Chapter1WaterSourceandSustainability

11 a)HydrologicCycleand
b)WaterBalance
12RainfalllossesandSurfaceRunoff
13IssuesandhealthImpacts

Chapter2WaterUseCharacteristic
Chapter3WaterQualityParameters 1
 Introduction

y Era where everything is becoming scarce . including water

y So how to effectively manage water resource?

y Managing water resources a number of technical challenges affect

from social,, economic,, environmental

y Hence difficult to formulate management strategies

y The objective of this module is to introduce students to

{ basic methods of quantitatively evaluating various management
approaches in water management
{ AWARENESS - make us aware of some of the broader issues
involved.
 Crucial
y Fresh world water 2.5% : Freshwater lakes, Rivers, Groundwater
{ Prior
i to 1930s and d 40s, water supplies
li were mostly
l bbased
d on rivers
i and
d llakes.
k S So Ci
Civilization
ili i
developed on rivers/lakes

y Only in the last 50-60 yrs did this begin to change

{ So, water is everywhere, but only a relatively small fraction of it is usable without
incurring some considerable expense (i.e. desalination)

y About 35,106 km3 of freshwater available globally

{ Avg person in developed world probably uses 0.3
Avg. 0 3 0.5
0 5 m3/day,
/day 100
100-150m
150m3/yr

y Even if we assume 90% of this freshwater (or more) is totally

inaccessible, it is still clear that there would be no scarcity if water were
perfectly distributed to meet human needs
y But,
But that is clearly not the case
 Introduction

y We are largely dependent on the hydrologic cycle to determine when

and where water is available.
y In the end, it comes down to rainfall that runs off into rivers and lakes.
y Rainfall has cycles, both seasonal and climatic (drought), so in order to
develop the reliable supplies that we need to keep society moving, we
need to be able to smooth
smooth out
out our supply

y WATER MANAGEMENT! How?

y We do this by storing excess water during periods of abundance and
using the stored amount when water is scarce.
y Nature does some of this for us aquifers
y We have learned to do this for ourselves dams
 Introduction -Issues

y Dams need sufficient funding.

funding Getting unattractive later on
Because of the technological and financial resources needed to make
water fit to drink,, manyy economicallyy challenged
g countries simply
py
go without.

y In addition,
ddi i there
h h
has b
been a great change
h in
i the
h world
ld weather
h
and the rainfall patterns due to global warming. This
phenomenon adds to the water scarcity issue in various parts of the
world.
world

y Human beings,
beings not to mention animals and agriculture
agriculture, are facing
dire circumstances. Our active participation is needed to find
solutions so that we can change these drastic circumstances.
 Introduction -Issues

y We
W have
h begun
b tto exhaust
h t th
the sustainable
t i bl supply
l off
groundwater, at least in the areas where it is most
needed.
needed

y U.S. usage peaked in 70s-80s, and has hit a plateau.

y The rate of usage has even declined slightly,

suggesting
gg g that some aquifers
q have been p
pumped
p at
levels exceeding their recharge rates
 Issue water supply
pp y

y Rain/snow
R i / does
d nott fall
f ll equally
ll in
i all
ll places
l
y We could move water from where it is, to where it
iisnt
by
b rivers,
i Pipeline,
i li A
Aqueducts
d
y But moving it is expensive since water is heavy, and
have environmental and political implications
y So, Water Management is important!
{ need to explore how we can use existing sources more
efficiently.
{ Need to know water usage pattern
 Whyy water management?
g

1. The water
Th t resource engineer/planner
i / l needs
d tto
develop the quantitative and qualitative analysis
2. Needd problem
bl solving
l i skills
kill to characterize
h i these
h
systems mathematically.
3. This makes the field of Water Resource
Management both exciting and challenging in ways
that
h are a li
little
l diff
different ffrom many traditional
di i l
technical disciplines
 ECH5512
WATERMANAGEMENT

Chapter1
Waterresourceand
Sustainability

9
WaterasaResource
Humanbodyis65%water
H b d i 6 % t
Apersoncanonlysurviveonly8~
10dayswithoutwater
y
Butcansurviveamonthwithout
food

Adequatesupplyoffreshandclean
waterisabasicneedforallliving
g
things
Waterpollutionaffects
drinkingwater,rivers,lakesand
d i ki t i l k d
oceans
Harmhealthandenvironment
How long water stays in water bodies
Howlongwaterstaysinwaterbodies
y Theresidencetime ofareservoirwithinthe
hydrologiccycleistheaveragetimeawatermolecule
willspendinthatreservoir.
ll d h
y Itisameasureoftheaverageageofthewaterinthat
g g
reservoir.
yGGroundwater
ou d ate cacanspendover10,000yearsbeneath
spe d ove 0,000 yea s be eat
Earth'ssurfacebeforeleaving.
y Afterevaporating,theresidencetimeinthe
Afterevaporating theresidencetimeinthe
atmosphere isabout9daysbeforecondensingand
fallingtotheEarthasprecipitation.
fallingtotheEarthasprecipitation
y IcefromAntarctica :canbeupto800,000years
Average reservoir residence times
Reservoir Averageresidencetime
Antarctica
A t ti 20,000years

