DETERIORATION OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

EXPOSED TO MARINE ENVIRONMENT

Ernesto T. Anacta, Ph.D.CE * Engr. Rodito M. Acol
Faculty Members, Eastern Samar State University
Borongan City

ABSTRACT: Concrete structures which are permanently exposed to marine environment

normally suffer premature deterioration due to ingress of chlorides from seawater which ignites
corrosion on their embedded rebars. This problem is prevalent in the Philippines where, due to
its archipelagic situation, most of its major structures (such as ports, bridges and dwellings) are
located in the coastal zone which serve as center of economic activities and where most its
people resides. As a consequence, billions of pesos are spent every year in terms of repair and
maintenance works.

This study was conducted in order to determine which type of concrete performed well in marine
environment. Particularly, the effect of fly ash and water-cement ratio was investigated using
twelve types of specimens consisting of three water-cement ratios and four amounts of fly ash in
terms of weight of cement. A total of 432 specimens were exposed to the tidal zone for twelve
months where the depth of chloride penetration was measured every month. Results showed that
fly as hindered the ingress of chlorides into concrete and its depth varies inversely with the
amount of fly ash used. It was also found out that using more water-cement ratio complemented
to the ingress of chloride into concrete where its depth increases with the increase of water-
cement ratio. It was, therefore, concluded that for concrete structures permanently exposed to
marine environment, using lesser amount of water-cement ratio and more fly ash is beneficial as
these will result to lesser pace of chloride ingress into concrete.

KEYWORDS: marine environment; deterioration; chloride ingress; tidal zone

1. INTRODUCTION

Deterioration of reinforced concrete structures caused by rebar corrosion is a continuing

and growing problem faced by the construction industry and the end-users [1].
According to Cabrera [2], this problem is very dominant along or near coastal areas
where near-shoreline structures such as ports, bridges, resorts, and even residential and
commercial buildings normally suffer premature, fast-paced and irreversible type of
deterioration due to continuous exposure to seawater which causes corrosion on their
embedded rebars [2, 3]. As a consequence, repeated and costly repair, maintenance,
rehabilitation and even replacement works are undertaken on these structures in order
to extend their service lives [4].

Concrete, being a composite by-product, is produced by mixing hydraulic cement,

water, sand and gravel (called aggregates) with or without admixture, which, upon
chemical reaction between cement and water, results to a solid mass of material with
properties very much different from the original properties of its ingredients [5]. In
order to produce a concrete with good quality, the amount of mixing water to be used
should be controlled to certain quantity [6]. In addition, the use of some admixtures,
such as fly ash, has also been proven as a desirable ingredient of quality concrete [7].
The purpose of this study is to quantitatively determine the effect of fly ash and water-
cement ratio on the depth of chloride ingress in marine concrete. The result derived
from this study will help end-users in constructing marine structures that will last
longer, relieving them from costly repair, maintenance and replacement costs.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Materials Used

All materials used in this experimental study were sourced out from local manufacturers and
suppliers. The cement used was Type 1 ordinary Portland cement in conformance to American
Society for Testing and Materials ASTM C150 / C150 - 17 (Standard Specification for Portland
Cement) while the blending material used was Class F fly ash in accordance to ASTM C618 - 15
(Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in
Concrete). The aggregates came from mineral deposits and were thoroughly sieved according to
specified sizes, washed to remove all contaminants, then air dried, and stored in a clean and dry
place in the laboratory.

The physical properties of aggregates were determined using appropriate ASTM test standards
listed in Table 1.

Table 1. Tests Methods Used to Characterize Aggregates

Aggregate ASTM Test
Description
Properties Standard
Moisture Standard Test Method for Total Evaporable
ASTM C566 -13
Content Moisture Content of Aggregate by Drying
Unit Weight; ASTM C29 / Standard Test Method for Bulk Density (Unit
Voids C29M-07 Weight) and Voids in Aggregate
Standard Test Method for Density, Relative
ASTM C127 - 15 Density (Specific Gravity), and Absorption of
Specific
Coarse Aggregate
Gravity;
Standard Test Method for Density, Relative
Absorption
ASTM C128 - 15 Density (Specific Gravity), and Absorption of
Fine Aggregate

2.2 Preparation and Fabrication of Specimens

The preparation of all specimens was done in accordance to ASTM C192 / C192M - 14
(Standard Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Laboratory).
Immediately after each discharge of fresh concrete from the mixer and before placing the same
in cylindrical molds, a slump test was performed in accordance to ASTM C172 / C172M - 14a
(Standard Practice for Sampling Freshly Mixed Concrete) followed by the determination of unit
weight, and air content in accordance to ASTM C138 / C138M - 17. After 24 hours of casting,
the specimens were removed from the molds and were cured under 100% humidity in
accordance to ASTM C192 / C192M - 14 until the date of testing and transporting to exposure
site.

The mix design of each specimen was proportioned in accordance to American Concrete
Institute ACI 211.1-91 (Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight
and Mass Concrete Reapproved 2009). The proportion was so chosen in order to obtain the
most reliable result in terms of the quantity of the ingredients used. Note that the mix design
employs weighing of each material after subjecting them to preliminary tests and quality control
mentioned in Section 2.1. Concrete mix design for water-cement ratio 0.4 is shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Concrete Mix Proportions per ACI 211.1

Specimen ID
Material Used Unit 1 2 3 4
% 0 10 20 30
Fly ash content
kg/m3 0 52 104 156
Water kg/m3 208 208 208 208
Cement kg/m3 520 468 416 364
Sand kg/m3 634 634 634 634
Gravel kg/m3 881 881 881 881
Total kg/m3 2243 2243 2243 2243

A total of 432 specimens measuring 100 mm dia. x 50 mm thick was fabricated to ensure the
completeness of the one-year experiment. This encompassed the four specimens for each amount
of fly ash (0, 10, 20 and 30 percent fly ash), three for each water-cement ratio (0.40, 0.55 and
0.70), three for every test conducted and 12 for each month the specimens are being retrieved
from the tidal zone site in Brgy. Punta Maria, Borongan City.

