Journal of Cereal Science 32 (2000) 99113

doi:10.1006/jcrs.2000.0322, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on

MINI REVIEW

Durum Wheat Quality: A Multidisciplinary Concept

A. Troccoli, G. M. Borrelli, P. De Vita, C. Fares and N. Di Fonzo

Istituto Sperimentale per la Cerealicoltura, Sezione di Foggia, S.S. 16 km 675, I71100 Foggia, Italy,
E-mail: isc.fg@isnet.it

Received 23 October 1999

ABSTRACT
The quality of durum wheat cannot be simply defined since it changes depending on the worker and
end-use. Here we report a description of quality aspects evaluated at dierent levels: by the farmer,
grain dealer, seed company, milling industry, pasta industry and consumer. The transformation of
durum wheat to improve the quality for traditional end-uses and for novel applications is also
described.
2000 Academic Press

Keywords: durum wheat, grain quality, protein quality, semolina milling, pasta colour, cooking quality.

INTRODUCTION In the present context, quality will be considered

The major use of durum wheat is for pasta prod-
ucts, particularly in the European and North
American countries, whereas in other areas (the
Middle East and North Africa) it is also used as
couscous and for various types of bread.
The annual world durum wheat production,
over a 10-year period (19901999) in selected
countries, was estimated to be 212310 million
tons on a harvested area of 1416 million hectares1.
However, durum wheat only represents about
68% of the total wheat production.
The quality of end-products is related to the
quality of the durum grain, which, in turn, is
mainly determined by the genotype, but also by
the environment (weather and nutrition) and crop
management.
So far, it has not been possible to propose a
simple and exhaustive definition of durum wheat
quality because it changes depending on the
worker and end-use. Thus, every worker has a
dierent criterion to establish his own concept of
quality. Table I represents some of the principal
aspects of quality for those interested in durum
wheat.
in relation to the criteria used by those involved
in the various aspects of growth and utilisation in
order to define how individual concepts of quality
contribute to the overall grain quality.
QUALITY FOR THE FARMER
The quality criterion for the farmer is productivity
and his concept of quality is closely linked to the
need to obtain high yields in order to maximise
profit. However, in the Mediterranean areas,
where durum wheat is traditionally grown, farmers
are increasingly under pressure from the marketing
strategies of durum wheat exporting countries,
such as Canada and Australia, to guarantee grain
quality and to promote exports by regulating the
release of varieties, grain cleaning and establishing
standards for other parameters such as protein
content2. The freeing of markets stimulates com-
petition between locally produced wheat and im-
ported wheat grain, so that quality has become an
important issue in this competition and the choice
of variety, in particular, is being given more em-
phasis when marketing grain3.