Oceans 3,200years
Gl i
Glaciers
20to100years
Seasonalsnowcover 2to6months
Soilmoisture 1to2months
Groundwater:shallow 100to200years
Groundwater:deep 10,000years
Lakes 50to100years
Rivers 2to6months
Atmosphere
p 9days
9 y
 Howtomeasureresidencetimes
y 1st method usestheprincipleofconservationofmass and
assumestheamountofwaterinareservoirisconstant.
Residencetimes=dividingthevol.ofthereservoirbytherateof
waterentersorexitsthesystem.

y Conceptually,thisisequivalenttotiminghowlongitwouldtake
thereservoirtobecomefilledfromemptyifnowaterweretoleave
h i b fill df if l
(orhowlongitwouldtakethereservoirtoemptyfromfullifno
waterweretoenter).
a e e e o e e ).

y 2nd methodtoestimateresidencetimes,whichisgainingin
popularityfordatinggroundwater,istheuseofisotopic
techniques.Thisisdoneinthesubfieldofisotopehydrology.
World Water Supply by Location
WorldWaterSupplybyLocation
Oceans 97.08%
IceSheetsandGlaciers 1.99%
99
GroundWater 0.62%
Atmosphere 0.29%
0 29%
Lakes(Fresh) 0.01%
I l dS dS ltW t L k 0.005%
InlandSeasandSaltWaterLakes %
SoilMoisture 0.004%
Rivers 0.001%
TheEarthsOceans
y The Earth's oceans
cover about
140,500,000
square miles!
y They contain
l
almostt
330,000,000 cubic
miles
il off water!
t !
But still More than
Butstill,Morethan

y 1.5billionpeopledonot
haveaccesstoasafeand
adequatewatersupply.
EarthsWaterReservoirs
19
Snow
Snow

y Fresh,incompactsnowis
actually9095%trapped
t ll %t d
air(atmosphere)
Even Einstein
EvenEinstein..

y Humansrequireabout
2.5litresofwatera
dayyesevenEinstein
did!
Mostly water
Mostlywater

y Awatermelonisabout
92%water.
% t
You must be yoking
Youmustbeyoking

y Aneggisabout74%
waterandthatsno
joke!
y 38litres ofwaterare
neededtorefine1litre of
petrol.
He looks a bit tense !
Helooksabittense.!

y Thewaterweusetodayis
thesamewaterthe
dinosaursused itjust
dinosaursuseditjust
goesroundandround!
Distribution of daily water usage
 Human Use of Water
HumanUseofWater
y increasedabout500%since1950.
y Expectedtodoubleagainby2025at 25%
% 65%
whichpointwewillbeusing Energyand irrigation lost
industrial y
towatercycle
essentially100%ofallreasonably production return
production
byevaporation
towatercyclebut
accessiblefreshwater. oftenpolluted andinfiltration

10%
drinking,
bathing,flushing
28
 WaterasaResource
Threetypesofwaterresources:
yp

1 Surfacewater
1.Surfacewater
2 Groundwater
2.Groundwater
3 Seawater
3.Seawater
 1.SurfaceWater
SURFACEWATERreferstowaterfoundonthesurfaceofthe
earth.
Lakes,rivers,streamsandwetlandsareallexamplesofsurface
water.
Therearehealthyandprovidesuswithcleanandabundant
water,avaluableresourcethatweshouldnottakeforgranted.
ProtectingthequalityandquantityofourSURFACEWATER
Protecting the quality and quantity of our SURFACE WATER
nowandforthefutureuseisagoalofDrinkingWaterSource
Protection

Significantsourceofdrinkingwater
i ifi f d i ki
Importantforrecreation(fishing,swimming,andboating)
Opentowiderangeofdamages(chemical,thermal,
Open to wide range of damages (chemical thermal
biochemicaloxygendemand)
Contaminantscomesfromindustryandmunicipalwaste,run
LakeBaikalisthemost
voluminousfreshwater lake
intheworld,containing
roughly20%oftheworld's
unfrozensurfacefresh
water, andat1,642 mthe
deepest. Itisalsoamong
theclearest ofalllakes,and
thoughttobetheworld's
oldestlake at25million
years.Itisthe7thlargest
lakeintheworld.

