Professional Documents
Culture Documents
0/), which
permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the International Epidemiological Association. International Journal of Epidemiology 2014;43:116128
The Author 2014. Advance Access publication 6 February 2014 doi:10.1093/ije/dyt215
CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE
116
HYPERTENSION AMONG OLDER ADULTS IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES 117
Russian South
Overall China Ghana India Mexico Federation Africa
(n 35 125) (n 13 348) (n 4716) (n 7238) (n 2281) (n 3763) (n 3820)
Age (years) 5054 23.1 21.7 21.0 23.5 26.3 23.1 28.3
5559 23.6 23.3 19.4 25.3 21.7 22.1 21.5
6064 15.7 17.1 14.8 16.5 14.3 11.5 16.9
6569 13.8 14.6 12.5 14.0 11.2 13.1 13.7
7074 10.5 11.1 14.3 10.6 7.8 10.4 8.3
75 13.2 12.1 18.0 10.0 18.6 19.8 11.2
Sex Male 48.0 49.8 49.7 51.1 46.8 38.9 44.0
Female 52.0 50.2 50.3 48.9 53.2 61.1 56.0
Education None 28.9 23.8 54.0 51.2 17.2 0.7 25.2
Primary 30.2 39.5 21.3 24.8 62.4 6.8 46.4
Secondary 15.5 19.7 4.0 10.2 9.9 20.2 14.2
Higher 25.4 17.0 20.7 13.7 10.5 72.3 14.2
BMI Normal 45.9 60.5 55.3 48.3 21.4 23.8 24.7
Underweight 15.6 4.3 15.3 39.0 0.6 1.1 3.3
Overweight 26.1 29.5 19.7 10.6 49.4 40.8 26.9
Obese 12.4 5.7 9.7 2.1 28.6 34.3 45.1
Smoking Never 64.6 64.2 77.3 61.6 60.6 69.6 69.0
Less than 3.0 2.5 2.7 3.9 6.9 1.2 3.4
daily
Daily 24.1 26.7 5.4 28.1 13.3 20.1 17.8
Ever (not 8.2 6.6 14.6 6.3 19.1 9.0 9.7
current)
Alcohol Life time 76.8 74.2 57.8 92.5 64.3 44.7 84.5
consumption abstainers
Non-heavy 18.4 18.2 39.5 6.9 29.3 47.6 11.5
drinker
Infrequent 1.9 1.2 1.2 0.4 6.2 6.3 3.0
heavy
drinker
Frequent 2.8 6.3 1.5 0.2 0.1 1.4 1.0
heavy
drinker
Physical High 48.7 44.1 61.7 52.2 39.6 57.7 28.0
activity Moderate 22.8 27.5 12.6 22.9 22.8 15.7 12.6
Low 28.5 28.3 25.7 24.9 37.6 26.6 59.4
Location Urban 48.1 47.6 40.6 29.4 78.8 72.7 64.9
Rural 51.9 52.4 59.4 70.6 21.2 27.3 35.1
Wealth Poorest 17.0 16.3 18.4 17.9 15.3 16.2 20.7
quintile Q2 19.4 18.2 19.4 19.3 24.7 19.6 19.9
Q3 19.3 20.5 20.7 18.8 16.8 19.1 18.2
Q4 20.8 23.3 20.0 19.5 16.6 20.5 19.8
Richest 23.5 21.7 21.5 24.4 26.6 24.6 21.4
Health Insured 56.0 89.6 38.0 3.9 66.6 99.6 20.5
insurance Uninsured 44.0 10.4 62.0 96.1 33.4 0.4 79.5
Response 92.3 78.4 87.3 52.4 82.3 77.7
rate (%)
HYPERTENSION AMONG OLDER ADULTS IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES 119
All data analysis was weighted, using individual their condition (Table 3) and who were adequately
weights that were post-stratified based on the UN controlled (Table 4). The Russian Federation was the
Population Standards data.15 All analyses were age only country with a high percentage of people aware
standardized. Analysis was carried out using SAS 9.3 of their status (72%); in none of the other five coun-
(Statistical Analysis Software, SAS Institute). tries were more than 45% of hypertensive people
Multivariable logistic regression models were used to aware. Factors consistently associated with awareness
examine the association of a range of characteristics across the six countries included increasing age, being
with the following outcomes: hypertension, awareness female and being overweight or obese. Having health
of hypertension, use of antihypertensives and control. insurance was positively associated with awareness in
Models were applied to each country sample individu- three countries, but the strength of this effect varied
ally, and to the total pooled sample. All characteristics from very strong in the Russian Federation to more
were retained in the final forced multivariable marginal in Ghana. With the exception of Mexico
model, with complete data on all variables. The ad- and the Russian Federation, urban residence was
justed model included: age, sex, education, body mass associated with awareness. Higher wealth quintiles
index (BMI, kg/m), location (rural/urban), wealth were associated with awareness in every country
quintiles at the household level, and household other than Mexico. The effect of higher education
heads membership of a health insurance scheme. status was less consistent, with positive associations
Details of classification of variables are presented in in four countries.
