Biodiversity under threat

Defining biodiversity

Key definitions
BIODIVERSITY-this is the variety of genes, species and ecosystems in an area.

BIOSPHERE-this is the thin veneer of living material on the planets surface.

BIOME-this is a global scale ecosystem, e.g. tropical forest.

BIOMASS-this is the total weight of living matter.

ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY-this is the range of different ecosystems, habitats and niches in an area.

SPECIES DIVERSITY-this is the number of different species within in an area.

GENETIC DIVERSITY-this is the genetic variability within all species.

Examiners tip: remember that the more isolated a location (e.g. an island) the more evolution is likely
to take a distinctive course. The evolutionary divergence produces unique endemic species.

What is the importance of biodiversity?

30 million species approximately on the Earth but only 1.4 million have been identified.

Biodiversity

Genetic Species Ecosystem

diversity diversity diversity

Species
Species Species
disparity
richness endemisms
(different)

Total number
of species

Abundance
of species

Biodiversity hotspots

Typical mistake: many candidates think that a

hotspot is an area of high biodiversity. However, it is
an area of high biodiversity that is under threat.

Criteria
Species richness is 0.5% of the worlds recorded plant species.
High level of endemism usually above 50%.
Severe levels of threat from human actions.
 Hotspots hold a high number of endemic species yet their combined remaining habitat on the
Earth is 2.3%.
Hotspots have lost 70% of their natural vegetation.

Types of hotspots
Examiners tip: learn the names and locations of at least one of each of the three types of land-based
biodiversity hotspots.

1. Continental hotspots, e.g. Brazils Cerrado.

2. Large island hotspots, e.g. Madagascar.
3. Small island hotspots, e.g. Sri Lanka.

In addition, 11 marine hotspots are also recognised and all of them contain coral reliefs which are
threatened by human activities. They only account for 0.025 of the oceans.

Endemic species
ENDEMIC SPECIES-an organism is unique to one area/region and not found anywhere else naturally.

Endemic species are adapted and suited to the particular environment which has a constant climate,
precipitation, temperature, light intensity and wind.

Case study: Mexico

Key facts
Mexico has the greatest variety of mammals in Central America.
It is ranked highest in the variety of reptiles that are located there.
70% of the worlds species are found in just 12 countries; Mexico is one of them.
It is known as a megadiverse country, this is a location of extreme biodiversity. The
Conservation International identified 17 of these.

What will threaten Mexicos biodiversity?

1. RAPID GROWTH it is the eleventh most populous country in the world with the population
currently at approximately 116,220,947.
2. POOR LAND USE STRATEGIES-there is limited water supply; they are facing water insecurity
because of their increasing demand and the lack of resources. This is because of a physical
water scarcity.
3. DEMAND FOR NATURAL RESOURCES-Mexico is in demand mainly for its seafood and its coffee
production.

Managing Mexicos biodiversity

1. Law enforcement
In 2002, there was a law that prohibits large ships from entering certain protected areas of Mexicos
waters.
2. Partnerships
Conservation International and Starbucks partnership has promoted coffee production practices that
protect biodiversity and improve the livelihoods of coffee farmers. Farmers receive tangible benefits as
a result of their climate change mitigation work, e.g. agroforestry and reforestation.

What influences biodiversity?

Typical mistake: candidates often fail to recognise the

difference between physical factors and human
factors in the context of biodiversity.
 Question: Explain how physical factors influence the distribution of biodiversity
shown. (10 marks)

Physical

Light intensity
Altitude
There is a range of ecological zones as a result of altitude and each with its own endemic species.
Commonly, biodiversity is high on large, high tropical (low latitude) islands, e.g. Madagascar.

Large areas
This is because of the complex food chains.

Latitude
Decay and nutrient cycling are rapid in tropical soils.

Lack of limiting factors

Wind
This increases the rate of evapotranspiration and wind-chill factor.

Endemism
This is found in one place/region and not found naturally anywhere else.

Precipitation
1. Is it seasonal?
2. Is it reliable?
3. Is it in the growing season?