31
 AralSea
Upuntilthethirdquarter
ofthe20thcenturyitwas
theworldsfourthlargest
salinelake

theimplicationsofthis
humanalterationofthe
environment

consequencesrangefrom
unexpectedclimate
feedbackstopublichealth
issues,affectingthelives
ofmillionsofpeoplein
f illi f l i
andoutoftheregion.

32
 PahangSelangorRawWaterTransfer
Pahang SelangorRawWaterTransfer
(PSRWT)Project

ThestateofSelangorespeciallytheKlang Valley,KualaLumpurandPutrajaya have

experiencedrapiddevelopmentovertheyears.
Thestatisticsforwaterdemandfortheselocationsshowstherewasincreasefrom
2440millionlitres perday(MLD)in1998to3809MLDin2008.
Thewaterdemandfor2025isprojectedtobeabout6242MLD.
ThisprojectwasfinancedbytheGovernmentofJapan(GOJ)andthe
GovernmentofMalaysia(GOM).Theoverallcostoftheprojectisbudgetedtobe
RM3.93billionofwhichGOJwillfinance75%oftheconstructioncosts.
33
34
CrossSectionandProgressofRawWaterTunnel 35
 2 Ground water
2.Groundwater
y Definition:waterthatpercolateddownwardfrom
p
groundsurfacethroughsoilpores
y Aquifier :groundwaterreservoir(formationofsoil
androcksaturatedwithwater)
y Thewaterispurifiedasitslowlypermeatesthrough
layersofsedimentandrock.
y Waterdrawnfromthissourcebywellsarefrom1m3
/dayto1m3/yr
y Issues:
y Wellcangodrywhenwithdrawal>infiltrationrate
y Ifpolluted,difficulttoclean
y Advantages:
y Lesstreatmentisrequirescomparedtosurfacewaterto
g q y
bringtoquality
y Requireproperwellconstruction,septictank,
softeningtoavoidpollution
 Aquifers
Sometimesaquifersareusedtosupplywatertotownsandfarms.
Seawater
y DEF:Oceans
y Availableunlimited
y Canbeconvertedtofreshwaterbyanumberof
C b t dt f h t b b f
process
y Disadvantages
y Highcost;2 5timeshigherthantreatingfreshwater
 Seawater
Methodtorecoverfreshwater
1. Desalination
Removesaltfromwater
Useofdistillation;dependsonevaporationandcondensationofwater
Energyextensive,somecountryusesolar
Usewidelyinmiddleeast
2
2. Freezing
LowerwaterTuntilicecrystalsfreeofsaltcanbeseparatedfrom
brine
3. Electrodialysis
Forcedmigrationofchargedionsthroughcationpermeableor
anion permeablemembranes byapplyinganelectricpotential
anionpermeablemembranes
acrosscellcontainingmineralizedwater
4. ReverseOsmosis
Pressuredrivingforcethroughmembrane permeabletowater
Energycostisbelowothermethods
Reclaimed Wastewater
ReclaimedWastewater

y Formerwastewater(sewage)thathasbeentreatedto
removesolidsandcertainimpurities,andthenallowed
removesolidsandcertainimpurities andthenallowed
torechargetheaquiferratherthanbeingdischargedto
surfacewater.
surfacewater
y Knownalsoasrecyclewater
y Useinmiddleeast,southafrica,US
Useinmiddleeast southafrica US
Singapore

41
a)Hydrologiccycle
Beforethe7th centuryCE,
y
ThalesofMiletusheldthetheorywherebythewatersof
theoceans,undertheeffectofwinds,werethrust
t
towardstheinteriorofthecontinents;sothewaterfell
d th i t i fth ti t th t f ll
upontheearthandpenetratedintothesoil.

Plato sharedtheseviewsandthoughtthatthereturnof
g
thewaterstotheoceanswasviaagreatabyss,the
Tartarus.

Aristotle
A i t tl imaginedthatthewatervapour
i i dth tth t f
fromthesoil
th il
condensedincoolmountaincavernsandformed
undergroundlakesthatfedsprings.
a) Hydrologic cycle
a)Hydrologiccycle
a)Hydrologiccycle
Afterthe7th centuryCE,
y
Thefirstclearformulationofthewatercyclemustbe
attributedtoBernardPalissy
tt ib t dt B dP li i 8 CE.Heclaimedthat
in1580 CE H l i dth t
undergroundwatercamefromrainwaterinfiltrating
intothesoil ThistheorywasconfirmedbyE Mariotte
intothesoil.ThistheorywasconfirmedbyE.Mariotte
andP.Perraultinthe17th centuryCE.