Appendix 1 (available as Supplementary data at IJE Table 4 shows large national variations in the pro-
online). For those receiving treatment, we applied portion of hypertensive subjects whose condition was
similar models (adding inadequate physical activity effectively controlled, ranging from 4% in Ghana to
and heavy alcohol consumption) to determine the fac- 14% in India, and the extent to which awareness led
tors that were associated with effective treatment (i.e. to control, ranging from 18% in Ghana to 37% in
treated but with normal measured blood pressure) India. Our adjusted model shows that older age was
compared with ineffective treatment (detailed defin- associated with higher rates of control in five of the
itions of these variables are provided in Appendix 1, six countries, and female sex, urban residence and
available as Supplementary data at IJE online). higher wealth quintiles in four countries. Being over-
weight or obese had no consistent effect on control
across the study countries, except in the Russian
Federation. Health insurance was positively associated
Results with control in just two of the six countries.
Table 1 shows the distribution of variables potentially Supplementary Table A2 (available as Supplementary
associated with hypertension by country and for the data at IJE online) shows large national variations in
SAGE sample as a whole. Table 2 shows there were the effective treatment of blood pressure among
high rates of hypertension for all the SAGE countries, people taking antihypertensive medication, ranging
albeit with large national variations. The prevalence of from 24% in South Africa to 55% in India.
hypertension ranged from 78% in South Africa to 32% Supplementary Table A2 (available as Supplementary
in India, with consistently higher levels for women. data at IJE online) shows that effective treatment of
Adjusted individual-level multivariable analysis blood pressure was inversely associated with increas-
showed positive associations with increasing age and ing BMI in three of the six countries. For the other
body mass index (BMI) consistently across countries. factors there was no consistent pattern of association
Women had higher odds of hypertension in all coun- across the SAGE countries.
tries but China. Increasing BMI was strongly asso- Figure 1 summarizes the national data for hyperten-
ciated with hypertension. This was consistent across sion, prevalence, awareness and treatment, as pre-
countries, and the large variations in the prevalence of sented in the main data tables.
overweight/obesity across the SAGE countries (16.6%
in India, 83.5% in the Russian Federation) were a key
determinant for the national variations in prevalence
reported in Table 2. The inverse association with Discussion
higher education was found for all countries except This study examines the factors associated with preva-
India, where education had no effect, and Ghana, lence, awareness and treatment of hypertension for
where only people with no education were less large nationally representative samples of older people
likely to have hypertension. The effects of smoking in LMICs. This analysis focuses on people over the age of
and physical exercise were inconsistent across coun- 50 years, since people over this threshold have markedly
tries and point estimates were small, with wide con- increased risks of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and will
fidence intervals. The effect of alcohol consumption derive greatest benefit from drug treatment in terms of
was very inconsistent, which partly reflects the very numbers needed to treat. WHO guidelines for preven-
low numbers reporting heavy drinking. tion of CVD also indicate that people aged 50 and over
There were large national variations in the propor- are the age range of highest risk and therefore of rele-
tion of hypertensive participants who were aware of vance for intervention with a polypill.16 Preventive
Table 2 Prevalence and odds ratios (95% CI) for hypertension by various characteristics across all sites; odds ratios are adjusted for all of the other variables in the
table
120
Russian South
Overall China Ghana India Mexico Federation Africa
