the time for one
wavelength to pass

Velocity ( ) is the distance

moved by a given point on the wave
in 1 second = *

Transverse / longitudinal
In Transverse waves the direction of In Longitudinal waves the direction
oscillation is perpendicular to the of oscillation is parallel to the
direction of energy transfer. direction of energy transfer

Examples: Examples:
Light Sound waves
Rope / Slinky Seismic waves
Surface of water Deep water
[Can be polarised] [Does not need medium] [Cannot be polarised] [Needs medium]

Resonance
= resonant frequency = tension ()
*
= = length of vibrating spring
= mass per unit length =

Harmonic Frequency Open pipes / strings Closed pipes

Node positions Overtone Node positions Overtone

1 f1 Fund. Fund.
2 4
Freq. Freq.
2 2f1 1st

3 3f1 2 2nd 4 1st

3 3
4 4f1 1 3rd
2
5 5f1 2 4th 4 2nd
5 5

A Level Physics Waves Y1 17

 Progressive / standing waves
Progressive waves
All points in the wave have equal amplitude
All the points along the wave have different phase
Points one wavelength apart are in phase with each
other
They are only produced in unbounded mediums
(mediums without boundaries.)
They transfer energy but the medium is not
transferred.
Phase difference
Phase difference is the
fraction of a cycle between
the vibrations of two different
waves, in degrees or radians
Polarisation
Polarised light
Polarised light oscillates in
one plane only
Only transverse waves can be polarized
18 A Level Physics Waves Y1
Standing waves
The amplitude varies from zero at nodes
to maximum at antinodes
All particles between nodes are in phase
The wave does not move through the
medium
No energy is transferred along the wave
Formation of standing waves
Waves reflect off the clamp (and the rod)
Wave meets a reflected wave
Same wavelength / frequency / amplitude
Superposition of the two waves
Node
point of minimum or no disturbance
cancellation / destructive interference
180 phase difference
Antinode
point of maximum disturbance
reinforcement / constructive interference
in phase
Between node and antinode, amplitude of
oscillation increases
Energy is not transferred along string
Polarising filter
Polarisation filters are specially adapted glass that,
when turned at an angle to a light source, will reduce
glare from reflected surfaces.
Uses:
Sunglasses / windscreens to reduce glare
Camera to enhance image
Microscope to identify minerals/rocks
It is important to align a TV aerial correctly, as
transmitted waves are often polarised, and aerial rods
must be aligned in the same plane of polarisation of
the wave.
Interference
Diffraction is the bending of a wave Monochromatic light
when it passes through an aperture has single wavelength
that is similar in size to its wavelength and frequency

Principle of superposition Coherent sources

The overall displacement caused when two waves Same frequency / wavelength / amplitude
meet is equal to the sum of the displacements from Have a constant or zero phase difference
each individual wave Polarised in the same plane

Single slit Double slit

= * = *

To find Minima To find Maxima

=slit width = distance between maxima
=angle to minima = distance between Slits

Notes
Narrower slit = wider pattern + lower intensity
Longer wavelength = maxima wider + further apart
Will diffraction occur?
How many times the wavelength is the slit width
= /
If angle greater than 5 diffraction will occur
Diffraction grating
Notes
Fringes formed where coherent light from two
slits superimposes
Bright fringes formed where light reinforces
(constructive interference - in phase)
Dark fringes formed where light cancels
(destructive interference - 180 out of phase)
Problems caused:
Less detail visible to human eye (use UV light)
Ghosting on T.V.

= * =
Diff. grating vs double slit
To find Maxima When calculating wavelength, it is more sensible
d=distance between slits n = total no.of orders to use a diffraction grating rather than a double
=angle to 1st order beam slit, as:
A brighter better-defined pattern is produced
White light Red Laser Spectra are further apart so angle can be
Different colours and One colour measured more accurately.
central white fringe
Less intense More intense
Maxima wider Maxima narrower
Max/min closer together Max/min further apart
Fringes Dots

Drawing fringes for white light

Distinct fringes with subsidiary maxima
Colours present within each subsidiary maxima
Blue inner edge and red outer edge
Central white maximum
Equally spaced first order maxima Used to: evaluate elements from distant stars
A Level Physics Waves Y1 19
 Snells law Total internal reflection
= * Critical angle
Total internal reflection occurs at the boundary between two media
when:
Thelight
= = = =
ray is in the optically denser medium, travelling into a
medium that is less optically dense
When the angle of incidence is bigger than the critical angle

In air: * It is an advantage to have a small

=
= critical angle

When the refractive indexes are Optical fibres

closer together, less bending
occurs.
is beam travelling from 1 to 2
Consists of a core, and cladding with a lower refractive index. Rays of
light are guided along the core by the cladding.
Step index
Monomode

Pulse broadening is the

Advantage of smaller diameter core
distortion of a pulse Less multipath dispersion
characterised by a Better quality signal / less smearing
longer pulse duration Increased probability of total internal reflection
Less change of angle angle of incidence less likely to fall below
Multipath dispersion is the critical angle less refraction out of the core
when different
reflection angles create Reason for cladding
Protects the core from scratches / provides strength
different paths for light
Increases the critical angle
rays Reduces pulse broadening
Reduces modal dispersion
Modal dispersion is the Increases rate of data transfer
distortion of a pulse
caused when different
modes have different Signal decay
propagation velocity The signal decays in two ways:
Reduced amplitude due to
attenuation
Attenuation is when Pulse broadening due to
the signal decreases in modal dispersion
intensity due to Smearing of signal due to
absorption in the fibre modal dispersion (modes propagating at different angles greater
angles take more time)
Crossover is when the
signal crosses between Use of optical fibres
neighbouring fibres Endoscope / cystoscope / arthroscope to improve medical diagnosis
Communications to improve transmission of data

20 A Level Physics Waves Y1

 Types of solids
Crystalline
Ordered patterns
Solids Simple structure called a unit cell is repeated in a
3D pattern.
E.g. metals, crystals
Particles Amorphous
In a solid the particles vibrate about a Only short range order
fixed position. The amplitude of the Formed from supercooled liquids (i.e. fast cooling)
vibration depends upon their E.g. glass, some plastics
temperature. The links or bonds between Polymeric
particles are permanent and there is Consists of long chains of a simple structure
normally long range order within the repeated over and over again
structure. E.g. many organic materials, plastics

Density
Deriving = from
What is density? * / graph
Density is a way of describing how much = (W = Fs) so area beneath line
mass a material contains in a given volume
from origin to L represents work
work done linked to energy stored
Elasticity area of triangle =
therefore =
Types of force *
= Energy stored in a

stretched material
When an object is stretched by a
Hysteresis force, work is done. As a result,
Some materials do not give energy is transferred to and
back all the energy they are stored in the material.
given when stretched.
= *

Hooke's law But = , so:

Extension is
proportional to force
applied, up to the limit
of proportionality
=
This extra energy is absorbed
by the material as heat.

Stress-strain graph Up to P, the material

obeys Hooke's Law
Young Modulus
*
After E, the material = = = =

does not return to its
original shape Units: Nm-2

* *
= =

Units: Nm-2 Units: none

Typical values ( )
Rubber: 0.005; Glass: 7; Steel: 21

A Level Physics Materials Y1 21

 Circular motion
Uniform circular motion
Velocity is a vector and it is constantly
changing as the direction is changing
Angular velocity
Angular displacement is the angle swept out at
the centre of the circular path

Angular displacement is measured in radians

1 radian is the angle swept out at the centre of a circle when
radius = arc length = /

_
Angular speed is measured in (also revs-1 and r.p.m.)
Angular frequency = angular velocity
2 1 2 2
= but = therefore: = and = therefore:

=
* *
= =

Where:
2 is the circumference
is the time period Centripetal force
1 Parcel is in van passing over a bridge. R is contact force between
But = so: parcel and floor of the van. r is radius of bridges curvature.

2 2
= =
= R decreases as v increases
2
is unchanged but is larger
When v = 15ms-1, R = 0N

Centripetal acceleration Newtons laws (centripetal force)

As the object is constantly changing First law: object does not travel in a straight line, so a force
direction, it is also changing velocity. must be acting on it (although ball has constant speed its
Therefore it is accelerating. This accelerating because its direction changes constantly)
acceleration is towards the centre of Second law: ball accelerates towards centre of circle so force
the circle. is centripetal force (object accelerates in the direction of the
force)
* Third law: object pulls on the central point of support with a
=
force that is equal and opposite to the centripetal force (force
acts outwards)
But = therefore: Support of ball: the ball is supported because the rope is not
horizontal. There is no resultant force in the vertical direction;
= * = the weight of the ball is supported by the vertical component
of the tension. mg = Fcos where is the angle between the
rope and the vertical and F is the tension.
Centripetal * The horizontal component of the tension: F sin = m2r
force = No external forces acting on the system
Examples of centripetal force:
= therefore
Gravity keeping the earth in orbit round the sun
= * = Friction of cars tyres as it turns the bend
Electrostatic attraction on electron in orbit round nucleus.
22 A Level Physics Further mechanics Y2
Simple harmonic motion
Simple harmonic motion is motion where Examples of SHM
acceleration is proportional and in the opposite Mass hanging on a spring
direction to the displacement Pendulum
Molecular vibrations
Guitar or violin string
Key definitions Breathing
Oscillation: a repeated motion about a fixed point Tides
Equilibrium position: the point where the object returns when Ruler oscillating - end of bench
the oscillation stops
Amplitude: the maximum value of the displacement
Frequency is the number of complete oscillations per second Acceleration
Acceleration is proportional to an
objects displacement from
= =
equilibrium position
=
The minus sign indicates that
Explanation using circles and displacement are in opposite
The pattern of SHM is the same as the side view of an object moving directions
at a constant speed in a circular path 2 2
= 2 2 or 2 or

