Exploration guidelines for copper-rich iron oxidecoppergold deposits

in the Mantoverde area, northern Chile: the integration of host-rock

molar element ratios and oxygen isotope compositions
Jorge Benavides1,2, T. Kurt Kyser1, Alan H. Clark1, Cliord Stanley3 &
Christopher Oates4
1
Department of Geological Sciences and Geological Engineering, Queens University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada, K7L 3N6
2
Present address: Cambria Geosciences Inc., 3035455 West Boulevard, Vancouver, BC, Canada, V6M 3W5
(e-mail: jbenavides@cambriageosciences.com)
3
Department of Geology, Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Canada, B4P 3R6
4
Geochemistry Division, Anglo American plc, 20 Carlton House Terrace, London SW1Y 5AN, UK

ABSTRACT: The Mantoverde area of the III Regin of northern Chile hosts
numerous copper(gold) deposits and prospects assigned to the iron oxidecopper
gold (IOCG) clan. These range from sulphide-poor magnetiteapatiteactinolite
bodies (e.g. Carmen) to chalcopyrite-rich, hematite-cemented breccias and veins (e.g.
Mantoverde, Cerro Negro and Palmira). The most important Cu-rich deposits are
associated with the main or, more commonly, subsidiary structures of the plate-
boundary-parallel Atacama Fault System, and are hosted by Middle to Upper Jurassic
andesites and Lower Cretaceous dioritic to quartz dioritic plutons. The rocks in the
wider Mantoverde area exhibit a complex evolution involving early sub-seafloor
albitization (stage R1), subsequent, very low-grade diastathermal metamorphism
(R2), and more local stage I K and Fe metasomatism and stage II hydrolysis, all
preceding the emplacement of sulphide-bearing hematitic breccias and veins (i.e.
ore-stage III). We develop a lithogeochemical exploration protocol specifically for
Cu-rich IOCG-type deposits hosted by calc-alkaline volcano-plutonic terrains, based
on the integration of whole-rock molar element ratios and oxygen isotope chemistry.
Zirconium, the most conserved (least mobile) element in the volcanic and plutonic
rocks of the area, was used as a common denominator for molar element ratios. The
molar ratios Na/Zr, K/Zr and Al/Zr indicate that the host rocks proximal to
the major deposits were affected by sodium depletion and potassium enrichment.
The molar ratio (14Ca+19Na
14CO2)/(6Si+Al+2Fe+2Mg), recalculated to a
percentage scale, constitutes a modified alteration index which can be used to
quantify the degree of hydrothermal alteration in the host rocks. However, although
this index differentiates barren from potentially prospective sectors (i.e. strongly
altered host rocks), it does not identify the hydrolytically altered rocks that are closely
associated with economic copper mineralization.
The
18O values of igneous rocks in the Mantoverde area vary widely from +4.2
to +14.1. Integrating the modified lithogeochemical alteration index with whole-
rock
18O values differentiates the least altered volcanic and plutonic rocks (i.e.
alteration index <30%), with
18O values close to +7, from moderately altered
volcanic rocks (alteration index of 30 to 65%) having higher
18O values of +10 to
+13.2 due to enrichment in 18O during regional metasomatism hydrothermal
alteration sub-seafloor related to albitization and metamorphism. A third group
comprises strongly K-feldspathized, Fe-metasomatized and chloritized rocks local-
ized in Cu-mineralized centres which have alteration indexes exceeding 65% and

18O values of +4.2 to +14.1. The
18O values of paragenetically related minerals
indicate that barren, K- and Fe-metasomatized host rocks equilibrated with
magmatically derived fluids at temperatures exceeding 420C. Although no recog-
nizable alteration haloes are associated with the ensuing lower-temperature Cu-(Au)
ore stage (III), the genetically related hydrolytic alteration (II) which preceded it
generated distinctive alteration indices and Na/Al and K/Al ratios, as well as
18O
values averaging +10, with chlorite O and H isotope compositions indicating
Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis, Vol. 8 2008, pp. 125 1467-7873/08/$15.00  2008 AAG/ Geological Society of London
2 J. Benavides et al.
equilibration with non-magmatic fluids. We propose, in combination, that these
parameters can be used to vector onto Cu-rich IOCG-type mineralization in Andean,
calc-alkaline terrains.
KEYWORDS: Central Andes, III Regin northern Chile, Cu-rich IOCG deposits, regional alteration,
hydrothermal alteration, MER analysis, stable isotope geochemistry
INTRODUCTION
The Coastal Cordillera of northern Chile hosts numerous
Mesozoic Fe-Cu (-Au) ore deposits assignable to the volcanic-
hosted Cu and iron oxidecoppergold (IOCG) clans, consti-
tuting a clearly delimited metallogenetic sub-province in the
Central Andes (Ruiz et al. 1965; Boric et al. 1990; Sillitoe 2003,
and references therein; Fig. 1). The IOCG deposits (Hitzman
2000; Williams et al. 2005) are controlled by major fault systems
paralleling the plate boundary and are hosted by volcano-
plutonic complexes of Jurassic and Cretaceous ages. In the III
Regin of Atacama, the IOCG deposits include both the
magnetite-dominated, sulphide-poor deposits of the Chilean
Iron Belt (Espinoza 1990) and productive Cu(-Au) centres, such
as those of the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre and Mantoverde
districts (Ryan et al. 1995; Vila et al. 1996; Benavides et al. 2007;
Fig. 1).
Over the past decade, intensive exploration for copper and
gold-rich IOCG deposits in northern Chile using conventional
techniques such as regional geochemical and geophysical sur-
veys as well as mapping and drilling, has failed to identify either
major new IOCG centres or extensions to the Candelaria-Punta
del Cobre or Mantoverde districts. In this context, Hitzman
(2002) has suggested exploration criteria to both target and
differentiate Cu-Au rich deposits from barren, magnetite-
dominated systems in the Chilean coastal belt, relying mainly on
the alteration type, age of mineralization and specific 187Os/
188
Os ratios in hydrothermal magnetite and sulphides. Similarly,
Sillitoe (2003), on the basis of the age and petrochemistry of
areally associated magmatism, the type and distribution of hy-
drothermal alteration, and regional cross-cutting relationships,
proposed a series of exploration guidelines for IOCG centres
in the Central Andes of northern Chile and southern Per,
emphasizing the spatial and temporal relationships of mineraliz-
2650 35
S, longitude 7000 00
W; Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Major physiographic units of northern Chile, from west to
east: the Coastal Cordillera (Cordillera de la Costa), Central
Depression (Valle Central), Precordillera and Cordillera Occidental.
The Coastal Cordillera between 23 and 27S hosts numerous
volcanic-hosted Cu and Fe oxideCu(Au) deposits of Mesozoic age,
which are controlled by the Atacama Fault System (AFS). Modified
from Riquelme et al. (2003). Area of Figure 2 is shown.
ation with both subduction-related, calc-alkaline magmatism
and coeval extensional to transtensional tectonism. These
approaches, however, could equally target Cu-deficient magnet-
ite deposits of the Chilean Iron Belt or even other classes of
hydrothermal deposits. There is, therefore, a need for innovative
techniques to target Cu- and Au-rich IOCG deposits located in
Andean-type settings and to differentiate background alteration
(e.g. regional metamorphic assemblages) from IOCG-related
hydrothermal alteration (Benavides 2006; Benavides et al. 2007).
Various lithogeochemical approaches have been proposed to
characterize and quantify hydrothermal alteration associated
with hydrothermal ore deposits. The alteration index proposed
by Ishikawa et al. (1976) has been widely used to document the
alkali depletion resulting from the replacement of sodic plagio-
clase and volcanic glass by sericite and chlorite in the footwall
of Kuroko district deposits. With a similar goal and integrating
the alteration index of Ishikawa et al. (1976) and the chlorite
carbonatepyrite index (CCPI), Large et al. (2001) have pro-
posed the alteration box plot. Although the latter authors
acknowledge that some types of hydrothermal alteration cannot
thereby be reliably characterized, the plot has been used to
target volcanic-hosted massive sulphide deposits. In this con-
text, Pich & Jbrak (2004) have developed NORMAT, a
lithogeochemical technique structured as a series of alteration
indices based on the ratios of normative alteration and precur-
sor minerals using major oxide concentrations and values for
loss on ignition (LOI). Normative alteration minerals are based
on the chemical composition of an altered rock, and have been
designed to quantify the alkali depletion resulting from the
formation of different alteration minerals in greenschist facies
rocks. To the authors knowledge, alteration indices have not
been proposed to quantify and characterize alteration associated
with IOCG-type deposits. The present study integrates litho-
geochemical parameters (e.g. a newly defined alteration index)
and oxygen isotope compositions to characterize hydrothermal
alteration associated with IOCG deposits in weakly metamor-
phosed calc-alkaline volcano-plutonic terrains.
Descriptions of the mineral associations of hydrothermal
alteration zones associated with the main Cu-Au deposits and
prospects in the wider Mantoverde area have been provided
by Gelcich et al. (1998) and Espinoza et al. (1999). However,
the regional patterns of hydrothermal alteration related to
IOCG mineralization in the area have not been established
prior to the authors research, and their possible relationships
with regional alteration, the latter commonly ascribed to low-
grade metamorphism (Palacios 1977; Aguirre et al. 1989), remain
unclear. The focus of study is an area located in the Coastal
Cordillera (Cordillera de la Costa) and contiguous Central
Depression (Valle Central), III Regin of northern Chile
(latitude 2606 20
7025 00
GEOLOGY OF THE MANTOVERDE AREA
Lithological units
Table 1 summarizes the main lithological units in the
Mantoverde area. Isolated exposures of the pre-Andean
 Exploration guidelines for copper-rich IOCG deposits 3

Table 1. Geological units in the Mantoverde area.

Stage Geological unit Lithology Reference

Plutonic complexes (age, Ma)
Cretaceous Remolino (90110)
Sierra Merceditas (90110)
La Borracha (105110)
Chivato (111114)
Sierra Dieciocho (120126)
Sierra Aspera (125130)
Las Tazas (125130)
Cerro Morado (130135)
Jura-Cretaceous Cerro Moradito (140145)
Jurassic Las Animas (150160)
Triassic La Capitana (215)
Tonalites, hornblendebiotite granodiorites and quartz diorites Lara & Godoy (1998)
Hornblende tonalites Godoy & Lara (1998)
Biotitehornblende granodiorites Dallmeyer et al. (1996)
Pyroxene quartz monzodiorites Grocott & Taylor (2002)
Hornblendebiotite quartz diorites and granodiorites
Diorites (widely altered)
Biotitehornblende granodiorites
Quartz monzodiorites and granodiorites with hornblende and
pyroxene
Hornblende quartz diorites
Pyroxene quartz diorites
Peraluminous granites

Volcano-sedimentary units
Lower Cretaceous
Chaarcillo Group
Punta del Cobre Formation
MiddleUpper Jurassic La Negra Formation
Sequence of mudstones, calcareous sandstones and siltstones, Segerstrom & Parker (1959)
chert and marine fossiliferous limestones with intercalations of
tuffs and conglomerates. Backarc setting.
Thick succession of plagioclase and pyroxene-phyric andesitic Segerstrom & Ruiz (1962),
lava flows with important volcano-sedimentary intercalations of Lara & Godoy (1998),
tuffs and tuffaceous sandstones, welded tuffs and thin beds of Marschik & Fontbot (2001)
lithic arenites and limestones Variable sub-seafloor alteration
and subsequent low-grade metamorphism.
Thick succession of massive beds of plagioclase, pyoxene and Garca (1967), Lara & Godoy (1998)
hornblende-phyric, calk-alkaline andesites and basaltic andesites
with minor intercalations of volcaniclastic and sedimentary
rocks exhibiting variable sub-seafloor hydrothermal alteration
and subsequent low-grade metamorphism.

