THE ASSAYER

In which
with a most just and accurate
balance there are weighed the
things contained in
THE ASTRONOMICAL AND PHILO-
SOPHICAL BALANCE OF LOTHARIO
SARSI OF SIGUENZA
Writtenintheformofaletter
totheIllustriousandVeryReverendMonsignor
DONVIRGINIOCESARINI
LinceanAcademician,andChamberlaintoHisHoliness
BySignor
GALILEOGALILEI
LinceanAcademician,GentlemanofFlorence,
ChiefPhilosopherandMathematiciantothe
MostSereneGrandDukeofTuscany

ROME
1623

[SelectionstranslatedbyStillmanDrake,DiscoveriesandOpinionsofGalileo(NewYork:Doubleday&Co.,1957),231280]

[p.231]
THEASSAYER
ALettertotheIllustriousandVeryReverend
DonVirginioCesarini[1]

Ihaveneverunderstood,YourExcellency,whyitisthateveryoneofthestudiesIhavepublishedinordertopleaseortoserve
otherpeoplehasarousedinsomemenacertainperverseurgetodetract,steal,ordeprecatethatmodicumofmeritwhichIthoughtI
hadearned,ifnotformywork,atleastforitsintention.InmyStarryMessengertherewererevealedmanynewandmarvelous
discoveriesintheheavensthatshouldhavegratifiedallloversoftruescienceyetscarcelyhaditbeenprintedwhenmensprangup
everywherewhoenviedthepraisesbelongingtothediscoveriesthererevealed.Some,merelytocontradictwhatIhadsaid,didnot
scrupletocastdoubtuponthingstheyhadseenwiththeirowneyesagainandagain.

MylordtheGrandDukeCosimoII,ofgloriousmemory,onceorderedmetowritedownmyopinionsaboutthecausesofthings
floatingorsinkinginwater,andinordertocomplywiththatcommandIputonpapereverythingIcouldthinkofbeyondthe
teachingsofArchimedes,whichperhapsisasmuchasmaytrulybesaidonthissubject.Immediatelytheentirepresswasfilled
withattacksagainstmyDiscourse.MyopinionswerecontradictedwithouttheleastregardforthefactthatwhatIhadsetforthwas
supportedandprovedbygeometricaldemonstrationsandsuchisthestrengthofmen'spassionthattheyfailedto[p.232]notice
howthecontradictionofgeometryisabalddenialoftruth.

HowmanymenattackedmyLettersonSunspots,andunderwhatdisguises!Thematerialcontainedthereinoughttohaveopened
tothemindseyemuchroomforadmirablespeculationinsteaditmetwithscornandderision.Manypeopledisbelieveditorfailed
toappreciateit.Others,notwantingtoagreewithmyideas,advancedridiculousandimpossibleopinionsagainstmeandsome,
overwhelmedandconvincedbymyarguments,attemptedtorobmeofthatglorywhichwasmine,pretendingnottohaveseenmy
writingsandtryingtorepresentthemselvesastheoriginaldiscoverersoftheseimpressivemarvels.[2]

Isaynothingofcertainunpublishedprivatediscussions,demonstrations,andpropositionsofminewhichhavebeenimpugnedor
calledworthlessyeteventhesehavesometimesbeenstumbleduponbyothermenwhowithadmirabledexterityhaveexerted
themselvestoappropriatetheseasinventionsoftheirowningenuity.OfsuchusurpersImightnamenotafew.Ishallpassover
firstoffendersinsilence,astheycustomarilyreceivelessseverepunishmentthanrepeaters.ButIshallnolongerholdmypeace
aboutoneofthelatter,whohastooboldlytriedoncemoretodotheverysamethinghedidmanyyearsagowhenheappropriated
theinventionofmygeometriccompass,afterIhadshownittoanddiscusseditwithmanygentlemen[p.232]yearsbefore,andhad
finallypublishedabookaboutit.MayIbepardonedifonthisoccasionagainstmynature,mycustom,andmypresentpurposeI
showresentmentandprotest(perhapstoobitterly)aboutsomethingIhavekepttomyselfalltheseyears.

IspeakofSimonMayrofGuntzenhausen.HeitwasinPadua,whereIresidedatthetime,whosetforthinLatintheusesofmy
compassandhadoneofhispupilspublishthisandsignit.Then,perhapstoescapepunishment,hedepartedimmediatelyforhis
nativelandandlefthispupilinthelurch.InSimonMayr'sabsenceIwasobligedtoproceedagainsthispupil,inthemanner
describedintheDefensewhichIpublishedatthetime.[3]

NowfouryearsaftermyStarryMessengerappeared,thissamefellow(inthehabitoftryingtoornamenthimselfwithother
people'sworks)unblushinglymadehimselftheauthorofthethingsIbaddiscoveredandprintedinthatbook.Publishingunderthe
titleofTheWorldofJupiter,hehadthegalltoclaimthathehadobservedtheMediceanplanetswhichrevolveaboutJupiterbefore
Ihad....Butnotehisslywayofattemptingtoestablishhispriority.Ihadwrittenofmakingmyfirstobservationontheseventhof
January,16io.AlongcomesMayr,and,appropriatingmyveryobservations,heprintsonthetitlepageofhisbook(aswellasinthe
openingpages)thathehadmadehisobservationsintheyear16og.ButheneglectstowarnthereaderthatheisaProtestant,and
hencehadnotacceptedtheGregoriancalendar.NowtheseventhdayofJanuary,1610,forusCatholics,isthesameasthetwenty
eighthdayofDecember,1609,forthoseheretics.Andsomuchforhispretendedpriorityofobservation.[4]

[p.234]Aftersuchclearproofsasthese,therewasnolongeranyroomfordoubtinmymindabouttheillfeelingandstubborn
oppositionthatexistedagainstmyworks.Iconsideredremainingperfectlysilentinordertosavemyselfanyoccasionforbeingthe
unhappytargetofsuchsharpshooting,andtoremovefromothersanymaterialcapableofexcitingthesereprehensibletalents.I
havecertainlynotlackedopportunitiestoputforthotherworksthatwouldperhapsbenolessastonishingtotheschoolsof
philosophyandnolessimportanttosciencethanthosepublishedpreviously.ButthereasoncitedabovewassocogentthatI
contentedmyselfmerelywiththeopinionandjudgmentofafewgentlemen,myrealfriends,towhomIcommunicatedmy
thoughts.IndiscussionswiththesemenIhaveenjoyedthatpleasurewhichaccompaniestheopportunitytoimpartwhatone'smind
bringsforthbitbybit,andatthesametimeIavoidedanyrenewalofthosestingswhichIhadpreviouslyexperiencedwithsomuch
vexation.Demonstratinginnosmalldegreetheirapprovalofmyideas,thesegentlemenhavemanagedforavarietyofreasonsto
drawmeawayfromtheresolutionIhadmade.

Atfirsttheytriedtopersuademenottobeupsetbyobstinateattacks,sayingthatintheendthosewouldreboundupontheirauthors
andmerelyrendermyownreasoningmorelivelyandattractive,furnishingastheydidclearproofthatmyessayswereofan
uncommonnature.Theypointedouttomethefamiliarmaximthatvulgarityandmediocrityreceivelittleornoattentionandare
soonleftinthecold,whilemen'smindsturntotherevelationofwondersandtranscendentthingsthoughtheseindeedmaygive
riseinilltemperedmindstoenvy,andtherebytoslander.Nowtheseandsimilararguments,comingtomeontheauthorityofthose
gentlemen,almosttookawaymyresolvetowritenomoreyetmydesiretoliveintranquilityprevailed.[p.235]And,fixedinmy
resolve,IbelievedthatIhadsilencedallthetonguesthatoncehadshownsucheagernesstocontradictme.ButitwasinvainthatI
hadreachedthisframeofmind,andbyremainingsilentIcouldnotevadethestubbornfateofhavingtoconcernmyselfcontinually
withmenwhowriteagainstmeandquarrelwithme.Itwasuselesstoholdmypeace,becausethosewhoaresoanxioustomake
troubleformehavenowhadrecoursetoattributingtometheworksofothers.Inthatwaytheyhavestirredupabitterfightagainst
me,somethingthatIbelieveneverhappenswithoutindicatingsomeinsanepassion.

OnemighthavethoughtthatSig.MarioGuiducciwouldbeallowedtolectureinhisAcademy,carryingoutthedutiesofhisoffice
there,andeventopublishhisDiscourseonCometswithout"LotharioSarsi"apersonneverheardofbefore,jumpinguponmefor
this.WhyhasheconsideredmetheauthorofthisDiscoursewithoutshowinganyrespectforthatfinemanwhowas?Ihadnopart
initbeyondthehonorandregardshownmebyGuiducciinconcurringwiththeopinionsIhadexpressedindiscussionswithhim
andothergentlemen.AndeveniftheentireDiscourseweretheworkofmypen[5]athingthatwouldneverenterthemindof
anyonewhoknowsGuiducciwhatkindofbehavioristhisforSarsitounmaskmeandrevealmyfacesozealously?ShouldInot
havebeenshowingawishtoremainincognito?

Nowforthisreason,forcedtoactbythisunexpectedanduncalledfortreatment,Ibreakmypreviousresolvetopublishnomore.I
amgoingtodomybesttoseethatthisactshallnotescapenotice,andtodiscouragethosewhorefusetoletsleepingdogsheand
whostiruptroublewithmenthatareatpeace.

IamawarethatthisnameLotharioSarsi,unheardofintheworld,servesasamaskforsomeonewhowantstoremainunknown.It
isnotmyplacetomaketroubleforanothermanbytearingoffhismaskafterSarsi'sownfashion,[p.236]forthisseemstome
neitherathingtobeimitatednoronewhichcouldinanywayassistmycause.Onthecontrary,Ihaveanideathattodealwithhim
asapersonunknownwillleavemeaclearerfieldwhenIcometomakemyreasoningclearandexplainmynotionsfreely.Irealize
thatoftenthosewhogoaboutinmasksarelowpersonswhoattemptbydisguisetogainesteemamonggentlemenandscholars,
utilizingthedignitythatattendsnobilityforsomepurposeoftheirown.Butsometimestheyaregentlemenwho,thusunknown,
forgotherespectfuldecorumattendingtheirrankandassume(asisthecustominmanyItaliancities)thelibertyofspeakingfreely
aboutanysubjectwithanyone,takingwhateverpleasuretheremaybeinthisdiscourteousrailleryandstrife.Ibelievethatitmust
beoneofthelatterwhoishiddenbehindthemaskof"LotharioSarsi,"forifhewereoneoftheformeritwouldindeedbepoor
tasteforhimtoimposeuponthepublicinthismanner.AlsoIthinkthatjustashehaspermittedhimselfincognitotosaysome
thingsthathemightperhapsrepresstomyface,soitoughtnottobetakenamissifI,availingmyselfoftheprivilegeaccorded
againstmasqueraders,shalldealwithhimquitefrankly.LetneitherSarsinorothersimaginemetobeweighingeverywordwhenI
dealwithhimmorefreelythanhemaylike.

DuringtheentiretimethecometwasvisibleIwasconfinedbyillnesstomybed.ThereIwasoftenvisitedbyfriends.Discussions
ofthecometsfrequentlyoccurred,duringwhichIhadoccasiontovoicesomethoughtsofminewhichcastdoubtuponthe
doctrinesthathavebeenpreviouslyheldonthismatter.Sig.Guiducciwasoftenpresent,andonedayhetoldmethathehad
thoughtofspeakingoncometsbeforetheAcademyifIliked,hewouldincludewhathehadheardfrommealongwiththingshe
hadgatheredfromotherauthorsorhadthoughthimself.InasmuchasIwasinnoconditiontowrite,Iregardedthiscourtesyasmy
goodfortune,andInotonlyacceptedbutIthankedhimandacknowledgedmydebt.

[p.237]MeanwhilefromRomeandelsewheretherecameinsistentrequeststoknowwhetherIhadanythingtosayonthissubject,
fromfriendsandpatronswhoperhapsdidnotknowthatIwasill.IrepliedtothemthatIhadonlysomequestionstoraise,whichI
wasunabletowritedownbecauseofmyinfirmity,butthatIhopedtheseideasofminewouldsoonbeincludedinadiscoursebya
friendwhohadtakenthetroubletocollectthem.ThatisanIsaid,andithasbeentoldinseveralplacesbyGuiducci.Therewasno
needforSarsitopasshimoffasamerecopyist.ButsinceSarsiwantsitso,letitbemeanwhileletGuiducciacceptmydefenseof
histreatiseinreturnforthehonorhedidme.

Ihaveneverclaimed(asSarsipretends)thatmyopinionwascertaintobeswiftlycarriedbythewindstoRome.Thatusually
happensonlywiththewordsofgreatandcelebratedmen,whichreallyfarexceedstheboundsofmyambition.Itistrue,though,
thatinreadingSarsi'sbookIhavewonderedthatwhatIsaidneverdidreachSarsi'sears.Isitnotastonishingthatsomanythings
havebeenreportedtohimwhichIneversaid,noreventhought,whilenotasinglesyllablereachedhimofotherthingsthatIhave
saidoverandoveragain?Butperhapsthewindsthatblowthecloudsandthosechimerasandmonstersthattumultuouslytake
shapeinthemhadnotthestrengthtocarrysolidandweightythings.