GPE KE least Elastic PE =

greatest least
KE *
=
greatest
GPE KE least Elastic PE
least greatest =

+
Graphs Velocity
graph is from gradient of Velocity of oscillating object
graph, leads by 2 varies with displacement x

graph is from gradient of
graph, leads by 2 = *
Gradient = 2 or 2 2

=
= *

=
Displacement
Displacement of oscillating

object varies with time Note: at
time = 0, = +

= *

=

=
= *
A Level Physics Further mechanics Y2 23
 Simple pendulum Spring-mass
Consists of: Derivation
A point mass = =
Undergoing small oscillations (less than 10); this =
means that vertical motion can be ignored, = 2 2
tension remains constant 2 2 =
Suspended from a fixed support cancels out
By a massless, inextensible thread of length 1
= 2
* =
1
=

*
=
Derivation
Restoring force acts in
horizontal direction
Spring arrangements
(component of weight in
For springs in series: =
direction of bobs motion) For springs in parallel: =
=
Using Newtons second law:
Energy variation
= =
1
cancels out Strain potentiial energy: = 2
2
= 1
Max potential energy = 2 2 =
= 1 1

= + 2 = 2 2 +
=
So pendulum is SHM because 2

= 2 2 =

cancels out = ( )

1
2 =
= 2
1
= T = 2 Graphs: is directly

spring/mass proportional to the
is directly square root of 1
Graphs: is independent of proportional to the
pendulum square root of 2/2
is directly /
proportional to the 1 _
/
/mN 1
square root of 2/2
is independent of is independent of

2/2 / / /

/ / /

Free oscillation Energy displacement graph

A freely oscillating object oscillates
with constant amplitude

= = +

The mechanical energy remains constant
+
24 A Level Physics Further mechanics Y2
Driven systems
A driven system is one made to
oscillate with a periodic force
The system will oscillate with the applied
frequency () of the periodic force
Amplitude of driven system depends on:
The damping of the system
The difference between the applied
and natural frequencies
Natural frequency () is the
frequency with which an un-damped
system will oscillate if displaced
from equilibrium position
Amplitude of driven system:
At low frequencies: equal to amplitude of
driving source
At 0: max / infinity
At high frequencies: very low
As damping is increased:
Amplitude is decreased at all frequencies
Peak amplitude becomes less sharp
Damping
Damping is when frictional forces
cause the amplitude of an oscillation
to decrease
The amplitude falls to zero and the oscillating object
returns to its equilibrium position
Mechanical energy decreases. Energy of object is
dissipated (converted to thermal energy in
surroundings)
Types of damping
Light damping (e.g. Pendulum)
The amplitude gradually decreases with time
Period of oscillation remains the same
Heavy damping (e.g. Drums)
Allows the body to oscillate but brings it quickly
to rest

Critical damping (e.g. car suspension)

System returns to equilibrium without
overshooting, in the shortest possible time after
being displaced

Overdamping
The system returns to equilibrium much more
slowly than critical damping
Resonance:
Max energy transfer from driving force to system
Phase difference: The driven systems oscillations
are always behind those of the driving force
0 /
Bartons pendulum
Displace X and allow to oscillate at its natural
frequency X drives A, B, C, D ,E, F they undergo
90
forced vibrations (all at same frequency)
D oscillates with much bigger amplitude than B
180 D lags B by /2 (same length)
/

Impulse
If an object is hit by another object at higher speed
but still receives the same impulse:
Final speed lower
Initial momentum greater
Larger force acts for smaller time
Initial & final momenta in opposite directions
A Level Physics Further mechanics Y2 25
 Gravity is discovered
1. Ancient Greece and Ptolemy
Earth at centre of the universe
All objects fall towards earth (except stars
and planets Greek for wandering objects)
2nd century A.D: Ptolemy codified ideas.
Almagest main astronomy book for 1400
years (epicycles)
4. Johannes Kepler 1571
Mathematics school teacher
Ellipses fitted orbits of known planets much better
mathematical harmony
Kepler working with Brahes data made astronomy
100 times more accurate
Invented Kepler's three laws

2. Nicolas Copernicus, 1473 5. Galileo Galilei, 1564

Polish priest - worked very secretly
Sun at centre of universe - simplification
Work had huge implications; little credit
3. Tycho Brahe, 1546
Danish nobleman; discovered new star at 26
Mapped the sky without a telescope
He put the earth at the centre but all other
objects orbiting the sun
Did not have the mathematical ability
Never embraced Kepler's laws
Falling object from a tower / in a vacuum
A body moving in a horizontal circular motion
would keep moving at the same speed for ever
6. Isaac Newton
Complex and difficult personality
Rival: Robert Hooke
Stipulated that taws of motion and gravity on earth
could be applied to celestial bodies

Universal gravitation Derivations

A particle attracts every other Field strength Potential energy
particle in the universe with a force =
= =
2 ()
directly proportional to the product =
of their masses and inversely = 2
2

proportional to the square of the

*
distance between their centres = =


*
= = . Gravitational potential

Gravitational potential (V) at a point is the
work per unit mass to move the mass
Negative symbol shows that the force
from infinity to that point in the field
between two masses is always attractive
r is distance between centres of objects
= Linking V and g
Inverse square rule is force to move
g and F are
1
proportional to 2 Key points object against gravity
At : = 0 ( opposes gravity)
Gravity is always =
R g F
attractive = =
2r g/4 F/4 To move mass from =
infinity is negative
3r g/9 F/9 =
work; field does work
4r g/16 F/16
* *
= =

26 A Level Physics Grav. and elec. Fields Y2
Orbits and satellites Kepler's Laws
Types of orbits 1. Each planet moves in an
Circular orbit: speed and radius are constant ellipse the sun is one focus
Kinetic energy and potential energy are constant
Elliptical orbit: Speeds up as radius decreases
Kinetic energy increases as potential energy decreases 2. The line joining the planet
Low Polar orbit: below 2000km above surface to the sun sweeps out equal
Covers all of the earths surface (earth rotates) areas in equal times
Orbital period is a few hours (speed greater)
Lower signal strength required
Use: Google maps, Earth resources, Spy satellites
Geostationary orbit: 36,000 km above surface
Directly above the equator, orbits earth at same speed
as earth spins; always above the same point on earths
surface. Fixed height. Orbital period 1 day (slower)
Higher signal strength needed
Use: Broadcasting, Mobile signal 3. , where T is the
periodic time of the planet
and r is the planets mean
distance from the sun

Proving Keplers III law

2 = = 2
2 2 = 422
=
2
423 = 2 So 2 3

=
Centripetal force
For objects in orbit:
We assume satellites move in circular orbits Linking speed and time period
Forces are not balanced Time period is the time it takes for a satellite
Centripetal force is resultant force that accelerates the to complete one full orbit
object towards the centre of the orbit
=

*
=

Linking speed and radius
Gravity is the same as centripetal force Every height of orbit
has a specific speed
=
= =
The speed of the satellite
is inversely proportional
to the square root of the radius

Escape velocity
Suns mass is negligible
Escape velocity is the lowest velocity (in calculations between earth and moon)
which a body must have in order to escape distance from Earth to Sun > distance
the gravitational attraction of a particular from Earth to Moon
planet or other object. change in Vsun over distance from Earth to
Moon is negligible
1
= = 2 2 value of Vsun is not significantly changed
=
cancels out by relative positions of E+M

A Level Physics Grav. and elec. Fields Y2 27

 Graphs
Lagrange point

The Lagrange point is a point between

two objects where their gravitational
fields cancel to zero

Graph of g between the earth and the moon

Graph of V between the earth and he moon (blue line)

Graph of F against r Graph of g/E against r

Area under graph =

Work done

Area under graph =

Potential energy / Work

Graph of EP/W against r Graph of V against r

Gradient =
Gradient = -F (see proof)
Area under graph = Area under graph =

28 A Level Physics Grav. and elec. Fields Y2

 Newtons law of
Comparing fields universal gravitation
Coulombs law

Gravitational Electric
Name Uniform Radial Unit Uniform Radial Unit
* *
*
Force = = = =

* * * * _
= = = = 1
Field 1
_
strength * ( 2) * (_1)
= =

Potential *
energy
= = = =

* *
Potential = = 1 = = _
( 1)
Direction Only attractive Attractive or repulsive
Medium Field strength not affected by medium Field strength affected by medium
Arrows -
field lines
Direction small test mass moves Direction positive test charge moves

Shield Cannot be shielded Can be shielded

Field lines
The closer together the lines, the stronger the field
at that point
Masses and charges always act as points
All points on an equipotential line have equal potential

Particle in electric field

Particle fired horizontally through a vertical field Horizontally (x) =
= /

Vertically (y)
Use suvat since this is a projectile
1
= + 2 2
1
= 0 + 2 2
=
= = 2
2

Overall y=f(x)
Electric field strength: = 2
= 2 = =
Force on the particle: = =
2

A Level Physics Grav. and elec. Fields Y2 29

 Uniform field:
out of plane of paper

Magnetic effects of currents into plane of paper

Introduction to magnetic fields

A magnetic field is a region where a
magnetic pole experiences a force

Arrow on field line is the direction in which a free

north pole would move when placed in field
Magnetic field lines may be plotted using compasses / iron filings

Magnetic flux density (B) Otherwise known as magnetic field strength.