(n 27 376) (n 11 964) (n 3923) (n 4474) (n 2010) (n 3191) (n 2583)
Prevalence of Hypertension (%)
Total 52.9 (52.353.4) 59.5 (58.460.6) 57.1 (55.159.1) 32.3 (30.334.3) 58.2 (55.461.0) 71.7 (69.973.5) 77.9 (76.479.4)
Male 49.5 (48.750.3) 58.8 (57.660.0) 54.6 (52.556.7) 30.3 (28.731.9) 55.2 (52.158.3) 65.9 (63.468.4) 74.7 (72.676.8)
Female 55.9 (55.156.6) 60.1 (58.961.3) 59.9 (57.862.0) 35.0 (33.336.7) 60.9 (58.063.8) 74.5 (72.676.4) 80.3 (78.682.0)
Odds Ratios
Age (years) 5054 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
5559 1.44 (1.341.55) 1.30 (1.161.45) 1.12 (0.911.38) 1.60 (1.321.94) 1.69 (1.252.27) 1.57 (1.241.99) 1.31 (1.001.73)
6064 1.79 (1.651.95) 1.76 (1.561.99) 1.24 (0.991.56) 1.51 (1.221.88) 2.52 (1.793.54) 2.45 (1.803.33) 1.53 (1.132.07)
6569 2.26 (2.072.47) 2.29 (2.002.61) 1.53 (1.211.95) 2.03 (1.622.54) 4.52 (3.026.76) 2.13 (1.602.83) 1.50 (1.072.09)
7074 2.80 (2.533.09) 2.83 (2.433.29) 1.32 (1.041.67) 2.20 (1.712.82) 4.73 (2.977.52) 4.04 (2.845.74) 1.53 (1.022.29)
75 3.67 (3.324.05) 3.47 (2.964.07) 1.28 (1.021.61) 2.34 (1.793.06) 5.42 (3.727.09) 6.81 (4.839.60) 1.83 (1.252.68)
Sex Male 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Female 1.16 (1.081.24) 0.94 (0.851.05) 1.16 (1.001.35) 1.38 (1.151.65) 1.17 (0.921.48) 1.17 (0.941.46) 1.29 (1.051.59)
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
Education Primary 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
None 0.93 (0.871.00) 0.96 (0.861.07) 0.82 (0.690.98) 1.03 (0.871.23) 1.68 (1.212.33) 0.17 (0.050.55) 1.11 (0.851.43)
Secondary 1.01 (0.931.09) 1.03 (0.931.15) 0.76 (0.531.10) 1.09 (0.851.40) 0.53 (0.370.76) 0.56 (0.340.91) 0.77 (0.571.04)
Higher 0.94 (0.871.01) 0.85 (0.750.96) 0.96 (0.781.18) 1.06 (0.841.34) 0.70 (0.491.00) 0.52 (0.330.84) 0.67 (0.480.93)
BMI Normal 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Underweight 0.44 (0.400.48) 0.47 (0.390.57) 0.65 (0.540.79) 0.54 (0.470.64) 0.43 (0.111.67) 0.27 (0.130.59) 0.96 (0.581.59)
Overweight 1.91 (1.792.03) 2.02 (1.852.21) 1.77 (1.482.12) 1.55 (1.261.92) 2.83 (2.143.74) 1.77 (1.442.16) 1.57 (1.202.06)
Obese 4.09 (3.734.49) 2.74 (2.283.30) 2.30 (1.763.00) 1.86 (1.252.77) 3.38 (2.474.62) 7.05 (5.509.03) 1.85 (1.432.39)
Smoking Never 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Less than daily/ever 1.11 (1.011.22) 1.14 (0.981.34) 1.24 (1.021.49) 1.20 (0.951.51) 1.32 (1.011.74) 0.75 (0.551.02) 1.05 (0.781.42)
(not current)
Daily 0.96 (0.891.03) 0.82 (0.720.92) 0.83 (0.611.12) 0.97 (0.801.17) 0.82 (0.601.13) 1.25 (0.971.63) 1.07 (0.811.42)
Alcohol Life-time abstainers 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
consumption Non-heavy drinker 1.05 (0.981.14) 1.02 (0.911.15) 0.80 (0.690.94) 1.39 (1.031.87) 0.34 (0.260.45) 1.34 (1.091.65) 0.66 (0.470.91)
Infrequent heavy 1.07 (0.871.31) 1.10 (0.771.59) 0.80 (0.401.59) 1.53 (0.504.69) 1.66 (1.002.77) 1.02 (0.651.59) 0.41 (0.250.67)
drinkers
Frequent heavy 1.88 (1.582.23) 1.72 (1.432.07) 1.24 (0.662.33) 7.46 (1.4937.3) Not estimable 0.77 (0.341.76) 0.45 (0.171.15)
drinkers
Physical activity High 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Moderate 1.06 (0.991.13) 1.05 (0.951.16) 1.02 (0.831.25) 0.99 (0.831.17) 1.66 (1.262.20) 1.07 (0.841.37) 0.91 (0.661.26)
Low 1.13 (1.061.21) 1.06 (0.961.17) 1.09 (0.921.30) 1.21 (1.031.43) 1.15 (0.891.48) 1.07 (0.851.34) 0.77 (0.610.97)
(continued)
HYPERTENSION AMONG OLDER ADULTS IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES 121
0.92 (0.711.20)
1.04 (0.831.31)
0.87 (0.641.17)
1.03 (0.751.42)
1.26 (0.901.78)
1.26 (0.881.80)
measures such as attempts to reduce salt use in the
(n 2583)
whole population will clearly have impact on people at
Africa
South
younger as well as at older ages. WHO SAGE includes a
comparison group of 7344 people aged between 18 and
49 years. A separate analysis of hypertension for the
1
1
SAGE population as a whole reports similar levels of
2.46 (0.629.67)
0.92 (0.751.13)
1.16 (0.871.56)
1.27 (0.941.70)
1.51 (1.132.02)
0.77 (0.581.01)
prevalence, awareness, treatment and control to those
Federation
reported here.17
(n 3191)
Russian
1
their condition, but only a very small proportion
(4.1% to 14.1%) achieved blood pressure control.