Human

Hunting
Clearance for agriculture and settlement
Conservation
Introduction of an alien species

Processes and factors influencing biodiversity

Ecosystems rely on two processes: the recycling of nutrients and the flow of energy.

ECOSYSTEM- this is the interaction between biotic and the abiotic factors.

DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM-ecosystem is in balance as an ecosystem is a system; one component

affected could damage it.
 Gersmehls nutrient cycle

Why is leaf litter so small in the nutrient store?

It is the perfect location for decomposition: temperature and humidity.

Why is there little runoff in the tropical rainforest?

Canopy intercepts a large volume of water and becomes green water.

Why is soil store smaller in the nutrient cycle?

They arent large volumes of nutrients because of the ancient
ecosystem and when nutrients are decomposed they are taken up by the
life in the ecosystem.

Human activities can have an impact on the size of the store as in where there is deforestation, or over
cultivation, or in where there has been soil erosion, indirectly pollution, e.g. acid rain can have an effect
on the nutrient cycling processes. Humans can add nutrients to the soil by fertilisation and this can
lead to over-fertilisation and eutrophication.

Energy flows
Primary producers convert sunlight into chemical energy and as energy is lost, the volume of biomass
decreases.

Goods and services of an ecosystem

Goods Services
Medicine Habitats
Timber Carbon sink
Water cycle

Services
PROVISIONING SERVICES-they are products, e.g. food.

REGULATING SERVICES-they are benefits, e.g. climate.

CULTURAL SERVICES-they are non-material benefits, e.g. recreation.

SUPPORTING SERVICES-they are essential, e.g. forming soil.

Tropical rainforests
Gersmehls nutrient cycle.

Biodiversity threats
Examiners tip: it is not just terrestrial (land) biomes and ecosystems that are under threat. Serious but
perhaps less noticeable damage is also being inflicted on marine (sea) biomes and ecosystems.

Distribution of threatened areas

1. Ecosystem scorecard- this identifies freshwater ecosystems as the most eco-stressed.
2. Living Planet Index-this identifies that freshwater ecosystems are seriously threatened as
well as forest, Greenland and marine ecosystems.
3. IUCN Red List (developed by WWF)-an annual listing of endangered species that allows for the
identification of extinction hotspots. These are located for the most part in the tropical
rainforests, tropical grasslands, polar areas and small islands. Freshwater ecosystems are
against identified as having a high percentage of threatened species.
4. Ecological footprint-a measure of the human impact on the planet).
5. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment-this highlights the tropical grasslands, marine and
freshwater ecosystems and rainforests as under the greatest threat.
There are two distinct distributions: threatened hotspots and areas with threatened species.

Global threats
Examiners tip: rising sea levels are one threat posed by global warming. Another is that it will alter and
disrupt latitudinal zones, mainly by pushing them towards the poles.

Climate change- this is especially significant if it occurs at such a rapid rate that many species
are unable to adapt. If the business as usual scenario continues then this will lead to a further
increase of other drivers threatening habitats. According to the Stern review, if there is a one
degree increase, 10% of land species will face extinction and coral reef bleaching will be more
frequent. If there is two degrees increase, between 25% and 60% of mammals in Africa face
extinction and 15% to 40% of land species could face extinction. With a three degree increase,
there could be between 20% and 50% of land species could face extinction, mangroves would
be flooded and coral reefs will die.
Rising sea levels-this will threaten to drown large areas and their ecosystems.
Population growth-this can put pressures on resource consumption and will pass maximum
sustainable yield to unsustainable numbers.
Economic-promoted by the governments and large businesses that fail to value the
environment and its resources.
Pollution-this includes acid rain. This is at a rapid increase majorly in areas such as the inland
water and this is a result of industry. This could lead to further pollution because of the
emergence of superpower countries as a result of the economic growth- increase in industry.
Deforestation-the clearance of forests often has knock on effects on food webs and nutrient
cycling. Removal of forest cover could also lead to increased soil erosion and flooding.
Desertification-this is the result of both climate change and population pressure.
Disease

EXTINCTION-this is a natural event of death of all members of a species but humans are accelerating
the rate of extinctions.