basement, i.e. Palaeozoic metasedimentary rocks and Triassic
plutons, occur in the western and northern parts of the area,
respectively (Fig. 2; Brown 1991). The arc-related calc-alkaline
plutonic complexes have ages ranging from c. 90 to 160 Ma and,
on the basis of published geochronological data and dominant
lithological type, are assigned by Lara & Godoy (1998) and
Godoy & Lara (1998) to several intrusive complexes (Table 1).
Volcanic rocks are represented by the Middle to Upper Jurassic
La Negra and the Lower Cretaceous Punta del Cobre Forma-
tions. These are dominated by thick andesitic lava flows, but
intercalations of volcaniclastic rocks become more significant in
the Punta del Cobre Formation. The marine sedimentary rocks
assigned to the succeeding Lower Cretaceous Chaarcillo
Group (Segerstrom & Parker 1959) are exposed mainly in the
eastern parts of the area, the locus of a Neocomian backarc
basin which was inverted through tectonic contraction in the
Late Cretaceous (Fig. 2).
Structure
The Atacama and Chivato fault systems (AFS and ChFS,
respectively; Fig. 2), are the main structural features in the
Mantoverde area. The AFS is exposed in the western part of the
area as three sub-parallel, northsouth striking, sub-vertical
faults, known as the western, central and eastern branches
(Figs. 2 & 3; Brown et al. 1993). The dominant sinistral
transtensional kinematics of the AFS during the Early Creta-
ceous (Fig. 4) led to the formation of oblique faults connecting
the branches of the AFS, which favoured the development of
extensional structures that served as sites of mineralization,
such as that in the main Mantoverde district. Here, the
Mantoverde Fault that connects the central and eastern
branches of the AFS strikes NNESSW and has been inter-
preted as an east-side-down, normal fault with an important
left-lateral component (Sanhueza & Robles 1999; Fig. 3). The
ChFS (Grocott & Taylor 2002) in the SE part of the area
(Fig. 2) comprises a series of reverse faults, with dominant NE
to NNE strikes and NW-directed tectonic transport. North-
ward, the ChFS separates volcanic rocks of the La Negra
Formation from units of the Punta del Cobre Formation in the
footwall, but further south it cuts the Remolino pluton (Fig. 2).
According to Grocott & Taylor (2002), the ChFS behaved as a
ductile, sinistral, transtensional structure during the emplace-
ment of the Remolino Pluton (Fig. 2), but was inverted during
left-oblique contraction in the Late Cretaceous. This structure
controlled the location of small Cu-Au deposits, such as Berta
and Chivato (Fig. 2). At the latitude of Palmira, a reverse fault
with a northsouth strike and tectonic transport to the east
separates volcanic rocks of the La Negra Formation from
volcaniclastic rocks of the Punta del Cobre formation and the
Sierra Merceditas pluton in the footwall, and controlled the
emplacement of small IOCG deposits east of the Mantoverde
district (e.g. Palmira; Fig. 2). It is here proposed that northerly
extensions of this system controlled the location of other IOCG
centres such as Carmen and several prospects in the Sierra
Aspera district (Fig. 2; Grocott & Taylor 2002). Additionally,
the structural pattern in the Mantoverde area is complemented
by NWSE orientated lineaments which, according to Bonson
(1998), correspond to deep and old structures which were
episodically reactivated (Fig. 2).
ALTERATION AND MINERALIZATION
Volcanic and plutonic rocks in the Mantoverde area record a
complex sequence of alteration and mineralization events. A
generalized paragenetic sequence of alteration and mineraliza-
tion in the area is presented in Figure 5. As described by
Benavides et al. (2007), early moderate albitization and hydroly-
sis, i.e. claysillitechloritemuscovite development, were fol-
lowed by non-deformational metamorphism locally attaining
4 J. Benavides et al.

Fig. 2. Geological map of the wider Mantoverde area (2606 20

S2650 35
S and 7000 7025 W), showing the locations of IOCG deposits
and prospects. Modified from Godoy & Lara (1998) and Lara & Godoy (1998). Regional lithogeochemical sampling lines: 1, Cerro Negro;
2, Sierra Aspera; 3, Carmen; 4, Salado-Ester-Diego de Almagro; 5, Paloma-Santo Domingo; 6, Chaarcito; 7, NE Mantoverde;
8, Mantoverde-Palmira; 9, Portezuelo-Porvenir; 10, Rodados Negros; 11, Salitrosa North; 12, Salitrosa-Chivato; 13, Salitrosa South; 14, Sierra
Desiertito. AFS, Atacama Fault System; ChFS, Chivato Fault System. The area of Figure 3 is shown.
 Exploration guidelines for copper-rich IOCG deposits 5

Fig. 3. Geological map of the Mantoverde mining district, showing the locations of district-scale sampling lines and the collars of reverse
circulation and diamond drill-holes selected for whole-rock geochemical and isotopic analyses. Reverse circulation drill-holes 04DT01, 04DT04,
and 01DS08 (not shown) are located, respectively, 1.5, 2.2 and 2.3 km south of Trillizos and 3.5 km NNW of Manto Ruso. Modified from
Benavides et al. (2007).
6 J. Benavides et al.

Fig. 4. Temporal relationships of Mesozoic tectonism, arc-related activity (i.e. plutonism and volcanism), sedimentation and mineralization in
the Mantoverde area. Modified from Grocott & Taylor (2002). AFS, Atacama Fault System.

the lower greenchist facies (see Fig. 5). Whereas the albitization,
assigned herein to stage R1, probably occurred as a result of
seawater penetration, the subsequent stage R2 low-grade meta-
morphism, probably diastathermal in the sense of Robinson
(1987), was rapidly generated prior to the inversion of the
Neocomian backarc basin (Benavides et al. 2007). Microscopic
and megascopic textural relationships in numerous areas
along the western margin of the basin indicate that these
regional processes pre-dated the initial, more areally restricted,
hydrothermal activity in the IOCG centres.
Hydrothermal alteration
In both large and small IOCG centres, regional assemblages
assigned to stages R1 and R2 are overprinted by coeval
magnetite, biotite and K-feldspar, constituting stage I (Fig. 5).
With an increase in the degree of Fe metasomatism, the
matrices of andesites and tuffs were progressively replaced by
magnetite, whereas plagioclase phenocrysts, quartz and lithic
fragments were generally less altered. Massive bodies of mag-
netite are associated with minor amounts of apatite, quartz and
pyrite and surrounded by actinolite alteration haloes (Fig. 5; see
Espinoza et al. 1999). Stage I biotite replaces volcanic rocks as
thin and discontinuous veinlets or irregular patches in either the
matrix or altered plagioclase phenocrysts, but locally rocks are
almost completely biotitized, as in the vicinity of the Berta mine,
in the Rodados Negros district, to the NE of Diego de Almagro
and to the east of Cerro Negro (Fig. 2). In these areas,
moderately albitized and metamorphosed rocks (i.e. stages R1
 Exploration guidelines for copper-rich IOCG deposits 7

Fig. 5. Generalized paragenetic model for alteration and mineralization in the wider Mantoverde area. For details see text. Symbols: thick line,
major mineral; thin line, minor phase; dotted line, disseminated; (v), veins. M, minerals associated with regional metamorphism; H, minerals
associated with local hydrothermal alteration. Paragenetic stages I to IV are as defined in the paragenetic model for the Mantoverde district
proposed by Benavides et al. (2007).

and R2) are overprinted by biotite-dominated assemblages.
Volcanic rocks moderately altered to biotite are discontinuously
exposed along and close to the AFS, particularly in the
Mantoverde district and in the vicinity of the Cerro Negro
deposit (Fig. 2). Stage I K-feldspar is associated with variable
quartz, titanite, biotite, tourmaline and magnetite (Fig. 5).
Fine-grained, pink, granular aggregates, the felsic bodies of the
Mantoverde deposit (Vila et al. 1996; Zamora & Castillo 2001),
are the product of intense K metasomatism. Regional systems
of tourmaline veins are interpreted herein as contemporaneous
with stage I (Fig. 5). The areal extent of K-feldspathized rocks
exceeds those of either magnetite- or biotite-dominated assem-
blages and this alteration is more intense in areas surrounding
and within the main mineralized centres (e.g. Mantoverde,
Cerro Negro, Carmen; Fig. 2).
Stage II assemblages comprise Na-rich scapolite (marialite),
muscovite and chlorite (Fig. 5). Cross-cutting relationships in
numerous locations indicate that scapolite overprinted magnet-
ite and actinolite of stage I (Fig. 5; Benavides et al. 2007). Tracts
of strongly scapolitized volcanic rocks of the La Negra
Formation are exposed immediately west of Palmira and 15 km
south of Mantoverde (Fig. 2), where this mineral is associated
with quartz and minor titanite. Barren, andesite-dominated
areas between the northern parts of the Mantoverde district and
the Ester mine exhibit low to moderate development of
scapolite (Fig. 2), and Espinoza (1990) reports its occurrence in
magnetite-dominated assemblages of the Carmen deposit
(Fig. 2). Textural relationships at Mantoverde and in other
IOCG centres indicate that stage II scapolite was extensively
replaced by chlorite and fine-grained muscovite (sericite),
accompanied by calcite, quartz and minor pyrite, calcite, epi-
dote, rutile and hematite (Fig. 5). Muscovite and chlorite initially
developed as patches and veins in altered rocks, and are locally
intergrown. Intense hydrolysis led to either the pervasive
sericitization of host rocks or the formation of chlorite-
cemented hydrothermal breccias containing sub-angular to
sub-rounded fragments of altered rocks, the latter termed
Brecha Verde by Vila et al. (1996). Thin, planar orthoclase
veins cutting chloritized host rocks are also assigned to stage II
(Fig. 5).
Mineralization
The wider Mantoverde area incorporates numerous IOCG
deposits and prospects (Bonson 1998; Gelcich et al. 1998;
Espinoza et al. 1999), ranging from sub-economic, magnetite-
dominated systems (e.g. Carmen) to sulphide-rich hematite
breccias and vein systems such as Cerro Negro, Palmira,
Mantoverde and Manto Ruso (Figs. 1 & 2). The Mantoverde
deposit is the most important IOCG deposit in the area and
consists of mineralized tectonic breccias, massive bodies of
magnetite, and sulphide-bearing hematite-cemented hydrother-
mal breccias and hematite veins (Vila et al. 1996; Zamora &
Castillo 2001; Fig. 3). The emplacement of the hematitic
 8

Table 2. Major and trace element compositions of selected samples in the Mantoverde mining district and along regional sampling lines.

Sample 2395 2397 2445 2464 2480 2484 1408 1422 5770 5802 5807 5830 9795 9812 9829 124541 124567 124579 124633 124648 124666 124681 124700
Locus (l.d.l.) MVD MVD MVD MVD MVD MVD REG REG REG REG REG REG REG REG REG REG REG REG REG REG REG REG REG
SiO2 0.02 44.1 54.4 52.0 60.3 50.3 50.3 60.1 57.7 65.6 52.3 56.3 52.5 58.2 58.6 14.1 50.9 54.6 50.3 62.5 66.5 53.2 61.9 50.1
Al2O3 0.03 14.9 16.8 16.3 16.7 15.4 14.7 16.5 18.4 16.9 18.2 17.4 17.7 17.2 17.1 1.5 18.4 17.6 19.6 15.9 16.2 17.0 15.6 16.4
Fe2O3tot 0.04 21.0 11.0 9.7 4.1 15.2 15.8 7.3 7.0 1.3 9.2 6.7 9.6 8.3 8.6 75.7 11.3 10.5 9.1 5.8 3.7 9.9 7.2 12.5
MgO 0.01 6.0 3.6 5.3 1.2 4.8 5.5 3.0 2.2 0.4 5.4 3.9 4.8 1.4 2.2 1.1 6.2 4.4 3.6 1.5 1.6 4.8 2.5 4.2
CaO 0.01 2.5 0.7 2.4 1.3 0.5 1.6 6.0 5.6 5.3 7.8 7.3 9.2 1.8 2.1 4.0 3.5 3.5 4.9 2.8 4.0 7.3 2.2 4.9
Na2O 0.01 0.5 0.4 1.2 0.3 0.2 1.2 3.5 4.1 4.6 4.1 5.5 3.4 8.9 3.2 0.0 3.1 3.4 5.7 3.9 4.0 3.9 5.7 0.1
K2O 0.04 4.5 8.9 6.9 11.6 7.6 5.0 1.7 3.0 2.5 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.1 4.0 0.0 3.4 2.6 0.9 3.3 2.6 1.6 2.9 6.2
TiO2 0.01 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.1 0.8 0.6 1.9 0.8 1.0 1.1 0.6 0.4 0.7 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.5 0.4 1.1 0.7 1.5
P2O5 0.01 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.1 2.9 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.3
MnO 0.01 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2
Cr2O3 0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
LOI 0.10 5.9 3.0 4.5 3.1 3.7 3.3 0.9 1.3 1.4 1.0 0.9 0.6 3.1 3.3 0.1 1.9 2.4 4.3 3.7 0.9 1.2 1.3 3.6
Total 100.4 99.9 99.3 99.5 99.0 98.7 100.0 100.2 99.8 99.9 99.9 99.9 99.9 99.7 100.2 99.9 100.0 99.8 100.0 100.1 100.2 100.3 99.9
Ba 5.0 659.0 1370.0 915.0 2135.0 1826.0 852.0 333.0 1096.0 831.0 177.0 167.0 330.0 10.0 712.0 29.0 346.0 325.0 273.0 648.0 447.0 133.0 633.0 1337.0
Sc 1.0 23.0 20.0 21.0 11.0 27.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 4.0 33.0 24.0 30.0 11.0 9.0 8.0 24.0 23.0 33.0 9.0 7.0 34.0 17.0 31.0
Co 0.5 61.2 217.2 23.3 36.9 33.4 68.2 19.6 21.3 1.8 11.1 18.4 29.0 2.6 11.9 89.2 17.9 21.2 20.4 24.4 8.6 23.7 8.2 18.7
J. Benavides et al.