07335210/00/090099+15 $35.00/0 2000 Academic Press

100 A. Troccoli et al.
Table I Principal aspects of quality for dierent people that are involved with durum wheat
Durum wheat quality for:
Seed Grain Farmer
company dealer
Varietal purity Supplying/standard Yield
and health safety
Germination Grain yield/
quality and
stability
Protein content
Test weight
Grain moisture
Since most durum wheat growing areas undergo
severe weather conditions, the potential grain yield
depends largely on the ability of varieties to adapt
to dierent environments. In this situation, yield
stability represents the major breeding goal in
developing improved durum wheat varieties4,5.
This includes breeding varieties for resistance to
biotic and abiotic stresses and for their ability to
maintain high yields under favourable and un-
favourable environments. However, abiotic en-
vironmental factors are considered to be the main
source (71%) of yield reduction6. Drought, high
temperature and terminal stress (i.e. plant death)
during grain-filling are major factors aecting
durum wheat yield and consequently the grain
quality710.
High quality pasta begins with good quality
grain. Protein content and gluten quality are the
most important variables in determining pasta
cooking quality11,12, with the eects of genotype,
environment and GE interactions on these para-
meters being of fundamental importance. Mariani
et al.13 showed that environmental eects override
those of genotype for protein content and that
GE interactions appear negligible. In contrast,
the genotypic eects are predominant in de-
termining technological characteristics, and GE
interactions are small. Therefore, the major in-
fluences on grain crude protein (CP) concentration
are environmental, particularly climate and nitro-
gen availability.
In many instances, grain nitrogen concentration
appears to increase with increasing temperatures
and reduced rainfall. Such influences are revealed
Milling Pasta Consumer
industry industry
Semolina yield Protein content Cooking quality
Ash content Gluten quality Visual appeal
Grain Granulation and Qualitative
uniformity particle size of standard of pasta
semolina product
Test weight Yellow index Good Price/
Quality ratio
Grain moisture
Impurity
by regression analyses relating annual crude pro-
tein concentration in durum wheat varieties to
national rainfall, temperature and nitrogen fer-
tiliser14. In addition to the observation that high
temperature and soil moisture deficits increase
grain nitrogen concentration, there is evidence
that these factors, particularly when severe, can
also aect the functionality of nitrogen.
Mechanisms to explain the eects of tem-
perature and moisture have been postulated. In-
creasing temperature can reduce carbohydrate
accumulation more than nitrogen accumulation
as the rate of senescence is increased thereby
reducing photosynthesis and grain growth. The
size and number of starch granules per endosperm
are also reduced under hot conditions15. Con-
currently, the rate of relocation of nitrogen from
the vegetative parts of the plant to the grain is
increased by higher temperatures16. The rate of
protein synthesis in the grain is also stimulated by
warm temperatures more than the rate of starch
synthesis, resulting in increased protein con-
centration17. High soil temperatures also favour
the mineralisation and uptake of nitrogen18. These
reports more frequently reveal a relationship with
temperature than with rainfall. The mechanisms
underlying the eects of rainfall and soil moisture
content are complex. A high level of water avail-
ability often increases total nitrogen yield in the
grain, despite reducing the nitrogen concentration.
Water can increase nitrogen availability to the
crop because it increases root growth, the mass
flow of water and therefore nitrogen towards the
plant, the mineralisation of nitrogen from soil
 Durum wheat quality
organic matter, the movement of nitrogen fertiliser
into the root zone, and the availability of other
nutrients which can have large influences on root
growth and distribution19. However, under severe
drought conditions the grain tends to be shrivelled
with low starch accumulation and therefore a
relatively high content of bran and nitrogen.
An increase in grain nitrogen concentration
would normally be expected to result in increases
in the proportion of vitreous grains, sedimentation
volumes, gluten concentration and dough
strength20. The relationship between nitrogen con-
centration and protein quality criteria may, how-
ever, vary depending on weather conditions. For
example, Schipper20 found that the increase in
grain nitrogen content, resulting from high tem-
peratures during grain development, was as-
sociated with greater dough resistance and lower
extensibility. The opposite behaviour was observed
in grain with similar nitrogen content produced
at lower temperature but with higher nitrogen
application rates.
A study carried out in Nebraska, U.S.A., over
two years, with wheat varieties grown under field
conditions, showed that the sodium dodecyl sulph-
ate (SDS) sedimentation volume was negatively
associated with hours of temperatures above 32 C
and hours of relative humidity below 40% during
grain filling21. In addition, several studies2226 re-
ported that excessively high temperatures and low
relative humidities during grain filling resulted in
increased grain nitrogen concentration, but in
reduced dough strength and gluten quality. This
is because shrivelled grains were produced which
contained a higher proportion of bran than en-
dosperm compared with well-filled grain.
For these reasons, the quality of durum wheat
produced in Mediterranean regions is correlated
with the mean yield, so the concept of quality for
the farmer is closely associated with the ability of
the variety to guarantee high and stable production
every year.
QUALITY FOR THE GRAIN DEALER
The unpredictability of climatic condition in many
Mediterranean countries makes it dicult to guar-
antee the quality request by the grain dealer.
However, the main parameters for grain dealers
are the moisture content of the grain, the homo-
geneity of lots, and cleaning.
Eective cleaning of grain for long term storage
101
is essential. As well as removing impurities, grain
cleaning enables the dealer to positively change
some characteristics of the stock. For example, the
thousand grain weight and test weight increase
when small shrivelled grains are removed. These
aspects are important because sound and clean
grain are parameters that positively influence the
ease of sale and price of the product.
While these characteristics are essential for ex-
porting countries (i.e. Canada, Australia), they
have not yet reached the traditional durum pro-
ducing areas. Grain marketing in such areas is
widely linked only to the capacity of the dealer to
organise grain stocks.
QUALITY FOR THE SEED COMPANY
Variety purity, contamination of grain and the
presence of weed seeds receive particular attention
from seed companies. These requirements are
strongly dependent on management practices.
Varietal purity is the quality parameter that is
most dicult to test, especially when the grain is
contaminated by grain of related cultivars. It is
therefore economically dicult for seed companies
to check this character, with gliadin separation on
electrophoretic gels27 being the only technique
available to establish varietal purity for seed cer-
tification.
QUALITY FOR THE MILLING INDUSTRY
The quality for the miller is mainly represented
by high extraction rate (i.e. the proportion of the
wheat kernel that is milled into semolina). Millers
try to maximise the yield of semolina and minimise
flour yield because semolina commands a higher
price. Consequently, knowledge of the factors in-
fluencing the milling properties, and therefore the
potential market price of the semolina product,
are indispensable to develop an eective quality
control system to use as a tool to compare grain
stocks from dierent countries. While the concept
is simple, the diculty is to define the cut-o
points between grades. A good grading system is
undoubtedly dependent on the type and thor-
oughness of the standards that are chosen. How-
ever, the system must also provide the greatest
benefits for the greatest number of producers and
for the grain industry as a whole.
There is currently no universally accepted pro-
cedure to classify wheat quality for semolina mill-
102 A. Troccoli et al.