_
Units: Tesla () ( 1) (vector quantity)
Magnetic flux density is defined as measured in Webers () (2)
the force acting per unit length of
conductor carrying unit current at
=
right angles to the magnetic field *

Electromagnetism Motor effect

All current-carrying conductors produce A current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field
a magnetic field. The shape of the experiences a force. (between poles of horseshoe magnet)
magnetic fields can be mapped out using Field around conductor interacts with permanent field.
small plotting compasses Field patterns distorted for both conductor and magnet.
For a long straight conductor:
The magnetic field lines are concentric
circles centred at the
conductor
The separation between
adjacent field lines
increases with the
distance from the conductor Direction of force predicted using Flemings Left Hand Rule
The magnetic field is non-uniform = = =
The direction of the magnetic field can The strength of the force is determined by:
be obtained using the right-hand rule = length of conductor
= * = angle between current & field

Charged particles Force is always perpendicular to the field and the current
Force is 0 when current and field are parallel
Force on charged particle
= *
Particle will experience no force if
a) at rest or b) moving parallel to the field

Circular motion
Particles in a magnetic field move in a circular path
Force on the particles is directed towards a common centre
Derivation of equation and radius:
2 2
= = = =

30 A Level Physics Magnetic fields Y2
Inducing emf Emf in straight wire
Introduction For a straight conductor moving in uniform field:
When conductor is stationary relative to
magnetic field, lines of flux from magnetic
field are linked to the coils of the wire

= = *

is the number of coils =

is the area inside the coils
is the angle between the normal to the
face of the coils and the field
When conductor is moved relative to Emf in rotating coil
magnetic field, flux is cut, and an emf is
induced in the conductor Force on a charge in a uniform field
= so:

Faradays law = *
The emf induced in a conductor is directly
proportional to the rate of change of flux The emf induced is the rate of change of flux linkage.
* Differentiating the above equation, we obtain:
=
= *
emf can be increased by:
All the above use radians
Stronger magnetic field
Faster speed
More coils (each coil adds equally to emf)
Bigger area of coil

Lenzs law
The direction of the induced
emf is such that any current Emf is greatest when plane of coil is parallel to B. ( =
it produces will oppose the ) so greatest when = 90
flux linkage change Emf greatest when flux linkage is smallest as coil cuts
flux perpendicularly
Lenzs law is shown by the negative symbol in
Since = : =
Faradays law

Permanent magnets
Magnetic materials: Iron, Cobalt, Nickel
Domain theory:
Each metal is split up into crystals. Each crystal has a north and a south pole.
Usually the poles are aligned randomly, and the
magnetic effect cancels out. There is no overall polarity.
However, when placed near a magnet, the poles line up,
and an overall magnet is created.
Soft magnet: Field removed goes back to random Hard magnet: Field removed stays aligned

A Level Physics Magnetic fields Y2 31

 Lenzs law
Explanation
The magnets N enters the coil
Induces emf in the coil which produces current in coil
The coil becomes an electromagnet
A north pole is created at that end of the coil
This opposes the motion of the magnet
Work has to be done to push the magnet into the coil
Magnet falling through copper pipe
Magnet falling through conducting copper pipe
Magnetic field moves through tube
Flux lines are cut in the tube = N(/t)
Emf induced produces current in copper
Current produces a magnetic field
Field opposes motion of Q
If replaced by brass (higher resistivity):
Resistance of brass is higher
(resistance resistivity)
Emf induced same so current smaller
Weaker opposing magnetic field
Time is shorter
32 A Level Physics Magnetic fields Y2
Levitating aluminium ring
AC supply in coil produces a changing
magnetic field cuts magnetic flux in
the ring induces emf in ring (in
direction that opposes change in flux)
Current flows in ring ring becomes
electromagnet
Same pole at bottom of ring as at the
top of the coil. Ring and coil repel
Magnetic field of coil weakens with
distance ring levitates when force of
repulsion from field equals weight
AC current increases initial emf
induced in ring is higher ring moves
into weaker field to restore balance
ring floats higher
Transformers
How it works
*
Iron core with 2 coils of wire wound = Eddy currents induced in the iron core reduce
on it increases or reduces voltage
Alternating p.d. in primary coil produces
alternating magnetic field in core induces
alternating emf in secondary coil
There is a fuse in the primary circuit prevents
transformer from overheating. Placed in primary
circuit so that all of transformer is disconnected
Oscilloscopes
How it works
An electron gun fires a fine beam of fast
moving electrons
Electrons travel down tube and scintillate
the fluorescent screen causing it to produce
photons of light (photoelectric effect)
Two sets of perpendicular plates deflect the
beam and control its position on the screen
Measuring D.C. voltages
D.C. voltage deflects dot up or down
=
Root mean squared voltage is the
equivalent DC voltage that
produces the same power as AC
Efficiency issues
Resistance in coils causes wire to heat up; thick
copper wires of low resistivity reduce energy loss
magnetic flux in secondary coil; core is laminated
(thin sheets of iron separated by insulator)
Permanent magnetism in core would waste
energy to magnetize and demagnetize the core;
soft magnetic material used to conserve energy
Some flux from primary coil does not pass
through secondary coil; coils wound very close
*
% =
Use of transformers
Used to boost voltage for the national grid - more
efficient to carry electricity at higher voltage
Larger voltage = lower current (I=P/V)
Current in cables causes joule heating
Lower current = lower power loss (I2R)
Smaller proportion of input wasted
The main grid operates at 400,000
National grid is AC because transformers only
work using an AC supply.
Controls
Brilliance: controls brightness of screen by varying
number of electrons striking the screen per second
Focus: gives a well-defined spot
Input terminal:
Gives voltage signal from the external circuit
Signal amplified and applied to the Y-plates
Y-gain (how many V each cm represents) p.d. (Vcm-1)
Time base (how many seconds each cm represents)
=
Applies p.d. across the X-plates, so spot
moves at constant speed from left to right.
At a high speed this appears to be a solid line
because of persistence of vision
Measuring A.C. voltages
A.C. voltage deflects dot up and down repeatedly
= peak to peak voltage =
= peak voltage =
= root mean square voltage = *
(root of mean of squares)
A Level Physics Magnetic fields Y2 33
 Introduction
What is a capacitor A capacitor is an electrical
Plates; one is negatively charged and the component that can store electrical
other is positively charged charge, consisting of two conducting
Dielectric; insulator between plates plates separated by an insulator

Use
Capacitors arent used instead of batteries:
They store relatively small amounts of charge
Voltage in circuit decreases as they discharge
They are used to provide a lot of charge very
quickly. Used for:
Camera flashes
Back-up power sources
Smoothing D.C. power sources

Calculations
Charge Voltage
When a DC voltage is placed across the capacitor, Voltage rating of a capacitor is maximum P.D.
a P.D. builds up on the plates. that can safely be put across it.
Electrons are removed from one plate (+) and Capacitor will only charge up to the voltage of
added to the other plate (-) the power source it is connected to
Capacitor plates have equal and opposite charge
of magnitude Q Potential difference between two
Under these circumstances the capacitor is said to points is the work done in moving a
have a charge Q (not 0 or 2) unit charge between them
Half batterys energy converted to thermal energy
Energy stored
Capacitance
The charge on a capacitor is directly proportional to * * *
= = =
the potential difference, V across the capacitor.
= (/) * Energy stored = area under V/Q graph

The Capacitance of an object is the

amount of charge it is able to store per
unit of potential differnce across it.
1 farad is 1 coulomb per volt.
The gradient of a Q/V graph is the capacitance of a
capacitor.
Volume = Charge
Voltage
Area of base = Capacitance

34 A Level Physics Capacitors Y2

Dielectric
Permittivity
Permittivity is a measure of
how hard it is to generate an
electric field in a medium
Relative permittivity
Relative permittivity is the ratio
of the permittivity of a material =
to the permittivity of free space

The higher the permittivity of the

= ( )
material, the more charge needed to _
1 = ( 1)
generate electric field of a given size. _
0 = = 8.85 1012 1
Capacitance permittivity

Calculating capacitance
Polar Molecules Capacitance depends
When no charge is stored by a on the dimensions
capacitor, no electric field is present: of the capacitor.
molecules are aligned randomly
*
=

When charge applied to plates of a

capacitor electric field generated:
molecules align with field
The molecules have their own
electric field which opposes electric
field of capacitor. Larger permittivity
leads to larger opposing field.
This is good if you want a large
capacitance; overall field is less and
so smaller voltage is needed to store
a larger charge on plates. Hence a
larger capacitance is formed (C=Q/V)
Breakdown
When the voltage across the plates is turned up too high:
The electrons are pulled from one plate to the other very
strongly
They punch their way through the dielectric
This is called breakdown and the capacitor can no longer
hold much charge
Properties of a good dielectric
Electrical insulator
Large surface area
Thin dielectric
Contains polar molecules
High relative permittivity