0.86 (0.691.08)
0.97 (0.741.27)
2.93 (2.044.21)
0.92 (0.621.36)
1.16 (0.781.71)
1.43 (0.982.09)
The prevalence levels of hypertension observed in
(n 2010)
Mexico
0.97 (0.771.23)
1.09 (0.871.37)
1.12 (0.891.41)
1.44 (1.151.82)
1.16 (0.911.48)
1.08 (0.941.25)
1.11 (0.901.38)
1.77 (0.951.45)
1.77 (0.941.47)
0.93 (0.811.08)
0.85 (0.750.97)
0.88 (0.771.00)
0.90 (0.781.02)
1.00 (0.871.14)
0.98 (0.901.07)
0.92 (0.841.01)
0.98 (0.901.07)
0.86 (0.790.94)
Richest
Urban
Rural
Health insurance
Table 3 Prevalence of awareness and adjusted model for being aware of the presence of hypertension by country (odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals)
Russian South
Overall China Ghana India Mexico Federation Africa
(n 17396) (n 7167) (n 2314) (n 1962) (n 1159) (n 2260) (n 2147)
Prevalence of Awareness (%)
Total 48.3 (47.549.0) 42.7 (41.643.8) 23.3 (21.625.0) 37.8 (35.739.9) 44.6 (41.847.4) 72.1 (70.373.9) 38.0 (36.239.8)
Male 41.5 (40.442.5) 38.0 (36.439.6) 19.2 (17.021.4) 35.6 (32.638.6) 39.3 (35.243.4) 61.4 (58.264.6) 32.8 (30.135.5)
Female 53.9 (52.954.8) 47.2 (45.648.8) 27.5 (25.030.0) 39.9 (36.942.9) 48.7 (44.952.5) 78.2 (76.280.2) 41.8 (39.444.2)
Odds Ratios
Age (years) 5054 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
5559 1.30 (1.171.44) 1.33 (1.131.57) 1.29 (0.911.83) 1.12 (0.831.52) 6.47 (3.8510.8) 0.99 (0.731.35) 1.71 (1.302.25)
6064 1.42 (1.271.59) 1.65 (1.391.97) 1.46 (1.002.13) 0.93 (0.651.32) 7.69 (4.5013.1) 0.85 (0.601.20) 1.65 (1.232.20)
6569 2.03 (1.812.27) 2.30 (1.932.75) 2.00 (1.382.90) 1.43 (1.021.99) 6.83 (3.9911.6) 1.32 (0.931.89) 2.93 (2.173.95)
70 2.56 (2.312.83) 2.36 (1.992.79) 2.49 (1.793.47) 2.13 (1.562.92) 8.69 (5.3214.1) 1.62 (1.192.21) 2.60 (1.973.42)
Sex Male 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Female 1.72 (1.611.84) 1.39 (1.251.54) 2.00 (1.592.50) 1.79 (1.402.27) 1.95 (1.472.57) 2.37 (1.942.89) 1.58 (1.301.91)
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
BMI Normal 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Underweight 0.61 (0.530.70) 0.70 (0.510.96) 0.78 (0.531.15) 0.50 (0.390.65) 1.39 (0.1711.4) 0.24 (0.070.87) 1.84 (1.073.16)
Overweight/ 1.83 (1.701.96) 1.70 (1.541.89) 1.57 (1.251.98) 1.98 (1.532.56) 2.26 (1.593.22) 1.83 (1.442.32) 1.50 (1.181.90)
Obese
Health Insured 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
insurance Uninsured 0.81 (0.750.87) 0.93 (0.781.11) 0.67 (0.540.83) 0.70 (0.451.07) 0.41 (0.300.56) 0.19 (0.050.70) 0.83 (0.661.06)
Location Urban 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Rural 0.74 (0.690.79) 0.44 (0.390.49) 0.59 (0.470.74) 0.72 (0.580.90) 1.02 (0.731.43) 1.19 (0.941.50) 0.77 (0.620.95)
Education Primary 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
None 0.90 (0.820.99) 1.01 (0.881.16) 0.66 (0.500.88) 0.80 (0.611.04) 1.03 (0.711.50) 2.78 (0.6312.3) 0.93 (0.741.18)
Secondary/ 2.04 (1.882.20) 1.31 (1.161.48) 1.51 (1.122.02) 2.10 (1.572.81) 1.12 (0.761.65) 1.56 (1.072.26) 0.82 (0.651.03)
higher
Wealth Poorest 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
quintile Q2 1.13 (1.011.26) 1.15 (0.971.37) 1.01 (0.641.58) 1.94 (1.312.88) 0.39 (0.250.60) 1.70 (1.242.32) 1.05 (0.781.42)
Q3 1.32 (1.181.47) 1.20 (1.011.43) 1.39 (0.912.13) 1.61 (1.082.39) 0.90 (0.551.46) 1.98 (1.442.72) 1.35 (1.001.82)
Q4 1.39 (1.251.55) 1.30 (1.091.54) 1.98 (1.313.00) 1.99 (1.352.92) 0.88 (0.541.44) 1.57 (1.162.13) 1.28 (0.941.75)
Richest 1.76 (1.581.97) 1.32 (1.101.59) 2.35 (1.533.60) 2.08 (1.4130.6) 0.97 (0.601.56) 3.30 (2.354.62) 1.60 (1.162.21)
Table 4 Prevalence of control and adjusted model for effective control of hypertension in hypertensive participants (odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals)
Russian South
Overall China Ghana India Mexico Federation Africa
(n 17 366) (n 7152) (n 2303) (n 1962) (n 1159) (n 2256) (n 2129)
Prevalence of Control (%)
Total 10.2 (9.710.6) 8.3 (7.78.9) 4.1 (3.34.9) 14.1 (12.615.6) 11.8 (10.013.6) 10.5 (9.311.7) 7.8 (6.88.8)