InSarsiIseemtodiscernthefirmbeliefthatinphilosophizingonemustsupportoneselfupontheopinionofsomecelebrated
author,asifourmindsoughttoremaincompletelysterileandbarrenunlessweddedtothereasoningofsomeotherperson.
Possiblyhethinksthatphilosophyisabookoffictionbysomewriter,liketheIliadorOrlandoFurioso,productionsinwhichthe
leastimportantthingiswhetherwhatiswrittenthereistrue.Well,Sarsi,thatisnothowmattersstand.Philosophyiswritteninthis
grandbook,theuniverse,whichstandscontinuallyopentoour[p.238]gaze.Butthebookcannotbeunderstoodunlessonefirst
learnstocomprehendthelanguageandreadthelettersinwhichitiscomposed.Itiswritteninthelanguageofmathematics,andits
charactersaretriangles,circles,andothergeometricfigureswithoutwhichitishumanlyimpossibletounderstandasinglewordof
itwithoutthese,onewandersaboutinadarklabyrinth.

Sarsiseemstothinkthatourintellectshouldbeenslavedtothatofsomeotherman....Butevenonthatassumption,Idonotsee
whyheselectsTycho....Tychocouldnotextricatehimselffromhisownexplanationofdiversityintheapparentmotionofhis
cometbutnowSarsiexpectsmymindtobesatisfiedandsetatrestbyalittlepoeticflowerthatisnotfollowedbyanyfruitatall.
ItisthisthatGuiduccirejectedwhenhequiterightlysaidthatnaturetakesnodelightinpoetry.Thatisaverytruestatement,even
thoughSarsiappearstodisbelieveitandactsasifacquaintedwithneithernaturenorpoetry.Heseemsnottoknowthatfablesand
fictionsareinawayessentialtopoetry,whichcouldnotexistwithoutthem,whileanysortoffalsehoodissoabhorrenttonature
thatitisasabsentthereasdarknessisinlight.

Guiducciwrotethat"peoplewhowishtodeterminethelocationofacometbymeansofparallaxmustfirstestablishthatthecomet
isafixedandrealobjectandnotamereappearance,sincereasoningbyparallaxisindeedconclusiveforrealthingsbutnotfor
apparentones."...Sarsisaysthatnoauthorworthconsidering,ancientormodem,haseversupposedacomettobeamere
appearancehencethathisteacher,whowasdisputingonlywithsuchmenanddidnotaspiretovictoryoveranyothers,didnot
needtoremovecometsfromthecompanyofmereimages.TothisIreplyinthefirstplacethatforthesamereasonSarsimightlet
Guiducciandmealone,asweareoutsidethecircleofthoseworthyancientandmodemauthorsagainstwhomhisteacherwas
contending.Wemeantonlytoaddressthosemen,ancientormodem,whotryinalltheir[p.239]studiestoinvestigatesometruthin
nature.Wemeanttosteerclearofthosewhoostentatiouslyengageinnoisycontestsmerelytobepopularlyjudgedvictorsover
othersandpompouslypraised....Guiducci,inthehopeofdoingsomethingthatwouldbewelcometomenstudiousoftruth,
proposedwithallmodestythathenceforthitwouldbegoodtoconsiderthenatureofacomet,andwhetheritmightbeamere
appearanceratherthanarealobject.HedidnotcriticizeFatherGrassioranyoneelsewhohadnotpreviouslydonethis.NowSarsi
risesupinarmsandpassionatelystrivestoprovethatthissuggestionisbesidethepointandfalsetoboot.Yetinordertobe
preparedforanything(lesttheideaappearworthyofsomeconsideration),herobsmeofanypossiblecreditbycallingthis"an
ancientnotionofCardan[6]andTelesio,"whichhisteacherdisparagesasafantasyoffeeblephilosopherswhohadnofollowers.
Andunderthispretense,withouttheleastshameforhisdisrespect,herobsthosemenoftheirreputationsinordertocoverupa
slightoversightofhisteacher's....ButImustnotneglecttoshow,forhisbenefitandintheirdefense,howimplausibleishis
deductionthattheirsciencewaspoorfromtheirhavinghadfewfollowers.

PerhapsSarsibelievesthatallthehostofgoodphilosophersmaybeenclosedwithinfourwalls.Ibelievethattheyfly,andthatthey
flyalone,likeeagles,andnotinflockslikestarlings.Itistruethatbecauseeaglesarerarebirdstheyarelittleseenandlessheard,
whilebirdsthatflylikestarlingsfilltheskywithshrieksandcries,andwherevertheysettlebefoultheearthbeneaththem.Yetif
truephilosophersarelikeeaglestheyarenot[unique]likethephoenix.Thecrowdoffoolswhoknownothing,Sarsi,isinfinite.
Thosewhoknowverylittleofphilosophyarenumerous.Fewindeedaretheywhoreallyknowsomepartofit,andonlyOne
knowsall.

Toputasidehintsandspeakplainly,anddealingwithscienceasamethodofdemonstrationandreasoningcapable[p.240]of
humanpursuit,Iholdthatthemorethispartakesofperfectionthesmallerthenumberofpropositionsitwillpromisetoteach,and
feweryetwillitconclusivelyprove.Consequentlythemoreperfectitisthelessattractiveitwillbe,andthefeweritsfollowers.On
theotherbandmagnificenttitlesandmanygrandiosepromisesattractthenaturalcuriosityofmenandholdthemforeverinvolved
infallaciesandchimeras,withouteverofferingthemonesinglesampleofthatsharpnessoftrueproofbywhichthetastemaybe
awakenedtoknowhowinsipidistheordinaryfareofphilosophy.Suchthingswillkeepaninfinitenumberherofmenoccupied,
andthatman,willindeedbefortunatewho,ledbysomeunusualinnerlight,canturnfromdarkandconfusedlabyrinthsinwhich
hemighthavegoneperpetuallywindingwiththecrowdandbecomingevermoreentangled.

HenceIconsideritnotverysoundtojudgeaman'sphilosophicalopinionsbythenumberofhisfollowers.YetthoughIbelievethe
numberofdisciplesofthebestphilosophicalmaybequitesmall,Idonotconcludeconverselythatthoseopinionsanddoctrinesare
necessarilyperfectwhichhavefewfollowers,forIknowwellenoughthatsomemenholdopinionssoerroneousastoberejected
byeveryoneelse.ButfromwhichofthosesourcesthetwoauthorsmentionedbySarsiderivethescarcityoftheirfollowersIdo
notknow,forIhavenotstudiedtheirworkssufficientlytojudge[7].

IfIacceptSarsi'schargeofnegligencebecausevariousmotionsthatmighthavebeenattributedtothecometdidnotoccurtome,I
failtoseehowhecanfreehisteacherfromthesamecriticismfornotconsideringthepossibilityofmotioninastraightline....
Thereisnodoubtwhateverthatbyintroducingirregularlinesonemaysavenotonlytheappearanceinquestionbutanyother.YetI
warn.

[p.241]Sarsithatfarfrombeingofanyassistancetohisteacher'scase,thiswouldonlyprejudiceitmoreseriouslynotonly
becausehedidnotmentionthis,andonthecontraryacceptedthemostregularlinethereis(thecircular),butbecauseitwouldhave
beenveryflippanttoproposesuchathing.Sarsihimselfmayunderstandthisifhewillconsiderwhatismeantbyanirregularline.
Linesarecalledregularwhen,havingafixedanddefinitedescription,theyaresusceptibleofdefinitionandofhavingtheir
propertiesdemonstrated.Thusthespiralisregular,anditsdefinitionoriginatesintwouniformmotions,onestraightandtheother
circular.Soistheellipse,whichoriginatesfromthecuttingofaconeoracylinder.Irregularlinesarethosewhichhaveno
determinacywhatever,butareindefiniteandcasualandhenceundefinablenopropertyofsuchlinescanbedemonstrated,andina
wordnothingcanbeknownaboutthem.Hencetosay,"Sucheventstakeplacethankstoanirregularpath"isthesameastosay,"I
donotknowwhytheyoccur."Theintroductionofsuchlinesisinnowaysuperiortothe"sympathy,""antipathy,"occult
properties,""influences,"andothertermsemployedbysomephilosophersasacloakforthecorrectreply,whichwouldbe:"Ido
notknow."Thatreplyisasmuchmoretolerablethantheothersascandidhonestyismorebeautifulthandeceitfulduplicity.

Guiduccihaswritten,"Manystarscompletelyinvisibletothenakedeyearemadeeasilyvisiblebythetelescopehencetheir
magnificationshouldbecalledinfiniteratherthannonexistent."HereSarsirisesupand,inaseriesoflongattacks,doeshisbestto
showmetobeaverypoorlogicianforcallingthisenlargement"infinite."Atmyagethesealtercationssimplymakemesick,
thoughImyselfusedtoplungeintothemwithdelightwhenItoowasunderaschoolmaster.SotoallthisIanswerbrieflyand
simplythatitappearstomeSarsiisshowinghimselftobejustwhatbewantstoprovemethatis,littlecognizantoflogic,forhe
takesasabsolutethatwhichwasspokenrelatively.

[p.242]Nooneeverseriouslyclaimedthatthemagnificationoffixedstarsisinfinite.Rather,FatherGrassiwrotethatitwasnil,
andGuiducci,havingnotedthatthisisnotcorrectinasmuchasmanytotallyinvisiblestarsarebroughttovisibility,remarkedthat
suchenlargmentshouldbecalledinfiniteratherthannil.Nowwhoissosimplemindedasnottounderstandthatifwecallaprofit
ofonethousandducatsonacapitalofonehundred'large,"andnot"nil,"andthesameuponacapitaloften"verylarge,"andnot
"nil,"thentheacquisitionofonethousanduponnocapitalatallshouldbecalled"infinite"ratherthan"nil"?...Andevenif
Guiduccicalledthemagnification"infinite"withoutanyrelativeterm,Ishouldnothaveexpectedsuchcarpingcriticismasthis,for
theword"infinite"inplaceofthephrase"extremelylarge"isawayoftalkingthatisusedeveryday.Here,indeed,Sarsihasa
largefieldinwhichtoshowhimselfabetterlogicianthanalltheotherauthorsintheworldforIassurehimthathewillfindthe
word"infinite"choseninplaceof"extremelylarge"ninetimesoutoften.Noristhatall,Sarsi.IfthePreachershouldconfrontyou
andsay:Stultoruminfinitusestnumerus("thenumberoffoolsisinfinite"),[8]whatwouldyoudo?Wouldyouarguewithhimand
maintainhispropositiontobefalse?Youcouldproveonequalscripturalauthoritythattheworldisnoteternal,andthathaving
beencreatedintimetherecannothavebeenandcannotbeaninfinitenumberofmenandsincefoolishnessreignsonlyamong
men,theabovepropositioncouldneverbetrueevenifallmenpast,present,andfuturewerefools.Fortherecouldneverbean
infinitenumberofhumanbeingseveniftheworldweretoendureeternally.

Ididnotmeantospendsomanywordsonthistrifling,YourExcellency,butsincethemorehasbeendone,thelessremainstodo.
Nowforthisotherchargeofviolating[p.243]thelawsoflogic.Guiducci,inhisdiscussionofthetelescope,issaideithertohave
includedaneffectwhichdoesnotexistortohaveleftoutonethatshouldbegiven.Hesaid,"Thetelescoperendersstarsvisible
eitherbyenlargingtheirimagesorbyilluminatingthem,"whereasSarsiwillhaveitthatheshouldhavesaid,"byenlargingthemor
byunitingtheimagesandtherays."IreplythatGuiduccihadnointentionofdividingwhatisone,andsofarasheandIare
concernedthereisbutoneoperationofthetelescopeinrepresentingobjects.Whathesaidwas,tobeexact,"Ifthetelescopedoes
notrenderstarsvisiblebyenlargingthem,thenbysomeunheardofmeansitmustilluminatethem."Hedidnotintroduce
"illumination"asaneffectthathebelievedin,butcounterpoiseditagainsttheotherasanobviousimpossibility,intendinginthis
waytomakethetruthofthealternativestillmoreevident.Thisisquiteacommonfigureofspeech,aswhenonesays:"Ifour
enemiesdidnotscalethefortress,theymusthaverainedherefromthesky."NowifSarsithinkshecanwinacclaimby
condemningthisidiom,theninadditiontohisanimadversionsontheword"infinite"hehasanotherroadopentohimforwinninga
battleoflogicagainstalltheotherwritersonearth.Butinhyingtoshowhimselfoffasagreatlogician,lethimbewarelesthe
makehimselfappearastillgreatersophist.IseemtoseeYourExcellencygrin,butwhatcanIdo?ItisSarsiwhohastakenitinto
hisheadtowriteagainstGuiducci'streatise,andintheprocesshehasbeenforcedtograspatskyhooks.FormypartIdonot
merelyexcusehim,Ipraisehimfortomeitappearshehasaccomplishedtheimpossible.

Immediatelyafterthis,thoughperhapsnotveryappositely,Sarsiisinducedtocallthetelescopemy"fosterchild,"andtodisclose
thatitisnotmyoffspringinanyotherway.Nowhowisthis,Sig.Sarsi?Firstyoutrytoplacemeundergreatobligationsby
showeringnewvirtuesuponthissupposedchildofmine,andnextyoutenmeitisonlyanadoptedone.Isthisrhetoricallysound?I
should[p.244]havethoughtthatonsuchanoccasionyouwouldhavetriedtomakemebelieveitwasmyveryownchild,evenif
youhadbeencertainitwasnot.