Examiners tip: candidates often confuse the destruction of an ecosystem (e.g. shrimp farming) with
the more gradual degradation of an ecosystem (e.g. by over-exploitation or tourism).

Human threats

Daintree rainforest
Covers 0.2% of Australia.
It is designated a World Heritage Site, parallel to the Great Barrier Reef.
70% of tourists are independent travellers.
Largest range of ferns in Australia.
65% of Australias butterfly and bat species.
Home to the greatest number of plants and animals in Australia.
Oldest rainforest.

Tourism is the main threat.

1. What are the activities available at the Daintree forest?

Fishing
Bike riding
Reef diving
Horse riding
Snorkelling

2. Who is the average tourist?

They are independent
Back packers: usually under the age of 34.
Usually as a result of eco-tourism and so are usually wealthier than package holiday travel
makers.
They stay for an average 3 to 4 days approximately 3 to 4* and a majority are domestic (from
Australia).
 3. What limits the growth of tourism in the Daintree?
Laws as a result of the double World Heritage sites.
Inaccessible
Little services

4. How is tourism development threatening the Daintree?

Socio-economic- competition of shops as supermarkets outcompeted local businesses because of

the increasing demand. There are rising house prices as a result of the increased interest in the
development of the area. Ecotourism can prove to be beneficial.

Environmental - land clearing for development: 85 rare plant species will become extinct if they
do not reduce this clearing. Pollution, this is especially important in areas such as the Great Barrier
which are vulnerable to such threats.

Cycle of decline
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Players and stakeholders

Key player Opinion expressed
The Wet Tropics Management Authority It is responsible for managing the World Heritage
Site. It wishes to research and monitor the state of
the World Heritage Site. Its aim is to develop
management agreements with landholders and
Aborigines.
Cairns council It maintains economic growth and biodiversity by
determining issues such as planning permission to
maintain the tourist numbers.
Australian Rainforest Foundation It is a non-profit organisation that is dedicated to
education, research and habitat rehabilitation for
Australias rainforests.
Wildlife Preservation Society of Queensland They are a community-based, non-profit
conservation group which are committed to an
ecologically sustainable future for people and the
wildlife.
Indigenous people They have a right to the land and promote their
culture in the area.
Other stakeholders:

Australian citizens
Tourists
Tourist companies
Utility companies
UNESCO

GREEN WASHING-this suggests they are sustainable and often they are not, e.g. the Rainforest
Cooperation Research Council which proposes to increase the tourist number, this suggested proposal
could damage the Daintree forest..

Galapagos Islands
Examiners tip: when researching/revising, try to choose case studies that can be used for a variety of
questions. The Galapagos Islands can be used for: how biodiversity is assessed; biodiversity hotspots;
threats from alien species; human activities; the problems of conflict between conservationists;
tourists; businesses and examples of management on a local and national scale.

Biodiversity hotspot
Marine reserve
World Heritage Site
World Biodiversity Reserve

Physical geography
18 main islands, 3 smaller islands and 107 rocks.
Upwelling of nutrients as a result of the cold currents.
El Nino and La Nina: El Nino causes temperature rise and La Nina vice versa.

Threats to the Galapagos Islands

1. Invasive species (e.g. goats) are brought accidentally/by humans and the native species dont
have natural predators so the alien species dominate the habitat.
2. Fishing (e.g. sea cucumbers) as both local fisherman and large enterprises are responsible for
illegally fishing within the waters of the Marine Reserve.
3. Tourism-eco-tourism is the main economic source for the islands. There is a continual pressure
for luxury hotels. Overcrowding can have an effect on animals and their breeding patterns. Also,
the increase in tourism has led to a demand in physical services and infrastructure.
4. Immigration/migration-this has grown by 5.9% over the past decade where illegal activities
(e.g. fishing) have become more common due to the lack of jobs in tourism.