Cs 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.6 1.1 1.0 1.2 2.5 0.6 1.0 0.9 0.2 0.7 0.2 0.5 0.1 1.7 5.5 9.2 2.4 3.3 0.9 0.3 0.2
Ga 0.5 21.3 18.2 19.5 13.9 21.9 19.6 18.7 18.3 15.5 21.5 22.5 19.8 18.2 17.6 20.7 20.6 21.7 17.9 18.0 18.2 20.4 17.8 24.3
Hf 0.5 1.5 3.1 2.2 5.1 2.9 4.4 3.5 2.8 8.7 1.4 4.4 3.0 3.2 2.2 0.3 2.7 3.7 1.8 4.0 4.9 2.7 4.5 4.8
Nb 0.5 1.8 6.4 3.3 15.8 3.5 6.3 2.9 2.5 12.6 2.4 5.3 4.5 4.0 3.6 0.8 3.2 4.1 2.2 4.0 4.3 3.7 5.6 7.2
Rb 0.5 118.4 184.1 125.2 167.0 165.0 138.8 57.0 48.7 51.6 37.1 16.8 15.2 3.6 75.0 0.6 73.7 121.8 27.5 68.7 102.2 35.9 36.0 95.5
Sn 1.0 0.5 2.0 4.0 2.0 4.0 0.5 1.0 0.5 2.0 3.0 3.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 2.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 0.5 2.0
Sr 0.5 59.2 64.6 61.4 106.3 141.8 121.7 334.0 488.0 444.4 405.8 406.8 470.6 50.9 143.9 20.3 409.3 384.6 509.6 189.8 457.8 280.8 219.6 214.5
Ta 0.1 0.1 0.6 0.4 1.2 0.3 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.6 0.2 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.5
Th 0.1 0.4 2.7 4.3 20.1 3.2 10.5 3.1 2.0 8.6 0.8 2.2 3.1 1.6 0.4 11.2 0.8 4.0 0.5 2.7 13.8 1.3 5.2 3.1
U 0.1 1.8 3.1 0.7 14.4 1.6 2.8 0.9 1.2 2.3 0.4 1.3 0.8 0.9 0.2 1.3 0.4 1.1 0.2 0.6 1.6 0.3 1.3 1.1
V 5.0 214.0 111.0 139.0 68.0 240.0 299.0 151.0 125.0 120.0 287.0 108.0 255.0 128.0 85.0 2753.0 231.0 205.0 263.0 79.0 63.0 267.0 129.0 319.0
W 1.0 0.8 0.6 3.7 5.3 12.3 5.7 0.5 0.2 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.4 2.4 1.7 2.2 0.1 0.1 0.6 0.1 0.2 0.4
Zr 0.5 41.7 107.1 85.4 172.8 93.1 158.1 121.1 98.1 281.4 52.0 156.4 102.2 110.9 74.6 7.0 91.9 124.4 64.2 133.6 156.6 87.3 151.6 174.1
Table 2. continued.

Sample 2395 2397 2445 2464 2480 2484 1408 1422 5770 5802 5807 5830 9795 9812 9829 124541 124567 124579 124633 124648 124666 124681 124700
Locus (l.d.l.) MVD MVD MVD MVD MVD MVD REG REG REG REG REG REG REG REG REG REG REG REG REG REG REG REG REG
Y 0.1 7.8 27.4 14.7 14.5 18.1 34.7 23.1 17.8 41.7 27.9 38.4 22.5 27.3 14.5 40.2 21.8 16.1 20.0 17.4 18.3 23.5 23.5 35.1
La 0.5 6.7 30.4 4.3 5.0 36.1 26.3 11.5 4.8 13.9 1.4 8.3 12.5 4.7 7.9 10.5 12.3 11.3 3.4 11.5 16.5 6.8 11.7 16.3
Ce 0.5 6.4 55.3 9.8 9.3 67.0 55.8 23.3 11.0 63.2 4.9 38.6 28.1 11.2 18.9 29.7 28.4 24.7 9.0 25.6 37.0 16.2 24.7 36.9
Pr 0.02 0.9 5.8 1.2 1.1 7.4 6.9 3.5 1.8 10.2 0.9 6.2 3.8 1.6 2.3 4.1 4.1 3.4 1.6 3.4 4.3 2.4 3.3 5.0
Nd 0.4 3.6 21.9 5.3 4.3 30.9 29.8 16.1 9.2 47.4 4.8 29.2 18.3 7.7 10.7 20.9 20.6 13.4 7.9 13.8 18.1 11.6 13.7 22.7
Sm 0.1 0.8 4.2 1.7 1.1 6.2 6.2 3.5 2.9 10.2 2.5 7.0 4.0 3.1 2.5 4.9 5.1 3.3 2.7 3.2 3.9 3.0 3.3 6.0
Eu 0.05 0.3 1.0 0.5 0.3 1.7 1.5 1.0 0.8 2.7 0.8 2.0 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.8 1.1 1.0 2.2
Gd 0.05 1.2 4.1 2.0 1.5 5.7 5.8 3.7 2.7 10.2 3.0 6.9 3.9 4.1 2.5 6.0 4.3 3.3 3.3 2.8 3.3 4.4 3.4 6.8
Tb 0.01 0.2 0.7 0.3 0.3 0.7 1.0 0.6 0.5 1.5 0.7 1.2 0.7 0.8 0.5 1.1 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7 1.1
Dy 0.05 0.9 4.3 2.2 1.9 3.2 6.1 3.6 3.3 7.4 4.0 6.1 4.2 4.6 2.4 6.3 3.6 2.8 3.4 2.7 3.1 4.2 3.9 6.4
Ho 0.05 0.2 0.9 0.5 0.5 0.6 1.2 0.9 0.7 1.5 0.9 1.4 0.8 1.0 0.5 1.3 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.3
Er 0.05 0.6 2.8 1.5 1.7 1.7 3.4 2.2 2.0 4.2 2.5 3.8 2.3 2.8 1.4 3.8 2.1 1.7 2.1 1.7 1.9 2.4 2.4 3.5
Tm 0.05 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5
Yb 0.05 0.7 2.6 1.5 1.7 1.9 3.6 2.5 2.1 4.1 2.3 3.6 2.5 2.7 1.5 2.7 2.1 1.8 2.1 2.1 2.0 2.4 2.7 3.6
Lu 0.01 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5
Mo 0.50 9.0 44.7 0.9 3.2 2.5 1.0 1.8 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.5 1.0 2.1 2.4 11.5 0.1 0.3 0.6 1.2 1.0 0.6 0.3 1.6
Cu 1.0 15.3 107.1 6.0 7.4 1072.0 1025.8 115.6 72.4 8.0 3.6 42.1 67.5 5.4 107.2 1305.8 6.3 81.3 20.7 788.8 22.4 215.4 21.2 518.9
Pb 1.0 0.4 1.1 0.9 1.3 1.1 1.0 4.7 4.3 3.5 3.3 1.7 3.7 1.5 2.7 1.0 0.7 2.6 4.4 1.3 6.1 2.1 0.7 0.7
Zn 1.0 63.0 33.0 32.0 11.0 67.0 31.0 58.0 48.0 34.0 59.0 31.0 84.0 13.0 30.0 6.0 27.0 91.0 258.0 37.0 42.0 50.0 60.0 52.0
Ni 1.0 70.0 36.5 41.6 18.5 45.3 150.3 10.7 2.5 4.0 35.6 14.8 20.3 12.1 3.0 90.4 27.4 23.3 19.1 4.2 8.4 26.7 14.5 25.2
As 1.0 6.0 15.0 3.0 10.0 10.0 6.0 4.0 3.0 3.0 7.0 4.0 2.0 5.0 3.0 32.0 2.0 9.0 5.0 14.0 2.0 8.0 9.0 6.0
Cd 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Sb 0.1 0.8 0.6 1.2 1.1 0.8 1.1 0.6 0.2 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 1.8 0.7 1.2 0.2 0.3 0.1 1.1 0.4 1.1 0.7 1.0
Exploration guidelines for copper-rich IOCG deposits

Bi 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Ag 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.7 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Tl 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1

Analyses performed by ACME laboratories, Vancouver. Major elements as oxides in wt%, trace elements in ppm. LOI, Loss on ignition. l.d.l., Lower detection limit. MVD and REG refer to samples collected in the
Mantoverde district and regional sampling lines, respectively. For sample location and description, see Tables 3 and 4.
9
10 J. Benavides et al.
breccias was controlled by the Mantoverde Fault (Sanhueza &
Robles 1999; see Figs. 2 & 3).
Magnetite, specular hematite, chalcopyrite, pyrite and sub-
ordinate bornite and pyrrhotite constitute the dominant phases
of hypogene mineralization in the IOCG centres in the area
(Gelcich et al. 1998; Espinoza et al. 1999). As described above,
hydrothermal alteration zones are generally dominated by
K-feldspar, biotite, actinolite, scapolite, muscovite, chlorite,
calcite and tourmaline, whereas siderite and quartz are common
open space-filling minerals. Supergene processes led to the
formation of chrysocolla, malachite, atacamite and secondary
iron oxides which constitute the bulk of the economic reserves
(Vila et al. 1996; Zamora & Castillo 2001). The Mantoverde
district itself has a measured reserve of 140 Mt at 0.63% of
Cu at a cut-off grade of 0.38% and an annual production of
c. 60 000 tons of Cu, entirely from supergene assemblages.
Gold, with an average grade of 0.4 ppm, is not recovered from
the oxidic Cu ore (C. Astudillo, pers. comm., 2005). The
geological resource of hypogene protore in sulphide-bearing
iron oxide bodies is 400 Mt at 0.52% of Cu, at a cut-off grade of
0.2%, and 0.1 ppm Au (B. Castillo, pers. comm., 2004). No
reserve data are available for other IOCG deposits in the area.
The location and morphology of the shallower, specular
hematite-dominated protore was strongly controlled by frac-
tures, faults and structural lineaments. Many orebodies occur as
crudely tabular hydrothermal breccias adjacent and parallel to
the main faults (e.g. Mantoverde, Figs. 1 & 2), as well as
sub-vertical breccia pipes and vein systems (e.g. Manto Ruso,
Cerro Negro, Palmira and several prospects in the El Salado
district; Gelcich et al. 1998; Espinoza et al. 1999; Fig. 2). With
increasing depths, hematite gives way to magnetite, and both
barren and Cu-Au mineralized magnetite/hematite veins in the
Sierra Aspera district, and at Pirula, Berta and Chivato (Fig. 2)
probably represent deeper levels than those exposed in the
Mantoverde mine. A lithological control of mineralization,
particularly the Fe metasomatism of specific lava flows, is more
evident in the massive, irregular to tabular bodies of
magnetiteapatiteactinolitequartz in the Carmen mine,
in the southern orebodies of the Mantoverde district (e.g.
Montecristo, Trillizos and Franco sectors, Fig. 3), and in the
prospects of the Sierra Aspera district and south of the Pirula
mine (Fig. 2). Carmen, the most important sulphide-poor
magnetite body in the area, is recognized by Espinoza (1990) as
a deposit sub-type of the Chilean Iron Belt.
In the Cu-mineralized centres, such as Mantoverde, Cerro
Negro and Palmira (Fig. 2), pyrite and chalcopyrite occur mainly
as fine disseminations, massive and irregular aggregates, and
thin veinlets. Pyrite is the main hypogene sulphide, associated
with both bodies of metasomatic magnetite and hydrolytic
assemblages dominated by muscovite and chlorite. The
chalcopyrite-to-pyrite ratio increases markedly in the shallow,
late-stage specular hematite-cemented hydrothermal breccias.
Textural evidence indicates that much, or all, of the chalcopyrite
was deposited during late stage III, either cutting or replacing
pyrite (Benavides et al. 2007; Fig. 5).
Massive bodies of magnetiteapatitepyrite (e.g. Ferrfera)
occur along the eastern branch of the AFS (Fig. 3) and have
compositions and textures that distinguish them from the
massive bodies of hydrothermal magnetite at Carmen and in the
Mantoverde district (Fig. 2). Oxygen isotope compositions
indicate that magnetite and apatite at Ferrfera equilibrated with
fluids having a magmatic chemistry and at temperatures of 600
to 700C, and pyrite coexisting with magnetite and apatite has