Male 9.1 (8.59.7) 8.2 (7.39.1) 4.0 (2.95.1) 13.1 (11.015.2) 6.5 (4.48.6) 8.8 (7.010.6) 5.8 (4.57.1)
Female 11.1 (10.511.7) 8.3 (7.49.2) 4.3 (3.25.4) 15.1 (12.917.3) 15.9 (13.218.6) 11.5 (9.913.1) 9.2 (7.810.6)
Odds Ratios
Age (years) 5054 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
5559 1.45 (1.221.73) 1.39 (1.011.93) 1.93 (0.864.32) 1.30 (0.852.00) 11.7 (4.4231.2) 0.99 (0.601.61) 1.39 (0.802.38)
6064 1.49 (1.231.80) 1.40 (1.011.96) 0.95 (0.342.66) 1.32 (0.802.15) 4.56 (1.6212.8) 1.71 (1.032.84) 0.69 (0.361.33)
6569 1.78 (1.482.14) 1.72 (1.252.39) 2.69 (1.176.15) 1.49 (0.922.42) 4.91 (1.7613.7) 1.60 (0.962.66) 3.11 (1.885.16)
70 1.82 (1.532.16) 1.53 (1.122.09) 2.60 (1.205.62) 2.47 (1.583.86) 5.74 (2.2114.8) 1.18 (0.721.93) 1.56 (0.932.61)
Sex Male 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Female 1.22 (1.091.36) 0.86 (0.711.04) 1.36 (0.852.18) 1.41 (1.011.96) 2.66 (1.644.31) 1.79 (1.292.49) 1.70 (1.162.48)
BMI Normal 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Underweight 0.83 (0.661.03) 0.81 (0.451.47) 0.59 (0.231.53) 0.72 (0.491.03) 3.97 (0.3642.9) <0.001 5.52 (2.3812.7)
(<0.001- 4999)
Overweight 0.95 (0.841.07) 0.93 (0.771.12) 0.79 (0.471.34) 1.37 (0.971.93) 1.45 (0.822.56) 0.67 (0.470.97) 0.99 (0.561.74)
Obese 0.81 (0.690.94) 0.90 (0.631.28) 0.68 (0.361.29) 1.71 (0.943.11) 1.14 (0.612.12) 0.50 (0.330.74) 1.50 (0.902.49)
Health Insured 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
insurance
Uninsured 1.44 (1.281.62) 1.16 (0.901.51) 0.67 (0.431.05) 0.49 (0.310.78) 0.34 (0.190.59) 0.67 (0.076.41) 0.80 (0.531.22)
Location Urban 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Rural 0.51 (0.450.58) 0.17 (0.130.22) 0.42 (0.230.74) 0.73 (0.540.97) 1.52 (0.942.45) 0.57 (0.400.83) 0.74 (0.491.12)
Education Primary 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
None 1.15 (0.981.34) 1.01 (0.761.33) 0.77 (0.421.41) 1.08 (0.751.56) 2.01 (1.163.48) 0.17 (0.015.19) 1.63 (1.052.53)
Secondary/ 1.40 (1.241.59) 1.39 (1.131.71) 1.10 (0.612.01) 1.46 (0.992.15) 1.22 (0.682.20) 0.73 (0.431.24) 1.34 (0.882.03)
higher
Wealth Poorest 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
quintile Q2 1.14 (0.931.40) 1.22 (0.851.74) 0.50 (0.141.69) 1.37 (0.712.62) 0.48 (0.231.01) 1.36 (0.792.35) 3.03 (1.545.96)
Q3 1.41 (1.161.73) 1.24 (0.881.75) 0.93 (0.332.64) 1.51 (0.792.88) 1.39 (0.682.82) 1.36 (0.792.36) 2.11 (1.044.31)
Q4 2.02 (1.672.44) 1.30 (0.931.83) 1.17 (0.443.11) 2.88 (1.605.20) 1.77 (0.873.60) 2.23 (1.323.77) 3.64 (1.837.27)
Richest 2.28 (1.892.75) 1.00 (0.701.42) 2.83 (1.107.28) 3.11 (1.715.63) 1.29 (0.652.58) 2.51 (1.484.25) 3.91 (1.947.85)
HYPERTENSION AMONG OLDER ADULTS IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES
(continued)
123
124 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
(<0.001- 4999)
odds with other studies from LMICs which show
0.28 (0.100.75)
0.80 (0.213.04)
2.29 (1.264.16)
2.18 (1.363.49)
varied gender effects.2831 It is also at odds with a
(n 2129)
Africa
South systematic meta-analysis of global blood pressure
trends, which showed that men had higher average
<0.001
blood pressure than women in all world regions other
1
1
than West Africa.32
Although only a few studies have examined aware-
0.10 (<0.00165.3)
ness, treatment and control for older people in LMICs,
1.05 (0.711.55)
0.74 (0.501.10)
1.30 (0.931.83)
2.34 (1.144.80)
Federation
1
over in rural districts of India and South Africa report
control rates of 4%.33,34 A survey of adults in the former
(<0.001- 4999)
1.41 (0.812.45)
1.02 (0.611.70)
0.47 (0.191.15)
0.22 (0.050.89)
(<0.001- 4999)
0.91 (0.651.28)
0.74 (0.521.05)
0.52 (0.251.07)
<0.001
(<0.001- 4999)
1.98 (1.003.92)
1.57 (0.942.63)
2.78 (1.654.68)
<0.001
drinkers
drinkers
Infrequent
drinker
Moderate
Frequent
heavy
heavy
Low
Figure 1 Summaries of the national data for hypertension, prevalence, awareness and treatment, as presented in the main
data tables
Programme, in screening and treating hypertension.38 sub-Saharan Africa may already be experiencing glo-