Water analogy
Pressure = voltage
Rate of water flow = current
A capacitor can be thought of as a rubber membrane that
exerts a pressure proportional to the amount it's been
stretched (how much water you've pumped into it)

=
This has an obvious similarity to the equation for the voltage
on a capacitor:
=
Charge Q = volume of water
Capacitance = k

A Level Physics Capacitors Y2 35

 Time constant This works for other equations too

What is it Rearranging Rearranging

The speed at which a capacitor charges increase equation decay equation

and discharges is affected by resistance
= 0 1

= 0
and capacitance.
= 0
= 0 1
*
=
= 0(1 + ) 0
=
1
1 = 0
= ( )()
0
When charging, one time constant is =
1 =
the time it takes to charge to ~63% 0 =


0
When discharging, one time constant is 1 0
= (1)()
the time it takes to discharge to ~37%
=
It takes roughly 5 time constants to 0 is the max of the graph.
charge / discharge = 1 (also applies to 0 and 0)
0

Charging / discharging - graphs

Charging Discharging
Q *
= 0

= 0(1 )*

I

= 0 = 0

VC

= 0

= 0(1 )

VR

= 0 = 0

36 A Level Physics Capacitors Y2


Thermal energy
Absolute temperature scale
The lowest possible temperature an object
can have is absolute zero (-273C)
Absolute zero = 0K on the Kelvin scale
0K 273K
-273C 0C
A change of 1K = a change of 1C
= +
Energy transfer
For a closed system, the total internal energy is
constant, if no energy is transferred to or from
the system
Capacitance
A closed system is one that doesnt
allow any transfer of matter in or
out
Energy is constantly transferred between
particles when they collide, but the overall
energy of the system does not change.
Heat is always transferred from hotter
substances to cooler substances. The higher the
difference in temperature between the two
substances, the faster the heat transfer.
Specific latent heat
The specific latent heat (l) is the
amount of thermal energy needed
to be gained or lost to change the
state of 1kg of a substance
= energy change
= * = specific latent heat (Jkg-1)
SL: Melting LG: Boiling / vapourisation
LS: Fusion GL: Condensation
Internal energy of a gas
The particles in gas all travel at different speeds. The
speed distribution depends on temperature.
The internal energy of a body is the sum
of the randomly distributed kinetic and
potential energies of its particles.
As the temperature of a gas increases:
The average particle speed increases
The average kinetic energy of particles increases
373K The distribution curve becomes more spread out
100C
Specific heat capacity
The specific heat capacity (c) is the
amount of thermal energy needed to
raise the temperature of 1kg of the
substance by 1K (or1C)
= *
Where: = energy change
= mass of substance (kg)
= specific heat capacity (Jkg-1K-1)
= change in temperature (K)
Finding specific heat capacity
Let the water flow at a steady rate until the
water out is at a constant temperature. Record:
flow rate x time, to find the mass (m) of water
T (difference between Tout and Tin)
Current (I) and potential difference (V)
Energy supplied is = + , where is heat
lost to surroundings.
Repeat the experiment, changing the p.d. of the power
supply (energy ) and the flow rate (mass ), so that
remains constant.
1 = 1 + and 2 = 2 + Values of c,
T, and H are the same. Use = to find 1and 2
2 1 = (2 1)
2 1
=
(2 1)
A Level Physics Thermal Y2 37
 The ideal gas laws
Boyles law
The volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant The oil traps a pocket of air in a sealed tube
temperature is inversely proportional to the with fixed dimensions
pressure applied to it Measure the volume of air when the system
is at atmospheric pressure ( = 2)
Use a tyre pump to gradually increase pressure on the oil.
= As the pressure increases, more oil will be pushed into the
tube, the oil level will rise, and the air
2 will compress. The volume
occupied by the air in the tube
3 will reduce.
Record at each pressure interval:
1 Pressure (Bourdon gauge).
Volume
Repeat to get mean
1 Constant temp

The pressure law

The pressure of a fixed mass of gas of
constant volume is proportional to
temperature as measured on the Kelvin scale

Charles Law Capillary tube sealed at bottom to trap a

small column of air underneath drop of acid.
The volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant Place tube in beaker of hot water, with ruler
pressure is proportional to the temperature so height of air column can be measured.
as measured on the Kelvin scale As water cools, record volume (2) at
regular temperature intervals. Repeat twice.
= Plot volume against temperature, to obtain a
straight line. ( )

Ideal gas Combined Gas Law

All molecules are identical & in random motion These laws can be combined, as =
Newtonian mechanics apply Where: = moles of gas
No attraction/repulsion/collisions between = * = gas constant
molecules (8.31 JK-1mol-1)
All collisions are elastic / duration negligible Where = molecules of gas
Gas does not turn into liquid at low temp. = * = Boltzmann
Gases only behave as ideal gases at low pressures constant (1.38x10-23JK-1)

Work done by a gas changing volume Also:

For a gas to expand or contract at constant

pressure, work must be done (heat energy transferred) =

= (area under PV graph)

38 A Level Physics Thermal Y2

Kinetic theory
Deriving the pressure of an ideal gas
A cubic box with sides of length contains Molecule is one of many in the cube. Each
molecules each of mass molecule will have a different velocity (1, 2, .)
The total force of all these molecules on wall is:
1 2 + 2 2 + .
=

2+ 2+.
The mean square speed, 2 = 1 2
2
Combining equations, you get =
2
( ) 2
= = =
Start by deriving the pressure on one wall of a box, 2
in the direction. Molecule moves directly A gas molecule can move in three dimensions, so
towards wall with velocity . Assuming collisions for the general equation you need to think about all
are perfectly elastic, its rebound velocity is . three directions (x, y, and z)
So change in momentum is: = 2 You can calculate its speed, , from Pythagoras
Assuming doesnt collide with other molecules, theorem: 2 = 2 + 2 + 2 , where is the
the time between each collision of and wall is component of the molecules velocity in the
2 . The number of collisions per second is . direction, in , and in .
2
The rate of change of momentum is 2 2. Since the molecules move randomly, c 2 = 32
Force equals rate of change of momentum so the 1 2
force exerted on wall by the molecules is .
2
=
3 = *

Root mean square speed Explaining Boyles law

Constant temperature: Volume increases time
2 is the root mean square speed and gives the
typical speed. between collisions increases rate of change of
It is the root of the mean of the squares. momentum decreases Force increases pressure
decreases

Assumptions in kinetic theory

Explaining Pressure law
All molecules of gas are identical
Fixed volume: Temperature increases average
The gas contains a large number of molecules
speed of the molecules increases the rate of change
The molecules have a negligible volume
of momentum increases the force on the wall of the
compared to the volume of the container.
container increases pressure increases
The molecules continually move about
randomly
Newtonian mechanics apply Explaining Charles law
Collisions are perfectly elastic Constant pressure: Temperature increases volume
Molecules over in a straight line between increases rate of change of momentum decreases
collisions Force increases pressure stays the same
The forces that act during collisions last for
much less time than the time between
collisions Avogadros constant (NA) is the number of
molecules in one mole of a substance

A Level Physics Thermal Y2 39

The history of the atom
Democritus proposed all matter was made up of little identical lump called atomos
John Dalton proposed that each element was made of a different type of atom, that could not be broken.
J. J. Thomson discovered that electrons could be removed from atoms, so atoms could be broken up.
Plum pudding model atoms are spheres of positive charge with tiny negative electrons stuck in them.
Ernest Rutherford discovered nucleus. Rutherford scattering experiment Geiger and Marsden
lead block +
containing gold foil +
source scattering + alpha particles that
angle pass close to nucleus
Beam of +

alpha
alpha
particles +
nucleus + are deflected
most alpha particles
particle + not deflected
beam circular
fluorescent +
screen +
Atom is mostly empty space (most alpha particles pass straight through)
Most of atoms mass is in nucleus (fast alpha particles with high momentum are deflected by it)
Nucleus is a large positive charge (some positively charged alpha particles deflected by large angle)
Nucleus is tiny (very few particles deflected by angles greater than 90)
Nucleus contains protons and neutrons (mass is higher than expected for a given charge)

Types of radiation
Summary
Characteristic Alpha Beta Gamma
+
What is it? Helium nucleus Fast moving Fast moving EM wave
electron positron
Charge 2+ 1 1+ 0
Speed 99%
20
Ion pairs caused by cm air gap 105 103 10
Energy range ~6 ~1 = 0.01
Deflection Electric field
Magnetic field
Penetrating power (stopped by) Few cm of air / Few mm of aluminium Few cm of lead
sheet of paper / concrete

Uses of Uses of Uses of

Smoke alarms: Particles ionise
air very strongly. They dont
travel very far in air, but they
carry charge. When smoke
particles are in air, the alpha
particles dont reach detector
Measuring thickness Medical tracers: To diagnose patients
when rolling sheets: without surgery. A radioactive source with a
amount of radiation short half-life is injected into the body. PET
reaching detector scanner detects the emitted gamma rays.
indicates thickness of Treatment of cancerous tumours:
material Radiation kills cancerous and healthy cells
Nuclear radius
Size of atom Nuclear density
1
Radius of atom 0.05nm 0.5x10-12m 3 3
Radius of nucleus 1fm 1.0x10-15m So all nucleons have the same volume.
Radius of molecule = n x radius of atom All nucleons have the same mass.
Therefore the density of nuclear matter is
constant.
Radius / nucleon number
As the nucleon number increases, the mass increases = = =
4 3 4 13
3
3 3 0
*
= = .
3
=
403

= .