34S values close to 0, consistent with a magmatic derivation
(Benavides et al. 2007). Chalcopyrite occurs only in trace
amounts, mainly replacing pyrite.
ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
Whole-rock analyses
The present lithogeochemical study is based in part on 390, 2-m
composite samples collected at regular intervals from 44
drill-holes (diamond and reverse circulation), 42 samples from
well documented outcrops in the Mantoverde district, and
seven samples from the southern part of the main open pit.
These are complemented by 450 surface samples from 14
eastwest regional and 13 district-scale traverses, the latter
comprising nine eastwest lines in the Mantoverde district and
four eastwest lines in the Palmira area (Figs. 1 & 2). Ten- to
15-kg samples of unweathered rock chips were crushed and
pulverized at ACME laboratories, Santiago, Chile, and 500-g
pulps were submitted for geochemical analysis. The concen-
trations of most major and minor elements are reported for a
0.2 g sample analysed by ICP-ES following a LiBO2 fusion and
dilute nitric acid digestion, whereas REE and refractory trace
elements were determined by ICP-MS following fusion with
LiBO2 and nitric acid digestion of a 0.2 g sample. In addition,
precious and base metals were analysed by ICP-MS following a
four-acid digestion (fuming with HNO3HClO4HF and resi-
due dissolved with HCl) of a separate 0.25 g split. The chemical
analyses were carried out in ACME laboratories, Canada. The
major and trace element concentrations for representative
samples from the Mantoverde mining district and from the
regional traverses are presented in Table 2.
Oxygen isotope analysis
Oxygen isotope compositions were measured in 134 whole-
rock samples representative of the spectrum of volcanic and
plutonic rocks in the wider Mantoverde district. The samples
exhibit a wide variation in the intensity and type of alteration
and were collected from both barren areas and known miner-
alized sectors. Oxygen was extracted at 600C using the BrF5
technique of Clayton & Mayeda (1963). Oxygen isotope com-
positions, measured with a Finnigan MAT 252 mass spec-
trometer at the Queens Facility for Isotope Research (QFIR),
are reported using the
notation in units of (per mil) relative
to a VSMOW standard with a precision of 0.3 (2). Using
these techniques, analyses of NIST-28 quartz gave a value of
9.6. The
18O values, including location, geological unit,
lithology and description of the alteration assemblage of
samples collected in the Mantoverde district and from regional
sampling lines, are presented in Tables 3 and 4.
LITHOGEOCHEMISTRY
The nature and extent of mass transfer processes associated
with metasomatism and alteration in hydrothermal systems can
be modelled using molar element ratios, as described by Stanley
& Madeisky (1994). This lithogeochemical approach is based on
molar ratios having a common denominator that corresponds
to an element that does not participate in the mass transfer
processes, being immobile and therefore behaving conserva-
tively during hydrothermal alteration and magmatic differentia-
tion (MacLean & Barrett 1993; Stanley & Madeisky 1994).
Elements such as Al, Ti and the high field strength elements are
commonly immobile during hydrothermal alteration processes
(Rollinson 1993; Pearce 1996; MacLean & Kranidiotis 1987).
Appropriate binary plots of compatible and incompatible
elements are used to establish the magmatic affinity of host
rocks and their magmatic differentiation trends (MacLean &
Barrett 1993) and to identify units derived from a common
magmatic source (i.e. cogenetic units; Stanley & Madeisky
1994). The most conserved element is used as a common
 Exploration guidelines for copper-rich IOCG deposits 11

Table 3. Whole-rock
18O values and modified lithogeochemical alteration index for drill-core samples in the Mantoverde district.

Sample Drill-hole Depth Location* Rock unit Lithology Alteration assemblage
18O Modified
(m) () alteration index (%)
UTM E UTM N
1351 01CN03 47.5 369,300 7,064,660 Kp(mv) Chloritized diorite Chl-Mag-Kfs-Qtz-(Hem) 10.2 97
1358 01CN03 591.7 369,300 7,064,660 Jln(mv) Fine-grained volcanic rock (tuff) Kfs-Chl-Qtz-Cal-Hem-(Ms) 12.2 89
1364 01CN03 818.1 369,300 7,064,660 Kp(mv) Chloritized diorite Chl-(Kfs)-Cal/Hem(v) 9.8 69
1383 97LA02 80.2 368,857 7,063,653 Jln(mv) Volcanic rock Chl-Ms-(Hem) 11.4 95
1384 97LA02 98.0 368,857 7,063,653 Jln(mv) Volcanic rock Kfs- (Ms)-Chl/Hem-Kfs/Chl(v) 10.2 97
1400-A 99CN12 483.9 370,065 7,065,490 Kp(mv) Volcanic rock Ms-Chl/FeOx-(Ep)-Chl/Qtz(v)-Cal(v) 9.8 93
2361 01DS13 1001.7 369,930 7,062,510 Jln(mv) Chlorite-bearing breccia Kfs/Qtz-(Chl-Cal-Ms) 8.7 62
2364 02FR01 53.2 370,347 7,058,632 Jln(mv) Volcanic rock Kfs/Qtz-Chl-Cal-(Mag-Ttn) 9.6 93
2367 02FR01 123.9 370,347 7,058,632 Jln(mv) Altered volcanic rock Ms/Qtz-Chl-Cal-(Tur) 10.5 na
2369 02FR03 53.4 370,142 7,059,306 Jln(mv) Altered volcanic rock Chl-Ms-Mag 8.6 97
2370 02FR03 81.4 370,142 7,059,306 Jln(mv) Altered volcanic rock Kfs(Mag-Tur)-Ms-Chl-Act(v) 8.3 96
2374 02FR03 211.1 370,142 7,059,306 Jln(mv) Volcanic rock Kfs/Qtz-Chl-(Ttn)-(Cal) 9.9 93
2384 96GM21 158.2 370,110 7,059,370 Jln(mv) Volcanic rock Mag-Chl-(Kfs-Qtz-Ep) 7.9 93
2390 01DS16 230.0 370,860 7,057,050 Kp(mv) Altered plutonic rock Chl-Kfs-Ms-Cal-(Rt-Tur) 10.1 92
2394 01DS16 296.3 370,860 7,057,050 Kp(mv) Intensely altered plutonic rock Ms-Qtz-Py-Chl-Cal-Hem 9.4 80
2395 01DS18 169.5 370,445 7,060,290 Jln(mv) Volcanic rock Scp-Chl-Mag-Cal-Qtz-Ep 13.8 90
2396 01DS18 172.3 370,445 7,060,290 Jln(mv) Intensely altered volcanic rock Chl-Py-Mag-Ttn-Qtz-Kfs(v)-Cal(v) 9.4 na
2397 01DS18 190.4 370,445 7,060,290 Jln(mv) Chlorite-bearing breccia Chl-Kfs 9.8 94
2411 01AV01 67.0 370,041 7,061,082 Kp(mv) K-feldspathized rock Kfs-Ms/Chl-Hem after Mag 8.1 92
2412 01AV01 114.5 370,041 7,061,082 Kp(mv) Altered diorite Ms-FeOx-Kfs(v) 10.0 77
2443 00DS05 47.7 369,530 7,062,489 Kp(mv) Altered diorite Chl-(Ms)-Hem-Qtz(v)-Kfs(v) 11.3 100
2444 00DS05 74.7 369,530 7,062,489 Jln(mv) Altered volcanic rock Chl/Hem-Ms/-Cal(v)-(Mag-Kfs) 10.0 97
2445 00DS05 190.8 369,530 7,062,489 Kp(mv) Chloritized diorite Chl-FeOx-Cal-Qtz-(Ms-Kfs) 10.3 88
2446 00DS05 222.8 369,530 7,062,489 Kp(mv) Chloritized diorite Chl-Scp-Cal-Hem/Qtz-Kfs(v) 10.8 87
2464 01DS13 371.6 369,930 7,062,510 Kp(mv) K-feldspathized rock Kfs 12.0 100
2466 01DS13 600.0 369,930 7,062,510 Kp(mv) Chloritized diorite Chl-Rt 10.6 100
2467 01DS13 651.6 369,930 7,062,510 Kp(mv) Chloritized diorite Ep-Chl-Cal-Scp(?)-Cal/Qtz(v) 8.5 37
2480 01CN04 684.2 369,360 7,063,785 Kp(mv) Altered diorite Kfs-Chl-(Ms-Cal-Py) 9.7 73
2484 01DS22 336.0 370,180 7,063,950 Jln(mv) Grey andesite Ms-Bt-Cal-Chl-Tur 10.5 84
155682 04DT01* 232.0 371,040 7,056,550 Jln(mv) Altered andesite Chl-Qtz-Mag-Py 9.6 na
155762 04DT02* 110.0 371,230 7,055,650 Jln(mv) Altered andesite Chl-Qtz-Mag-Py 8.5 na
156613 04DT04* 128.0 371,100 7,055,800 Jln(mv) Altered andesite Chl-Qtz 9.6 na
156620 04DT04* 142.0 371,100 7,055,800 Jln(mv) Altered andesite Chl-Mag-Kfs 10.4 na
156658 04DT04* 218.0 371,100 7,055,800 Jln(mv) Altered andesite Mag-Chl 7.9 na

Kp(mv) and Jln(mv) refer to plutonic and volcanic rocks in the Mantoverde district, respectively. Alteration minerals: Act, actinolite; Bt, biotite; Chl, chlorite; Cal,
calcite; Ep, epidote; FeOx, iron oxides undiff.; Hem, hematite; Kfs, K-feldspar; Mag, magnetite; Ms, muscovite; Py, pyrite; Qtz, quartz; Rt, rutile; Scp, scapolite;
Ttn, titanite; Tur, tourmaline. na, Not available. In parentheses, minor phase(s); (v), veins. *Reverse circulation drill-hole. *Projection, UTM 19S; Datum, PSAD
56.

denominator for different molar ratios. Comparing molar ratios
with the same conserved element denominator ensures that the
constant of proportionality is the same in each ratio and that
changes in a molar element ratio (MER) are therefore propor-
tional only to the changes in the amount of the numerator
element (for details, see Stanley & Madeisky 1994). Graphical
investigation of material transfer can thus be made by plotting
two MERs against each other, as described by Stanley &
Madeisky (1994). Lithogeochemical approaches using immobile
elements have been successfully applied in the exploration
for volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits (MacLean &
Kranidiotis 1987; MacLean & Barrett 1993; Stanley & Madeisky
1994; Barrett & Sherlock 1996).
Most conserved element
The binary plot Zr (ppm) versus Nb (ppm) defines the most
conserved elements in the suite of volcanic and plutonic rocks
of the Mantoverde area (Fig. 6). Although there is a high degree
of dispersion in Nb/Zr ratios for samples from the La Negra
Formation, samples of volcanic rocks have similar Nb/Zr ratios
and define linear trends that pass through the origin (Fig. 6A),
indicating a similar degree of immobility (i.e. conservation)
for both elements, according to the criteria of Stanley &
Madeisky (1994). Volcanic host rocks in the Mantoverde
district, presumably assigned to the La Negra Formation, as well
as those included in the Punta del Cobre Formation, have
similar Nb/Zr ratios and correlated trends that pass through the
origin (Fig. 6A). The plutonic rocks define a similar linear trend,
again passing through the origin, and with a slope comparable
to that generated by the volcanic rocks, except for samples with
Zr and Nb contents higher than 250 ppm and 7 ppm, respect-
ively (Fig. 6B). Based on the criteria of Stanley & Madeisky
(1994), both elements have a similar degree of conservation (i.e.
comparable immobility). However, Zr was selected as the most
conserved element, and was used as the common denominator
in the molar ratios in this study.
Molar element ratio analysis
On the basis of the stoichiometry of the major minerals
constituting both fresh and altered host rocks, and using Zr
(ppm) as a common denominator, various molar element ratios
can be used to evaluate whether minerals undergoing mass
transfer processes have collinear behaviour (i.e. Pearce element
ratio (PER) diagrams; for details, see Stanley & Madeisky 1994).
Alternatively, molar ratios with a denominator element that is
not conserved can be used to evaluate mass transfer processes
on the basis of the displacement of rock compositions along
trajectories in plots having constant intercepts (i.e. nodes) that
 12

Table 4. Whole-rock
18O values and modified lithogeochemical alteration indices for regional host rock samples in the wider Mantoverde area.