For other countries and for the pooled data, health bally unprecedented rates of hypertension. This corres-
insurance coverage is often a poor predictor of treat- ponds with the results of a synthetic estimate of the
ment and control. In India, despite having the lowest global mean blood pressure trends which found highest
health insurance coverage (4%), levels of awareness levels in sub-Saharan Africa.32
and treatment are both notably higher than in the National variations in hypertension do not correlate
other study countries. This may be due to dispropor- with economic and social development, based on
tionately high prevalence among richer groups in indicators such as wealth, education and urbanization
India who are better placed to access effective treat- (Supplementary Table A3, available as Supplementary
ment regardless of their insurance status. In the case data at IJE online).This shows the need for a more
of Indias poorest wealth quintile, only 5.3% of hyper- nuanced appreciation of relationships between devel-
tensive people are controlled, compared with 23.5% of opment and NCDs than is often made in the general
the richest. The lack of association between health literature.2,41 High BMI was a key determinant of
insurance coverage and treatment or control at the national variations although, as with hypertension,
national level among the SAGE countries may reflect BMI did not correlate with general development indi-
large variations in the extent and quality of services cators at the national level. The reasons for these dis-
offered by different schemes. Other studies have crepancies have not been systematically researched
found these to be highly variable.38,39 and require further analysis.42
Studies show that similar automated wrist devices The SAGE findings indicate that hypertension
to measure blood pressure compare well with gold- affects poorer groups just as much as the rich, if
standard measurements using sphygmomanometers not more. Even so, only 16% of hypertensive people
and trained health personnel.13, 40 A possible limitation in the wealthiest quintile had effectively controlled
of our study is that we relied on lay trained non-clinician their condition. The failure to control hypertension
interviewers for the measurement of blood pressure. cuts across all social strata, which may increase the
Data suggest that trained personnel actually underesti- political leverage to develop meaningful responses.
mate the prevalence of hypertension as compared with Better access to healthcare among the urban popula-
clinicians.40 Our classification of hypertension was tion has a positive effect on controlling hypertension
based on an average of two measurements and not on and may be a benefit of urbanization. As such, the
more regular monitoring. This may have contributed to simple causal link that is often made between urban-
overestimation of hypertension prevalence. These two ization and NCDs requires qualification.
sources of opposing bias may result in our hypertension The prominence of NCDs, and metabolic risk factors
estimates being close to the true prevalence. such as hypertension, in global health and develop-
ment agendas has risen quickly. Nevertheless, there
remains a large gap between discourse and policy
Conclusions and policy practice. It has been estimated that NCDs accounted
for only 3% of total global health assistance between
implications 2001 and 2008.43 Given the close association between
High prevalence among older adults in South Africa and hypertension and BMI, interventions targeting diet
Ghana raises the possibility that all countries across and exercise should be given the highest possible
126 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
KEY MESSAGES
Nationally representative data for people aged 50 years and over in China, Ghana, India, Mexico, the
Russian Federation and South Africa demonstrate high prevalences of hypertension, between 2007
and 2010, ranging from 52.9% in India to 77.9% in South Africa.