Closest approach Electron diffraction

An alpha particle is fired at a nucleus, and is A beam of electrons is directed onto a thin film of
deflected through 180. It stopped and changed material in front of a screen.
direction a short distance from the nucleus. electron
r beam

+
+
+ metal foil
Kinetic energy gained by electrons is =
At this point, its electric potential energy is equal e is charge on electron / V is potential difference
to its initial kinetic energy. used to accelerate
Using Coulombs law: 2 = 22 = 2 = 2
= =
=

= & first minima appears where sin =
0.61

Practical issues:
Small collision region necessary in order to
measure the scattering angle accurately
Thin sample prevents multiple scattering
Advantages / disadvantages:
Only measures the least distance of approach
(estimate for the max radius), not the radius
s have a finite size; must be taken into account
Cannot detect s with exactly 180 scattering
Measurements are disturbed by nuclear recoil
-particle measurements are disturbed by the
strong nuclear force when coming close to the
nucleus (they are hadrons) so less accurate
s are scattered only by the protons and not all
the nucleons that make up the nucleus
.
Practical issues:
The wavelength must be similar to the nuclear
radius for diffraction to occur.
Electrons have a wavelength shown by =
Small wavelength so high energy electrons used.
Small wavelength higher resolution
It is important to obtain monoenergetic beams
Advantages / disadvantages:
Electrons dont interact with the strong nuclear
force (they are leptons) so it is an accurate
method for measuring nuclear radius.
First minimum inaccurate / hard to measure as
it superimposes on other scattering events.

A Level Physics Nuclear Y2 41

 Geiger tube
Background radiation
The air radioactive radon gas
is released from rocks. Emits
alpha radiation
Ground and buildings nearly
all rock contains radioactive
material
Cosmic radiation cosmic rays
are mostly high-energy protons
Summary from space, that collide with
Record background radiation count rate particles in the upper
Place unknown source near tube and record count rate atmosphere and produce
Place sheet of paper between tube and source and record count radiation
rate Living things all plants and
Replace paper with a 3mm thick sheet of aluminium and record animals contain some C-14
count rate Man made radiation from
Subtract background radiation from all readings medical or industrial sources.
The type of radiation can be deduced from when the count rate Only a small fraction of all
suddenly decreases background radiation

The inverse square law

Summary

*
= =

Where:
I = intensity of radiation
= photons emitted per second
f = energy of each photon
= distance from source

Cloud chamber
Summary
Sealed unit, containing
supercooled, saturated water or
alcohol.
Alpha or beta particle ionises it.
Ion acts as nucleus for
condensation, a mist forms
High energies of alpha and beta
particles form trails, due to
collisions with air molecules.
These tracks show the type of
particles (depending on direction
they curve)

42 A Level Physics Nuclear Y2

Radioactive decay
Radioactive transformations Radioactive change
Alpha emission: (nucleus too heavy; Z > 60) Gamma emission:
4 4 No change in or
+ Occurs if the nucleus has excess energy after
2 2
Beta- emission: (too many neutrons) emitting an or particle.
0 Electron capture:
+ + 0
+1 1 + +
Beta+ emission: (too many protons) 1 1
0 Proton-rich nucleus captures an inner-shell
+ + electron. ( ) Inner shell replaced by outer
1 +1
shell . As a result, a -ray is emitted.

N-Z graphs Nuclear stability

Many nuclei remain radioactive after the first
decay. They continue to form daughter
nuclides until a stable nuclide is formed.
For Z up to 20, stable nuclides have equal number of
protons and neutrons.
For heavier nuclei, (higher values of Z) more neutrons
are needed to hold the nucleus together. The stability
line curves upwards. Highest stable nucleus: Z=83

A Level Physics Nuclear Y2 43

 Exponential decay The decay equation
*
Exponential decay is when the rate of decay =
of a quantity is proportional to the quantity
itself

Decay constant and activity

Activity (A)/Bq is the number of nuclei
that decay each second

Decay constant ()/s-1 is the probability of A graph of ln against gives a

a specific nucleus decaying per unit time straight line.

* Where N = the number of unstable nuclei in

= sample

Activity is the number of nuclei that decay per second, so it can be

written like this: =
There is a minus sign because always decreases.
Combining these two equations: The decay equation works
* for activity too
Where:

= rate of change of number of
=
unstable nuclei (s-1) =

Half life Half life equation

=
*
The half-life (T) of an

isotope is the average time
it takes for the number of
unstable nuclei to halve

Radioactive dating
Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5730 years.
When plants die, they stop taking in
new carbon dioxide from the air. The
carbon-14 starts to decay. The amount
of carbon-14 in wood can be used to
find its age.
Why radioactive dating is unreliable:
Object may have been made some
time after tree cut down
Possible contamination
There is uncertainty in the amount of
carbon-14 that existed long ago
Count rates low, background activity
high in comparison (old objects)
Little drop in activity (new objects)
Medical diagnosis
Technetium-99m is a medical tracer, used to show tissue or
organ function. Injected or swallowed, then moves to the
region of interest. Has a half life of 6 hours long enough for
recording data, short enough to be safe for use in the body.
Storage of radioactive waste
Nuclear fission reactors use uranium-235 to generate
electricity. The uranium decays into several different isotopes
with different half lives. This means it must be stored under-
ground for many years until activity has fallen to safe levels.

44 A Level Physics Nuclear Y2

Binding energy
Mass defect
The mass of a nucleus is less than the mass of
its constituent nucleons.
Mass defect /u is the
difference between the mass
of a nucleus and the mass of
its constituent nucleons.
= . for all nuclei:
Einstein's equation says that mass and energy
are equivalent.
= *
Nuclear stability
Higher average binding energy per nucleon
more energy needed to remove nucleons from
nucleus nucleus more stable.
A graph of Bavg against nucleon number gives a
curve. Iron is the most stable nucleus.
Fusion and fission
Fission
Large nuclei split into two smaller nuclei
Energy released as the smaller nuclei have
higher average binding energy per nucleon.
Spontaneous fission happens by itself (larger)
Induced fission is caused by a thermal neutron.
Fission fragments are neutron rich emit
(large N/Z ratio / above & left of line of stability)
Binding energy /MeV
If you pulled the nucleus apart, energy to do it would
be exactly the same as energy released when the
nucleus formed. Energy is equivalent to mass defect.
Binding energy is the energy
needed to split up the nucleus
into individual nucleons
Binding energy per unit of mass defect is the same
= .
Average binding energy per nucleon (Bavg) is used to
compare binding energies of different nuclei.
()
=
()
Energy released: fission and fusion
Fission and fusion only occur if it is energetically
favourable (energy is released). Energy is only
released when average binding energy increases.
Fusion
Two light nuclei combine to create a larger nucleus.
Energy released as the larger nuclei have higher
average binding energy per nucleon.
All nuclei are positively charged, so there is an
electrostatic force of repulsion between nuclei.
Low energy nuclei are
deflected by repulsion.
High energy nuclei overcome
repulsion and are attracted by
the strong interaction.
(nuclei need to be close together for fusion)
A Level Physics Nuclear Y2 45
 Nuclear fission reactors
Typical reactor Moderation: elastic collisions
Assuming the collision is perfectly elastic,
kinetic energy and momentum are conserved
Before After

neutron moderator neutron moderator

0
Conservation of momentum:
= +
Conservation of kinetic energy:
1 2 = 1 2 + 1 2
2 2 2
Rearrange to find and in terms of
() 2
= (+)
= (+)
Chain reactions If the mass of the moderator is equal to the
Uranium-235 or Plutonium-239 used as fuel. mass of a neutron, = =
Fission reactions are induced by neutrons. ( )
= =0
Each fission reaction produces more neutrons which ( + )
induce other fission reactions. Final velocity of neutron is zero
Neutrons must be slowed down to induce more 2
= =
reactions otherwise they pass straight through nuclei. +
In critical condition one neutron released from each Final velocity of moderator is equal to initial
event goes on to cause a further fission velocity of neutron
A moderator (e.g. water or graphite) is used to slow
down the neutrons, forming thermal neutrons
Moderator slows neutrons to about 2200ms-1 through Safety
elastic collisions (kinetic energy is conserved) - takes Spent fuel rods present greater radiation
about 550 collisions hazard than unused fuel rods:
To slow down the neutron effectively, mass of Easy to contain an source
moderator particle should be equal to mass of neutron Fission fragments more unstable (neutron
(see proof) rich) & most likely to be beta emitters
Water rusts the metal pipes in the reactor / have greater range / harder to screen
Graphite catches fire easily Ionising radiation damages body tissue
Control rods are used are used to control the fission rate Core shielding becomes radioactive:
To keep a chain reaction going, there must be a critical Neutrons absorbed by nuclei in shielding
mass of fuel (enough mass to prevent too many Atoms of the shielding converted into
neutrons from escaping from the sides.) unstable isotopes
Nuclear reactors use a supercritical mass (each Safety in the reactor:
reaction induces several others) Reactor is surrounded by a thick concrete
Control rods control the chain reaction by limiting the shield, preventing radiation escaping.
number of neutrons in the reactor. In an emergency, the reactor is shut down
They absorb neutrons so that when they are inserted, automatically by emergency control rods
the reaction is slowed down. in reactor (held above the reactor by
Coolant (liquid or gas) is used to transfer heat to make electromagnets, dropped if power fails)
steam that turns a turbine blade. Radioactive waste is treated
Released neutrons: By remote control remove waste
Some leave reactor core without further interaction place in a cooling pond on site for 1-3
Some are absorbed by uranium-238 or a control rod years (water acts as a shield)
Some are scattered by uranium-238 or unranium-235 Activity 1/ half-life
Vitrify active material (to prevent leaking)
Stored in barrels underground (salt mines)