Well,mypartinthediscoveryofthisinstrument(andwhetherImayreasonablyclaimtobeitsparent)waslongagosetforthinmy
StarryMessenger.ThereIwrotethatinVenice,whereIhappenedtobeatthetime,newsarrivedthataFleminghadpresentedto
CountMaurice[ofNassau]aglassbymeansofwhichdistantobjectsmightbeseenasdistinctlyasiftheywerenearby.Thatwas
all.UponhearingthisnewsIreturnedtoPadua,whereIthenresided,andsetmyselftothinkingabouttheproblem.Thefirstnight
aftermyreturnIsolvedit,andonthefollowingdayIconstructedtheinstrumentandsentwordofthistothosesamefriendsat
VenicewithwhomIhaddiscussedthematterthepreviousday.ImmediatelyafterwardIappliedmyselftotheconstructionof
anotherandbetterone,whichsixdayslaterItooktoVenice,whereitwasseenwithgreatadmirationbynearlyalltheprincipal
gentlemenmenofthatrepublicformorethanamonthonend,tomyconsiderablefatigue.Finally,atthesuggestionofoneofmy
patrons,IpresentedittotheDogeatameetingoftheCouncil.Howgreatlyitwasesteemedbyhim,andwithwhatadmirationit
wasreceived,istestifiedbyducallettersstillinmypossession.Theserevealthemunificenceofthatserenerulerincompensation
fortheinventionpresentedtohim,forIwasreappointedandconfirmedforfifeinmyprofessorshipattheUniversityofPaduawith
doublemyprevioussalary,whichwasalreadythreetimesthatofsomeofmypredecessors.Theseactsdidnottakeplaceinsome
forestordesert,Sig.SarsitheyhappenedinVenice,andifyouhadbeenthereyouwouldnotbedismissingmethusasasimple
schoolmaster.Butmostofthosegentlemenarestilllivingthere,bythegraceofGod,andyoumaybebetterinformedbythem.

Yetperhapssomewillsaythatinthediscoveryandsolutionofaproblemitisofnolittleassistancefirsttobeconsciousinsome
waythatthegoalisarealone,andtobesurethatoneisnotattemptingtheimpossible,andhence[p.245]thatmyknowledgeand
certaintyofthetelescopehavingalreadybeenmadewasofsomuchhelptomethatwithoutthisIshouldneverhavemadethe
discovery.TothisIshallreplybymakingadistinction.Isaythattheaidaffordedmebythenewsawokeinmethewilltoapplymy
mindtothematter,andthatwithoutthisImightneverhavethoughtaboutit,butbeyondthatIdonotbelieveanysuchnewscould
facilitatetheinvention.Isay,moreover,thattodiscoverthesolutionofastatedandfixedproblemisaworkofmuchgreater
ingenuitythantosolveaproblemwhichhasnotbeenthoughtofanddefined,forluckmayplayalargepartinthelatter,whilethe
formerisentirelyaworkofreasoning.Indeed,weknowthattheFlemingwhowasfirsttoinventthetelescopewasasimplemaker
ofordinaryspectacleswho,casuallyhandlinglensesofvarioussorts,happenedtolookthroughtwoatonce,oneconvexandthe
otherconcave,andplacedatdifferentdistancesfromtheeye.Inthiswayheobservedtheresultingeffectandthusdiscoveredthe
instrument.ButI,incitedbythenewsmentionedabove,discoveredthesamethingbymeansofreasoning.Andthisreasoning,easy
asitis,IwishtorevealtoYourExcellency,forifsetforthwhereitistothepurposeitmaybyitssimplicityreducetheincredulity
ofthosewho(likeSarsi)trytodiminishwhateverpraisetheremaybeinthisthatbelongstome.

Myreasoningwasthis.Thedeviceneedseitherasingleglassormorethanone.Itcannotconsistofoneglassalone,becausethe
shapeofthiswouldhavetobeconvex(thatis,thickerinthemiddlethanattheedges)orconcave(thatis,thinnerinthemiddle),or
boundedbyparallelsurfaces.Butthelastnameddoesnotaltervisibleobjectsinanyway,eitherbyenlargingorreducingthemthe
concavediminishesthemandtheconvex,thoughitdoesenlargethem,showsthemindistinctlyandconfusedly.Passingthento
two,andknowingasbeforethataglasswithparallelfacesaltersnothing,Iconcludedthattheeffectwouldstillnotbeachievedby
combiningsuchaglasswitheitheroftheothertwo.HenceIwasrestrictedtodiscoveringwhatwouldbedonebyacombinationof
theconvexandthe[p.246]concave[9].YouseehowthisgavemewhatIsoughtandsuchwerethestepsinmydiscovery,inwhich
Iwasassistednotatallbythereceivedopinionthatthegoalwasarealone.

IfSarsiandothersthinkthatcertaintyofaconclusionextendsmuchassistanceinthediscoveryofsomemeansforrealizingit,let
themstudyhistory.TheretheymaylearnthatArchytas[10]madeadovethatflew,thatArchimedesmadeamirrorwhichkindled
firesatgreatdistancesandmanyotherremarkablemachines,thatothermenhavekindledperpetualfires,andahundredmore
inventionsnolessamazing.Byreasoningaboutthesetheymayeasilydiscover,totheirgreathonorandprofit,howtoconstruct
suchthings.Or,iftheydonotsucceed,atleasttheywillderivesomebenefitintheformofaclarificationoftheirideasaboutthe
helpwhichtheyexpectfromaforeknowledgeoftheeffects.Thathelpwillbeagooddeallessthantheyhaveimagined.

Sarsinowprepareswithadmirableboldnesstomaintain,bymeansofacutesyllogisms,thatobjectsseenthroughthetelescopeare
themoreenlargedtheclosertheyare,andheissoconfidentthathepracticallypromisesIshallcometoadmitthistobetrue,
thoughatpresentIdenyit.NowImakeaverydifferentforecast.Ibelievethatintheweavingofthiscloth,Sarsiisgoingtoget
himselfsoentangledfarmorethanhesupposesnow,whileheislayingthewarpthatintheendhewillvoluntarilyadmithimself
defeated.Thiswillbecomeapparenttoanyone[p.247]whowillnoticethatheendsbysayingpreciselythesamethingsthat
Guiducciwrote,thoughhedisguisesthisandfitsitinpiecemealamongsuchavarietyofwordyornamentsandarabesquesthat
thosewhomerelyglanceathisstatementsmaytakethemtobesomethingdifferentfromwhattheyreallyare.

MeanwhileIsay,inordernottodiscouragehim,thatifwhatheisattemptingturnsouttobecorrect,thenthisreasoningwhichhis
teacherandhisastronomerfriendsusetodeterminethelocationofthecometisnotonlythemostingeniousargumentofall,but
suchanemploymentofthetelescopefartranscendsallothersintheimportanceofitsconsequences.Icannothelpbeingastonished
thatSarsiandhisteacher,thinkingittobetrue,shouldhaveregardeditlesshighlythantheirotherswhich,ifImaysayso,arenot
fittoholdacandletothisone.YourExcellency,ifthisthingistrue,Sarsihasaclearroadtothemostadmirableinventionsever
thoughtof.Notonlymayanydistanceonearthbemeasuredfromasingleplace,butthedistancesoftheheavenlybodiesmayalso
beestablishedexactly.Foroncewehaveobservedacirclethroughatelescopeatadistanceofonemileandfoundittobethirty
timesaslargeaswhenviewedwiththenakedeye,weneedonlyfindatowerthatismagnifiedtentimesandwemaybesurethatit
isthreemilesdistant.Ifthistelescopemerelytriplesthemoon'sdiameter,wemaysaythatthemoonistenmilesaway,andthesun
wouldbefifteenifitsdiameterisbutdoubled.Conversely,ifthemoonistripledbysomeexcellenttelescopewhenitismorethan
onehundredthousandmilesaway(asFatherGrassisays),thentheballonacupolaatadistanceofonemilewouldbeenlarged
morethanamilliontimes.NowtoaddwhatIcantosoastoundingaventure,Ishallsetforthsometriflingquestionswhicharosein
measSarsiproceeded.YourExcellencymay,ifyoulike,showthemtohimsometimesothathemaybyreplyingestablishhis
positionmoresolidly.

Sarsiwishestopersuademethatthefixedstarsreceivenoappreciableenlargementfromthetelescope.Hebeginswithobjectsin
myroom,andasksmewhetherIneedto[p.248]lengthenmytelescopeverymuchinordertoviewthem[11].Ianswer,yes.Now,
lettingtheobjectspassoutthewindowtoagreatdistance,hetellsmethatinordertolookatthemitisnecessarytoshortenthe
telescopeagooddealandIaffirmthis.NextIconcedetohimthatthiscomesaboutfromtheverynatureoftheinstrument,which
mustbemadelongerforobservingnearbyobjectsandshorterforthosethataremoredistant.Moreover,Iconfessthatthelonger
tubeshowstheobjectslargerthantheshorterandfinallyIgranthimforthepresenthiswholesyllogism,theconclusionbeingthat
ingeneralnearbyobjectsaremoreenlargedandfartheroneslessso.Thisimpliesthatthefixedstars,whichareremoteobjects,are
lessenlargedthanthingswithinaroomoracourtyard,foritappearstomethatSarsiincludesthingswhichhecalls"nearby"within
thoselimits,henothavingspecificallyremovedthisboundarytoanygreaterdistance.

ButthestatementmadethusfarisstillalongwayfromprovingSarsi'spoint.FornextIaskhimwhetherheplacesthemooninthe
classof"nearby"objects,orinthatof"distant"ones?Ifheputsitwithdistantobjects,thenhemustconcludeforitthesamething
heconcludesforthefixedstarsnamely,slightenlargement.Butthisisindirectcontradictiontohisteacher,who,inordertosituate
thecometbeyondthemoon,requiresthatthemoonbeoneofthoseobjectswhicharegreatlymagnified.Heevenwrotethatthe
moonviewedthroughthetelescopeismuchenlarged,andthecometwasbutlittle.OntheotherhandifSarsiplacesthemoon
amongnearbyobjects,thenIshallreplytohimthatheshouldnothaverestrictedsuchobjectstothewallsofaroomattheoutset
heshouldhaveextended[p.249]thisboundaryatleastasfarasthemoon.Buthavingextendeditthatfar,letSarsireturnagainto
hisoriginalquestions,andaskmewhetherIneedtolengthenmytelescopeverymuchinordertosee"nearby"objectsthatis,
objectswhicharenotbeyondtheorbitofthemoon.Ianswerno,andthearcher'sbowisbrokenandtheshootingofsyllogismsis
over.

Ifwegobacktoexaminehisargumentmoreclosely,wefindittobedefectivebecauseittakesasabsolutethatwhichmustbe
understoodrelatively,orasboundedthatwhichisunbounded.Inaword,Sarsihascreatedanincompletedichotomy(aslogicians
callthiserror)whenhedividedvisibleobjectsinto"far"and"near"withoutassigninglimitsandboundariesbetweenthese.Hehas
madethesamemistakeasapersonwhoshouldsay,"Everythingintheworldiseitherlargeorsmall."Thispropositionisneither
truenorfalse,andneitheristheproposition"objectsareeithernearorfar."Fromindeterminacyofthissortitwillcomeaboutthat
thesameobjectsmaybecalled"quiteclose"and"veryremote"thattheclosermaybecalled"distant"andthefarther"close"that
thelargermaybecalled"small"andthesmaller"large."Thusonemaysay"Thisisaverysmallhill,"and"thisisaverylarge
diamond."AcouriercallsthetripfromRometoNaplesveryshort,whileagreatladygrievesthatherhouseissofarfromthe
church.

InordertoavoidequivocationSarsineededtogivehisclassificationatleastthreeparts,andsay:"Ofvisibleobjects,somearenear,
somefar,andothersaresituatedatamediumdistance."Norshouldheevenstopthereheshouldgiveanexactdeterminationof
thislimit,sayingforexample:"Icall'medium'adistanceofoneleague'far,'thatwhichismorethanoneleagueand'near,'that
whichisless."Ifailtoseewhyhedidnotdothis,unlessitwasthatherealizedhiscasewouldbestrongerifheadvanceditby
cleverlyjugglingequivocationsinfrontofthesimplemindedthanbyreasoningitsoundlyforthemoreintelligent.Well,ittrulyisa
greatadvantagetohaveone'sbreadbutteredonbothsides,andtobeabletosay:"Becausethe[p.250]fixedstarsaredistant,they
arenotmuchmagnified,whereasthemoonis,becauseitisclose,"andthentosay,ifnecessityarises,"Objectsinaroom,being
close,aremagnifiedagreatdeal,butthemoon,becauseitisdistant,islittleenlarged."

Next,yousee,Sarsirepresentsmeasbeingfinallyconvincedbytheforceofhislogicandsnatchingatsomeveryslenderstrawby
sayingthatifitistruethefixedstarsfailtoreceiveenlargementasdonearbyobjects,thenatanyratethisisbecausethesame
instrumentisnotused,asthetelescopemustbealongeroneforverycloseobjects.Headds,witha"gettheehence,"thatIam
seizingattrifles.Butitisyou,Sig.Sarsi,andnotIwhotakerefugeintheseminutiaeandin"atanyrate."Itwasyouwhohadto
saythatintheverysubtleconceptsofgeometry"atanyrate",thefixedstarsrequiremoreshorteningofthetelescopethandoesthe
moon.Lateritturnedoutthatifthemoonweremagnifiedonethousandtimes,thefixedstarswouldbemagnifiedninehundredand
ninetynine,whereastosupportyourpositiontheycouldnotbeallowedtobeenlargedbyevenonehalf.Thisisindeedresortingto
"atanyrate."Itislikeinsistingthatsomethingisstillaserpentwhen,scotchedandtrampled,ithasnolongeranylifeleftoutside
thetipofitstail,whichgoesontwitchingtofoolthepassersbyintothinkingitisstillhealthyandstrong.