ing. At present, the European Union (EU) has a Table II Ash content (% dry matter basis) determined on
wheat grading system that diers from those used Whole Kernel (WK) and Debranned Kernel (DK), from 120-,
140-, 200-, 220-, and 240-min debranning intervals, for
in other countries such as United States or Canada. eleven durum wheat cultivars29
In Italy, as well as in other countries belonging to
the EU, the only set of quality criteria is that Cultivar WK DL1 DL2 DL3 DL4 DL5
linked to the intervention price. Hence, before a
Trinakria 199 106 098 090 086 081
new durum wheat variety is included in the Na- Ofanto 193 115 107 102 098 094
tional Register and accepted for community sup- Creso 193 116 107 100 096 092
port for production it is compared with three check Fenix 192 112 102 094 089 086
varieties for test weight, protein content, gluten Flavio 191 108 099 095 092 088
index, and yellow index, together with milling Vespro 191 107 098 092 087 084
Tavoliere 191 115 106 100 095 092
yield and pasta-making quality. An overall index Vento 185 105 098 098 090 088
of 95 is the minimum value required to qualify Crispiero 184 113 107 100 096 099
for community support. Duilio 183 107 099 094 091 088
Several European milling industries consider Simeto 181 108 102 096 092 090
ash content as the most important aspect of durum DC, LSDa 005
wheat quality for semolina milling. Experimental a
results have already confirmed a significant role of Data from debranning levels (D) by cultivar (C) interaction
means, Least Significant Dierence (p0001).
genotype-environment interactions in determining
ash content2830. Consequently, favourable growing
conditions result in higher ash content in whole
grain due to increased uptake of minerals from therefore be used to screen for lines with favourable
the soil. A lower semolina yield can therefore be ash distribution patterns, improving the potential
expected because the ash content of semolina is yield of semolina and hence profit.
correlated with that of the whole kernel31 and with Another aspect of milling-quality of importance
the extraction rate32. Furthermore, this parameter to millers is test weight. This is aected by the
is especially important in several European coun- variety (shape and size of grain), environment,
tries where the ash content of durum wheat prod- rain damage and other events3641. Since test weight
ucts for human consumption is regulated by law. is highly heritable42,43, several studies have been
This is the case in Italy where the ash content carried out, mainly in soft wheat, to find simple
must not exceed 09% (dry matter basis) for first- factors that correlate with test weight and can be
grade commercial semolina. used in the early generations of breeding programs.
However, it has also been shown that the ash Troccoli and Di Fonzo41, for example, evaluated
content of whole grain is dependent on the type the relationship between kernel size and shape
of wheat29,33 and that there is a gradient in ash (length, thickness, width, perimeter, area, weight
content within the kernel30,34,35. Fares et al.30 evalu- and volume) and test weight for a set of 16 com-
ated eleven Italian durum wheat cultivars for ash mercial durum wheat cultivars grown in southern
content (199181% dry matter basis) using a Italy (Table III). The mean squares of all the
friction debranning machine (Satake) and five de- characters analysed were highly significant in re-
branning times. They found a decrease in the ash lation to the cultivar, indicating that these com-
content as debranning proceeded (Table II). In ponents need to be studied in detail in order to
addition, the cv. Trinakria that had the highest ash establish adequate criteria to classify the genotypes.
content in the whole grain (199% dmb) showed a In addition, it was demonstrated that test weight
remarkable reduction in ash content (464%) could be predicted by a linear model based on
after the first debranning, when compared with the Estimated Test Weight (ETW) obtained by a
other varieties which had lower initial ash contents, combination of following kernel parameters:
demonstrating a more favourable ash distribution.
ETW=weight/{[(length/3)+(thickness+width/2)]/3}3
No correlation was observed between the weight
of material removed, that may represent an evalu- The linear model gave good fits with the actual
ation of kernel texture, and the grain ash levels test weights of 16 varieties (r=082, p<0001) and
determined after each debranning, indicating that with those of 10 advanced durum wheat lines (r=
a sequential debranning procedure is suitable to 073, p=005), even though the latter showed a
evaluate genotypic variation in ash content. It can more narrow test weight range (825810 kg hL1)
 Durum wheat quality 103

Table III Mean values of kernel size, kernel features and test weight for sixteen
durum wheat cultivars grown in two locations of Southern Italya (adapted from Troccoli
and Di Fonzo41)