Key players and stakeholders

Type of key player Role and description
Individual People make choices that could affect biodiversity
and this depends on their cultural level, economic
stability and education levels.
NGO They help conserve ecosystems and have the
ability to influence peoples decisions and
ultimately the governments decisions.
National government The governing body provides rules and
regulations but this is dependent on the state
government.
Transnational companies (TNCs) They are focused on developing industries in a
range of global locations and their main motive is
profit. Depending on their economic status, they
can be highly influential on a state government.
Big International Non-Governmental They are often highly influential on peoples
Organisation (BINGO) decisions, e.g. WWF.
UNESCO (United Nations Scientific and They set standards and urge agreements through
Cultural Organisation) research. They run the Biosphere Reserves.
 The Alaskan National Wilderness Refugee (ANWR)
The Arctic wilderness is known as the American Serengeti which is the most biologically diverse Arctic
region in the world. It is located in the northern part of Alaska; it runs from the mountains of the Brooks
Range north to the Arctic Ocean.

1.5 million acres of the area (the Coastal Plain) is not designated as a
wilderness and so could be exploited for its oil exploration and drilling.
The USA imports vast amount of oil- a million barrels a day from Iraq.

The stakeholders of the Coastal Plain include politicians: Republicans

(for the development of the oil) and Democrats (oppose the
development of the oil). The Arctic Power is a non-profit organisation to
prevent oil exploration. 75% of the Alaskan residents support the
development of the Coastal Plain. The Inupiat people of North Alaska
believes that the oil industry will benefit and this includes jobs. The Gwichin people believe that the
proposed oil and gas development is a threat because it would damage their gathering. Environmental
groups such as the Centre for Biological Diversity which believes in the value of diversity and
wishes to protect the ANWR.

The Coastal Plain is described as a biological heartland, and this is because there are two hundred
species of wildlife found there: polar bears, marine mammals (e.g. bowhead whale), birds, wolves,
bears and caribou (reindeers). The Coastal Plain is the last 5% of Alaskas North Slope that has not
been allowed to have oil exploration and development.

It is a fragile and vulnerable ecosystem. The tundra has very low organic productivity (primary
productivity) is a measure of how quickly vegetation grows. The ANWR lies in the Arctic tundra and has
a polar climate. The winters are long, dark and cold with short summers. Precipitation is low (known as
a cold desert) and winds are strong. The vegetation is low-lying to avoid the strong winds with many of
them having small leaves that limit transpiration; they have a short life cycle and short roots to avoid
permafrost (permanently frozen surface which is impermeable).

Arguments for and against the exploitation of the ANWR

For Against
Only 8% of the total ANWR is being considered for Polar bears are very sensitive to industrial activity
exploitation. If oil is discovered there then only 2000 acres
would be directly affected by drilling.
Alaska and the USA would benefit from the development of oil Some of the birds (e.g. geese) are highly sensitive to human
exploration. disturbance.
It will reduce USAs energy dependency on the Middle Easts There is a risk of oil spills.
oil supplies.
Imported oil is very expensive.
Oil and gas will have little effects on the wildlife.
More than 75% of Alaskans favour exploration and production
in the ANWR.
1. The conflicts matrix to show whether the groups are likely to agree/disagree on the
ANWR.

Republica Democra Centre for Alaskan Gwichin Inuipat

ns ts Biological people people people
Diversity

Republica X X
ns
Democrat X X
s

Centre for X X
Biological
Diversity

Alaskan X
people

Gwichin X X
people

Inuipat X X
people

- conflicts

X- no conflicts

2. Why are the Alaskan people and the Gwichin people in conflict over development?

The Alaskan and the Gwichin people are in conflict because of their ideas in development; this is
because of their differing land use. The Alaskan people are further interested into the development of
the oil as 75% of Alaskans favour development. This is different to Gwichin people who are indigenous
and traditional to their land use, they are in conflict because if this land was exploited for development,
it may not be maintained for its regular use and could be damaged.

3. America should be developing energy efficient technology and alternative forms of

energy instead of relying on oil. Discuss.

Americas search for energy should not be at the expense of the environment especially in areas with
no exploitation by humans. Energy efficient areas are definitely the way forward to prevent the
business as usual scenario but they cannot automatically replace the forms of energy that we are
dependent on. Instead as America searches for new and alternative forms of energy, they should use
areas that are already being exploited and although this may be difficult in terms of the security and
reliance- it prevents the exploitation of an area.