Itisperfectlytruethatthelengthenedtelescopeisa"different"instrumentfromwhatitwasbefore,andthiswasessentialtoour
point.Sarsiwouldnothavethoughtotherwiseifhehadnotequivocatedfromthesubjectmatterofourmeaningtotheformofour
argument,asmayeasilybeshownfromtheveryexamplehehimselfuses.IaskSarsiwhyitisthatsomeorganpipesproducedeep
tonesandsomehigh.Willhesaythatthiscomesaboutbecausetheyaremadeofdifferentmaterials?Surelynottheyareallof
lead.Theysounddifferenttonesbecausetheyareofdifferentlengthsandastothematerial,thisplaysnopartwhateverinthe
formationofthesound.Somepipes[p.251]aremadeofwood,someofpewter,someoflead,someofsilver,andsomeofpaper,
butallwillsoundinunisonwhentheirlengthsandsizesareequal.Butontheotherhandonemaymakenowalargerandnowa
smallertubewiththesamequantityofmaterial,saythesamefivepoundsoflead,andformdifferentnotesfromit.Withregardto
theproductionofsoundthoseinstrumentsaredifferentwhichareofdifferentsizes,notthosewhichareofdifferentmaterials.Now
ifbymeltingdownonepipeandremoldingthesameleadwemakeanewtubethatislonger,andthereforeoflowerpitch,will
Sarsirefusetograntthatthisisadifferentpipefromthefirst?Ithinkhewillnot.Andifwefindawaytomakethislongertube
withoutmeltingdowntheshorter,wouldnotthiscometothesamething?Surelyitwould.Themethodwinbetomakethetubein
twopieces,oneinsertedintheother.Thismaybelengthenedandshortenedatwill,makingdiversepipeswhichwillproduce
differentnotesandsuchistheconstructionofthetrombone.Thestringsofaharpareallofthesamematerial,buttheyproduce
differentsoundsbecausetheyareofvariouslengths.Onalute,onestringwilldowhatmanystringsonaharpwilldoforin
fingeringthelutethesoundisdrawnnowfromonepartofthestringandnowfromanother,whichisthesameaslengtheningand
shorteningit,andmakingofitdifferentstringssofarasrelatestotheproductionofsound.Thesamemaybesaidofthetubeofthe
throat,which,varyinginlengthandbreadth,accommodatesitselftotheformationofvariousnotesandmaybesaidtobecome
varioustubes.Nowsinceagreaterorlessenlargementdependsnotuponthematerialofatelescopebutuponitsshape,thetube
constitutesdifferentinstrumentswhenthesamematerialisusedbuttheseparationofthelensesisaltered....

AttheendofthisargumentSarsisaysthatatelescopewhichisnowlongandnowshortmaybecalled"thesameinstrument,but
differentlyapplied."IfIamnotmistaken,thisisaquibble,anditseemstomethatmattersstandquitetheoppositetheinstrument
isalteredwhileitsapplicationremainsthesame.Thesameinstrumentissaid[p.252]tobedifferentlyappliedwhenitisemployed
fordifferentuseswithoutanyalterationthustheanchorwasthesamewhenusedbythepilottosecuretheshipandwhen
employedbyOrlandotocatchawhale[12],(12)butitwasdifferentlyapplied.Inourcasethereverseistrue,fortheuseofa
telescopeisalwaysthesame,beinginvariablyappliedtolookingatthings,whereastheinstrumentisvariedinanessentialrespect
byalteringtheintervalbetweenitslenses.ThismakesSarsi'squibbleapparent.

NextSarsipatchestogetheranargumentoutofvariousfragmentsofpropositionsdesignedtoprovethatthecometwassituated
betweenthemoonandthesun.GuiducciandImayconcedethewholethingtohimwithoutprejudice,aswehaveneversaid
anythingaboutthelocationofthecomet,norhavewedeniedthatitmighthavebeenbeyondthemoon.Wemerelysaidthatthe
proofsthusfarsetforthbyotherauthorsarenotfreefromobjections.Sarsiwouldfailtoremovetheseobjectionsnomatterbow
manynewproofsofhisownheadded,eveniftheywerethemselvesconclusive....Still,sinceIliketoseemysteriousthings
broughttolight,andsinceIwishtodiscoverthetruth,Ishallconsiderhisargumentandforaclearerunderstandingletmefirst
reduceittoasfewwordsaspossible.

SarsisayshehasitfrommyStarryMessengerthatthefixedstarsarewidelyirradiatedwithafulgorwhichisnotrealbutonly
apparent,astheyshinewiththeirownlightthattheplanets,havingnolightoftheirown,arenotsimilarlyirradiatedespeciallythe
moon,Jupiter,andSaturn,whichareseentobealmostdevoidofanysuchsplendorandthatVenus,Mercury,andMars,though
theyhavenolightoftheirown,areneverthelessirradiatedbyreasonoftheirproximitytothesunandtheirconsequentbright
illuminationbyit.Hegoesontosaythatinmy[p.253]opinionacometreceivesitslightfromthesun,andheaddsthathehimself
andotherreputableauthorsforawhileregardedthecometasaplanet.Hencetheyreasonedaboutitasabouttheotherplanets,to
theeffectthatthecloserOfthesetothesunarethemoreirradiatedandconsequentlyarelessenlargedwhenobservedthroughthe
telescope.Now,sincethecometwasenlargedlittlemorethanMercuryandmuchlessthanthemoon(hesays),itmightbevery
reasonablyconcludedthatitwasnotmuchfartherfromthesunthanMercuryis,andverymuchclosertothesunthantothemoon.
Thisishisargument,whichsosmoothlyfitshisneedsandsoneatlyassistshimthatitalmostlooksasifhisconclusionhadbeen
madebeforehispremises,andthelatterdependedupontheformerinsteadofviceversa.Itisasifthepremiseshadbeenprepared
notbythebountyofnaturebutbytheprecisionofthesubtlestart.Butletusseehowconclusivetheyare.

Firstofall,itisquitefalsethatIsaidinmyStarryMessengerthatJupiterandSaturnhavelittleornoirradiation,whileMarsand
VenusandMercuryaregrandlycrownedwithrays.ItwasthemoonalonethatIsequesteredfromtherestofthestarsandplanets.

Second,Iamnotsosurethatinordertomakeacometaquasiplanet,andassuchtodeckitoutintheattributesofotherplanets,it
issufficientforSarsiorhisteachertoregarditasoneandsonameit.Iftheiropinionsandtheirvoiceshavethepowerofcalling
intoexistencethethingstheyname,thenIbegthemtodomethefavorofnamingalotofoldhardwareIhaveaboutmyhouse,
gold."Butnamesaside,whatattributeinducedthemtoregardthecometasaquasiplanetforatime?Thatitshonelikeother
planets?Butwhatcloud,whatsmoke,whatwood,whatwall,whatmountain,touchedbythesundoesnotshineequally?Sarsihas
seenitprovedinmyStarryMessengerthattheearthitselfshinesmorebrightlythanthemoon.AndwhyshouldIspeakofthe
cometasshininglikeaplanet?Imyselfbelievethatthelightofacometmaybesoweakanditsmaterialsothinandrarethatif
anyonecouldgetcloseenoughtoithewouldcompletelyloseit[p.254]fromview,ashappenswithsomefireswhichglowonearth
andareseenonlyatnightandfromafar,beinglostwhencloseathand.Thusalsoweseedistantcloudsassharplybounded,but
later,fromcloseby,theyshownomorethanamistyshadowiness,soindefinitelyboundedthatapersonenteringwithinthemwill
failtodistinguishtheirlimitsortoseparatethemfromthesurroundingair....Cometsmaybedissolvedinafewdays,andtheyare
notofacircularandboundedshape,butconfusedandindistinctindicatingthattheirmaterialisthinnerandmoretenuousthanfog
orsmoke.Inaword,acometismorelikeatoyplanetthantherealthing.

UptothispointSarsihasgonealongarbitrarilyshapinghispremisestofittheconclusionshemeanttoprovenowitseemstome
thatheproceedstoshapeconclusionsforthepurposeofopposingthemtoGuiduccisandmine,fortheyarecertainlydifferentfrom
thosesetforthintheDiscourse,oratleasttheyaredifferentlyconstrued.Thatthecometwasamereimageandappearancewas
neverpositivelyaffirmedbyusitwasmerelyraisedasaquestionandofferedfortheconsiderationofphilosophers,alongwith
variousargumentsandconjecturesthatappearedsuitabletoshowthemthispossibility.HereareGuiducci'swords:"Idonotsay
positivelythatacometisformedinthisway,butIdosaythatjustasdoubtsexistconcerningthis,sodoubtsexistconcerningthe
originssuggestedbyotherauthorsandiftheyclaimtohaveestablishedtheirideasbeyonddoubt,theyareunderanobligationto
showthatthis(andanyothertheory)isvainandfoolish."

Oncemoredistortingthings,Sarsirepresentsusashavingdefinitelydeclaredthatthemotionofacometmustnecessarilybe
straightandperpendiculartotheearth'ssurfaceathingwhichwasnotsaidinthatwayatall,butwasmerelybroughtunder
considerationasexplainingtheobservedchangesinpositionofthecometmoresimplyandinbetteragreementwiththe
appearances.ThenotionwasputforthsotemperatelybyGuiduccithatattheendhesaid,[p.255]"Hencewemustcontent
ourselveswithwhatlittlewecanconjecturethusamongshadows."Sarsi,however,hasattemptedtorepresentmeasfirmly
believingtheseopinions,andhimselfasbeingabletoannihilatethem.Well,ifhesucceedsIshallbethemoreobligedtohim,asin
thefutureIshallhaveonelesstheorytoworryaboutwhenIsetmymindtophilosophizingonsuchmatters.Butsinceitseemsto
methatthereisstillsomelifeleftinGuiducci'sconjectures,IshallmakeafewremarksuponthestrengthofSarsi'srefutations.

Attackingthefirstconclusionwithgreatboldness,besaysthattoanyonewhooncelookedatthecomet,nootherargumentis
necessarytoprovethenatureofitslight,forbycomparisonwithothertruelightsitclearlyshoweditselftoberealandnot
spurious.YourExcellencywillnotethegreatconfidencewhichSarsiplacesinthesenseofsight,deemingitimpossibleforustobe
deceivedbyaspuriousobjectwheneverthatmaybesetbesidearealone.IconfessthatIdonotpossesssuchaperfectfacultyof
discrimination.Iammorelikethemonkeythatfirmlybelievedhesawanothermonkeyinamirror,andtheimageseemedsoreal
andalivetohimthathediscoveredhiserroronlyafterrunrungbehindtheglassseveraltimestocatchtheothermonkey.

AssumingthatwhatSarsiseesinhismirrorisnotatrueandrealmanatall,butjustanimagelikethosewhichtherestofussee
there,Ishouldliketoknowthevisualdifferencesbywhichhesoreadilydistinguishestherealfromthespurious.Ihaveoftenbeen
insomeroomwithclosedshuttersandseenonthewallareflectionofsunlightcomingthroughsometinyholeandsofarasvision
coulddetermine,itseemedtobeastarnolessbrightthanVenus.Whenwewalkoverafieldintothesunlight,thousandsofstraws
andpebblesthataresmoothormoistenedwillreflectthesunintheaspectofthemostbrilliantstars.Sarsihasbuttospituponthe
groundandundoubtedlyhewinseetheappearanceofanaturalstarwhenbelooksfromthepointtowardwhichthesun'sraysare
reflected.Andanyobjectplacedatagreatdistanceandstruckbythesun[p.256]willappearasastar,particularlyifitisplacedso
highastobevisibleatnightfallwhenotherstarsappear.Whocoulddistinguishbetweenthemoonseenindaylightandacloud
touchedbythesun,wereitnotfordifferencesofshapeandsize?Ifsimpleappearancecandeterminetheessenceofathing,Sarsi
mustbelievethatthesun,themoon,andthestarsseeninstillwateraretruesuns,realmoons,andveritablestars.

Longexperiencehastaughtmethisaboutthestatusofmankindwithregardtomattersrequiringthought:thelesspeopleknowand
understandaboutthem,themorepositivelytheyattempttoargueconcerningthem,whileontheotherhandtoknowand
understandamultitudeofthingsrendersmencautiousinpassingjudgmentuponanythingnew.

Onceuponatime,inaverylonelyplace,therelivedamanendowedbynaturewithextraordinarycuriosityandaverypenetrating
mind.Forapastimeberaisedbirds,whosesongshemuchenjoyedandheobservedwithgreatadmirationthehappycontrivance
bywhichtheycouldtransformatwilltheveryairtheybreathedintoavarietyofsweetsongs.

Onenightthismanchancedtohearadelicatesongclosetohishouse,andbeingunabletoconnectitwithanythingbutsomesmall
birdhesetouttocaptureit.Whenhearrivedataroadhefoundashepherdboywhowasblowingintoakindofhollowstickwhile
movinghisfingersaboutonthewood,thusdrawingfromitavarietyofnotessimilartothoseofabird,thoughbyquiteadifferent
method.Puzzled,butimpelledbyhisnaturalcuriosity,hegavetheboyacalfinexchangeforthisfluteandreturnedtosolitude.But
realizingthatifhehadnotchancedtomeettheboyhewouldneverhavelearnedoftheexistenceofanewmethodofforming
musicalnotesandthesweetestsongs,hedecidedtotraveltodistantplacesinthehopeofmeetingwithsomenewadventure.

Theverynextdayhehappenedtopassbyasmallhut[p.257]withinwhichheheardsimilartonesandinordertoseewhetherthis
wasafluteorabirdhewentinside.Therehefoundasmallboywhowasholdingabowinhisrighthandandsawinguponsome
fibersstretchedoverahollowedpieceofwood.Thelefthandsupportedtheinstrument,andthefingersoftheboyweremovingso
thathedrewfromthisavarietyofnotes,andmostmelodiousonestoo,withoutanyblowing.Nowyouwhoparticipateinthis
man'sthoughtsandsharehiscuriositymayjudgeofhisastonishment.Yetfindinghimselfnowtohavetwounanticipatedwaysof
producingnotesandmelodies,hebegantoperceivethatstillothersmightexist.