46 A Level Physics Nuclear Y2

The heart
Blood flow
1. Blood returning from the body enters the right atrium
through the venae cavae.
2. Blood is pumped into the right ventricle.
3. The right ventricle contracts, it pumps blood through
the pulmonary artery to the lungs.
4. Oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium of
the heart along the pulmonary veins.
5. Blood is pumped into the left ventricle.
6. The left ventricle contracts, pumping ~70l of blood into
the aorta and around the body
Control system
1. SA node acts as a pacemaker, sending electrical
signals (~100mV) rapidly across the right and left
atria
2. There is a delay as signals travel slowly through
AV node
3. Signal travels down the bundle of His which is
specialised muscle
4. The signal is passed on to the Purkinje fibres, Obtaining ECG waveform
which transfer the signal to the ventricles To reduce contact resistance:
All this takes about 0.25s due to a delay mechanism. Sandpaper skin to remove hairs and some
Cardiac muscle has an extra channel in its membrane dead skin
allowing calcium ions to travel across the cell wall. Apply conducting gel between electrode and
This causes a slight delay, allowing the muscle to skin
completely relax before the next contraction cycle. Securely attach electrode and use tape to stick
it in place
To remove unwanted signals:
Electrodes should be non-reactive
Patient to remain relaxed and still
Use shielded leads to reduce interference from
ac sources
Properties of amplifier:
Large input impedance
High gain
Low noise (or use differential amplifier)

ECG signals (electrocardiograms) Shielding

Remove hair dead skin and apply a conductive gel. ECG lead is shielded using a copper mesh
Electrodes are taped to two limbs with a third limb earthed to stop interference from magnetic fields.
Amplifier must be high gain and high impedance Electrical devices using AC generate a
Safety: disconnect ECG from mains changing magnetic field. This can induce
P wave: depolarisation & contraction of atria an emf in the ECG lead, which would
QRS wave: depolarisation &contraction of ventricles interfere with the very small p.d. detected
About 1 millivolt and lasts 0.1s from the heart. The
(relaxation of ventricles is masked by QRS wave) copper mesh absorbs
T wave: repolarisation and relaxation of ventricles any stray magnetic flux
preventing it getting to the
wire. The mesh is earthed.
A Level Physics Medical Y2 47
 The ear
Structure of the ear
Journey of sound waves:
Pinna increases intensity in ear canal
Longitudinal pressure waves in the ear canal
Forces eardrum into mechanical vibrations
Mechanical vibrations passed through middle ear by
a lever system (series of bones) to the oval window
increased (x1.5) by action of lever system
Last bone sets up pressure waves in fluid in cochlea
Area of oval window << area of the eardrum (x20)
Intensity (Wm-2)
Intensity (Wm-2) is the rate of
flow of energy per unit area
perpendicular to the direction of
travel of the wave
Threshold of pain = 100 Wm-2
Minimum intensity heard = 1x10-12 Wm-2
Intensity follows inverse square law: 2 dBA = dB at 1kHz (1kHz is reference frequency)
Intensity level (dB)
Equal changes in intensity lead to equal
changes of dB at a constant frequency
[Not frequency dependent]
Minimum intensity heard is 0dB at 1000Hz
= () * Plot intensity level
Threshold of hearing(I0) = 110-12
= minimum intensity heard by a
normal ear at 1kHz
Add intensity not intensity level
dB used because it is logarithmic:
Response off ear is logarithmic
Allows large range of intensities on scale
48 A Level Physics Medical Y2
Resonant frequency
Wave is a series of compressions and
decompressions
The ear is most sensitive at its resonant
frequency which is about 3300 Hz.
Hearing loss
Audiometer tests hearing and plots audiogram.
Calibrated to read 0dB for normal hearing.
1. Loss due to old age
Loss increases as frequency
increases
2. Loss due to excessive noise
Loss increases up to 4kHz
then decreases after
Intensity level (dBA)
Sounds of equal dBA sound equally loud to the average
human ear. [Depends on frequency]
Minimum intensity heard is 0dBA at 1000Hz
The perceived loudness of a sound depends on its
frequency and intensity. The dBA scale is an adjusted dB
scale that takes into account the average ears response
to different frequencies.
Loudness (phons)
Sounds of equal loudness sound equally loud to an
individual [Depends on frequency and individual]
Drawing equal loudness graph: 2 sound generators: A & B
Set A at 1000hz Set B at different freq. and adjust until
sounds as loud as A Repeat for different freq of B
against f
Adjust intensity of A
and plot new line for
each intensity
Loudness = intensity of A
The eye Visual acuity / minutes-1
For two dots to be perceived as separate,
Structure their images must fall on receptors with at
The eye focuses light to form images that can be detected least one unstimulated receptor between
and allow us to see them. They must not share the same optic
nerve. Visual acuity is worse in low light as
the fovea is inactive. Resolution of the eye
is better at the fovea, as each cone has its
own optic nerve; they are closer together.

Persistence of vision
Persistence of vision is when an image
remains after the stimulus is removed
Light from receptors takes around
between 70 and 300 ms to process. If
image changes faster than this, it appears
The cornea is the transparent window with a convex shape as continuous motion.
and a high refractive index. It does most of the eyes focusing (e.g. television)
The iris controls aperture of the eye. Iris contracts / radial
muscles relax pupil becomes smaller (also: cones turn on) Colour vision
The lens acts as fine focus to accommodate for near and far There are three types of cones (RGB)
distances and is controlled by ciliary muscles. The brain interprets signals from the three
Ciliary muscles contract / suspensory ligaments relax lens types of cone as colour. The eye is less
more spherical shorter focal length / more powerful responsive to blue, so blue appears
Images formed on retina which contains light-sensitive cells. dimmer.
Rods are more sensitive to light, and cones to colour. The
fovea is a spot on the back of the retina. There are only cones
at the fovea, then more rods as you move away.

How rods and cones work

The rods and cones are photoreceptors.
A photoreceptor is a cell that responds to
light and produces an electrical signal

Rods and cones contain pigments that bleach when light falls
on them. The bleaching causes a signal to be sent to the brain
via the optic nerve. The cells are then unbleached using
vitamin A from the blood.

A Level Physics Medical Y2 49

 Optics
Ray diagrams *
Ray (with arrow) Convex Concave =
(Focal length)
Focal point There are two rays that must be drawn:
2F F F 2F Object parallel to principal axis F
Object center of lens undeviated
O (Object) I (Image) Where these lines meet is the image
Principal axis
Describing the image
The focal point is the point where light rays parallel Real / Virtual
to principal axis meet after passing through lens Upright / Inverted
Magnified / Diminished
Lens equation (Focal length)
Real light rays can be
projected on a screen
* F F
+ =

O (Object) I (Image) Power (not magnification)

= = *

Where = object height and = image height Power in diopters (m-1)

Lens configurations
Real; inverted; diminished No image

Real; inverted; same size Virtual; upright;

magnified

Real; inverted; magnified

Virtual; upright; diminished

50 A Level Physics Medical Y2
Defects of vision
Myopia short sight Normal eye
Uncorected The nearest thing (real or
The eye focuses the image short of the retina. virtual) you can see is at your
Lens too strong / eye too long uncorrected near point. (0.25m)
Cannot see objects at infinity far point affected The furthest thing (real or
Corrected virtual) you can see is at your
A diverging (concave) lens is used to correct vision. uncorrected far point. ()
Creates images at uncorrected far point of objects at infinity. All adjustments using lenses
Causes rays to spread out so they appear to originate from uncorrected involve placing images at these
far point. The brain then interprets the image so you see the objects points of objects that are
where they really are. outside the range of vision.

Astigmatism
Caused by an irregularly shaped
cornea or lens which has
different focal lengths in
different places
Common test for astigmatism:
Some parts of the image will be
in focus and others will be out
Near point affected too of focus.
1 1 1
Use u + v = Where = focal length (negative) = 0.25m
You are trying to find = the nearest object that you can see.