Sample Location* Sector/mine/district Unit Lithology Alteration assemblage
18O Modified

(sampling line) () alteration index (%)
UTM_E UTM_N
1408 373,861 7,057,994 SE MV Kgsd Diorite Low degree of alteration 7.5 46
1410 374,249 7,058,090 SE MV Kgsd Medium-grained diorite Low degree of alteration 7.8 46
1413 374,638 7,062,387 East MVM Kgsd Amphibole diorite Chl and Ms (incipient) 7.2 28
1415 371,705 7,067,729 NE MV Jln Dark grey andesite Chloritized matrix 9.9 20
1421 372,829 7,068,039 NE MV Kgsd Quartz diorite Low degree of alteration 7.1 44
1422 371,744 7,062,829 East MVM Jln Dark grey andesite Relatively fresh 8.8 40
5769 366,044 7,045,082 Salitrosa-Chivato Jln Dark grey volcanic rock Ms-(Clays) on Pg 8.7 37
5770 367,005 7,044,994 Salitrosa-Chivato Jln Light grey to white, altered volcanic rock Scp-Qtz 9.9 42
5775 374,026 7,046,155 Salitrosa-Chivato Kgsd Greenish grey quartz monzodiorite Kfs-Qtz 10.7 91
5779 377,858 7,044,847 Salitrosa-Chivato Kgsd Tonalite Low degree of alteration 9.9 13
5785 362,920 7,041,755 Salitrosa North Jln Fine-grained volcanic rock Chl- Cal- Ms- Clays 8.8 43
5786 364,139 7,041,467 Salitrosa North Jln Altered fine-grained volcanic rock Bt- Mag (Ms-Ep) 9.9 72
5787 365,013 7,041,531 Salitrosa North Jln Dark grey greenish fine-grained volcanic rock Low degree of alteration 9.3 22
5801 379,429 7,081,084 (Salado-Ester-D.A.) Jln Fine-grained volcanic Chl-Bt 10.1 44
5805 373,020 7,081,148 (Salado-Ester-D.A.) Jln Fine to medium-grained volcanic rock Low degree of alteration 7.9 8
5807 371,969 7,080,838 Salado District Jln Fine-grained volcanic rock Unaltered rock 8.2 19
5812 370,726 7,080,681 Salado District Jln Fine-grained volcanic rock Kfs-Ttn-Bt-Clays 11.9 65
5835 375,450 7,033,928 Sierra Desiertito Jln Altered fine-grained volcanic rock Hem-Ms-Qtz (pervasive) 7.5 67
9746 383,504 7,062,108 Palmira_1 Jln Dark grey, fine-grained altered volcanic rock Scp-Qtz/Ep-Chl-Ms-Hem 9.5 72
J. Benavides et al.

9765 387,548 7,061,040 Palmira_2 Jln Strongly silicified volcanic (andesite?) rock Qtz/Ms-Cal 11.7 95
9768 388,264 7,061,016 Palmira_2 Jln Dark grey, fine-grained volcanic rock Ab-Bt/Amph/Qtz/Mag 9.4 37
9776 387,279 7,059,994 Palmira_3 Jln Fine-grained, equigranular, volcanic rock Chl-Hem 10.2 49
9779 386,536 7,060,000 Palmira_3 Jln Dark green, chloritized volcanic rock Kfs/Qtz/Mag/Tur-Chl/(Ms) 10.2 87
9782 385,770 7,060,036 Palmira_3 Jln Dark green, greyish fine-grained rock Kfs/Mag-Chl-Qtz-Hem 9.4 90
9787 386,763 7,051,193 Rodados Negros Kpc Dark grey, fine-grained andesite Ab-Bt/Mag 9.4 25
9793 390,551 7,051,072 Rodados Negros Kpc Dark grey colored, fine-grained andesite Ep/Chl-Mag 8.4 51
9795 391,529 7,051,142 Rodados Negros Kpc Greenish, fine-grained, fresh volcanic rock Ab-(Ms/Chl) 11.4 15
9797 392,672 7,051,154 Rodados Negros Kpc Fine/medium grained, grey volcanic rock Na-enrichment 10.6 14
9800 383,731 7,084,991 Rodados Negros Kpc Greenish, fine-grained volcanic rock Na-enrichment 9.8 50
9802 384,837 7,084,841 Carmen Jln Altered fine to medium-grained andesite Kfs-Qtz-Hem 14.1 94
9804 385,992 7,085,094 Carmen Jln Strongly altered fine-grained volcanic rock Kfs- Hem after Mag-Chl 9.9 94
9807 395,143 7,068,203 Chaarcito Kpc grey andesite, fine to medium plagioclase crysts Ab-Ep-Cal-Chl 10.3 42
9809 394,080 7,068,125 Chaarcito Kpc Dark grey volcanic rock Ilm-Chl/Ep-Scp(?) 10.5 35
9811 390,206 7,068,694 Chaarcito Kpc Fine-grained, dark green, altered volcanic rock Chl/Ep/Cal-Qtz 11.2 53
9814 388,891 7,069,616 Chaarcito Kpc Fine to medium-grained volcanic rock Tur-Bt 9.7 40
9815 392,394 7,067,006 Chaarcito Kpc Altered, fine-grained volcanic rock Mag-Chl/Ep 8.9 49
Table 4. continued.

Sample Location* Sector/mine/district Unit Lithology Alteration assemblage
18O Modified

(sampling line) () alteration index (%)
UTM_E UTM_N
9820 388,410 7,069,219 Chaarcito Kpc Greenish, silicified, porphyritic volcanic rock Qtz-Chl/Ms/Cal-(Hem) 11.5 84
9823 386,990 7,059,047 Palmira_4 Jln Dark green, strongly altered volcanic rock Scp-Chl/Hem-Calite 11.0 47
9824 386,437 7,058,861 Palmira_4 Jln Greenish, fine-grained, altered volcanic rock Chl/Cal/Ep-Ms-Clays 10.7 54
9826 384,779 7,059,141 Palmira_4 Jln Strongly altered volcanic rock Scp-Mag-Chl-Qtz/Hem 8.9 96
9828 384,080 7,059,263 Palmira_4 Jln Strongly altered, fine-grained volcanic rock Mag-Scp/Qtz-Cal-Chl 6.9 93
9829 383,478 7,059,051 Palmira_4 Jln Andesite replaced by magnetite-apatite Mag-Ap-Qtz 4.2 71
9833 381,434 7,059,118 Palmira_4 Jln Greenish, altered, fine-grained volcanic rock Chl/Qtz 9.9 66
9834 386,712 7,098,114 North Sierra Aspera Jln Reddish, very fine-grained volcanic rock Hem 12.2 41
9837 385,024 7,104,844 (Cerro Negro) Jln Dark grey, blackish, porphyritic volcanic rock Low degree of alteration 9.0 39
9840 379,761 7,103,288 (Cerro Negro) Jln Fine-grained volcanic rock Ep-Qtz-Cal 10.8 32
9841 377,797 7,103,870 (Cerro Negro) Jln Grey greenish volcanic rock Ep-Cal-Qtz/Bt 9.4 39
124502 383,524 7,060,207 Merceditas Jln Fine-grained volcanic rock Chl-Cal-Hem 11.5 65
124507 372,714 7,061,086 (MV-Palmira) Kgsd Hornblendic diorite Low degree of alteration 7.0 19
124510 386,574 7,059,867 (MV-Palmira) Jln Altered fine-grained volcanic rock Tur-Hem-Mag-Qtz 9.6 68
124512 387,030 7,059,831 Palmira mine Jln Altered fine-grained volcanic rock Qtz/Tur-Hem-(Chl) 9.4 80
124517 370,006 7,050,700 Portezuelo-Porvenir Kgsd Medium-grained diorite Ms-Clays-Chl 8.2 39
124532 370,413 7,061,968 East MVM Jln Greenish, strongly altered volcanic rock Qtz-Mag-Bt 11.7 99
124541 395,821 7,044,584 Chivato Nuevo Jln Dark brown andesite Bt (pervasive) 8.4 55
124544 395,288 7,044,619 Chivato Nuevo Kgr Hornblendic diorite Chl (incipient) 8.6 41
124550 394,096 7,044,714 Salitrosa-Chivato Kpc Dark grey, biotitized andesite Early Ab (?)-Bt-Mag 9.6 35
124555 392,808 7,044,990 Chivato mine Kgr Medium-grained plutonic rock Chl 7.9 43
124557 389,805 7,044,957 (Salitrosa-Chivato) Kgr Medium-grained plutonic rock Low degree of alteration 8.5 44
124558 390,013 7,059,465 (MV-Palmira) Jln Fine-grained volcanic rock Chl 9.2 25
124560 393,790 7,058,874 (MV-Palmira) Jln Fine-grained volcanic rock Ep-Chl-Clays 7.7 36
124571 375,415 7,104,008 (Cerro Negro) Jln Aphanitic to fine-grained volcanic rock Chl-Ep-Cal 12.4 45
124578 380,693 7,104,035 (Cerro Negro) Jln Grey greenish andesite Chl-Clays 10.8 25
Exploration guidelines for copper-rich IOCG deposits

124579 382,696 7,104,867 (Cerro Negro) Jln Reddish fine-grained volcanic rock Hem-Ms on Pg 11.7 19
124584 384,131 7,093,738 (Sierra Aspera) Kgsd Fine-grained plutonic rock Chl (p) 8.3 12
124588 384,922 7,093,705 (Sierra Aspera) Kgsd Medium-grained plutonic rock Chl on mafics 9.5 30
124604 381,665 7,080,229 (Salado-Ester-D.A.) Jln Grey andesite Chl-Hem-(Ep) 9.8 40
124608 382,368 7,080,461 (Salado-Ester-D.A.) Jln Strongly altered volcanic rock Qtz-Scp-Ttn-Mag-Chl-Ep 13.1 53
124613 383,753 7,080,449 Ester Jln Moderately altered volcanic rock Ms-Ttn 10.8 57
124624 391,515 7,083,351 (Salado-Ester-D.A.) Kpc Fine-grained volcanic rock Chl-Ms-Cal 13.2 36
124625 394,809 7,082,701 (Salado-Ester-D.A.) Kpc Porphyritic volcanic rock Kfs-Ms-Chl/Cal 11.7 59
124628 397,696 7,083,578 (Salado-Ester-D.A.) Kpc Brown, fine-grained andesite Ab-(Qtz-Cal) 11.8 45
124633 398,684 7,083,747 (Salado-Ester-D.A.) Kpc Mineralized andesite Chl-Ms-(Cal-Hem) 12.7 61
13
 14

Table 4. continued.