Hisamazementwasincreasedwhenuponenteringatempleheheardasound,anduponlookingbehindthegatesdiscoveredthat
thishadcomefromthehingesandfasteningsasheopenedit.Anothertime,ledbycuriosity,beenteredaninnexpectingtosee
someonelightlybowingthestringsofaviolin,andinsteadhesawamanrubbinghisfingertiparoundtherimofagobletand
drawingforthapleasanttonefromthat.Thenheobservedthatwasps,mosquitoes,andfliesdonotformsinglenotesbybreathing,
asdidthebirds,butproducetheirsteadysoundsbyswiftbeatingoftheirwings.Andashiswondergrew,hisconviction
proportionatelydiminishedthatheknewhowsoundswereproducednorwouldallhispreviousexperienceshavesufficedtoteach
himorevenallowhimtobelievethatcricketsderivetheirsweetandsonorousshrillingbyscrapingtheirwingstogether,
particularlyastheycannotflyatall.

Well,afterthismanhadcometobelievethatnomorewaysofformingtonescouldpossiblyexistafterhavingobserved,in
additiontoallthethingsalreadymentioned,avarietyoforgans,trumpets,fifes,stringedinstruments,andeventhatlittletongueof
ironwhichisplacedbetweentheteethandwhichmakesstrangeuseoftheoralcavityforsoundingboxandofthebreathfor
vehicleofsoundwhen,Isay,thismanbelievedhehadseeneverything,hesuddenlyfoundhimselfoncemoreplungeddeeperinto
ignoranceandbafflementthanever.Forhavingcaptured[p.258]inhishandsacicada,hefailedtodiminishitsstridentnoiseeither
byclosingitsmouthorstoppingitswings,yethecouldnotseeitmovethescalesthatcovereditsbody,Oranyotherthing.Atlast
beliftedupthearmorofitschestandtherehesawsomethinhardligamentsbeneaththinkingthesoundmightcomefromtheir
vibration,hedecidedtobreaktheminordertosilenceit.Butnothinghappeneduntilhisneedledrovetoodeep,andtransfixingthe
creaturebetookawayitslifewithitsvoice,sothathewasstillunabletodeterminewhetherthesonghadoriginatedinthose
ligaments.Andbythisexperiencehisknowledgewasreducedtodiffidence,sothatwhenaskedhowsoundswerecreatedbeused
toanswertolerantlythatalthoughheknewafewways,hewassurethatmanymoreexistedwhichwerenotonlyunknownbut
unimaginable.

IcouldillustratewithmanymoreexamplesNature'sbountyinproducinghereffects,assheemploysmeanswecouldneverthink
ofwithoutoursensesandourexperiencestoteachthemtousandsometimeseventheseareinsufficienttoremedyourlackof
understanding.SoIshouldnotbecondemnedforbeingunabletodeterminepreciselythewayinwhichcometsareproduced,
especiallyinviewofthefactthatIhaveneverboastedthatIcoulddothis,knowingthattheymayoriginateinsomemannerthatis
farbeyondourpowerofimagination.Thedifficultyofcomprehendingbowthecicadaformsitssongevenwhenwehaveitsinging
tousrightinourhandsoughttobemorethanenoughtoexcuseusfornotknowinghowcometsareformedatsuchimmense
distances.Letusthereforegonofurtherthanouroriginalintention,whichwastosetforththequestionsthatappearedtoupsetthe
oldtheories,andtoproposeafewnewideas.

Sarsishouldnothaveunduetroubleinunderstandingthatevenifallthematerialinvolvedinacometisequallyilluminated,
sunlightmightbereflectedtotheeyesofoneparticularobserveronlyfromsomeparticularpartofit....Inordertoexplainapoint
thatisoftheutmostimportance,[p.259]andperhapstogivesomeone(IshallnotsaySarsi)anewidea,imagineyourselftobeat
theseashorewhenthesunisdescendinginthewest.Youwillseeabrightreflectionofthesunonthesurfaceoftheseanearthe
linepassingverticallythroughthesolardisk.Itwillnotspreadoveralargeareaindeed,ifthewaterisquitecalmyouwillseea
pureimageofthesunassharplyboundedasinamirror.Nowletaslightbreezespringupandrufflethesurfaceofthewater,when
youwillseetheimageofthesunbegintobreakupintomanypiecesandextendintoawiderarea.Ifyouwerecloseby,youmight
beabletodistinguishthebrokenpiecesofthisimagefromoneanother.Butfromagreaterdistanceyouwouldnotseethat
separationbecauseofthenarrowgapsbetweenthepieces,orbecausethegreatbrillianceoftheshiningpartswouldcausethemto
intermingleandbehaveasdoseveralfiresclosetogetherwhichfromafarseemtobeone.Iftherufflinggoesontoformgreater
andgreaterwaves,themultitudeofmirrorsfromwhichtheimageofthesunwillbereflectedwillextendoverwiderandwider
spaces.Nowwithdrawtoagreaterdistanceandclimbsomehillorotherprominenceinordertoseethewaterbetterthelighted
fieldwillnowappeartobeoneandcontinuous.FromaveryhighmountainaboutsixtymilesfromtheBayofLeghorn,onaclear
andwindydayaboutanhourbeforesunset,Ihaveseenaverybrightstripspreadingoutonbothsidesofthesunandextendingfor
tensorperhapshundredsofmiles,thisbeingareflectionofsunlightidenticalwiththosejustdescribed.

NowletSarsiimaginemostoftheseaonbothsidestoberemoved,leavingonlyabreadthoftwoorthreemilesinthecenter,
pointingtowardthesun.Thiswouldsurelyanbeilluminated,butitwouldnotchangeplacewitheverymotionoftheobserverto
oneside,unlessperhapsheweretomoveseveralmiles....Eventhentheimagewouldnotmovewiththesamemotionasthe
observer,butthewholeofitwouldmovesothatitscenterwouldalwaysbeinlinewiththesun....

HereIshouldliketosuggestsomethingthathas[p.260]occurredtomeasasolutionofaproblemthatconcernssailors.Whenthey
areexperienced,theysometimesrecognizethatawindwillapproachbeforelongfromacertaindirection,andtheysaythatasure
signofthisistoseetheairbrighterinthatdirectionthanitwouldnormallybe.Mightthisnotcomeaboutfromawindinthat
quarterdisturbingthewavesatadistance?Fromsuchwaves,asfrommanymirrorsextendingoverawidearea,wouldresulta
muchbrighterreflectionofthesunlightthanwouldoccuriftheseawerecalm.Inturn,thatregionofthevaporladenairwouldbe
madebrighterbythisnewfightandbythediffusionofthatreflection.Suchair,beinghigh,wouldsendsomereflectionoflightto
thesailors'eyeswhilethey,beinglowandfaroff,wouldbeunabletocatchtheprimaryreflectionfromthatpartoftheseathatis
alreadybeingruffledbyawindsometwentyorthirtymilesaway.Thustheymightperceiveandpredictthiswindfromadistance.

Itistruethatsmoothandpolishedsurfacessuchasthoseofmirrorssendastrongreflectionofthesun'slighttous,somuchsothat
wecanhardlylookatthesewithoutinjurytotheeyesbutitisalsotruethatsurfaceswhicharenotsosmoothmakesome
reflection,lesspowerfulininverseratiotothesmoothness.NowYourExcellencymaydecidewhetherthebrillianceofacomet
belongsamongthingswhichdazzlethevision,oramongthosesofeebleasnottooffendtheeyesthenyoumayjudgewhethera
mirrorlikesurfaceisrequiredforitsproductionorwhetheronemuchlesssmoothwillsuffice.

IwanttoteachSarsiamethodofrepresentingareflectionverylikeacomet.Takeacleancarafeandholdalightedcandlenotfar
fromit,andyouwillseeinitssurfaceatinyimageofthelight,verysharpandbright.Nextwiththetipofyourfingertakeasmall
quantityofanyoilymaterialthatwilladheretotheglass,andspreadathincoatingwheretheimageappears,dimmingthesurfacea
little.Theimagewillpromptlybedimmedtoo.Nowturnthe[p.261]carafesothattheimageemergesfromtheoiledspotandjust
touchesitsedge,andrubyourfingeroncerightacrosstheoiledpart.Instantlyyouwillseearayformedinimitationofthetailofa
comet,cuttingrightacrosstheplacewhereyourubbedyourfinger.Ifyourubacrossthisagain,theraywillbeledoffinanother
direction.Thishappensbecausetheskinontheballofthefingerisnotsmooth,butismarkedwithcertaintwistedlineswhichwe
useinsensingtheslightestirregularityofobjectsbytouch.Theseleavesometracksinmovingovertheoilysurface,andthe
reflectionoffighttakesplaceintheiredges,andsincetheyarenumerousandregularlyarrangedthisformsalightstripe.The
imagemaybeplacedattheheadofthisstripebymovingthecarafe,andwillthenappearbrighterthanthetail.Thesameeffect
maybeproducedbyfoggingtheglasswiththebreathinsteadofusingoil.ButifyoueversuggestthislittlegametoSarsi,andifhe
protestsatgreatlength,thenIbegYourExcellencytotellhimthatIdonotmeantoimplybythisthatthereisintheskyahuge
carafe,andsomeoneoilingitwithhisfinger,thusformingacometImerelyofferthisasanexampleofNature'sbountyandvariety
ofmethodsforproducinghereffects.Icouldoffermany,anddoubtlesstherearestillothersthatwecannotimagine.

OnlytooclearlydoesSarsishowhisdesiretostripmecompletelyofanypraise.Notcontentwithhayingdisprovedourreasoning
setforthtoexplainthefactthatthetailsofcometssometimesappeartobebentinanare,headdsthatnothingnewwasachievedby
meinthis,asithadallbeenpublishedlongago,andthenrefuted,byJohannKepler.Inthemindofthereaderwhogoesnomore
deeplythanSarsi'saccount,the.ideawillremainthatIamnotonlyathiefofothermen'sideas,butapetty,meanthiefatthat,who
goesaboutPilferingevenwhathasbeenrefuted.AndwhoknowsperhapsinSarsi'seyesthepettinessofthetheftdoesnotrender
memoreblameworthythanIwouldbeifIhadbravelyappliedmyselftogreater[p.262]thefts.If,insteadoffilchingsometrifle,I
hadmorenoblysetmyselftosearchoutbooksbysomereputableauthornotaswellknownintheseparts,andhadthentriedto
suppresshisnameandattributeallhislaborstomyself,perhapsSarsiwouldconsidersuchanenterpriseasgrandandheroicasthe
otherseemstohimcowardlyandabject.Well,IlackthestomachforthisandIfreelyconfessthiscowardice.ButpoorasIamin
courageandpower,Iamatleastupright.Iwillnotcarrythisundeservedwound,andIshallwritefranklywhatyou,Sarsi,haveleft
outandsinceIcannotdivinewhatpassiongaverisetotheomission,Ileaveittoyoutoexplainthatlaterinyourapology....

KeplertriedtogiveareasonforthetailbeingreallycurvedGuiduccisupposesittobereallystraight,andseeksacauseforitsbent
appearance.Keplerreducedhisreasontoadiversityinrefractionofthesun'sraysoccurringinthematerialfromwhichthecomet's
tailisformed....Guiducciintroducesarefractionnotofthesun'srays,butofthecomet'simage,andnotinthematerialofthe
cometbutinthevaporousspherewhichsurroundstheearth.Hencethecause,thematerial,theplace,andthemethodalldiffer
betweenthetwo,andnocorrespondenceexistsexceptinbothauthors'useoftheword"refraction."...Keplerhasalwaysbeen
knowntomeasamannolessfrankandhonestthanintelligentandlearned.Iamsurethathewouldadmitourstatementtobe
entirelydifferentfromtheonewhichherefuted[13].

BeforeIproceedletmetellSarsithatitisnotIwho[p.263]wanttheskytohavethenoblestshapebecauseofitsbeingthenoblest
bodyitisAristotlehimself,againstwhoseviewsSig.Guiducciisarguing.Formyownpart,neverhavingreadthepedigreesand
patentsofnobilityofshapes,Idonotknowwhichofthemaremoreandwhicharelessnoble,nordoIknowtheirrankin
perfection.Ibelievethatinawayallshapesareancientandnobleor,toputitbetter,thatnoneofthemarenobleandperfect,or
ignobleandimperfect,exceptinsofarasforbuildingwallsasquareshapeismoreperfectthanthecircular,andforwagonwheels
thecircleismoreperfectthanthetriangle.

Sarsisaysthatabundantargumentshavebeensuppliedbymeforprovingtheroughnessoftheinteriorsurfaceofthesky,sinceI
willhaveitthatthemoonandotherplanetsbodieswhicharealsocelestial,andevenmorenobleandperfectthantheskyitselfare
mountainousandrough.Andifthatisso,heasks,whyshouldn'tirregularityexistalsointheshapeofthesky?Forananswerto
thislethimputdownwhateveritisthathewouldreplytoamanwhoarguedthatthesurfaceoftheoceanshouldbebonyand
scaly,sincethefishwhichinhabititare.

Astohisquestionwhythemoonisnotsmooth,Ireplythatitandalltheotherplanetsareinherentlydarkandshinebylightfrom
thesun.Hencetheymusthaveroughsurfaces,foriftheyweresmoothasmirrorsnoreflectionwouldreachusfromthemandthey
wouldbequiteinvisibletous....Ontheotherhandalmostequaldisorderwouldensueifthecelestialorbswereofasolid
substanceandhadsurfacesnotperfectlysmooth,sincethenrefractionswouldbedisturbedandthemovements,shapes,and
projectionsofraysfromtheplanetswouldbemostconfusedandirregular.