Cultivar IKW KL KT KW KP KA KV TW
(mg) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm2) (mL) (kg hL1)

Balsamo 3996 691 278 267 1511 1463 2950 819

Cirillo 3878 682 265 279 1488 1477 2866 826
Cosmodur 3954 702 286 266 1518 1443 2930 795
Creso 4428 704 292 279 1540 1569 3247 821
Crispiero 4571 715 298 280 1568 1595 3375 812
Messapia 4405 662 296 297 1475 1542 3229 831
Fenix 3958 699 270 273 1518 1488 2925 802
Flavio 4135 693 298 263 1514 1479 3082 804
Gianni 4083 714 277 268 1555 1526 3005 810
Ofanto 4077 701 285 277 1534 1538 3046 771
Radioso 4233 732 286 268 1587 1563 3112 808
Simeto 4461 761 291 267 1646 1616 3312 782
Tavoliere 4135 706 285 276 1537 1524 3078 799
Tresor 3947 665 283 257 1447 1378 2909 830
Nudura 4077 709 285 271 1529 1505 3004 802
Valbelice 3758 683 280 267 1490 1446 2774 806
Varietal 4131 701 285 272 1529 1510 3053 807
average
a
IKW=individual kernel weight; KL=kernel length; KT=kernel thickness; KW=
kernel width; KP=kernel perimeter; KA=kernel area; KV=kernel volume; TW=
test weight.

compared with the 16 varieties (831
771 kg hL1). Since the test weight was found to
be highly correlated with packing eciency (r=
098, p<0001) but not with kernel weight (r=
001)44, dierences in test weight within and be-
tween durum wheat varieties may relate more to
kernel shape than to kernel size.
Researchers are interested in test weight because
of its relationship with semolina yield. A high and
positive correlation between high test weight and
high flour yield has been reported45,46. Matsuo and
Dexter34 analysed a collection of 174 durum wheat
samples and found significant correlations between
semolina yield and test weight and semolina yield
and kernel size with a low weight. Similar results
were also reported by Irvine47. However, several
other researchers failed to find any correlation
between test weight and 1000-kernel weight34,41,48.
Consequently, although these two parameters
aect the same character, they seem to behave
dierently with respect to milling yield.
Test weight and kernel weight also measure
dierent features of the grain. While the former
can be a reflection of the soundness of grain, and
therefore a high test weight may be expected when
the grain is undamaged by unfavourable weather
conditions, kernel weight will be a measure of
average kernel size and thus larger kernels, re-
sulting from unrestricted grain ripening, are ex-
pected to have a greater endosperm to bran ratio.
These statements are in agreement with Dexter
et al.49 who found similar correlations between
semolina yield and test weight, kernel weight or
kernel size. Furthermore, kernel size and kernel
size distribution, alone or in combination with test
weight, oered no advantage over test weight in
predicting semolina yield.
Grain moisture content represents another as-
pect of quality, being an important consideration
for millers when buying grain lots. The percentages
of other components, such as protein and starch,
are inversely related to moisture content. Con-
sequently, when millers buy grain with a high
moisture content they are essentially paying a
wheat price for water. In addition, grain in excess
of 135% moisture may heat during storage, with
sprouting, fungal damage and deterioration in
condition.
Furthermore, grain moisture content is im-
portant because it must be considered when com-
paring lots of grain from various countries. For
example, in the U.S.A. protein content is based
104 A. Troccoli et al.
on 120% moisture, while Canada and Australia
use 135 and 110%, respectively.
In addition to the features discussed so far, grain
moisture content also influences test weight. It has
been observed that drying and wetting of grain
resulted in dierent rates of change in the test
weights of four U.K. varieties50. Also, dierences
between varieties have been reported. Manitou
and Neepawa, two Canadian wheat varieties,
showed linear or curvilinear relationships, re-
spectively, with test weight decreasing as grain
moisture content increased51. Test weights of 27
Hard Red Winter wheat varieties decreased con-
siderably or increased slightly when dampening
or drying was applied, respectively52. However,