Sample Location* Sector/mine/district Unit Lithology Alteration assemblage
18O Modified

(sampling line) () alteration index (%)
UTM_E UTM_N
124636 399,207 7,083,875 (Salado-Ester-D.A.) Kpc Fine-grained volcanic rock Chl-Ms-(Cal-Hem-Rt) 11.8 62
124641 400,222 7,084,012 (Salado-Ester-D.A.) Kpc Dark brown andesite Chl-Ural-Hem 13.1 41
124644 400,771 7,084,201 (Salado-Ester-D.A.) Kpc Dark brown andesite Chl-Ms-Ep 12.7 29
124645 401,088 7,084,272 (Salado-Ester-D.A.) Kpc Brown reddish andesite Chl-Ms-FeOx 13.2 30
124646 394,995 7,072,977 (Paloma-S. Domingo) Kglt Granodiorite Low degree of alteration 7.6 51
124667 374,538 7,075,027 (Paloma-S. Domingo) Jln Greyish andesite Chl- Scp (Ep- Ttn) 10.5 19
124668 378,393 7,075,154 (Paloma-S. Domingo) Kgsd Altered medium-grained plutonic rock Ms/Clay-Chl-(Ep-Cal) 9.4 30
124670 381,720 7,075,744 (Paloma-S. Domingo) Jln Greenish, fine-grained andesite Clay-(Ms)-Ep-Hem-(Cal) 12.6 28
124682 386,991 7,075,031 (Paloma-S. Domingo) Kpc Fine-grained volcanic rock Chl-Ms-Cal-Ep-Qtz-Hem 11.0 52
124684 387,420 7,075,039 Santa Rosa mine Kpc Altered fine-grained volcanic rock Chl-Ep-Qtz/Hem-Kfs(v) 10.0 71
124689 387,968 7,075,390 (Paloma-S. Domingo) Kpc Dark brown andesite Hem-(Ms/Clay)-Qtz-Chl 12.7 36
124691 392,978 7,075,156 Santo Domingo Kpc Porphyritic volcanic rock Ms-Clays-Chl-Qtz-(Ep) 9.9 78
124697 394,204 7,074,810 Santo Domingo Kpc Greenish porphyritic volcanic rock Chl-Ms-Clays-Ep 10.2 58
124700 394,828 7,074,819 Santo Domingo Kpc Greenish porphyritic volcanic rock Chl-Ep-Cal-Hem 9.9 78
124701 394,990 7,074,811 Santo Domingo Kpc Altered fine-grained volcanic rock Chl-Cal(p-v)-Kfs/Hem(v) 10.5 90
124720 369,480 7,059,145 south Mantoverde Jln Altered fine-grained volcanic rock Chl-Mag(dis)-(Ms/Clays-Ttn) 10.1 49
124722 369,681 7,059,181 (Line 1 MV, Franco) Kgm Strongly K-feldspathized plutonic rock Kfs-Chl-Qtz-(Ttn-Rt) 8.5 61
124727 367,573 7,065,242 West Mantoverde Jln Fine-grained fragmental rock Tur-Qtz-Cal/Ms/Hem-Chl 10.4 81
124728 367,756 7,065,309 West Mantoverde Jln Altered volcanic rock Kfs-(Ms)-Chl/FeOx-Ttn 9.9 94
J. Benavides et al.

124729 367,950 7,065,353 West Mantoverde Jln Altered volcanic rock Kfs/Qtz-Ms/Cal-Qtz(v) 11.0 100
124731 368,287 7,065,434 West Manto Ruso Jln Chlorite-bearing, hydrothermal breccia Chl/Hem-(Kfs-Ms-Qtz) 10.0 100
124736 369,337 7,064,249 Mantoverde Jln Chlorite-bearing, hydrothermal breccia Chl/(Hem)-(Ms)-Ep(v) 10.1 97
124746 368,352 7,063,478 West Mantoverde Jln Fine-grained volcanic rock Ms/Clays-Chl-(Tur-Mag) 11.7 44
124747 368,171 7,063,549 West Mantoverde Jln Altered, fine-grained volcanic rock Ab-Ms/Cal-Qtz-(FeOx) 12.1 100
124748 367,978 7,063,493 West Mantoverde Jln Altered, fine-grained volcanic rock Chl/Ms-Cal-Qtz/Hem(v) 9.5 100
124750 367,537 7,063,301 West Mantoverde Jln Chlorite- bearing hydrothermal breccia Chl/Ms-Kfs/Qtz-(Ttn) 9.5 97
124753 369,267 7,061,238 Mantoverde Jln Altered, fine-grained volcanic rock Ms-Chl-Cal-(Ttn-Tur) 9.4 98
124755 369,643 7,060,944 Mantoverde Kgsd Altered plutonic rock Ms-Chl-FeOx(d)-(Rt) 9.8 98
124610A 382,788 7,080,469 West Ester mine Jln Strongly altered volcanic rock Qtz-Scp-Amph-(Ttn) 10.8 35
JB-04-33 384,640 7,062,860 Pirula Mine Jln Strongly altered andesite Ab-Act-Chl-Cal-Ep 8.0 na

D.A. and MV refer to Diego de Almagro and Mantoverde, respectively. Lithological units: Jln, La Negra Formation; Kpc, Punta del Cobre Formation; Kgm, Cerro Morado Pluton; Kglt, Las Tazas Pluton; Kgsd, Sierra
Dieciocho Pluton; Kgr, Remolino Pluton. Alteration minerals, Ab, albite; Act, actinolite; Amph, amphibole undiff.; Bt, biotite; Chl, chlorite; Cal, calcite; Ep, epidote; FeOx, iron oxides undiff.; Hem, hematite; Kfs, K-feldspar;
Mag, magnetite; Ms, muscovite; Py, pyrite; Qtz, quartz; Rt, rutile; Scp, scapolite; Ttn, titanite; Tur, tourmaline; Ural, uralitization. In parentheses, minor phase; (v), veins; (p), patches. *Projection and datum as in Table 3.
na, Not available.
 Exploration guidelines for copper-rich IOCG deposits
Fig. 6. Zr (ppm) versus Nb (ppm) binary plots for regional volcanic
rocks (A) and plutonic rocks (B). In (A), although a higher dispersion
is associated with samples from the La Negra Formation, volcanic
rocks in the Mantoverde area generate correlation trends intercepting
the origin, suggesting that Zr and Nb are comparably conserved, with
each volcanic unit generating a linear trend defined by a specific
Nb/Zr ratio. Similarly, plutonic rocks with Zr and Nb contents lower
than 225 and 9 ppm, respectively, tend to generate linear correlation
trends passing through the origin, although the degree of correlation
decreases for samples with elevated Zr and Nb contents (B).
are defined by the stoichiometry of controlling minerals (i.e.
general element ratio (GER) diagrams; Stanley & Madeisky
1994). For example, on a PER diagram of Al/Zr versus Na/Zr,
the least altered rocks define a linear trend with a slope close to
0.3, reflecting the average composition of the plagioclase (i.e.
An70) of unaltered volcanic and plutonic host rocks (Fig. 7A).
The destruction of plagioclase, involving the removal of Na,
displaces the samples downward from the field of fresh rocks,
the extent of the displacement being proportional to the extent
of Na depletion, such that strongly altered rocks define a linear
trend with a slope of 0. Sodium metasomatism would have the
opposite effect. Additionally, Figure 7A indicates that Na
depletion is more marked in host rocks located in the main
mineralized centre of the area, the Mantoverde mining district
(Figs. 2 & 3), although similar trends are observed in the vicinity
of the Cerro Negro deposit (Fig. 2). However, a small pro-
portion of the samples are displaced upward from the plagio-
clase control line and approach the line of albite control. These
samples correspond to regional volcanic rocks affected by early
Na enrichment and unaffected by K enrichment (Fig. 7A). The
Na depletion is a cryptic process that is easily defined and
quantified through a lithogeochemical analysis. The inclusion of
copper grades as bubbles having sizes proportional to their
diameter (Fig. 7B) indicates that high Cu is associated only with
15
host rocks depleted in Na. Pronounced Na depletion occurs in
the northern parts of the Mantoverde district, corresponding to
the shallower levels of the system (Fig. 3).
The processes of K metasomatism and hydrolysis (addition
and removal of K, respectively) are not readily apparent in an
Al/Zr versus K/Zr PER plot. However, a GER diagram of
Na/Al versus K/Al, as shown in Figure 7C, differentiates both
the unaltered calcic plagioclase-bearing rocks (i.e. those with
low K/Al values and with Na/Al ratios close to 0.3) and the
Na-enriched regional volcanic rocks. More importantly, trends
observed in Figure 7C indicate that K enrichment was
accompanied by the removal of Na. Thus, K-feldspathized host
rocks correspond to those completely depleted in Na (Fig. 7C).
Intensely K-feldspathized rocks are assigned to metasomatic
stage I in the paragenetic model proposed herein (Fig. 5).
Additionally, trends in Figure 7C indicate that
K-feldspathization was superseded by a stage characterized by
the removal of K (i.e. hydrolysis), which results in the down-
ward displacement of samples, following a trajectory parallel to
the y-axis and typifying altered samples from the Mantoverde
district. The inclusion of copper grades as bubbles having sizes
proportional to their diameter (Fig. 7D) indicates that signifi-
cant Cu mineralization is associated with stages post-dating the
main stage I K-feldspathization (Fig. 5).
On the basis of the modes and stoichiometries of the
dominant primary minerals in both the plutonic and volcanic
rocks (plagioclase feldspar, hornblende and augite), we have
designed a PER diagram wherein (6Si+Al+2Fe+2Mg)/Zr is
plotted against (14Ca+19Na
14CO2)/Zr to describe more
adequately the effect of ore-related alteration (Fig. 8). The molar
proportion of each element in the mineral dictates both the
arrangement of elements on each axis and their respective
coefficients (Stanley & Russell 1989; Stanley & Madeisky 1994).
The subtraction of 14CO2 on the y-axis removes the effect of
calcite. A linear trend with a slope close to 1 will reflect fresh or
weakly altered host rocks composed of plagioclase, amphibole
and clinopyroxene (Fig. 8). For example, in Na-dominated
plagioclase, the molar proportions of Na, Al and Si are 1, 1 and
3, and according to the coefficients in the PER diagram shown
in Figure 8, on the y-axis we will have 19Na and on the x-axis
1Al plus 18Si. Accordingly, a rock dominated by Na-bearing
plagioclase will have a ratio of 1. A similar situation is evident
when evaluating other constituents of calc-alkaline andesites
and diorites (e.g. Ca-rich plagioclase and mafic minerals). The
destruction of the Na- and Ca-bearing feldspar and mafic
minerals in the rocks results in a downward displacement of
samples on this MER diagram, the magnitude of which is a
measurement of the degree of alteration, with strongly altered
rocks defining a linear trend with a slope close, or equal, to 0.
Consequently, the slope on this MER diagram, that is the ratio
(14Ca+19Na
14CO2)/(6Si+Al+2Fe+2Mg) , quantifies the
degree of alteration. This alteration index ranges from 1 to 0,
end-member values for unaltered and completely altered rocks,
respectively. Strongly altered rocks include those intensely
chloritized and sericitized as well as Fe- and K-metasomatized
host rocks. For presentation purposes, the alteration index
has been recalculated to reflect the extent of alteration,
varying from 0 to 100% on the modified alteration index, for
unaltered and completely altered rocks, respectively. Values of
the modified alteration index for selected Mantoverde
mining district and regional samples are presented in Tables 3
and 4.
Plots of this modified alteration index relative to other molar
ratios indicate that Si, Al and Mg do not vary with alteration
and, thus, have been relatively conserved (Fig. 9A, B & C).
Figure 9D shows that K-enrichment is evident after a 50%
16 J. Benavides et al.