Sarsitriestoattributetomesomethingquitefalsenamely,thatthewaterinabowlremainsasmotionlessasairwhenthebowlis
rotated.Well,Iamnotsurprisedthathesaysthis,foranymanwhoisconstantlyreversingthesenseofthingsthatothershave
writtenandpublishedwill[p.264]thinkitevenmorepermissibletoalterthingsheadmitshehasonlyonhearsay.justthesame,I
donotconsideritwithintheboundsofgoodbreedingtoprintsomethingthatamanhasmerelyheardfromhisneighbors,andthe
moresowhen(eitherdeliberatelyorasaresultofmisunderstanding)hisreportisquitedifferentfromwhatwasactuallysaid.Itis
myaffairtoprintmyideasfortheworldtoread,Sarsi,notyours.Andifinthecourseofanargumentamanhassaidsomething
foolish,asindeeddoeshappensometimes,whymustyourushintoprintwithit,andthusdeprivehimoftheopportunitytothinkit
overmorecarefullyandamendhisownerror,preservingmasteryoverhisownmindandpen?

WhatSarsimayhaveheardbut,fromwhatIsee,didnotunderstandverywellwasacertainexperimentwhichIexhibitedtosome
gentlementhereatRome,andperhapsattheveryhouseofYourExcellency,inpartialexplanationandpartialrefutationofthe
"thirdmotion"[14](14)attributedbyCopernicustotheearth.Thisextrarotation,oppositeindirectiontoallothercelestialmotions,
appearedtomanyamostimprobablething,andonethatupsetthewholeCopernicansystem....Iusedtoremovethedifficultyby
showingthatsuchaphenomenonwasfarfromimprobable,andindeedwouldbeinaccordancewithNatureandpracticallyforced
tooccur.Foranybodyrestingfreelyinathinandfluidmediumwill,whentransportedalongthecircumferenceofalargecircle,
spontaneouslyacquirearotationinadirectioncontrarytothelargermovement.[p.265]Thephenomenonwasseenbytakingin
one'shandsabowlofwaterandplacinginitafloatingball.Thenturningaboutonthetoewiththishandextended,oneseesthe
ballturnonitsaxisintheoppositedirection,andcompletethisrevolutioninthesametimeasone'sown.Inthiswaythewonder
wasremoved,andinplaceofitonewouldbeastonishediftheearthwerenottoacquireacontraryrotationwhenassumedtobea
bodysuspendedinafluidmediumandgoingaroundalargecircleinaperiodofoneyear.WhatIsaidwasdesignedtoremovea
difficultyattributedtotheCopernicansystem,andIlateraddedthatanyonewhowouldreflectuponthemattermorecarefully
wouldseethatCopernicushadspokenfalselywhenheattributedhis"thirdmotion"totheearth,sincethiswouldnotbeamotionat
all,butakindofrest.Itiscertainlytruethattothepersonholdingthebowlsuchaballappearstomovewithrespecttohimselfand
tothebowl,andtoturnuponitsaxis.Butwithrespecttothewan(oranyotherexternalthing)theballdoesnotturnatall,anddoes
notchangeitstilt,andanypointuponitwillcontinuetopointtowardthesamedistantobject.

ThatiswhatIasserted,andyouseeitisverydifferentfromwhatSarsirelates.Thisexperiment,andperhapsothers,mayhave
inducedsomeonewhowaspresentatourdiscussionstoattributetomewhatSarsimentionsnextthatis,acertainnaturaltalentof
mineforexplainingbymeansofsimpleandobviousthingsotherswhicharemoredifficultandabstruse.Hedoesnotdenyme
praiseforthis,butIthinkthiscomesfromcourtesyratherthanfromhistruefeelings,forsofarasIcanseeheisnoteasily
persuadedofanytalentonmypart.

Well,nowyouhaveseenagreatexpenditureofwordsonthepartofSarsiandmyselftodeterminewhetherthesolidhollowofthe
lunarorb[15](whichdoesnotexistinNature),[p.266]movingaround(asitneverhas),sweepsalongwithittheelementoffire
(whichisnotprovedtoexist)andalongwiththistheexhalationswhichinturnkindlethematerialofcometsamaterialwhose
locationwecannotestablishwithcertainty,andwhichwearepositiveisnotcombustibleSarsihereputsmeinmindofthesaying
ofaverywittypoet:

ByOrlando'ssword,whichtheyhavenot
Andperhapswhichtheynevershallhave
Theseblowsofblindmenhavebeengiven...[16]

SarsinextwantstomakeGuiducciagreewithAristotle,andtoshowthattheyhavebothstatedthesameconclusionwhenoneof
themsaysthatmotionisthecauseofheat,andtheothersaysthatthecauseisnotmotionbutthebriskrubbingoftwohardbodies.
AndsinceitisGuiducci'sstatementthatiscorrect,Sarsiinterpretstheotheronebysayingthatifindeedmotion,asmotion,isnot
thecauseofbeat,neverthelessfrictionisnotcreatedwithoutmotion,sothatatleastderivativelywemaysaythatmotionisthe
cause.ButifthatiswhatAristotlemeant,whydidn'thesay"friction"?Whenamancansaydefinitelywhathemeansbyusinga
simpleandappropriateword,whyemployaninappropriateonethatrequiresqualificationandultimatelybecomestransformedinto
somethingquitedifferent?ButassumingthatthiswasAristotle'smeaning,itstilldiffersfromGuiduccisfortoAristotleany
rubbingofbodieswouldsuffice,evenoftenuousonesoroftheairitself,whereasGuiduccirequirestwosolidbodies,forhe
considersthattryingtopulverizetheairisasgreatawasteoftimeasgrindingwaterintheproverbialmortar.
Itismyopinionthattheoriginalpropositionmaybequitetrue,takeninthesimplestsenseofthewordsitcontains,andthat
perhapsitcamefromsomegoodphilosophicalschoolofantiquity,butthatAristotlefailedtofathom[p.267]themindofthe
ancientswhopropoundedit,anddeducedhisfalseconceptionaccordingly.Norwouldthisbetheonlypropositionthatisinherently
truebutisunderstoodbythePeripateticsinafalsesense.OfthisIshallsaymoresomeothertime...

Really,IdonotbelievethatGuiducciwouldsay(asSarsipretends)thatinordertobecomehot,bodiesmustfirstberarefied,and
thatrarefactiondiminishesthem,andthatthethinnerpartsflyaway....Intheprocessunderdiscussiononemustconsideronthe
onehandthebodythatistoproducetheheat,andontheotherhandthebodywhichistoreceiveheat.SarsithinksGuiducciwould
requiretheexcitationandtheconsumptionofpartstotakeplaceinthebodyreceivingtheheat,whereasIbelievethebodythatis
diminishedwouldbetheonethatgeneratesheat...

WhenSarsiheatedhisbitofcopperbypoundingitmanytimes,Icanwellbelievethathedetectednodiminutioninitsweighteven
bythemostdelicatebalance.ButIdonotthinkonthataccountthatnonecanhavetakenplaceitmayhavebeentoominutetobe
perceptibleanybalancewhatever.LetmeaskSarsiwhetherhethinksanydifferenceofweightcouldbedetectedinasilverbutton
beforeandafteritisgilded.Hemustsayno,asweseegoldreducedtosuchthinleafthatitwillsustainitselfuponthequietairand
dropwithextremeslownessandwithsuchgoldanymetalmaybegilded.Nowthisbuttonmaybeusedtwoorthreemonthsbefore
thegildingwillwearoff,andyetsincethegiltisultimatelyconsumeditmustbediminishingeverydayandeveneveryhour.

Ortakeaballofmuskandcarryitwithyouforafortnightitwillfillwithodorathousandroomsandstreetswhichcannothappen
withoutsomediminutionofmaterialyetyouwillfindnonebyweighingit.ThusSarsimayseethatinsensiblereductionsof
weightdooccurfromconsumptionoveraperiodofmonthsonend,letalonethefewminuteshemayhavepersistedinhammering
awayathisbitofcopper.Andpreciselybythisdifferencewemaymeasurethesensitivityoftheassayer'sbalancein[p.268]
comparisonwiththatofthephilosopher'ssteelyard.Andnotethatthetenuousmaterialwhichproducesheatisevenmoresubtle
thanthatwhichcausesodor,forthelattercannotleakthroughaglasscontainer,whereasthematerialofheatmakesitswaythrough
anysubstance.

HereSarsiobjects,saying,"Iftestingwiththebalanceisinsufficienttorevealsosmallaconsumption,howwillyouhaveit
shown?"Theobjectionisingenious,thoughnotsoprofoundastobeincapableofsolutionbyalittlephysicallogic.Herearethe
stepsoftheargument.Ofbodiesthatarerubbedtogether,somearecertainlynotconsumed,othersarequiteperceptiblyconsumed,
andstillothersareindeedconsumed,butinsensibly.Oursensesshowusthatthosewhicharenotconsumedatallbyrubbing,such
astwopolishedmirrors,arenotheatedbyrubbing,either.Weknowthatthoseareheatedwhichareperceptiblyconsumed,asiron
whenitisbeingfiled.Thereforewhenweareindoubtwhetherthingsareconsumedbyrubbingwemaybelievethattheyareif
theyaresensiblyheated,whilethosewhicharenotheatedmaybesaidnottobeconsumed.

BeforegoingonIwishtoaddsomethingforSarsi'sinstruction.Tosay,"Thisbodyhasnotlostweightinthebalance,andhenceno
partofithasbeenconsumed,"isfallaciousreasoning.Itispossibleforpartofsomethingtobeconsumedandyetforittogain
weightinsteadoflosingit.Thiswillhappenwhenthespecificgravityofthatwhichisconsumedislessthanthatofthemediumin
whichitisbeingweighed.Forinstanceaveryknottypieceofwoodtakenfromneartherootmaysinkwhenplacedinwater.Under
waterletitweighfourounces.Nowcutawaysomeofthelighterpartsandleavetheknottyportionstheformer,beingofless
specificgravitythanthewater,gavesomesupporttotheentiremass.HenceIsayitmayhappenthatthepartsleftwillweighmore
inwaterthantheentirepieceofwooddid.Nowitmaybethatinfilingorrubbingtogetherpiecesofiron,sticks,orstones,some
particlesofmateriallessdensethanairbecomeseparatedfromthemifnothingelseisremoved,thiswouldleavethebody[p.269]
heavierthanbefore.WhatIsayisnotentirelyimprobable,ormerelyarefugewhichwillleavetheadversarysometroublein
refutingit.Forifyoucarefullyobservewhathappensinbreakingglassorstones,youwillseesomeperceptiblefumesemergeand
risehighintheair,whichmustbelighterthanair.Ifirstnoticedthiswhenbreakingthecomersoffapieceofglassandroundingit
withakeyorsomeotherpieceofiron.Besidesthelittlepiecesofvarioussizeswhichflewoffandfelltotheground,Isawasubtle
smokealwaysarising.Andapartfromwhatwesee,whatwesmellisaclearsipthatsomesulfurousorbituminouspartsmaybe
ascendingwhichremaininvisiblebutmakethemselvesknownbytheirodor.

LetSarsiseefromthishowsuperficialhisphilosophizingis,exceptinappearance.Butlethimnotthinkhecanreplywith
additionallimitations,distinctions,logicaltechnicalities,philosophicaljargon,andotheridlewords,forIassurehimthatin
sustainingoneerrorhewillcommitahundredothersthataremoreserious,andproducealwaysgreaterfolliesinhiscamp....
WhymustIattributelightningtovehementmotionwhenIseethatfireisnotexcitedwithouttherubbingofsolidbodieswhichdo
notexistamongtheclouds?Andheatlightningoccurswhennocommotionisperceivedintheairorinclouds.Thistheoryofhis,I
think,isnomoreinherentlytruethanthestatementsofthesesamephilosopherswhentheyattributetherumblingofthundertothe
tearingapartofclouds,ortotheirknockingtogether.Actuallyinthebrillianceofthebrightestflashesoflightningnottheslightest
movementorchangeofshapeisdiscernedintheclouds,andthisisjustwhenthunderisbeingformed.Ipassoverinsilencethe
factthatthesephilosopherssaythatnonoiseisproducedbythestrikingofwoolorhemp,andrequirethepercussionofsolid
bodiestomakesoundandthenagainwhenitsuitstheirpurposestheyassertthatmistsandcloudsstrikingtogetherwillrenderthe
loudestofallsounds.Tractableandbenignindeedissuchphilosophy,sopleasantlyandreadilyadaptingitselftomen'sneedsand
wishes!

Nowletusgoontoexaminethearrowsinflightandthe[p.270]leadballshurledbycatapultswhicharesupposedtobesetafire
andmeltedintheair,accordingtotheauthorityofAristotle,manyfamouspoets,otherphilosophers,andhistorians.Butitiswrong
tosay,asSarsidoes,thatGuiducciandIwouldlaughandjokeattheexperiencesadducedbyAristotle.Wemerelydonotbelieve
thatacoldarrowshotfromabowcantakefireintheairrather,wethinkthatffanarrowwereshotwhenafire,itwouldcooldown
morequicklythanitwouldifitwereheldstill.Thisisnotderisionitissimplythestatementofouropinion.

SarsigoesontosaythatsincethisexperienceofAristotle'shasfailedtoconvinceus,manyothergreatmenalsohavewritten
thingsofthesamesort.TothisIreplythatifInordertorefuteAristotle'sstatementweareobligedtorepresentthatnoothermen
havebelievedit,thennobodyonearthcaneverrefuteit,sincenothingcanmakethosewhohavebelieveditnotbelieveit.Butitis
newstomethatanymanwouldactuallyputthetestimonyofwritersaheadofwhatexperienceshowshim.Toadducemore
witnessesservesnopurpose,Sarsi,forwehaveneverdeniedthatsuchthingshavebeenwrittenandbelieved.Wedidsaytheyare
false,butsofarasauthorityisconcernedyoursaloneisaseffectiveasanarmy'sinrenderingtheeventstrueorfalse.Youtakeyour
standontheauthorityofmanypoetsagainstourexperiments.Ireplythatifthosepoetscouldbepresentatourexperimentsthey
wouldchangetheirviews,andwithoutdisgracetheycouldsaytheyhadbeenwritinghyperbolicallyorevenadmittheyhadbeen
wrong.