Hypermytropia long sight

Uncorrected
Correction
The eye focuses the image long of the retina.
Corrected by a cylindrical lens
Lens too weak / eye too short
that adds power in one plane
Cannot see close objects near point affected
but not in the plane
Corrected
perpendicular to it. The
A converging (convex) lens is used to correct vision.
prescription will state
Creates images at uncorrected near point of objects at 0.25m.
Power needed to correct
Causes rays to converge so they appear to originate from uncorrected
long or short sightedness
near point. The brain then interprets the image so you see the objects
(sphere SPH)
where they really are.
Additional power needed to
correct astigmatism
(cylinder CYL)
Angle to horizontal of the
plane that does not need
correcting.
(axis between 0 and 180)

Far point affected too

1 1 1
Use + = Where = focal length (positive) = infinity
u v
You are trying to find = the furthest object that you can see.

A Level Physics Medical Y2 51

 Ultrasound
Ultrasound probe The piezoelectric effect is the
Producing pulse: ability of certain materials to
Piezoelectric crystal in transducer generates ultrasound vibrate when subjected to an AC
Alternating pd (~1MHz equal to resonant frequency of voltage, or vice versa
crystal ) applied across the crystal
Causes crystal to expand and contract
Creates pressure waves in the crystal & membrane
Ultra sound reflected at boundary between two
different acoustic impedances
Pulses must be of short duration:
Transducer also acts as receiver
Emitted pulse must cease before echo arrives
so that there is no overlapping
This time is short as distances travelled are short
Short application of ac to produce short pulse
Backing material used to damp vibration of crystal
Gel is used
Gel between the probe and the skin to exclude air
Has acoustic impedance close to that of the skin
To ensure maximum transmission
A-Scan (Range finding display)
Time taken for return pulses is accurately determined so
precise depth measurements are possible
Measuring lens thickness / eye diameter before surgery
Echoencephalography scans midline of brain for tumours Frequency
B-Scan (Pictorial display) High frequency (7-15MHz)
Probe has line of transducers (~100) penetrates 1-5cm
Each transducer emits pulse in turn and receives the gives a lot of detail
echoes from the interfaces directly in line with it easily attenuated
Each echo displayed as a bright spot on screen uses: eyes, testes, breasts
Brightness is determined by the intensity of the echo Low frequency (3-5MHz)
Y position is determined by time taken from penetrates 10-20cm
transmission to the time of the echo gives less detail
X position determined by position of the transducer Suffers less attenuation
25 images produced per second appear as real time uses: heart, liver

Specific acoustic impedance (z/Kgm-2s-1) Reflected intensity

A medium opposes the passage of sound waves though it When sound of intensity is incident at
boundary between materials of acoustic
= * Material impedance 1 2 the reflected intensity,
is given by:
Air 4.29102
Typical values::

Great difference in z values: *
Skin air
Fat 1.38106 =
+
Fat bone Brain 1.58106
Muscle bone A greater percentage of the pulse is
Small difference in z values: Muscle 1.70106 reflected when the difference between the
Fat muscle acoustic impedances of the two surfaces is
Muscle - skin Bone 7.78106 greater.

52 A Level Physics Medical Y2

MRI imaging
Magnetic fields Contrast
Body part placed in high intensity magnetic field Enough time must be left between
Atoms H, P, 13C have net spin each pulse for the proton to de-
At first protons spin parallel to magnetic field lines excite and emit the photon. The
Precession frequency is proportional to magnetic field strength response of different tissue types
Supplied radio pulse of specific frequency excite nuclei of same can be enhanced by varying the
precession frequency (parallel antiiparallel) time between pulse. This increases
When nuclei de-excite they emit radio signal (antiparallel the contrast.
parallel) Fat is imaged using rapidly
Radio signal frequency same as precession frequency repeated pulses.
Gradient in static field means precession frequency is related to Watery substances are imaged
position (gradient caused by overlapping of magnetic fields) using a longer delay between
Frequency of radio wave allows location to be determined pulses. (they contain more H)
Radio signals passed onto computer and an image is formed

PET scanning
Summary
Patient is injected with a substance used in the body (e.g. glucose)
containing a positron emitting substance e.g. N-13, O-15, or F-18
Radiotracer is metastatic it moves through the body
Radiotracer emits positrons
Positrons immediately annihilate with electrons in the body tissue
Annihilation releases high energy detectable gamma rays
Uses:
Detection of infection / fractures / tumours
(Radiotracer is taken up by more metabolically active cells)
Measuring dynamic processes such as spread of cancer

Gamma camera
How it works
Incident gamma photon hits
sodium iodide crystal scintillator
Scintillator emits a flash of light
(around 5000 visible photons)
Visible photons hit dynode in
photomultiplier tube.
Dynode emits several electrons.
These accelerate towards the next dynode
which emits several electrons for each incident electron.
By the end, the signal has been multiplied several thousand times.
Electric circuit collects signals from photomultiplier tubes and processes them into an image.
Accuracy
Lead shielding stops radiation from other sources causing ghosts or artefacts in the images
Lead collimator allows only parallel gamma rays to enter
Advantages: very sensitive / can scan whole body / non-invasive / quick / can image inside skull
Disadvantages: Patient exposed to ionizing radiation / machine needs protection from external gamma sources

A Level Physics Medical Y2 53

 X-rays
How an X-ray machine works
1. Electrons emitted from cathode
(Heated by current to provide
thermionic emission of electrons)
2. Tungsten anode accelerates electrons towards anode
through high P.D.; electrons smash into anode
(Anode rotates to allow heat to be dissipated over
Focal spot
larger area; longer use without overheating)
(Anode beveled to give greater target)
(Low pressure in tube prevents electrons from
colliding with gas atoms and losing energy)
3a. Ionisation 1
Electrons strike anode and 3b. Bremsstrahlung (braking)
2
ionize the target atoms 3
1. Electron from beam hits tungsten
Excited electrons fall to 2. Electron decelerates and some of its kinetic energy is
inner energy level 4 converted into electromagnetic energy
Fixed energy gaps 3. X-ray photon emitted (max energy when all K.E. converted)
produce fixed energy photons 4. Highest photon energy = Voltage charge on an electron
4. Beam of X-ray photons emitted from anode (anode beveled to give small source area of beam)
5. Safety: Lead shield to block stray X-rays // Filled with oil for cooling // Glass tube allows low pressure

X-ray spectra Varying beam intensity

Continuous part of the spectrum due to braking.
Spikes are due to ionisation (fixed energies)
There are two ways to increase the intensity of the X-
ray beam:
Increase the voltage.
Electrons have more kinetic energy they knock
out electrons deeper inside atoms
X-ray photons have higher energy
More ionisation more X-ray photons.

X-rays interaction with matter

Photoelectric adsorption
When energy of X-ray is slightly bigger than
energy needed to remove electron
All energy of beam is transferred to electron Increase the current.
which is emitted from atom. Atom rearranges and More photons per second more X-ray photons
gives out low energy radiation. Same speed same energy
Depends on: mass number / energy of X-ray
Compton scattering
When energy of X-ray is much bigger than energy
needed to remove electron.
Depends on: energy of beam (less scattering with
increased energy) / not on mass number
Pair production E > 1.05MeV
X-ray approaching nucleus produces an electron
and a positron which annihilate

54 A Level Physics Medical Y2

X-ray images
Improving sharpness Attenuation
There are two ways of increasing image sharpness: When X-rays pass through matter,
Increase FSD (focus to skin distance) they are absorbed and scattered.
Decrease FFD (focus to film distance Intensity of beam decreases
Decrease the width of the focal spot, by exponentially with distance from
decreasing the slope of the anode. A of 17 surface.
is usually used the focal spot is 1mm width. = *
If the focal spot is too small, overheating occurs = intensity (Wm-2)
Improving contrast 0 = initial intensity (Wm-2)
The contrast is adjusted by varying the voltage. = materials linear attenuation
If the voltage is too low, the photons cannot pass coefficient (m-1)
through the material, and the contrast is low = distance from surface (m)
If the voltage is too high tissue detail will be lost. Mass attenuation coefficient
So a compromise is necessary. Contrast can also be increased by Radiation absorbed per unit mass.
adding a contrast medium e.g. Barium bowels or Iodine veins
* = mass
= attenuation
coefficient (m2kg-1)
Producing images
The aim when taking an X-ray image of a patient is to produce a
sharp image and to keep the doses of X-rays down. Half-value thickness is
Use a FTP detector instead of a photographic film, as this the thickness of a
produces better contrast with a smaller dose of X-ray. material required to
A FTP works by a scintillator material that produces light when X- reduce the intensity of
rays hit it. A photodiode converts the light to electrical signals. a beam to half its
If a photographic plate is used, use intensifying screens. original value

ln
=

Converts X-ray photons to light photons light photons expose CT

film in correct place due to closeness of the screens to the film Narrow beam of
exposure time is shorter reduces radiation dose to the patient monochromatic X-rays
Screen made of ZnS fluoresces when X-rays hit it. The light then X ray generator rotated in
hits the photographic film (White AgBr turns to Black Ag+ ions). circular path around patient
Sharpness lost due to spreading light, but contrast increased 40. Detectors arranged around
Make sure the patient keeps still to avoid blurry image outside of the path
Put lead collimator grid between X-ray Detector opposite generator
patient and film to stop scattered registers transmitted intensity
radiation (Compton scattering) Connected to computer which
fogging the image. produces cross sectional image
An aluminum filter selectively High quality image
blocks low energy photons that are useless for X-ray images. High radiation dose

Fluoroscopy
Used to create moving X-ray images, to see organs as they work.
X-rays pass though body, hit fluorescent screen, which emits light.
Electrons are emitted from photocathode.
Electrons in glass tube are focused and accelerated onto a second
fluorescent screen. They travel much faster, so image is
5000 brighter.
Imaging lasts for several minutes; increased risk to the patient.