Hook53 found that drying after wetting compared
with drying resulted in a considerable increase in
test weight. Conversely, the test weight decreased
considerably when wetting was compared with
wetting after drying. Hook53 also observed varietal
dierences in the test weights under drying or
wetting treatment. He concluded that the moisture
content and moisture history of grain influences
its specific weight and no universal factor can be
applied to correct specific weight results to a fixed
moisture basis.
The vitreousness of the kernel is often considered
to be important in milling. The description of a
grain as vitreous implies that the endosperm has
a glassy, translucent appearance rather than a
mealy or floury nature. The negative eect of
nonvitreous kernels on semolina yield, as well
as the association with semolina granulation and
protein content, are beyond question. In fact,
vitreous areas of the endosperm are known to be
higher in protein than mealy areas34,54 and the
presence of piebald kernels reduced semolina yield
as they pulverise more readily34. The incidence of
piebald grain in durum wheat can increase when
normally vitreous grained varieties are grown in
low protein environments55.
QUALITY FOR THE PASTA INDUSTRY
The durum wheat processing industry requires
samples which are homogeneous for moisture, test
weight, and protein content.
The selection of semolina for pasta processing,
the main product of the transformation industry,
is based on factors aecting dough development
and the quality characteristics of the finished prod-
ucts, such as ash content and semolina colour, and
cooking performance.
Dough development is aected by the particle
diameter (granulation) and the particle size dis-
tribution. The latter is normally determined by a
mechanical shaker with the sample being shaken
through sieves expressed in
m. To achieve uni-
form flow in semolina feeders and proper dough
development in continuous presses, semolina
should be very fine and as uniform as possible.
The rate of granulation of semolina diers from
country to country. As an example, in Italy the
granulation of semolina should be such that no
more than 10% passes through a 180
m sieve31.
In Canada, commercial semolina may have several
classes of granulation: No. 40=201%; No. 60=
622%; No. 80=151%; No. 100=17% and
through No. 100=04% using U.S. sieve size56.
The importance of ash content in the semolina
quality is already discussed. High semolina ash
content is normally associated with a longer ex-
traction time, which can produce a duller semolina
colour because of the presence of high-ash outer-
endosperm particles31, thus giving a brown hue to
pasta products5759. Furthermore, pigment de-
gradation during pasta processing is indirectly
aected by semolina ash content59, as shown in
Table IV.
Bright yellow colour is an important factor in
the use of pasta for food production, particularly
to make good-quality pasta products. This colour
is the result of the natural carotenoid pigments
present in the seeds31, of their residual contents
after the storage of grain60 or semolina and after
milling59,61, of their oxidative degradation by lip-
oxygenase (LOX) during pasta processing59,62,63
(Table III), and of processing conditions.
The carotenoid pigments are usually classified
into carotenes, unsaturated hydrocarbons, and
xanthophylls, the most abundant, which possess
one or more oxygen-bearing functional groups.
They are antioxidant compounds that reduce the
oxidative damage to biological membranes by
scavenging peroxyradicals such as those involved
in certain human diseases and in the ageing pro-
cesses64 and in the degradation of food quality64,
contributing to an increase in the nutritional value
of pasta products. The carotenoids are mainly
located in the outer layers of the kernel, with the
embryo, bran, and endosperm containing de-
creasing levels61. A high level of carotenoid pig-
ments in semolina does not, however, guarantee
a high colour of pasta itself because this is also
aected by the level of LOX activity59,62,63.
The LOXs are non-haem iron containing de-
 Durum wheat quality 105