Well,ifwecannothavethepresenceofyourpoets(who,asIsay,wouldyieldtoexperience),wedohaveathandarchersand
catapultists,andyoumayseeforyourselfwhethercitingyourauthoritiestothemcanstrengthentheirarmstosuchanextentthat
thearrowstheyshootandtheleadballstheyhurlWintakefireandmeltintheair.Inthatwayyouwillbeabletofindoutjusthow
muchforcehumanauthorityhasuponthefactsofNature,whichremainsdeafandinexorabletoourwishes.Yousaythere[p.271]
isnolongeranAcestesoraMezentius[17]orothermightypaladin?Ishallbecontenttohaveyoushootanarrownotwithasimple
longbow,butwiththestouteststeelcrossbow,oruseacatapultdrawnbyloversandwindlassesthatcouldnotbemanagedbythirty
ofyourancientheroes.Shoottenarrows,orahundredandifiteverhappensthatononeofthemthefeatherssomuchasslightly
tanletaloneitsshafttakingfireoritssteeltipmeltingIshallnotonlyconcedetheargumentbutforfeityourrespect,whichI
regardsohighly....

IcannotbutbeastonishedthatSarsishouldpersistintryingtoprovebymeansofwitnessessomethingthatImayseeformyselfat
anytimebymeansofexperiment.Witnessesareexaminedindoubtfulmatterswhicharepastandtransient,notinthosewhichare
actualandpresent.AjudgemustseekbymeansofwitnessestodeterminewhetherPeterinjuredJohnlastnight,butnotwhether
Johnwasinjured,sincethejudgecanseethatforhimself.Buteveninconclusionswhichcanbeknownonlybyreasoning,Isay
thatthetestimonyofmanyhaslittlemorevaluethanthatoffew,sincethenumberofpeoplewhoreasonwellincomplicated
mattersismuchsmallerthanthatofthosewhoreasonbadly.IfreasoningwerelikehaulingIshouldagreethatseveralreasoners
wouldbeworthmorethanone,justasseveralhorsescanhaulmoresacksofgrainthanonecan.Butreasoningislikeracing,and
notlikehauling,andasingleArabiansteedcanoutrunahundredplowhorses.SowhenSarsibringsinthismultitudeofauthorsit
appearstomethatinsteadofstrengtheningighisconclusionhemerelyennoblesourcasebyshowingthatwehaveoutreasoned
manymenofgreatreputation.

[p.272]IfSarsiwantsmetobelievewithSuidas[18]thattheBabylonianscookedtheireggsbywhirlingtheminslings,Ishalldo
sobutImustsaythatthecauseofthiseffectwasverydifferentfromwhathesuggests.TodiscoverthetruecauseIreasonas
follows:"ifwedonotachieveaneffectwhichothersformerlyachieved,thenitmustbethatinouroperationswelacksomething
thatproducedtheirsuccess.Andifthereisjustonesinglethingwelack,thenthatalonecanbethetruecause.Nowwedonotlack
eggs,norslings,norsturdyfellowstowhirlthemyetoureggsdonotcook,butmerelycooldownfasteriftheyhappentobehot.
AndsincenothingislackingtousexceptbeingBabylonians,thenbeingBabyloniansisthecauseofthehardeningofeggs,andnot
frictionoftheair."AndthisiswhatIwishedtodiscover.IsitpossiblethatSarsihasneverobservedthecoolnessproducedonhis
facebythecontinualchangeofairwhenheisridingpost?Ifhehas,thenhowcanheprefertobelievethingsrelatedbyothermen
ashavinghappenedtwothousandyearsagoinBabylonratherthanpresenteventswhichhehimselfexperiences?...
Sarsisayshedoesnotwishtobenumberedamongthosewhoaffrontthesagesbydisbelievingandcontradictingthem.IsayIdo
notwishtobecountedasanignoramusandaningratetowardNatureandtowardGodforiftheyhavegivenmemysensesandmy
reason,whyshouldIdefersuchgreatgiftstotheerrorsofsomeman?WhyshouldIbelieveblindlyandstupidlywhatIwishto
believe,andsubjectthefreedomofmyintellecttosomeoneelsewhoisjustasliabletoerrorasIam?...
FinallySarsiisreducedtosayingwithAristotlethatiftheaireverhappenedtobeabundantlyfilledwithwarmexhalationsinthe
presenceofvariousotherrequisites,thenleadenballswouldmeltintheairwhenshotfrommusketsorthrownbyslings.Thismust
havebeenthestateoftheairwhentheBabylonianswerecookingtheireggs....andatsuchtimesthingsmustgoverypleasantly
forpeoplewhoarebeingshotBut,Sarsisays,sincetofindsuch[p.273]conditionsisamatterofchanceandonethatdoesnot
occurtoofrequently,wemustresorttoexperimentsforsettlingsuchquestions.So,Sarsi,ifexperimentsareperformedthousands
oftimesatallseasonsandineveryplacewithoutonceproducingtheeffectsmentionedbyyourphilosophers,poets,andhistorians,
thiswillmeannothingandwemustbelievetheirwordsratherthanourowneyes?ButwhatifIfindforyouastateof',,theairthat
hasalltheconditionsyousayarerequired,andtilltheeggisnotcookednortheleadballdestroyed?Alas!Ishouldbewastingmy
efforts,...foralltooprudentlyyouhavesecuredyourpositionbysayingthat"thereisneededforthiseffectviolentmotion,agreat
quantityofexhalations,ahighlyattenuatedmaterial,andwhateverelseconducestoit."This"whateverelse"iswhatbeatsme,and
givesyouablessedharbor,asanctuarycompletelysecure.

WhatIhadinmind,though,wastosuspendourargumentandwaitquietlyuntilsomenewcometcamealong.Iimaginedthat
whilethislastedyouandAristotlewouldgrantmethatsincetheairwasthenproperlydisposedforkindlingthecomet,itwould
likewisebesuitableformeltingleadballsandcookingeggs,inasmuchasyouseemtorequirethesameconditionforbotheffects.
ItwasthenthatIwouldhavehadussettoworkwithourslings,eggs,bows,muskets,andcannonssothatwemightclearupthis
matterforourselves.Andevenwithoutwaitingforacometwemightfindanopportunetimewheninmidsummertheairflashes
withheatlightning,asyouassignallthese"burnings"toasinglecause.ButIsupposethatwhenyoufailedtobeholdameltingof
lead'ballsoreventhecookingofeggsundersuchconditionsyouwouldstillfailtogiveinyouwouldsaythatthis"whateverelse
conducestotheeffect"waslacking.Ifyouwouldonlytellmewhatthis"whateverelse"is,Ishouldendeavortoprovideit.Butif
notIshallhavetoabandonmylittlescheme,thoughIdobelieveitwouldturnoutagainstyou....
ItnowremainsformetotellYourExcellency,asIpromised,somethoughtsofmineabouttheproposition"motionisthecauseof
heat,"andtoshowinwhatsensethismay[p.274]betrue.ButfirstImustconsiderwhatitisthatwecallheat,asIsuspectthat
peopleingeneralhaveaconceptofthiswhichisveryremotefromthetruth.Fortheybelievethatheatisarealphenomenonor
property,orquality,whichactuallyresidesinthematerialbywhichwefeelourselveswarmed[19].(19)NowIsaythatwheneverI
conceiveanymaterialorcorporealsubstance,Iimmediatelyfeeltheneedtothinkofitasbounded,andashavingthisorthat
shapeasbeinglargeorsmallinrelationtootherthings,andinsomespecificplaceatanygiventimeasbeinginmotionoratrest
astouchingornottouchingsomeotherbodyandasbeingoneinnumber,orfew,ormany.FromtheseconditionsIcannotseparate
suchasubstancebyanystretchofmyimagination.Butthatitmustbewhiteorred,bitterorsweet,noisyorsilent,andofsweet
orfoulodor,myminddoesnotfeelcompelledtobringinasnecessaryaccompaniments.Withoutthesensesasourguides,reason
orimaginationunaidedwouldprobablyneverarriveatqualitieslikethese.HenceIthinkthattastes,odors,colors,andsoonareno
morethanmerenamessofarastheobjectinwhichweplacethemisconcerned,andthattheyresideonlyinheconsciousness.
Henceifthelivingcreaturewereremoved,allthesequalitieswouldbewipedawayandannihilated.Butsincewehaveimposed
uponthemspecialnames,distinctfromthoseoftheotherandrealqualitiesmentionedpreviously,wewishtobelievethatthey
reallyexistasactuallydifferentfromthose.

[p.275]Imaybeabletomakemynotionclearerbymeansofsomeexamples.Imovemyhafirstoveramarblestatueandthen
overalivingman.totheeffectflowingfrommyhand,thisisthesamewithregardtobothobjectsandmyhanditconsistsofthe
primaryphenomenaofmotionandtouch,forwhichwehavenofurthernames.Butthelivebodywhichreceivestheseoperations
feelsdifferentsensationsaccordingtothevariousplacestouched.Whentoucheduponthesolesofthefeet,forexample,orunder
thekneeorarmpit,itfeelsinadditiontothecommonsensationoftouchasensationonwhichwehave.imposedaspecialname,
"tickling."Thissensationbelongstousandnottothehand.Anyonewouldmakeaseriouserrorifhesaidthatthehand,inaddition
tothepropertiesofmovingandtouching,possessedanotherfacultyof"tickling,"asifticklingwereaphenomenonthatresidedin
thehandthattickled.Apieceofpaperorafeatherdrawnlightlyoveranypartofourbodiesperformsintrinsicallythesame
operationsofmovingandtouching,butbytouchingtheeye,thenose,ortheupperlipitexcitesinusanalmostintolerable
titillation,eventhoughelsewhereitisscarcelyfelt.Thistitillationbelongsentirelytousandnottothefeatheriftheliveand
sensitivebodywereremoveditwouldremainnomorethanamereword.Ibelievethatnomoresolidanexistencebelongstomany
qualitieswhichwehavecometoattributetophysicalbodiestastes,odors,colors,andmanymore.

Abodywhichissolidand,sotospeak,quitematerial,whenmovedincontactwithanypartofmypersonproducesinmethe
sensationwecalltouch.This,thoughitexistsovermyentirebody,seemstoresideprincipallyinthepalmsofthehandsandinthe
fingertips,bywhosemeanswesensethemostminutedifferencesintexturethatarenoteasilydistinguishedbyotherpartsofour
bodies.Someofthesesensationsaremorepleasanttousthanothers....Thesenseoftouchismorematerialthantheothersenses
and,asitarisesfromthesolidityofmatter,itseemstoberelatedtotheearthlyelement.

Perhapstheoriginoftwoothersensesliesinthefact[p.276]thattherearebodieswhichconstantlydissolveintominuteparticles,
someofwhichareheavierthanairanddescend,whileothersarelighterandriseup.Theformermaystrikeuponacertainpartof
ourbodiesthatismuchmoresensitivethantheskin,whichdoesnotfeeltheinvasionofsuchsubtlematter.Thisistheupper
surfaceofthetongueherethetinyparticlesarereceived,andmixingwithandpenetratingitsmoisture,theygiverisetotastes,
whicharesweetorunsavoryaccordingtothevariousshapes,numbers,andspeedsoftheparticles.Andthoseminuteparticles
whichriseupmayenterbyournostrilsandstrikeuponsomesmallprotuberanceswhicharetheinstrumentofsmellinghere
likewisetheirtouchandpassageisreceivedtoourlikeordislikeaccordingastheyhavethisorthatshape,arefastorslow,andare
numerousorfew.Thetongueandnasalpassagesareprovidentlyarrangedforthesethings,astheoneextendsfrombelowto
receivedescendingparticles,andtheotherisadaptedtothosewhichascend.Perhapstheexcitationoftastesmaybegivenacertain
analogytofluids,whichdescendthroughair,andodorstofires,whichascend.

Thenthereremainstheairitself,anelementavailableforsounds,whichcometousindifferentlyfrombelow,above,andallsides
forweresideintheairanditsmovementsdisplaceitequallyinalldirections.Thelocationoftheearismostfittingly
accommodatedtoallpositionsinspace.Soundsaremadeandheardbyuswhentheairwithoutanyspecialpropertyof"sonority"or
"transonority"isruffledbyarapidtremorintoveryminutewavesandmovescertaincartilagesofatympanuminourear.External
meanscapableofthusrufflingtheairareverynumerous,butforthemostparttheymaybereducedtothetremblingofsomebody
whichpushestheairanddisturbsit.Wavesarepropagatedveryrapidlyinthisway,andhightonesareproducedbyfrequentwaves
andlowtonesbysparseones.

Toexciteinustastes,odors,andsoundsIbelievethatnothingisrequiredinexternalbodiesexceptshapes,numbers,andslowor
rapidmovements.Ithinkthatifears,[p.277]tongues,andnoseswereremoved,shapesandnumbersandmotionswouldremain,
butnotodorsortastesorsounds.Thelatter,Ibelieve,arenothingmorethannameswhenseparatedfromlivingbeings,justas
ticklingandtitillationarenothingbutnamesintheabsenceofsuchthingsasnosesandarmpits.Andasthesefoursensesare
relatedtothefourelements,soIbelievethatvision,thesenseeminentaboveallothersintheproportionofthefinitetotheinfinite,
thetemporaltotheinstantaneous,thequantitativetotheindivisible,theilluminatedtotheobscurethatvision,Isay,isrelatedto
lightitself.ButofthissensationandthethingspertainingtoitIpretendtounderstandbutlittleandsinceevenalongtimewould
notsufficetoexplainthattrifle,oreventohintatanexplanation,Ipassthisoverinsilence.