A Level Physics Medical Y2 55

 Tracers
Summary
Tracer Use Physical life Radiation emitted Energy: radiation
Technetium-99m Range of organs 6 hours Gamma 14 keV
Iodine-131 Thyroid 8 days Beta and gamma 360 keV
Indium-111 Antibodies and blood cells 2.8 days Gamma 170 or 250 keV
Where the tracer goes in the body is determined by what the tracer is bound to. The radiation emitted is
recorded using a gamma camera or a PET scanner. The tracer is chosen so it has an appropriate half life: it
stays in the body long enough to reach the organs to be imaged, but not so long that it becomes dangerous.

Effective half life

The effective half life (TE) of a source is the *
time it takes for the radiation in the body = +
to fall to half its original value

The effective half life can be worked out from the biological half life and the physical half life.
The biological half life (TB) of a source The physical half life (TP) of a source
is the time it takes half of the source is the time it takes for the activity
to be excreted from the body to fall to half its original value

The biological half life depends on the diet, exercise , type of disease, and the type of organ.

Technetium-99m Iodine-131
Technetium-99m has a half life that is too short for Made by exposing Te-130 to neutrons in a nuclear
it to be transported. Instead hospitals use reactor. Has a half life of 8 days.
generators that turn molybdenum into technetium. It decays as follows: 131
53
I 131
54
0
Xe + 1 + +
Molybdenum has a 66 hour half life so it can be The gamma rays produced have an energy of
transported. 360keV and can be imaged with a gamma camera.
Molybdenum combines with aluminium oxide Iodine is naturally used by the thyroid gland. The
Strong bonds - Molybdate (MoO42-) rate that the gland takes up iodine lets the doctors
Saline solution placed inside generator. see if it is working too fast (weight loss / heart
Molybdenum decays to Technetium. attacks) or too slow (weight gain / no energy)
Weak bonds - Pertechnate (TCO4-)
Technetium is washed out with saline solution,
as it does not bond to aluminium oxide. Indium-111
Technetium can only be removed daily as you have Made by exposing Cd-122 to protons in a cyclotron.
to wait for the molybdenum to decay. It decays as follows: 111
49
0
In + 1 e 111
48
Cd + +
The gamma rays produced have an energy of
200keV and can be imaged using a gamma camera.
Some white blood cells are removed
They are tagged with indium-111
They are injected intravenously into the patient
The cell localize to areas of relatively new
infection.
The gamma camera shows where the infection is

56 A Level Physics Medical Y2

Comparison of treatments

A Level Physics Medical Y2 57

 X-ray treatments
X-rays
Advantages: High energy x-rays are absorbed the same amount by all tissues of the body, including bone. So it
can be used to treat cancer even in the skull.
(Compton effect does not depend on mass number; only works for high energy photons)
Disadvantages: X-rays can damage healthy cells and increase the risk of cancer.
Precautions:
Dose is delivered in a series of exposures, not all in one go. To prevent burning.
Make sure dose is delivered to exact same point in body each time use henna tattoo. To avoid killing
healthy cells.
X-ray beams are focussed on tumour from several angles. To avoid killing healthy cells.
Lead apron shielding used. To avoid killing healthy cells.

Beta emitting implants

Beta source is implanted inside the flesh near the tumour.
Advantages:
Minimal surgery required it can be used when surgery would be difficult e.g. sarcoid in the eye
Beta has a range of a few centimetres in human flesh. This is roughly the size of the average tumour.
Tumour can be eradicated without harming too many healthy cells.
Quick recovery time
Disadvantages:
All beta sources emit gamma rays so healthy cells would be effected
Patients have to be isolated during treatment to protect relatives and nursing staff from exposure
Techniques are expensive as isotopes have to be produced and precautions must be taken.

Endoscopy
Introduction Coherent vs. Incoherent
Consists of: Coherent bundle
2m plastic sheath of 10mm diameter Used to transmit image
Helical steel band and mesh inside Fibres are in the same relative positions at
Flexible bundle of optical fibres each end of the bundle
Outer bundle incoherent (light into body) 0.01 diameter x 10000 fibres
Inner bundle coherent (image of body) Incoherent bundle
Small channel to hold surgical instruments Used to transmit light
Uses: Fibres not in same relative positions
Probing the esophagus, stomach, pancreas, and colon Fibres thicker
Minor surgery biopsies, extracting foreign bodies
Stopping internal bleeding Losses in optical fibre
0.04% at each reflection
Absorption and scattering by impurities in
core
Entry/exit losses
Losses due to excessive bending of fibre

58 A Level Physics Medical Y2

 Note: a graph that shows proportionality
Variables is a straight line through the origin

The independent variable is the The dependent variable is the thing

thing you change in an experiment you measure in an experiment

Planning a practical in the exam

Summary Units
Equipment set up / circuit diagram Refractive index none
Specific measurement use right equipment Magnetic flux Weber - Wb
Vary .. + take reading Magnetic flux density Tesla - T
Give range of measurement Nuclear activity Becquerel Bq
Repeat 3 sets of results (mean)
Draw a graph of .. vs .. Safety - lasers
My graph will show (gradient, y intercept)
Dont shine towards a person
Plotting of calibration curve to calculate real life quantities
Avoid accidental reflections
Specific issue: precision
Wear laser safety goggles
Laser on warning light outside room
Accuracy Stand behind laser
Repeat readings of dependent variable
Use large range of independent variable Advantages of datalogger
Measure change hard-to-control variable Many readings
Use long objects Computer display of results
Measure multiple fringes
Measure diameter in several places
Use Searles control wire (negating effect of temperature change)

Instruments
Length ruler
Extension ruler and travelling microscope / Vernier scale
Diameter of wire micrometer
Temperature thermometer vary with water bath and ice
Potential difference voltmeter vary with potential divider
Current ammeter vary with variable resistor

Hypotheses
Hypothesis needs to be tested by experiment
Experiment must be repeatable
Hypothesis is then accepted or rejected

A2 Physics Practical 59
 Electricity
Determining resistivity of cylinder Measuring resistance of wire
of putty between 0 and 100
Measurements Circuit with ammeter and voltmeter
Length with a ruler Measure voltage & current; calc. resistance
Diameter with vernier calipers / micrometer Water bath used ice added to water
Measure voltage & current; calculate resistance Water stirred
Analysis Temperature measured with thermometer in
Draw graph resistance against length water bath
Use diameter to calculate cross-sectional area Graph drawn resistance against temperature
Accuracy:
Vernier calipers
Full scale readings for V and I Determining whether a
Flat metal electrodes to improve connection component is an ohmic resistor
Current varied in regular steps
Measure voltage & current; calc. resistance
Draw graph voltage against current
Materials Straight line graph indicates resistor is ohmic

Obtaining Youngs Modulus of wire Investigating extension

Quantities to be measured Extension of rubber cord varies with
Apply force to a wire using standard weights force for successive increases then
Measure original length using ruler successive decreases of force
Measure extension using Vernier scale Rubber cord fixed at one end
Extension = extension length - original length supporting a weight at other end
Measure diameter using micrometer, calc. cross-sectional area Apply a variable force (standard
Varying load/mass masses/ newton meter)
Accuracy Measure length of cord with ruler
Repeat readings (of length or extension) as force increased then decreased
Diameter measured in several places Extension calculated from cord
Searles control wire negating effect of temperature change length initial length
Change in diameter monitored (with micrometer) Use large number of masses
Original length of wire 1.0 m Repeat measurements of length

Waves
Using diffraction grating to measure wavelength
Laser shone through grating at screen
n = d sin where is angle to first order beam maxima
measure angle to first order beam (tan = x/D or protractor or
spectrometer)
d = 1/ lines per mm
Accuracy/reliability points
Measure between more than one order
Repeat for different distances (D)
Use large distance to screen (D)
Use spectrometer / protractor with 0.5 degree intervals
Graphical method: plot sin against n (gradient = /d)

60 A Level Physics Practical

Magnetic fields
Finding the strength of a magnetic field
Square hoop of metal wire is positioned so that the op of the hoop (length ) passes through the magnetic
field, perpendicular to it. When current flows, length of wire in magnetic field will experience downwards
force.
Place the hoop on a metal balance. Zero the digital balance when no current is flowing through the wire,
so that mass reading is due to electromagnetic force only.
Vary the current using a variable resistor attached to the power source. Record mass and current for a
large range of currents. Repeat until you have three mass readings for each current, and calculate mean
mass for each current.
Convert mass into force using F=mg. Plot the data on a graph of force against current.
Because F=BI, the gradient of the straight line graph is equal to Bx. Divide gradient by to find B
Alternative: vary length of wire, vary magnetic field.

Finding voltage and frequency of AC

Power supply connected to oscilloscope input
To find voltage:
Time base switched off
y adjusted to get as long a line as possible
Length of line used to find peak to peak voltage
Rms voltage calculated
To find frequency:
Time base adjusted to get several cycles on screen
Time base setting used to find period
Frequency calculated

A2 Physics Practical 61
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