4. When was the ANWR created?

The region first became of federal protection in 1960

Western Arctic Reserve

They are known as the National Petroleum Reserve because it was designated by the US Congress as
an area of strategic oil and gas reserves which the nation could draw on. It is a region of pristine
wetlands which in the summer, they are habitats to millions of organisms.

Environmental factors from oil and gas exploration

1. Land and oil production.
2. Massive quarrying of rivers to produce gravel for construction sites which affect river
ecosystems.
3. Pollution of the rivers and streams by oil or drilling mud.
4. Produce over 50,000 tons of nitrous oxides which contribute to acid rain.
5. Oil spills are used to clean wildlife: plants, animals and insects.

Habitat change and over-exploitation

This is a continuing and rapid increase because of the growth of population and this changes the
habitat as a result, this is commonly used to continue the demand of forests by (for example)
deforestation to create farmlands.
 Mangroves in Sundalandnamed ecosystem

of the worlds coral reefs in the world are

located in the coral triangle.
Mangroves are coastal forests that grow 25
degrees north and south of the tropics.
The largest and most biodiverse mangroves
(Sunda Shelf) in the world.

Adaptions Services provided

Survive in salty waters as they are able to excrete Prevents erosion of the coast as it maintains soil
salt crystals. Roots dont take up all salt- salt structure.
exclusion.
Roots have pores that provide oxygen. Habitat.
Prevents tidal surges.
Recycles and absorbs nutrients.

Goods and services

Provisioning services-this is through food (e.g. fish and algae) and resources (e.g. timber).
Regulating services-the Boxing Day Tsunami in 2004 resulted in 5000 people dying in
Thailand and many of these were in new tourist resorts. These people could have been saved
but the mangroves had undergone deforestation in order for the placement of the tourist
resorts. Carbon sequestration (carbon sink); if the mangrove ecosystem was removed then
carbon concentration would be 50 times more.
Cultural services-aesthetic value and tourism.

How do you achieve sustainable yield in mangrove ecosystems?

Community/development organisations, e.g. Yadfon

Advantages Disadvantages
Allows a community involvement and so less likely No protection against large co-operations.
to go against it, (e.g. illegal shrimp fishing)
through education.

Regional organisations, e.g. TVE Asia Pacific

Advantages Disadvantages
Raised awareness of the importance of Doesnt provide enforcement, it is only advice.
mangroves.
Use of the media and so equal access.
Allows local communities to reach the initiative
and do it themselves.

NGOs, e.g. Wetland International

Advantages Disadvantages
Provides further support through grants and Advice does not enforce activities.
equipment to resolve the environment.
Includes private companies which influences their
actions and prevents them damaging the
environment.
Not focused on making a profit.

Managing biodiversity
 Sustainable yield
MAXIMUM SYSTAINABLE YIELD- the level at which
utilisation by humans does not lead to a long term decline in
species numbers.

A maximum sustainable yield is required to prevent the

destruction of the biodiversity and this is because not all
ecosystems can be preserved; they need to be conserved to
ensure a sustainable use.

The optimum yield is lower and safer in terms of long term

sustainability because the maximum sustainable yield
leaves no margin for error through other factors, e.g. disease or climate change.

Carrying capacity is the maximum population that can exist in equilibrium with the available resources
of a given area. The problem with carrying capacity is that carrying capacity varies seasonally and is
expected to reduce by climate change.

Key players
Examiners tip: you should be able to name specific TNCs and NGOs and their particular roles. Resist
the temptation to make broad generic comments.

There are often conflicts surrounding the issue of the maintenance, use and safety of ecosystems.
Often the players views are complex.