Table IV Simple correlation matrix (n=18) between some semolina qualitative traits and
LOX activitya (adapted from Borrelli et al.59)

AC PC -CC -C lossb YI YI lossb Hp-1 Hp-2

PC 050
-CC 007 009
-C loss 061 054 028
YI 008 012 095 028
YI loss 060 059 027 049 043
Hp-1 030 044 010 084 012 038
Hp-2 035 039 001 084 003 024 090
Bl 046 043 021 087 021 032 077 075

, , , r values significant at the 005, 001 and 0001 probability level, respectively.
a
AC=ash content; PC=protein content; -C=-carotene; -CC=-carotene content; YI=
yellow index; Hp-1=hydroperoxidation activity at pH 48; Hp-2=hydroperoxidation activity
at pH 66; Bl=bleaching activity.
b
Represents the loss of -carotene content or yellow index when semolina is processed into
pasta.

oxygenases that catalyse the oxidation of poly-
unsaturated fatty acids containing a cis-cis-1,4-
pentadiene system, producing firstly free radicals
and subsequently, after oxygenation, conjugate
cis, trans- diene hydroperoxides65. Radical forms
produced during the intermediate steps of poly-
unsaturated fatty acid peroxidation by LOX are
responsible for the oxidative degradation of pig-
ments, such as -carotene, xanthophylls and
chlorophylls65.
A recent study of purified wheat LOX66 has
revealed a monomeric structure of Mr
95 0005000, with a high anity for linoleic
acid as substrate and with optimal pH values for
hydroperoxidation and bleaching activities close
to the pH of dough, giving good conditions for
pigment degradation. Bleaching of -carotene oc-
curred only in presence of linoleic acid, confirming
the co-oxidative nature of enzymatic pigment de-
gradation. -carotene also acts as an inhibitor of
LOX activity, preventing semolina bleaching and
improving pasta quality67,68. Furthermore, the
coupled oxidation mechanism promotes a loss of
semolina sulphydryl groups69, causing an increase
in the amount of free lipids in dough70 and an
increase in the mixing tolerance and relaxation
times of dough itself71. The hydroperoxides pro-
duced during dough mixing are then destroyed
with the formation of volatile compounds, such as
n-hexanal65, resulting in modification of the aroma
of the end-products.
In addition, peroxidase activities in wheat and
semolina have often been considered as among the
most important factors producing the undesirable
brown colour of the derived products57,58,72. Thus,
in durum wheat semolina the loss of yellow colour
during pasta processing is also aected by enzymes
other than LOX.
LOX levels in durum wheat are cultivar-related
and depend on the environment59. In fact, mo-
lecular analysis of LOX expression has dem-
onstrated that genotypic variation is due to
dierent transcriptional levels of the relative
gene(s)73. Consequently, the genotypic control of
this character should allow the selection of lines
with low LOX levels in semolina in breeding
programmes.
Another aspect of interest in pasta-making is
cooking quality. This character can be assessed by
the viscoelastic behaviour, particularly firmness
after cooking, and the surface condition of the
cooked pasta7477. Hence, good quality cooked
pasta maintains a good texture, is resistant to
surface disintegration and stickiness, and retains
a firm structure or al dente consistency78.
Other physical properties known to aect pasta
quality are compressibility, elasticity, water ab-
sorption, degree of swelling and solid loss to the
cooking water, and the amount of semolina pro-
teins and their intrinsic characteristics. The in-
volvement of protein content in determin-
ing pasta quality has been already widely dis-
cussed11,7981. However, it has been also observed
that the same protein content can be present in
pasta samples with contrasting rheological and
cooking properties, indicating that other gluten
characteristics are most important in trans-
formation processes8291.
106 A. Troccoli et al.
Gluten is a complex mixture of proteins clas-
sified in two groups, the gliadins and the glutenins,
on the basis of their solubility or insolubility in
aqueous alcohols, respectively92. They dier con-
siderably in their structures and properties since
the glutenins are largely responsible for gluten
viscoelasticity and the gliadins act to plasticise
the gluten mass93. The gliadins are heterogeneous
monomeric proteins which are separated into
groups on the basis of their mobility on electro-
phoresis at low pH93. These groups are, in order
of increasing mobility, the -gliadins, which are
S-poor and lack cysteine residues, and the -, -
and -gliadins, which are S-rich with intra-chain
disulphide bonds. The - and -gliadins are closely
related and are together called -type gliadins93.
Gliadins are encoded by six Gli loci mapped on
the short arms of the group 1 and 6 chromosomes
(Gli-1 and Gli-2, respectively)94,95. The - and -
gliadins are encoded by Gli-1 loci on the group 1
chromosomes whereas the /-gliadins are en-
coded by the Gli-2 loci on the group 6 chro-
mosomes96. Since each cultivar has a specific
gliadin composition, the electrophoretic patterns
can be used as a criterion for characterising the
genotype, particularly for cultivar identification
and for evaluation of sample purity83,84. The glu-
tenin fraction consists of high Mr polymers sta-
bilised by inter-chain disulphide bonds88. On the
basis of their mobility in SDS-PAGE the single
monomers are usually classified into two groups,
the high molecular weight subunits of glutenin
(HMW-GS) and the low molecular weight subunits
of glutenin (LMW-GS)97,98. All the glutenin sub-
units are bound together in glutenin polymers,
the size and composition of which are strongly
correlated with gluten quality99. The total amount
of glutenin subunits and the presence of certain
subunits have shown to be associated with superior
rheological characteristics of gluten, such as elast-
icity and dough strength8691. In these polymers,