In all six countries, national prevalence is strongly associated with age and BMI.
India achieved the highest rate of control (14.1%) and treatment efficacy (55.2%); the lowest rate of control
was in Ghana (4.1%) and the lowest rate of treatment efficacy was in the Russian Federation (17.4%).
There is no clear social gradient for prevalence, but being in the highest wealth quintile was
associated with higher rates of awareness in five countries and higher rates of control in four.
The national variations in prevalence, awareness, treatment and control indicate there is considerable
scope for some LMICs to improve their performance in these areas.
References
1 3
United Nations. World Population Prospects, The 2010 Yach D, Hawkes C, Gould C, Hofman K. (2004) The
Revision. New York: United Nations Population Division, global burden of chronic diseases. Overcoming impedi-
2010. ments to prevention and control. JAMA 2004;291:
2
World Health Organization (WHO). Global Status 261622.
4
Report on Noncommunicable Diseases 2010. Geneva: WHO, Prince M, Ebrahim S, Acosta D et al. Hypertension
2010. prevalence, awareness, treatment and control among
HYPERTENSION AMONG OLDER ADULTS IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES 127
22
older people in low and middle income countries; a 10/66 Egan BM, Zhao Y, Axon RN. US trends in prevalence,
cross-sectional population-based survey in Latin America, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension,
India and China. J Hypertens 2012;30:17787. 1988-2008. JAMA 2010;303:204350.
5 23
Bosu W. Epidemic of hypertension in Ghana: a systematic Macedo ME, Lima MJ, Silva AO, Alcantara P,
review. BMC Public Health 2010;10:418. Ramalhinho V, Carmona J. Prevalence, awareness, treat-
6
Steyn K, Sliwa K, Hawken S et al. Risk Factors Associated ment and control of hypertension in Portugal: the PAP
With Myocardial Infarction in Africa. The INTERHEART study. J Hypertens 2005;23:166166.
24
Africa Study. Circulation 2005;112:355461. Twagirumukiza M, de Bacquer D, Kips J, de Backer G,
7
Ferri CP, Schoenborn C, Kalra L et al. Prevalence of Vander Stichele R, Van Bortel L. Current and projected
stroke and related burden among older people living in prevalence of arterial hypertension in sub-Saharan Africa
Latin America, India and China. J Neurol Neurosurg by sex, age and habitat: an estimate from population
Psychiatry 2011;26:51119. studies. J Hypertens 2011;29:124352.
8 25
Ikeda N, Saito E, Kondo N et al. What has made the Bovet P, Gervasoni JP, Ross AG et al. Assessing the preva-
population of Japan healthy? Lancet 2011;378:1094105. lence of hypertension in populations: are we doing it
9
Mohan S, Campbell N, Chockalingam A. Management of right? J Hypertens 2003;21:50917.
26
hypertension in low and middle income countries: chal- MacMahon S, Peto R, Cutler J et al. Blood pressure,
lenges and opportunities. Prev Control 2005;1:27584. stroke, and coronary heart disease. Part 1, prolonged
10
Kearney P, Whelton M, Reynolds K, Muntner P, differences in blood pressure: prospective observational
Whelton P, He J. Global burden of hypertension: analysis studies corrected for the regression dilution bias. Lancet
of worldwide data. Lancet 2005;365:21723. 1990;335:76574.
11 27
Subburam R, Sankarapandian M, Gopinath DR, Prospective Studies Collaboration. Age-specific rele-
Selvarajan SK, Kabilan L. Prevalence of hypertension vance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality:
and correlates among adults of 45-60 years in a rural a meta-analysis of individual data for one million
area of Tamil Nadu. Indian J Public Health 2009;53:3740. adults in 61 prospective studies. Lancet 2002;360:
12
Kowal P, Chatterji S, Naidoo N. et al., Data Resource 190313.
28
Profile: The World Health Organization Study on global Minh H, Bypass P, Chuc N, Wall S. Gender differences
AGEing and adult health (SAGE). Int J Epidemiol 2012;41: in prevalence and socioeconomic determinants of
163949. hypertension: findings from the WHO STEPS survey
13
Altunkan S, Oztas K, Altunkan E. Validation of the in a rural community of Vietnam. J Hum Hypertens
Omron 637IT wrist blood pressure measuring device 2006;20:10915.
29
with a position sensor according to the International Sarraf-Zadegan N, Boshtam M, Rafiei M. Risk factors for
Protocol in adults and obese adults. Blood Press Monit coronary artery disease in Isfahan, Iran. EurJ Public Health
2006;11:7985. 1999;1:2026.
14 30
Tian HY, Liu WJ, Li SG, Song Z, Gong W. Validation Tatsanavivat P, Klungboonkrong V, Chirawatkul A et al.
of the Transtek TMB-988 wrist blood pressure monitor Prevalence of coronary heart disease and major cardiovas-
for home blood pressure monitoring according to the cular risk factors in Thailand. Int J Epidemiol 1998;27:
International protocol. Blood Pressure Monit 2010;15: 40509.