Players What is their impact on protecting

Intergovernmental organisations, e.g.
UNESCO and UNEP.
Individuals, e.g. David Attenborough.
Non-governmental organisations, e.g. WWF
and Greenpeace.
TNCs, e.g. Exxon Mobil spent $100 million
to develop algae-derived biofuel.
Scientists and researchers
Government, e.g. the UK.
biodiversity?
They are usually part of the UN that are
responsible for the CITES agreement, World
Heritage Sites and the Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment. Global treaties, scientific research
and monitoring are involved in the
intergovernmental organisations work.
Certain individual campaigners (celebrities) have
the ability to reach a global audience and push for
change.
They often help manage conserved areas and
campaign to keep issues in the media and
governments.
They all have environmental reports and their
decisions concerning locations to exploit can have
a large effect on biodiversity. Collecting wild
plants for pharmaceutical research can affect the
gene pool. TNCs can also promote biodiversity
(e.g. Sky) and sponsor conservation schemes.
They work for a variety of organisations from
NGOs to agencies based in universities.
Their decisions are crucial to conservation and
preservation because governments implement
treats like CITES and set and run National Parks.

Treaties
Treaty What does it do?
The Ramsar Convention (as shown in This was to conserve wetlands in Iran in 1971; it is
Thailand) now adopted by 147 countries.
The World Heritage Convention This is used to designate and protect outstanding

The Convention on the Conservation of
Migratory Species of Wild Animals
The Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species (CITES)
The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
(UNCLOS))
cultural and natural sites; it was signed in 1972
and adopted by over 180 countries.
This was signed in 1979 and by 2005 it had been
adopted by 90 countries to prevent shooting of
birds in passage.
This was signed in 1973 and was adopted by 166
countries; it was adopted by 166 countries. It
controls trade in a range of species and their
products.
It has been ratified by 148 countries.

Strategies and policies

Examiners tip: make sure you know the distinction between conservation and preservation.

There often needs to be decisions in relation to what is conserved and what isnt:

Iconic species Keystone species Hotspots

It is relatively easy to raise
money for these species
such as pandas but it is
unknown how significant
they are on a gloabl level.
Species (such as bees) are
crucial but are difficult in
order to recieve donations
for.
They are definitely under
threat and they would
require a large volume of
conservation but many
areas (e.g. the Arctic) are
not biodiverse enough to
qualify.

Ecoregions
They are karge areas abd
conserving them would be
highly important globally
but it would be difficult and
expensive to monitor. They
are also largely volatile to
climate change.

Management strategies

Protectio Exploitati
n on

Biosphere reserves
UNESCO biosphere reserves use zoning to conserve core ecological areas, whilst allowing some
economic development, e.g. ecotourism. It is important to educate local people to conserve resources.
It often includes scientific research, e.g. the Galapagos Islands.

Biodiversity futures
2010 was the UN international year of biodiversity
Only 12% of the Earths land surface is designed as meriting some form of protection and less
than 1% of marine areas are currently protected.

UNEP identifies 4 futures for ecosystems and biodiversity:

Markets first Policy future Security future

Profit driven future with
continued degradation of
biodiversity
A greater balance
between human and
ecological wellbeing, but
humans are put first by
policymakers and
ecosystems are protected
when possible.
Focus is on maintaining
the wealth in a very
unequal world; IGOs like
the UN are viewed with
suspicion; the
environment is there to
be exploited.

Sustainability first
Equal weight is given to
human and ecological
wellbeing , and thinking
is long-term to gradually
recover lost ecological
ground

Synoptic links

Unit 1
World at risk: impacts of climate change on the Arctic and other ecosystems.

Unit 2
Crowded coasts: impacts on SSSIs, e.g. sand dunes.

Unit 3
Water conflicts: diminishing water quantity and quality.
Energy security: impacts of energy exploitation on ecosystems.
Superpower geographies/bridging the development gap: impacts of development on
ecosystems.
Technological fix? Impacts of technology use on ecosystems.

Unit 4
Cold environments: impact of ecosystems in dry lands.
Life on the margins: impacts of desertification on grassland ecosystems.
Consuming the rural landscape: impact of tourism on biodiversity, especially in fragile and
vulnerable areas.

Wider global issues

Conservation Vs. exploitation: biodiversity and the need for a sustainable approach.
Global warming: impact on biodiversity.
Development gap: contrasting issues on biodiversity.