proteins with sequences characteristic of gliadins
are also found95,100104. These gliadin-like protein
are the result of gene mutations that change the
number of cysteine residues relative to those of
the monomeric forms105. For elongation of glutenin
polymers the presence of at least two cysteine
residues available to form intermolecular di-
sulphide bonds is necessary. A growing glutenin
polymer chain is terminated when a glutenin sub-
unit with only one cysteine available is in-
corporated into the polymer105. Because gliadin-
type glutenin subunits generally have an odd num-
ber of cysteine residues102 and, furthermore, have
one cysteine residue that is likely to be involved
in intermolecular disulphide bonding, they may
act as chain terminators to prevent elongation of
developing glutenin polymers. This would result
in a decrease in the average molecular weight of
the glutenin fractions and negative eects on dough
strength and on viscoelastic properties105. Fur-
thermore, the number of cysteine residues and
their position in the glutenin subunits sequences
are considered to aect gluten strength in both
bread and durum wheats, by forming an elastic
network which interacts with the gliadins by non-
covalent forces, principally hydrogen bonds95,106.
HMW-GS are encoded by genes on the long arms
of the group 1 chromosomes (Glu-1 loci) and
are also called A subunits107. The LMW-GS are
subdivided into B, C, and D subunits based on
their SDS-PAGE mobility (C being faster, B inter-
mediate and D slower)88. The B and C subunits
are encoded mainly at the Glu-3 loci on the short
arms of the group 1 chromosomes107, but some
are encoded by the Gli-1 loci95, both loci being
located on the short arms of the group 1 chro-
mosomes100. The D subunits are encoded by genes
on the short arms of chromosomes 1B95 and 1D108.
The D subunits appear to be derived from -
gliadins since they have similar electrophoretic
properties and have -gliadin type N-terminal
amino acid sequences but with an additional cyst-
eine residue, acquired by mutation89,95,105, that is
thought to be involved in the intermolecular di-
sulphide bonds with other glutenin subunits, acting
as chain terminator105. Consequently, although
they may only be present in small amounts com-
pared with other glutenin subunits, they may con-
tribute negatively to gluten strength. Other types
of glutenin subunits, similar to D subunits, that
probably correspond to modified 1B-coded -
gliadins have also been found109. Similarly, some
C subunits show amino acid sequence homology
with -and -gliadins and could derive from spon-
taneous mutations which aect the numbers and
positions of cysteine residues90,95.
A strong correlation exists between the presence
of certain gliadin proteins and the viscoelastic
properties of gluten8385,87. These proteins include
-gliadin 4585 and several and -gliadins encoded
by the Gli-Blc locus on the short arm of chro-
mosome 1B110,111, which is closely linked genetically
to the allele coding for a group of B type LMW-
GS, namely LMW-2, which positively aect gluten
strength86,87,91. Wheats carrying -45 can exhibit
 Durum wheat quality
six dierent alleles at the Glu-B3 locus (a,c,d,e,f,
g)112, and this variability can explain why cultivars
with -45 have pasta quality ranging from medium
to high83,84,88 depending on the allele present at
the Glu-B3 locus. -gliadins encoded by two alleles
at Gli-A2 loci were also found to have dierent
eects on gluten firmness87. Thus, the use of gliadin
markers to select for durum cultivars with better
quality might be successful. Further studies86,87,113
showed that LMW-GS encoded at the Glu-3 loci
and tightly linked to the Gli-1 loci were more
responsible for dierences in quality than gliadins
subunits. In fact, pasta cooking quality and gluten
strength were initially related to the beneficial
eects of LMW-2 and LMW-2 patterns114,116. Re-
cently, the inadequacy of the association between
gluten quality and LMW-patterns has been shown,
because durum wheat quality seems to depend on
specific LMW glutenin subunits encoded at the
Glu-A3, Glu-B3, and Glu-B2 loci113115. In particular,
it has been demonstrated that the LMW-patterns
are a mixture of subunits controlled by dierent
alleles at Glu-3 and Glu-2 loci112 and that gluten
strength depended on allelic composition found
for Glu-B3 locus112. Analysis of the individual and
combined eects of LMW-GS, HMW-GS, and
intermediate molecular weight glutenin subunits
(IMW-GS), a fraction rich in albumins and glob-
ulins with some glutenins and -gliadins, has
shown that LMW-GS, encoded by the Glu-B3 loci,
and HMW subunits 1Bx7+1By8, encoded by the
Glu-B1 locus on chromosome 1B, associated with
high elastic recovery and gluten firmness87, have
a strong influence on gluten strength, with largely
additive eects111. The strong relationship between
gluten quality, as evaluated by panel test, and
the (HMW-GS+LMW-GS):IMW-GS ratio or the
LMW-GS : IMW-GS ratio confirms the positive
eect of LMW-GS and HMW-GS on pasta quality
and the negative eect of the IMW-GS, although
these have good nutritional value. Such ratios can
therefore represent new quality indices suitable
for use in breeding programs for the improvement
of gluten quality and in the grading of durum
products for food processing111,117.
Protein quality is the result of the combination of
genotype and environmental factors, with protein
content being essentially determined by the ad-
ditive eects of environment13,118,119 and gluten
quality, evaluated as alveograph parameter W13
or SDS sedimentation118,119, to be largely de-
termined by the additive eects of genotype13,118,119.
For both characters, the genotype x environment
107
interaction was highly significant, but its mag-
nitude was small in comparison to the additive
eects of environment and genotype13. A recent