31
32628. Ng N. Risk Factors of Elevated Blood Pressure in Purworejo,
15
Ahmad OB, Boschi-Pint C, Lo pez AD, Murray CJLLR, Central Java Province, Indonesia: A Preliminary Study. Umea,
Inoue M. Age Standardization of Rates: a New WHO standard. Sweden: International School of Public Health, Umea
Geneva: WHO, 2001. University, 2001.
16 32
World Health Organization. Prevention of Cardiovascular Danaei G, Finucane MM, Lin JK et al. National, regional,
Disease. Guidelines for Assessment and Management of and global trends in systolic blood pressure since 1980:
Cardiovascular Risk. Geneva: World Health Organization, systematic analysis of health examination surveys and
2007. epidemiological studies with 786 country-years and 5.4
17
Basu S, Millet C. Social Epidemiology of Hypertension in million participants. Lancet 2011;377:56877.
33
Middle-Income Countries: Determinants of Prevalence, Bhardwaj R, Kandori A, Marwah R et al. Prevalence,
Diagnosis, Treatment, and Control in the WHO SAGE awareness and control of hypertension in rural commu-
Study. Hypertension 2013;62:1826. nities of Himachal Pradesh. J Assoc Physicians India 2010;
18
Gu D, Reynolds K, Wu X. et al., InterASIA Collaborative 58:42324, 429.
34
Group. The International Collaborative Study of Thorogood M, Connor M, Tollman S, Lewando Hundt G,
Cardiovascular Disease in ASIA. Prevalence, awareness, Fowkes G, Marsh J. A cross-sectional study of vascular
treatment, and control of hypertension in China. risk factors in a rural South African population: data
Hypertension 2002;40:92027. from the Southern African Stroke Prevention Initiative
19
Barquera S, Campos-Nonato I, Hernandez-Barrera L et al. (SASPI). BMC Public Health 2007;7:326.
35
Hypertension in Mexican adults: results from the Roberts B, Stickley A, Balabanova D, McKee M.
National Health and Nutrition Survey 2006. Salud Irregular treatment of hypertension in the former
Publica de Mexico 2010;52(Suppl 1):S6371. Soviet Union. J Epidemiol Community Health 2010;64:
20
Department for Health, Government of South Africa. The 90207.
36
2003 South African Demographic and Health Survey. 2007. Hypertension Study Group. Prevalence, awareness, treat-
http://www.measuredhs.com/pubs/pdf/FR206/FR206.pdf ment and control of hypertension among the elderly in
(7 October 2013, date last accessed). Bangladesh and India: a multicentre study. Bull World
21
Primatesta P, Poulter N. Hypertension management and Health Organ 2001;79:490500.
37
control among English adults aged 65 years and older in Chan C, Marmot M, Farley T, Poulter N. The influence
2000 and 2001. J Hypertens 2004;6:109398. of economic development on the association between
128 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
42
education and the risk of acute myocardial infarction and Popkin B. Contemporary nutritional transition: determin-
stroke. J Clin Epidemiol 2002;55:74147. ants of diet and its impact on body composition. Proc Nutr
38
Bleich S, Cutler D, Adams A, Lozano R, Murray C. (2007) Soc 2011;70:8291.
43
Impact of insurance and supply of health professionals Nugent R, Feigl A. Where Have All the Donors Gone?
on coverage of treatment for hypertension in Mexico: Scarce Donor Funding for Non-Communicable Diseases.
population-based study. BMJ 2007;335:875. Working Paper 228. Washington, DC: Centre for Global
39
Albanese E, Liu Z, Acosta D et al. Equity in the delivery Development, 2010.
44
of community healthcare to older people: findings from Asaria P, Chisholm D, Mathers C, Ezzati M, Beaglehole R.
10/66 Dementia Research Group cross-sectional surveys Chronic disease prevention: health effects and financial
in Latin America, China, India and Nigeria. BMC Health costs of strategies to reduce salt intake and control
Serv Res 2011;11:153. tobacco use. Lancet 2007;370:204453.
40 45
Roubsanthisuk W, Wongsurin U, Saravich S, Serour M, Alqhenaei H, Al-Saqabi S, Mustafa AR,
Buranakitjaroen P. Blood pressure determination by Ben-Nakhi A. Cultural factors and patients adherence
traditionally trained personnel is less reliable and tends to lifestyle measures. Br J Gen Pract 2007;57:2915.
46
to underestimate the severity of moderate to severe Lim S, Gaziano T, Gakidou E et al. Prevention of
hypertension. Blood Press Monit 2007;12:6168. cardiovascular disease in high-risk individuals in low
41
Wagner K, Brath H. A global view on the development of and middle income countries: health effects and costs.
non-communicable diseases. Prev Med 2011;54:S3841. Lancet 2007;370:205462.