Havingshownthatmanysensationswhicharesupposedtobequalitiesresidinginexternalobjectshavenorealexistencesavein
us,andoutsideourselvesaremerenames,InowsaythatIaminclinedtobelieveheattobeofthischaracter.Thosematerialswhich
produceheatinusandmakeusfeelwarmth,whichareknownbythegeneralnameof"fire,"wouldthenbeamultitudeofminute
particleshavingcertainshapesandmovingwithcertainvelocities.Meetingwithourbodies,theypenetratebymeansoftheir
extremesubtlety,andtheirtouchasfeltbyuswhentheypassthroughoursubstanceisthesensationwecall"heat."Thisispleasant
orunpleasantaccordingtothegreaterorsmallerspeedoftheseparticlesastheygoprickingandpenetratingpleasantwhenthis
assistsournecessarytranspiration,andobnoxiouswhenitcausestoogreataseparationanddissolutionofoursubstance.The
operationoffirebymeansofitsparticlesismerelythatinmovingitpenetratesallbodies,causingtheirspeedyorslowdissolution
inproportiontothenumberandvelocityofthefirecorpusclesandthedensityortenuityofthebodies.Manymaterialsaresuch
thatintheirdecompositionthegreaterpartofthempassesoverintoadditionaltinycorpuscles,andthisdissolutioncontinuesso
longasthesecontinuetomeetwithfurthermattercapableofbeingsoresolved.Idonot[p.278]believethatinadditionshapen
ber,motion,penetration,andtouchthereisanyotherqualityinfirecorrespondingto"heat"thisbelongssointimatelytous
thatwhenthelivebodyistakenaway,heatbecomesnomorethanasimplename....

Sincethepresenceoffirecorpusclesalonedoesnotsufficetoexciteheat,buttheirmotionisneededalso,itseemstomethatone
mayveryreasonablysaythatmotionisthecauseofbeat....ButIholdittobesillytoacceptthatpropositionintheordinaryway,
asifastoneorpieceofironorastickmustheatupwhenmoved.Therubbingtogetherandfrictionoftwohardbodies,eitherby
resolvingtheirpartsintoverysubtleflyingparticlesorbyopeninganexitforthetinyfirecorpuscleswithin,ultimatelysetsthese
inmotionandwhentheymeetourbodiesandpenetratethem,ourconsciousmindfeelsthosepleasantorunpleasantsensations
whichwehavenamedheat,burning,andscalding.AndperhapswhensuchattritionstopsatorisconfinedtothesmallestquIanta,
theirmotionistemporalandtheiractioncalorificonlybutwhentheirultimateandhighestresolutionintotrulyindivisibleatomsis
arrivedat,lightiscreated[20].(20)Thismayhaveaninstantaneousmotion,orratheraninstantaneousexpansionanddiffusion[21]
(21)renderingitcapableofoccupying*immensespacesbyitsIknownotwhethertosayitssubtlety,itsrarity,itsimmateriality,or
someotherpropertywhichdiffersfromalltheseandisnameless.

[p.279]Idonotwish,YourExcellency,toengulfmyselfinadvertentlyinaboundlessseafroWhichImightnevergetbacktoport,
norintryingtosoonedifficultydoIwishtogiverisetoahundredmore,asIfearmayhavealreadyhappenedinsailingbutthis
littlewayfromshore.ThereforeIshalldesistuntilsomemoreopportuneoccasion.

FinallyIcannotresistspeakingabout$arsi'samazementatmyhopelessineptitudeintheemploymentofexperiments,inasmuchas
hehimselferrsasbadlyasamancaninthatsameactivity.You,Sarsi,mustshowusthataninterposedflamewouldnotsufficeto
hidethestars.Inordertoconvinceusbyexperiments,yousaythatifwelookthroughflamesatpeople,firebrands,coals,printed
pages,andcandles,weshallseeallthesequiteplainly.Diditneverenteryourheadtotellustotrylookingatstars?Whydidyou
notsaytousattheoutset,Interposeaflamebetweentheeyeandsomestar,andthestarwillbemadeneithermorenorless
visible"?Surelythereisnolackofstarsinthesky.Nowisthistobeaskillfulandprudentexperimentalist?

Iaskyouwhetherthecomet'sflameislikeourflames,orwhetherithasadifferentnature.Ifitsnatureisdifferent,experiments
madewithourflamesarenotconclusive.Ifitislikeourflames,thenyoumighthavemadeuslookatstarsthroughourflamesand
leftoutfirebrands,candlesnuffs,andsuchthings.Insteadofsayingthatprintmaybereadthroughacandleflame,youmighthave
saidthatastarmaybesoperceived....Youareobligedtokindleaverydistantflameaslargeasacometandtomakeusseestars
throughit....Butinordertoputyouatyoureaseandgiveyoueveryadvantage,Ishallbecontentwithmuchless.Insteadof
placingthefireasfarawayasacomet,Iamsatisfiedwithadistanceofonehundredyards.Inplaceofthethicknessofacomet,
merelytenyardswillsuffice.Andsinceyousaytheobjecttobeseengainsanadvantagefrombeingbright,letitbeoneofthestars
which[p.280]wasvisiblethroughthetailofthecometforyoumaintainthatstarsarebrighterthananyflame.

Andnow,withalltheseconditionssoadvantageoustoyourcause,ifyoucanmakethestarvisiblethroughthebonfire,Ishall
admitdefeatandplaceyouamongthemostprudentandexpertexperimentersinthewholeworld.Butifyoufail,Iasknomore
fromyouthansilence,bywhichanendwillbeputtothisdispute.AndtrulythatiswhatIhopewillnowtakeplace.

[1]Cesarini(15951624)asabrilliantmanoflettersatwhosehouseinRomeGalileohadoftendebatedinfavorofCopernicus
duringhisillstarredvisitin3.6153.6.HehadservedasconfidentialsecretarytoPopeGregoryXVandwasappointed
chamberlainbyUrbanVIIIin1623.
[2]ThisstatementwasbelievedbyScheinertobeunjustlyaimedathim,andwasprobablythesourceofhisdisastrousenmity
towardGalileo.ButGalileohadalreadyspokenofScheinerinhisreferenceto"attacksunderdisguises."Herehewasprobably
speakingofanotheropponent,mostlikelyjeanTarde,whohadpublishedabookonsunspotsatPariswhileTheAssayerwasbeing
written.TardehadvisitedGalileoin1614andhaddiscussedsunspotswithhimpersonally,yetinhisbookhecompletelyignored
Galileo'sconclusionsandappropriatedpropriatedtheearliermistakenideasofScheiner.ThechargeofplagiarismfromGalileo's
bookscouldnotbeaimedatScheinerhimselfforobviousreasons,butjudgingfromthebitterattackonGalileointheRosaUrsina
andfromitsauthor'sundoubtedroleinGalileo'sfinalcondemnation,Scheinerbelievedthattobetheintention.
[3]LittlewassaidintheDefensetoindicatethatGalileothensuspectedMayr,thoughhehadbeenmentionedwithpraisebyCapra
intheprefacetohisoutrageousplagiarism.
[4]Galileowasonabsolutelysolidgroundhere,thougheffortshavebeenmadeeveninmodemtimestorobhimofthisaswellas
mostofhisotherdiscoveries.Mayr,likeScheiner,gavehisundividedattentiontoasingletopicforseveralyears,andasaresult
producedsomeobservationsanddeductionsmoreaccuratethanGalileo'sonthesespecialstudies.ButMayr'seffronteryin
claimingpriorityissopalpablethatonecannothelpsympathizingentirelywithGalileointheseplaintiveopeningparagraphsof
TheAssayer.
[5]Soitwas,toallintentsandpurposes,andmostofthemanuscriptsurvivesinGalileo'shandwriting.
[6]JeromeCardan(150176)wasanotedmathematicianandtheauthorofworksonphilosophy,medicine,astronomy,andnearly
everyotherbranchoflearning.
[7]ItwasnotedbyVincenzioVivianiinhisbiographyofGalileothathereadlittleofothermen'sworksandownedfewbooksin
comparisontootherphilosophersofthetime.
[8]Ecclesiastes1:15(Douay).ThetranslatorsoftheKingJamesversionrenderthispassageinanentirelydifferentsensenamely,
as"thatwhichiswantingcannotbenumbered."
[9]Thereasoningisofcourseentirelyposthoc,andinfactacombinationoftwoconvexlensesismuchmoresatisfactoryfor
astronomicalpurposes.SuchtelescopesweredescribedbyKeplerin1611,andaresaidtohavebeenfirstconstructedandusedby
Scheinersomeyearslater.
[10]ArchytaswastheteacherofEudoxus(note3,p.11)heflourishedatTarentuminthefourthcenturyB.C.Numerousstoriesare
toldofhisskillasamathematicianandstatesman,butheisbestrememberedinthetraditionthatheconstructedanautomatonin
theformofawoodendovewhichcouldfly.
[11]Grassi'squeriesmayhavebeenresponsibleforGalileo'shavingtakenupagainhisinterestintheuseoflensestomagnifyvery
smallobjects.Intheearlydaysofthetelescopehehadexperimentedwithsuchanapplicationofit,butitwasonlywhenwriting
TheAssayerthathealteredthelenssystemandproducedamanageablecompoundmicroscope.Theinventionis,ofcourse,
contestedinfavorofseveralothermenaboutthistime.
[12]OrlandoFurioso,c.xi,3738.Thetranslationhereisdeliberatelyfree.Orlandodidnotemploytheanchorasafishhook,butusedittoprop
openthemouthofaseamonsterwhileheenteredtokillit.
[13]Sofarasthisgoes,itisquitecorrect.GrassihadreferredtotheviewswhichKeplerlerhadsetforthinanearlyopticalwork,
andGalileorightfullyobjectedtotheimplicationthattheseviewsweresimilartohisown.In1619,however,Keplerhadpublished
abookoncometsinwhichhechangedhispreviousnotionandforeshadowedthemodemviewthatthetailsofcometsconsistof
materialdrivenfromtheirbodiesbythesun'srays,andthattheircurvaturearisesfromacompositionofmotions.SeeAd
Vitellionemparalipomena...(Frankfort,1604),pp.264ff.,andDecometislibellitres(Augsburg,1619)bk.ii.
[14]Copernicusascribedtotheearthwhathecalleda"motionindeclination"inadditionto
theannualanddiurnalmotions.Thepurposeofthiswastomaintaintheaxisoftheearthparalleltoitselfthroughouttheyearin
ordertoaccountfortheseasons.Galileo,whohaddiscoveredtheprincipleofinertia,sawthatthisdidnotrequireaspecialmotion
atall,butwasadirectconsequenceofhisprinciple.Atfirstheusedhisdiscoveryinsupport
ofCopernicus.Afterthetheorywasbannedheutilizedittosmuggleinthetruthbypretending(ashere)thatCopernicushad
spokenfalselyinattributinganonexistentmotiontotheearth.Resourcefulnessofthissortmadehimaveryhardmantosilence.
[15]Thisexpressionrefersnottothemoonbuttotheimaginarycrystallinespherethatwassupposedtotransportitaroundthe
earth.Theinnersurfaceofthatspherewassupposedtobetheboundarybetweenthefourterrestrialelements(fire,air,water,and
earth)andthespecialfifthsubstance(aether)whichcomposedallheavenlybodies.
[16]Boiardo,OrlandoInnamoratoiii,c.vi,50,35.
[17]TwopowerfulwarriorsofVirgil'sAeneid:"Acestes...dischargedhisshaft...thearrow,flyingamongthewateryclouds,
tookfireandwithflamesmarkedoutitspath,tillbeingquiteconsumeditvanished."(v,525f.)'Mezentiushimself,havinglaidaside
hisarms,thricewhirlingabouthisheadthethong,dischargedahissingsling,andwiththehalfmeltedleadcloveasunderthe
templesofthesonofArcens."(ix,585ff.)
[18]SuidaswasaGreeklexicograpberofthetenthcentury.
[19]TheensuingpassagesaregenerallyconsideredtoentitleGalileotocreditforanticipating,thefundamentalconceptsofthe
empiricistphilosophydeveolopedchieflybyJohnLockeatthecloseoftheseventeenthcentury.Thebasictenetsareofcourse
mucholder,belongingtotheatomismofDemocritus(b.460B.C.),adoctrinewhichwasparticularlyrepugnanttoAristotle.While
thisexpositionisofnolittlephilosohicalandscientificinterest(inasmuchasempiricism,rightlyorwrongly,hasbeenclosely
associatedwiththedevelopmentofmodemscience),Galileowasnophilosophicalempiricist.Heattachednolessimportanceto
reasonthantoexperiment,andhehadnodoubtabouttheindependenttruthofmathematicalpropositions,thedenialofwhichhas
alwaysinvolvedempiricistphilosophersinseriousdifficultywiththebestlogicians.
[20]ThisluckyguessshouldentitleGalileotoconsiderationashavinganticipatedmanymodemscientificdiscoveriesinaboutthe
samesenseasthatinwhichmedievalphilosophersanticipatedGalileointhediscoveryoftheprincipleofinertia.Atpresentitis
customarytopraisetheirhappyconjecturesandtooverlookhis.Butperhapsthatisbecausetheymadesomanyunsupported
guesses,andhesofew.
[21]TheerroneousviewthatlightistransmittedinstantaneouslywaslaterwithdrawnbyGalileo,andintheDiscoursesof1638he
evenproposedanexperimentfordeterminingthespeedoflight.Itwas,ofcourse,toocrudetosucceed.YetGalileo'sdiscoveries
playedapartinitssuccessfulmeasurement,forthiswaseventuallyaccomplishedbymeansofobservationsofeclipsesofthe
satellitesofJupiter.