study has shown this interaction to be most im-
portant in determining protein content and end-
product texture120, but less important for meas-
urements associated with gluten strength, such
as SDS sedimentation volume118,120, gluten index,
mixograph developing time120 and cooked gluten
viscoelasticity121, and for pasta viscoelasticity, a
good predictor of pasta cooking quality122.
Total protein content is most important when
high-temperature (HT) drying technology is used
to improve the cooking quality, colour and nu-
tritional quality of pasta12,123. The positive eect
of HT is probably due to modification of the
physicochemical characteristics of the gluten pro-
teins123. However, at low temperatures (LT), pro-
tein content and gluten quality have similar
importance in determining pasta cooking quality12,79.
The eect of HT on colour is not related to
increasing the carotenoid content, but to variation
in the yellow index, with more intensely yellow
pasta colour resulting from inhibition of enzymatic
activity involved in brownness as well as at-
tenuation of the negative eects of the increased
Maillard reaction123. Experimental studies on the
modification of extrusion technology have shown
also eects on colour and pasta cooking quality124.
QUALITY FOR THE CONSUMER
The consumer is concerned about pasta cooking
quality as well as the aroma, taste and colour.
Although cooking quality can be aected by the
taste and the individual habits of the consumer, it
is considered as the capacity of the product to
maintain good texture after cooking and not to
become a thick, sticky mass.
Cooking performance depends essentially on
the intrinsic characteristics of the durum wheat
semolina used, although it can also be aected by
certain manufacturing conditions as well as by the
extraction rate of semolina during milling31,125.
Assessment of pasta quality can be predicted by
rheological tests, such as the Farinograph or Alveo-
graph, but no standard laboratory method exists
for cooking quality. Experimental pasta-making
followed by a proper assessment of the finished
products, such as by a panel test, provide the most
reliable evaluation, but cooking quality can be
empirically predicted by objective experiments77,78.
108 A. Troccoli et al.
Sensory judgement is expressed by the com-
ponents: stickiness, firmness, and bulkiness31. How-
ever, some diculties occur in sensory evaluation
related to the dierent background and experience
of the tasters. To avoid the subjectivity of or-
ganoleptic judgement, it has been demonstrated
experimentally that the amount of total organic
matter (TOM) released by cooked pasta after im-
mersion in water for a fixed time, is highly correlated
with sensory estimation11,77,126. Furthermore, non-
polar lipids, as well as interactions between starch,
minor constituent and proteins, also appear to have
eects on the stickiness of cooked spaghetti127.
CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE FUTURE
The recent development of genetic transformation
systems provides new opportunities for quality
improvement. The structure, composition, and
functional properties of seed proteins can be ma-
nipulated in order to improve the quality for
traditional end-uses and for novel applications.
The nutritional quality is in theory more readily
modified since it depends on the proportion of
nutritionally essential amino acids in the seed
proteins. However, processing quality is more
problematical because it is based on the bio-
physical properties of protein and their interaction
with other seed components, such as starch, lipids
and non-starch polysaccharides128.
There is currently considerable interest in ma-
nipulating the technological properties of wheat
grain with benefits for farmers, the transformation
industry and consumers. Potential targets could
be surface texture on cooking, hardness, colour
and stability to high temperature drying, ma-
nipulated by the up- and down-regulation of spe-
cific proteins106.
The introduction of additional HMW-GS genes
under the control of their own strong endosperm-
specific promotors has given encouraging results129,
demonstrating a gene dosage eect. Future at-
tempts to introduce other genes for HMW, LMW
or gliadins may also have a significant impact on
the improvement of dough quality in wheat106,130137.
Recently, He et al.137 demonstrated that expression
of the additional genes encoding HMW subunits in
durum wheat resulted in increased dough strength
(high mixing time) and stability. Consequently, gen-
etic modification can be used to increase the visco-
elastic properties of durum wheat.
The expression levels of particular prolamin genes
can be altered by the modification of cis-acting
regulatory sequences, by the synthesis of antisense
mRNAs or by the introduction of additional gene
copies136.
Furthermore, the manipulation of gluten protein
assembly and deposition by modifying their
tracking may also aect the structure and func-
tional properties of the gluten in the mature grain106.
The availability of nitrogen and sulphur also have
eects on the prolamin synthesis, improving the
resistance and extensibility of the dough138.
Other ways to modify the gluten structure include
transformation with mutant genes139, the intro-
duction of chromosome 1D into durum wheat140,141,
and the translocation of chromosome segments
carrying quality-related genes by interspecific hy-
bridisation142.
The genes encoding many dierent storage pro-
teins have now been isolated, and preliminary stud-
ies are beginning to provide information on their
control of expression. The amounts and properties
of various types of gluten protein could, therefore,
be manipulated to produce a range of wheats in
which the structure and the properties of gluten are
fine-tuned for various end-uses.
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