Fig. 7. MER diagrams selected to describe the processes of Na depletion and K- feldspathization of host rocks exhibiting a broad range of
mineralization and alteration type and intensity (440 samples from the Mantoverde mining district, green triangles, and 460 regional samples, red
diamonds). (A) In an Al/Zr versus Na/Zr plot, the least altered plutonic and volcanic rocks (mainly regional samples) define a linear trend with
a slope c. 0.3, reflecting the average proportion of albite in magmatic plagioclase feldspar. Removal of Na, which displaces the samples
downward, typifies samples from the Mantoverde district. Samples plotting above the line with a slope of 0.3 correspond to Na-enriched
volcanic rocks. (B) As (A), with Cu concentrations included as proportionally sized bubbles, showing that Cu contents are highest in strongly
Na-depleted host rocks. Grey and white circles correspond to Mantoverde district and regional samples, respectively. (C) Starting with an
unaltered protolith having Na/Al and K/Al ratios averaging 0.4 and 0.1, respectively, the trends indicate that host rocks were affected by
processes of Na depletion, which were accompanied by variable degrees of K enrichment (note the spreading on the K/Al values for a
determined Na/Al ratio). Additionally, this plot suggests that process of Na depletion and K metasomatism developed broadly concomitantly
and that after reaching variable degrees of K-feldspathization, the completely Na depleted host rocks experienced a continuous removal of K,
denoted by the vertical cluster paralleling the y axis. This vertical path is directed towards lower K/Al values and typifies those altered samples
affected by hydrolytic processes (stage II) post-dating the main stage of K metasomatism (Fig. 5). Trend of Na enrichment groups those samples
affected by spilitization: see text for details. (D) As (C), with Cu contents included as proportionally sized bubbles (i.e. their size varies
proportionally to the diameter), indicating that processes of K metasomatism (and Na depletion) in general are barren, whereas Cu mineralization
is associated with stages involving the removal of K (i.e. hydrolysis), post-dating the stage of K-feldspathization. Cu concentrations vary from
1 to 20 000 ppm. Also shown in (C) and (D) are the molar ratios of mineral phases that could be controlling the chemistry of the samples and
the inset sketches show the inferred paths during Na- and K-enrichment and depletion.

alteration index is attained (path 1) and that K-feldspathized
rocks are subsequently affected by the removal of K (path 2), in
agreement with observations drawn from Figure 7C. As shown
in Figure 9E, the early, generally moderate albitization involves
an increase in both the Na/Al ratio and the degree of alteration.
As described previously, the modified alteration index responds
to the combined removal of Na and Ca, but the net effect of the
minor to moderate addition of Na and the larger removal of Ca
results in an increase in the degree of alteration. Additionally,
Figure 9E indicates that after about 50% of alteration,
the Na-enrichment stage was superseded by a continuous
Na-depletion, generating a linear trend that mirrors that for
K-enrichment (Fig. 9D). This lends additional support to the
paragenetic model proposed here, in which K-feldspathization
of host rocks post-dated an early stage of Na enrichment (stages
I and R1, respectively; Fig. 5). Similarly, Ca is completely
removed from host rocks during the early stages of alteration
(Fig. 9F). The relationship between trace elements commonly
associated with IOCG-type mineralization and the modified
alteration index indicates that Cu, La, W, Co and U enrichment
is associated with strongly altered host rocks (Fig. 10A, B, C, D
& E). This observation is in agreement with the paragenetic
relationships proposed herein, in which the processes of
hydrothermal alteration preceding the mineralizing pulse (i.e.
stage III; Fig. 5) are barren and dominated by K-feldspar,
magnetite, muscovite and chlorite (Fig. 5). In contrast, Ba tends
to be positively correlated with the modified alteration index,
exhibiting a trend similar to that of K (Fig. 10D & F).
 Exploration guidelines for copper-rich IOCG deposits
Fig. 8. MER diagram of (6Si+Al+2Fe+2Mg)/Zr versus
(14Ca+19Na
14CO2)/Zr as molar ratios for variably altered and
mineralized plutonic and volcanic host rocks. Unaltered samples
whose chemistry is controlled primarily by calcic plagioclase ac-
companied by amphibole (hornblende) and clinopyroxene (augite)
will plot near the line having a slope of 1 (PlAmphCpx control).
Removal of Ca and Na during hydrothermal alteration related mainly
to processes of K enrichment and hydrolysis causes a downward
displacement, with strongly altered rocks defining a linear trend with
a slope of 0. Accordingly, the slope in this plot (i.e. y/x ratio)
constitutes a numerical parameter which quantifies the degree of
alteration, herein defined as the alteration index. A high proportion
of highly altered samples are drill-core samples from the Mantoverde
district (green triangles, n=440), whereas most regional samples have
low to moderate alteration indices (red diamonds, n=450).
Targeting of IOCG centres using the modified alteration
index and geochemical anomalies
In the grass roots stages of regional lithogeochemical
exploration, prioritization of prospective areas is commonly
based on the distribution of major oxides and diagnostic trace
elements associated with a productive lithological unit, miner-
alization type or alteration haloes (Rose et al. 1979; Govett
1983). A series of geochemical maps of selected elements
comprising surface volcanic and plutonic samples is shown in
Figure 11. A geochemical map of Cu concentrations as propor-
tionally sized symbols (Fig. 11A) defines barren areas as well as
anomalies coinciding with Cu-mineralized IOCG centres, such
as Cerro Negro, Palmira and the prospects in the Santo
Domingo area. However, no Cu anomaly is associated with the
Mantoverde district, the major IOCG system in the district
(Fig. 11A). Statistical analysis indicates that c. 36% of samples
classified as andesites have Cu content below 18 ppm, markedly
lower than the 60 ppm assigned to normal intermediate
volcanic rocks (Stanton 1994). Other elements plausibly linked
with IOCG-type mineralization, such as Ag, Mo, Co and U
(Hitzman et al. 1992), do not exhibit a specific spatial association
with mineralized centres, and in a significant number of samples
have concentrations lower than those assigned to average
andesites (Stanton 1994; see Fig. 11B for U concentration
distribution). Anomalous concentrations of Ba tend to be
associated with both Cu-mineralized and barren IOCG centres
in which K-feldspathization is the dominant alteration style
(Fig. 11C). With the exception of La (Fig. 11D), which attains
contents as high as 97 ppm in the Mantoverde district, all REEs
exhibit background concentrations. Sporadic Pb and Zn
anomalies occur in the northeastern parts of the area, associated
mainly with volcanic rocks of the La Negra Formation. As
expected, anomalous concentrations of P2O5 are associated
with the host rocks of bodies of metasomatic magnetite
and magnetiteapatitepyrite, such as Carmen and Ferrfera,
respectively (Figs. 2 & 3).
17
As shown above, with the exceptions of Ba and La, the
anomalous concentrations of other trace elements presumably
associated with mineralization do not effectively target
Cu-mineralized IOCG centres. An alternative method is to use
the spatial relation of the modified alteration index (Fig. 12). A
map of the distribution of the modified alteration index
indicates that strongly altered domains coincide with the
locations of the known mineralized sectors in the Mantoverde,
Palmira, Salado, Ester and Cerro Negro areas, as well as with
minor prospects (Fig. 12). In contrast to maps of geochemical
anomalies (Fig. 11), a map of the modified alteration index
clearly identifies the Mantoverde district, whereas low values of
this index indicate areas of little-altered plutonic and volcanic
host rocks unlikely to be associated with IOCG mineralization
(Fig. 12). Although the modified alteration index successfully
targets iron oxide mineralization, it does not provide infor-
mation on the size of the system and does not differentiate host
rocks altered to high-temperature assemblages dominated by
magnetite and K-feldspar from those affected by hydrolytic
stage II, the latter interpreted (Benavides et al. 2007) to be
genetically related to the economic Cu mineralization of stage
III (Fig. 5). Consequently, the modified alteration index does
not clearly discriminate host rocks associated with Cu miner-
alization. Further, it does not differentiate between rocks
affected by moderate albitization (i.e. spilitization) and low-
grade metamorphism (stages R1 and R2, respectively; Fig. 5)
from those altered to high and moderate temperature assem-
blages assigned to hydrothermal stages I and II, respectively
(Fig. 5).
WHOLE-ROCK OXYGEN ISOTOPE COMPOSITION
Oxygen is the most abundant constituent of both rock-forming
minerals and hydrothermal fluids, and its isotopes are differen-
tially partitioned among phases during waterrock interaction
(Kyser 1987; Taylor 1997; Hoefs 2004). Partitioning of isotopes
between two phases depends primarily on the extent of the
reaction, the temperature and the thermodynamic properties of
the phases, that with stronger bonds normally being enriched in
the heavier isotope (Faure 1986; Kyser 1987; Hoefs 2004). The
oxygen isotope compositions of mineral pairs can constrain
formation temperatures, water/rock ratios, and the origin of
fluids in hydrothermal systems (Taylor 1997). Additionally,
oxygen isotope data have been used as an exploration guideline
for several types of magmatichydrothermal deposits (Taylor
1997) and, particularly, as a supportive technique in the
exploration for volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits (Green
et al. 1983; Cathles 1993; Hoy 1993; Miller et al. 2001).
The whole-rock
18O values of rocks in the Mantoverde area
range widely, from +4.2 to +14.1 (Fig. 13). Fe metasoma-
tized volcanic host rocks have the lowest
18O values, varying
from +4.2 to +7.9 (n=4), whereas plutonic rocks have a
relatively narrow range of values varying from +7 to +10.8 (
n=28), with those located in the Mantoverde mining district
averaging 10 (n=12). Volcanic rocks from barren areas have

187O values ranging from +7.7 to +13.2 (n=37), indistin-
guishable from the values of +8.4 to +14.1 (n=46) for
volcanic rocks proximal to mineralized centres. The least-
altered samples of granitoid and volcanic rocks have
18O
values close to +7 and +8, respectively, the former value
being slightly higher than those normal for calc-alkaline plu-
tonic rocks (Kyser et al. 1982), whereas the latter is comparable
to the oxygen isotope composition of Neogene volcanic rocks
of the Central Andes (Harmon et al. 1984). In mineralized
sectors, K-feldspathized and chloritized rocks of stages I and II,
respectively, have
18O values ranging from +8.1 to +13.8
(n=19).
18 J. Benavides et al.

Fig. 9. Modified alteration index versus molar ratios of (A) Si, (B) Al and (C) Mg, showing that all were conserved during alteration. In contrast,
the trend observed for K/Al molar ratios (D) indicates that K-enrichment start is evident only when host rocks are 50% altered (i.e. path 1) and
that after being strongly K-feldspathized, the rocks were depleted in K (path 2). (E) Starting with variable enrichments (path 1), Na is
continuously removed after 50% of alteration (path 2). The dashed line encloses mainly Na-enriched volcanic rocks of the Neocomian Punta
del Cobre Formation located in the eastern parts of the area. (F) Ca is almost completely removed when host rocks reach 50% of alteration (the
subtraction of C on the Y axis is to remove the effect of calcite). The molar ratios of mineral phases that could have controlled the compositions
of the sample are shown in (D) and (E). Symbols as in Figure 8.

The
18O values of coexisting magnetite and quartz in a body
of metasomatic magnetite in the Sierra Aspera district (sample
124591, UTM-East: 385,807 UTM-North: 7,092,609; see Fig. 2)
are +1.3 and +13.3, respectively, and indicate formation at
c. 420C, slightly lower than fluid inclusion homogenization
temperatures of c. 500C determined by Collao & Ortega (1999)
for quartz from the Mantoverde mine, presumably representing
stage I (Fig. 5). The oxygen isotope fractionation factors for the
magnetitewater and quartzwater pairs (Bottinga & Javoy
1973; Clayton et al. 1972) at 420C indicate that pre-ore
metasomatic magnetite and quartz from the Sierra Aspera area
equilibrated with fluids having
18O values of +8.0 to +9.6.
This is in agreement with the values of +7.3 to +10 estimated
by Benavides et al. (2007) for the fluid responsible for the Fe
metasomatism of volcanic rocks in the Mantoverde district.
Similarly, using the
18O value of +12 for a K-feldspathized
host rock (sample 2464, Table 3) and the isotopic fractionation
for the pair K-feldsparwater at 420C (ONeil & Taylor 1967),
we conclude that the K-feldspar equilibrated with a fluid with a

18O value of c. +9.3, indistinguishable from those of fluids
 Exploration guidelines for copper-rich IOCG deposits 19

Fig. 10. Modified alteration index versus contents (in ppm) of (A) Cu, (B) La, (C) W, (D) Co, (E) U and (F) Ba. The trends suggest that Cu,
La, W, Co and U were introduced into the system at a time when the host rocks were completely altered, whereas Ba correlates with the degree
of alteration. Symbols as in Figure 8.

in equilibrium with magnetite. These data, along with the
paragenetic relationships (Fig. 5), indicate that stage I K- and
Fe-metasomatism (Fig. 5) occurred at high temperature,
consistent with the involvement of fluids exsolved from
crystallizing plutons.
In contrast, on the basis of the O and H isotope composi-
tions of stage II chlorite and muscovite in the Mantoverde
mining district (Figs. 3 & 5), Benavides et al. (2007) propose that
these minerals equilibrated with non-magmatic fluids at c. 350C
(Fig. 14). Similarly, the calculated
34S values of fluids in
equilibrium with pyrite deposited during stage II are consistent
with the incursion of fluids having
34S values varying from +9
to +15 (Benavides 2006; Benavides et al. 2007). According to
the paragenetic model proposed herein, hydrolytic stage II was
followed by the emplacement of stage III hematite-rich veins
and breccias variably accompanied by sulphides and carbonates
(Fig. 5). On the basis of the
18O values of coexisting calcite
and hematite, Benavides et al. (2007) proposed that the stage III
Cu(-Au) orebodies developed at 200 to 250C, temperatures
significantly lower than those prevailing during the preceding
stages. Under these conditions, the ore fluids would have had

18O values of +4 to +8, significantly lower than those
involved during pre-ore stages (Benavides et al. 2007). Similar

18O values and temperatures for the ore-forming fluids have
been defined using the
18O values of stage III quartz and
hematite coexisting in copper prospects located 10 km SW of
20 J. Benavides et al.