2.3 Testing for the Depth of Chloride Ingress

To ensure a pure circumferential (side) penetration of chloride ions, the top and bottom faces of
the specimens were coated with at least 0.5 mm thick of high density marine epoxy and to ensure
a statistically reliable result, three of each type specimen was retrieved from the exposure site
and immediately subjected for testing. The depth of chloride penetration was done using Silver
Nitrate (AgNO3) Colorimetric Spray Method [8]. In performing this test, the specimen was cut
transversely in the direction perpendicular to its longitudinal axis using an electric diamond saw
concrete cutter. The freshly cut sample was then brought to a dark room and immediately
sprayed with 0.1 N silver nitrate solution. After 15 minutes, the chloride contaminated surface
appears whose depth from the external face is measured using a high-precision caliper. This is
the depth of chloride ingress.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Results
The result of the experiment after twelve months is listed in Table 3 and shown graphically in
Figures 1 and 2.

Table 3. Depth of Chloride Ingress (in mm) after One-Year Exposure

Fly Ash Content (%)
0 10 20 30
Water- 0.4 21.97 19.36 17.28 14.56
cement 0.55 37.16 32.26 27.72 23.21
ratio 0.7 54.42 47.32 40.17 33.46

The performance of fly ash against chloride ingress for the three water-cement ratios (Figure 1)
shows that increasing the amount of fly ash in the mix results to significant decrease in the depth
chloride ingress. The figure further shows significant differences in values of depth of chloride
ingress among the three water cement ratios. This means that pace of penetration of chloride ions
is slowest on concrete with the with the lowest w/c ratio, which has also the least differences in
values in terms of varying amount of fly ash.

The effect of water cement ratio on the depth of chloride ingress (Figure 2) reveals that
increasing the amount of water in the mix substantially increases the depth of chloride ingress.
This means that chloride ions penetrates faster in concrete mixed with larger amount of water.
The figure further shows that there is significant differences in values of chloride ingress among
the four types of concrete mixed with different amount of fly ash the one having the largest
amount of fly ash (30%) has the least value of chloride ingress.

60.00
Depth of Chloride Ingress (mm)

50.00

40.00
w/c = 0.70
30.00
w/c = 0.55
20.00
w/c = 0.40
10.00

0.00
0 10 20 30
Fly Ash Content (% of wt. of Cement)

Figure 1. Effect of fly ash on depth of chloride ingress

 60.00
FA = 0 %

Depth of Chloride Ingress (mm)

50.00
FA = 10 %
40.00 FA = 20 %
FA = 30 %
30.00

20.00

10.00

0.00
0.40 0.55 0.70
Water-Cement Ratio

Figure 2. Effect of water-cement ratio on depth of chloride ingress

3.2 Discussion

This study has proven that fly ash greatly help in retarding the pace of ingress of chloride ions
from seawater into concrete. The more amount of the blending material used the slower the rate
of ingress is. Likewise, the use of lesser amount of water in the mix also contributed to the
slower pace of chloride penetration in concrete. Stated oppositely, the more water used in the
mix will contribute to faster ingress of chloride ions in concrete. This means that using more fly
ash and lesser amount of water in the making marine concrete will prolong the service life of the
structure wherein the corrosion-initiated deterioration will be delayed.

In an archipelagic county like the Philippines with more than 7,107 islands seated in a marine
environment where over 65% of its 104 million population lives along the 36,298 km coastal
stretch and where practically all reinforced concrete structures are built within this environment,
this study will help end-users in constructing more durable structures where lesser repair,
maintenance and replacement costs will give them big savings.

4. CONCLUSIONS

The study contained in this paper was conducted in Eastern Samar, Philippines under the tidal
zone of exposure where the ingress of chloride is most dominant compared to submerged and
atmospheric zones. The effect of the amount of fly ash and quantity of mixing water on the pace
of chloride ingress in marine concrete was investigated.

After one year of extensive experimental work, it was shown that increasing the amount of fly
ash and decreasing the amount of water in the mix greatly helped in reducing the depth of
chloride ingress, thus retarding the chloride-induced deterioration of the marine structures and
prolonging their service life.
 REFERENCES

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[6] Elsharief, A. et al., Influence of Aggregate Size, Water-Cement Ratio and Age on the
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr. Ernesto T. Anacta is currently a Professor of the College of Engineering and Vice President
for Administration and Finance of Eastern Samar State University. He can be contacted at
vpdocestong@gmail.com and 09063282771 and 09184021747.

Engr. Rodito M. Acol is a practicing Engineer and Professor of the College of Engineering of
Eastern Samar State University. He can be contacted at acol_regce99@yahoo.com
and 09214936675.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author would like to thank Dr. Nathaniel N. Diola, Professor of the Institute of Civil
Engineering, UP-Diliman and Eastern Samar State University President Dr. Edmundo A.
Campoto and Dean of the College of Engineering Dr. Leovegildo A. Cardenas for their
encouragement and support in producing this paper.