Fig. 11. Areal distributions of (A) Cu, (B) U, (C) Ba and (D) La contents in volcanic and plutonic rocks in the wider Mantoverde region, including
the frequency distribution and statistics of each element. (A) Although the distribution of Cu contents defines both barren areas and anomalies
are associated with some minor deposits, it does not highlight the main IOCG centre, the Mantoverde district. (B) Samples with elevated U
contents are scattered, showing no association with mineralized sectors. (C) Ba anomalies are associated with both mineralized and sub-economic
centres. (D) Although some isolated La anomalies are associated with minor deposits (e.g. Ester and those of the Santo Domingo district), an
important cluster of anomalies is observed in the Mantoverde district and barren areas can be defined. The geological base map is modified from
that in Figure 2.
 Exploration guidelines for copper-rich IOCG deposits 21

Fig. 12. Distribution of the modified alteration index (in % alteration) showing the correlation between highly altered rocks (i.e. alteration >90%)
and significant Cu-mineralized centres, including Mantoverde, Palmira, Carmen and Cerro Negro. Similarly, barren sectors are clearly defined.
However, although indicating proximity to a mineralized centre, the modified alteration index does not discriminate important deposits from
prospects. Frequency distribution and main statistical parameters of the modified alteration index are also included. The geological base map is
modified from that in Figure 2.
22 J. Benavides et al.

Fig. 13. Frequency distribution of whole-rock
18O values for
variably altered volcanic and plutonic host rocks (n=134). Rocks in
the Mantoverde area have
18O values ranging from +4.2 to
+14.2.
Fig. 15. Relationship between modified alteration index and whole-
rock
18O values. Rocks having a low degree of alteration may be
differentiated from their
18O values, the least altered rocks having

18O values of c. +8, whereas values higher than +10 corre-
spond to rocks affected by regional low-grade metamorphism. In the
latter group, volcanic rocks proximal to mineralized centres are more
altered (i.e. alteration index of 60% to 70%) and have
18O values
close to +10. Host rocks with alteration indices exceeding 70%
have a wide range of
18O values, but those associated with stage II
chlorite have oxygen isotope compositions near +10.

alteration in the Mantoverde area cannot be ascribed to a

Fig. 14. Calculated
D and
18O values of ore fluids in equilibrium
with stage II chlorites (grey squares) and muscovite (dot) at 350C
(from Benavides et al. 2007). These isotopic compositions are
indicative of the involvement of non-magmatic fluids during the
hydrolytic stage preceding the ore stage III (Fig. 5). Fields for
magmatic and metamorphic waters are from Taylor (1997).
the Santo Domingo area and 20 km SSW of the Mantoverde
district (Table 5, Fig. 2). The incursion of 34S-enriched and
187
O-depleted fluids during the Cu ore-forming stage III,
corresponding to modified seawater or evaporite-derived
brines, has been proposed as a key mineralizing process in the
IOCG systems of the area (Benavides 2006; Benavides et al.
2007).
The paragenetic relationships, lithogeochemical data and
stable isotope systematics documented herein and in Benavides
et al. (2007) indicate that the patterns of mineralization and
straightforward magmatichydrothermal model (cf. Sillitoe
2003; Pollard 2006). As argued previously, the IOCG centres
were the product of a complex succession of alteration and
mineralization events (Fig. 5). The unequivocal contributions of
non-magmatic fluids to Cu-rich deposits constitute a distinctive
metallogenetic feature of the IOCG systems in the Mantoverde
area (Benavides et al. 2007). It is inferred that each paragenetic
stage evolved under specific physico-chemical conditions
involving fluids with distinct isotopic signatures, chemical
compositions and mineralizing potential. Consequently, we
propose in this study the integration of lithogeochemical and
isotopic parameters as a basis for the characterization of
the processes operative at different paragenetic stages and
particularly those associated with Cu-Au mineralization.
INTEGRATED ALTERATION INDEX AND
18O
VALUES
Both the modified alteration indices and
18O values should
reflect the extent of fluidrock interaction, with some of these
fluids being those associated with the Cu-mineralizing pro-
cesses. On a plot of the modified alteration index versus
18O
values, a minimum of three components can be defined
(Fig. 15). One comprises the least-altered plutonic and volcanic
host rocks (i.e. modified alteration index less than 30%), which
have
18O values of +7 to +8 (Fig. 15). For the volcanic rock
samples, there is a shift to higher
18O values of +11 to

Table 5.
18O values () for the pairs quartzhematite and calcitehematite, including the calculated equilibrium temperature for each pair and the
18O value of fluid at specified
temperatures.

Sample Sector Location* Mineral pair (
18O value, )
18OA

18OB Temperature (C) Composition of fluid ()
UTM N UTM E Quartz Hematite Calcite
JB-04-17 SW Santo Domingo 7,069,616 388,891 Quartz (+13.2) hematite (
1.2) +14.4 291 +6.0 +6.0
JB-08-DEC 20 km SSW of MVD 7,041,975 360,062 Quartz (+15.5) hematite (
1.0) +16.5 206 +4.2 +4.2
JB-06-DEC 15 km SEE of MVD 7,046,498 375,106 Calcite (+11.4) hematite (+0.1) +11.3 318 +7.7 +6.4
5834A Sierra Desiertito 7,032,434 378,191 Calcite (+11.1) hematite (
1.1) +12.2 315 +6.3 +5.7

MVD, Mantoverde district. *Projection and datum as in Table 3.

 Exploration guidelines for copper-rich IOCG deposits
+13.2 with a moderate increase in the modified alteration
index from 30% to 65%. The more altered volcanic rocks (i.e.
modified alteration index c. 65%) are located close to mineral-
ized sectors (Fig. 15). A third component is defined by strongly
altered volcanic and plutonic host rocks (alteration index
exceeding 65%), with
18O values near +10 and spatially
related to Cu-rich IOCG mineralization (e.g. Mantoverde,
Cerro Negro, Palmira; Figs. 2 & 15, Tables 3 & 4). Highly
altered host rocks (alteration indices exceeding 90%) with
18O
values near 10 are directly associated with the Cu(-Au)
deposits in the Mantoverde district.
The approach described herein provides a basis for the
differentiation of samples affected by early regional low-grade
metamorphism from those strongly altered to assemblages
dominated by magnetite, K-feldspar or chlorite (Figs. 5 & 15).
The least-altered volcanic rocks have
18O values close to
+8, but these increase to +13.2 with moderate increases in
the degree of alteration (Fig. 15), as a result of an enrichment in
18
O during low-grade metamorphism (Kyser 1987; Miller &
Cartwright 2000). On the basis of the mineral associations
characterizing stages R1 and R2 (Fig. 5), including their areal
extent (for details, see Benavides et al. 2007), and the tectonic
setting during the Early Cretaceous (i.e. marginal backarc basin),
we propose that the metasomatic and metamorphic assem-
blages in the eastern parts of the area record the interaction of
volcanic rocks with modified seawater, either descending
(stage R1) or ascending (R2). We argue that the spilitization
and low-grade metamorphism were not directly related to
IOCG-type hydrothermal activity.
Our detailed petrographic and petrochemical studies indicate
that little regional or district-scale hydrothermal alteration was
directly associated with the shallow, low-temperature stage of
hematite-cemented breccias and veins of stage III (Fig. 5), and
thus with the Cu(-Au) mineralization per se. However, based on
the integration of cross-cutting relationships and whole-rock

18O values, the
34S values for alteration and ore sulphides,
and the inferred physicochemical conditions defined by
Benavides et al. (2007), we argue that hydrolytic stage II was
genetically coupled with the ensuing ore stage III, both record-
ing the involvement of non-magmatic fluids. This model is
supported by both distinctive alteration indices and non-
magmatic O and H isotope compositions of intensely chlori-
tized host rocks assigned to the pre-ore hydrothermal stage II
(Figs. 5 & 14).
CONCLUSIONS
District- and regional-scale cross-cutting relationships of altera-
tion assemblages in conjunction with lithogeochemical and
isotopic data presented in this paper and in Benavides et al.
(2007) indicate that the Mantoverde area records a complex
mid-Cretaceous evolution, involving regional sub-seafloor
alteration and probably diastathermal metamorphism, followed
by more local hydrothermal K and Fe metasomatism, hydrolysis
and emplacement of sulphide-bearing hematite-cemented
breccias. The temporal relationships between the early regional
processes and the development of the IOCG centres are
evident in several mineralized areas, particularly along the
eroded western margin of the Neocomian backarc basin
(Benavides et al. 2007), where Fe- and K metasomatism (stage I;
Fig. 5) is clearly superimposed on lowermost greenschist facies
metamorphic assemblages (stage R2; Fig. 5). In the main areas
of mineralization, K-feldspathization involved Na depletion,
and was itself followed by K depletion through scapolitization
and then hydrolysis. The strongest development of chlorite
muscovite assemblages occurred in subsequently mineralized
23
centres located along the main fault systems and in the vicinity
of Lower Cretaceous quartz dioritic bodies (i.e. Mantoverde,
Salado, Cerro Negro). Consequently, gradients in K/Al and
Na/Al ratios can be used as lithogeochemical parameters
to vector onto alteration potentially associated with Cu
mineralization.
The lithogeochemical alteration index, defined as the molar
ratio (6Si+Al+2Fe+2Mg)/(14Ca+19Na
14CO2) , constitutes
an effective basis for quantification of the alteration of host
rocks related to hydrothermal processes of K enrichment (and
concomitant Na depletion) and hydrolysis. Major elements such
as Si, Al and Mg are generally conserved. During the earlier
stages of regional, background alteration, most rocks were
moderately enriched in Na through albitization, but after
reaching c. 50% alteration, the rocks experienced enrichment in
K and concomitant Na depletion. The correlation between Cu
concentrations and the modified alteration index, in conjunc-
tion with trends in a Na/Al versus K/Al GER plot, indicates
that Cu mineralization (stage III) followed the events of K- and
Fe-metasomatism and hydrolysis (i.e. stages I and II, Fig. 5).
The modified alteration index per se does not distinguish
hydrothermal alteration from low-grade regional metamor-
phism. However, in conjunction with whole-rock
18O values,
it provides a basis for that discrimination and, most importantly,
defines the most fertile stage. The hydrolytic stage preceding
Cu-Au ore formation (Fig. 5) has distinct
18O and
D values
that can be used to target economically important IOCG
deposits in these Andean settings.
The guidelines proposed by Sillitoe (2003) to target IOCG-
type deposits in the Central Andes are grounded in reasonable
geological features commonly applied in the exploration for
other magmatichydrothermal deposits, e.g. faults or linea-
ments, alteration styles, and relationships with magmatism.
However, these guidelines do not incorporate concepts related
to mass transfer, which quantify and characterize the diverse
processes operative during different paragenetic stages in the
IOCG systems and which do not appear to contribute to,
for example, porphyry copper genesis. The lithogeochemical
approach described herein reveals that IOCG-mineralized and
barren sectors have distinctive alteration indices and
18O
values, with two relevant implications in the exploration for
IOCG centres located in subduction-related, weakly metamor-
phosed calc-alkaline volcano-plutonic terrains: it differentiates
background regional alteration and metamorphism from
hydrothermal alteration and, more importantly, optimizes the
discrimination of anomalous from barren sectors.
This study is a component of J.B.s doctoral research at Queens
University. Field studies were facilitated by the geology staff of the
Mantoverde division of Anglo American Chile, who have author-
ized publication of the paper. K. Klassen, Queens Facility for
Isotopic Research, is greatly thanked for her valuable support during
isotopic analysis. This project has received financial and logistic
support from Anglo-American plc, the Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), the Canada
Foundation for Innovation (CFI) and the Ontario Innovation Trust
(OIT). This paper benefited greatly from suggestions and critical
observations of L. Corriveau and M. Barton. Their comments and
patience in the review process are strongly appreciated. The costs of
the figures in colour were generously covered by P. McGuigan,
Managing Director of Cambria Geosciences Inc., Vancouver. J.
Charbonneau expertly prepared the final manuscript.
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