ItisGodwhosendsthebreezesthatraiseclouds,then
spreadsthemovertheskyasHeplease,foldonfold,then
youseethedropsofrainissuefrombetweenthem.
ouseethedropsofrainissuefrombet eenthem
WhenHesendsitdowntothoseofHiscreaturesasHe
[Quran30:48,7th Century]
will,theyarefilledwithjoy[Quran30:48,7
will,theyarefilledwithjoy
Hydrologic cycle
Hydrologiccycle
y watercycleorhydrologiccycleisthecontinuousmovementofwateron,
above,andbelowthesurfaceoftheEarth.
y nobeginningorend.Temperaturecausewatertochangestate.
y AlthoughthebalanceofwateronEarthremainsfairlyconstantovertime,
individualwatermoleculescancomeandgo.

Solid

Vapor
Liquid
Hydrologic cycle (Movie)
Hydrologiccycle
Thedropletsbeingreleased ((A)) Isolatedsmallpiecesofclouds
p Theupdraftscausethecloud
intotheair.Thisisthefirst (cumulonimbusclouds) bodytogrowverticallyandthe
stageintheformationofrain. (B) Whenthesmallcloudsjoin cloudisstackedup.This
together,updraftswithinthe verticalgrowthcausesthe
largercloudincrease.Asaresult,
g , cloudbodytostretchinto
thecloudisstackedup. coolerregionsofthe
atmosphere,wheredropsof
waterandhailformulateand
begintogrowlargerandlarger
begintogrowlargerandlarger.
Whenthesedropsofwaterand
HaveyounotseenhowAllahdrivesalongtheclouds,thenjoinsthem
hailbecometooheavyforthe
together,thenmakesthemintoastack,andthenyouseetheraincomeout
updraftstosupportthem,they
ofit?AndHesendsdownfromtheskymountainmasses[ofclouds]with
begintofallfromthecloudas
coldhailinthem,strikingwithitanyoneHewillsandavertingitfrom
rain
anyoneHewills.ThebrightnessofHislightningalmostblindsthesight.
(Qur'an,24:43)
47
HydrologicCycle
y g y
y Thesundrivesthewatercycle.Itheatswaterintheoceans.Water
Thesundrivesthewatercycle Itheatswaterintheoceans Water
evaporates asvaporintotheair.
y Iceandsnowcansublimate directlyintowatervapor.
y Evapotranspiration iswatertranspiredfromplantsandevaporated
fromthesoil.
y Risingaircurrentstakethevaporupintotheatmospherewhere
coolertemperaturescauseittocondenseintoclouds.
y Aircurrentsmovecloudsaroundtheglobe,cloudparticlescollide,
grow,andfalloutoftheskyasprecipitation.

y Precipitation isanyproductofthecondensationof
atmosphericwatervapour thatfallsundergravity
y Someprecipitationfallsassnow andcanaccumulateasicecaps
andglaciers whichcanstorefrozenwaterforthousandsofyears
andglaciers,whichcanstorefrozenwaterforthousandsofyears.
Hydrologiccycle
y g y
Waterevaporates asvaporintotheair
Evapotranspiration
Risingaircurrentstakethevaporupintotheatmosphere
Waterfalloutoftheskyasprecipitation

Wesentforththewinds
thatfecundate.Wecause
thewatertodescendfrom
thesky.Weprovideyou
withthewater you
withthewater
(could)notbethe
guardiansofitsreserves.
[Quran15:22]

Hastthounotseenthat
Allaah sentwaterdown
fromtheskyandledit
throughsourcesintothe
ground?ThenHecaused
sownfieldsofdifferent
colorstogrow.[Quran
39:21]
Hydrologic cycle
Hydrologiccycle
Snowpacks canmelt,andthemeltedwaterflowsoverlandas
snowmelt.lt
Mostprecipitationfallsbackintotheoceansorontoland,wherethe
p
precipitationflowsoverthegroundassurfacerunoff.
p g
Aportionofrunoffentersriversinvalleysinthelandscape,with
streamflowmovingwatertowardstheoceans.
R
Runoffandgroundwaterarestoredasfreshwaterinlakes.
ff d d t t d f h t i l k
Notallrunoffflowsintorivers.Muchofitsoaksintothegroundas
infiltration.
Somewaterinfiltratesdeepintothegroundandreplenishesaquifers,which
storehugeamountsoffreshwaterforlongperiodsoftime.
Someinfiltrationstaysclosetothelandsurfaceandcanseepbackinto
surfacewaterbodies(andtheocean)asgroundwaterdischarge.
Somegroundwaterfindsopeningsinthelandsurfaceandcomesoutas
freshwatersprings
freshwatersprings.
Overtime,thewaterreturnstotheocean,whereourwatercycle
started.
Humanactivitiesthatalterthewatercycle:
y Agriculture cultivationoflifeformsforfood,fiber,
biofuel,drugsusedtosustainandenhancehumanlife.
b f l d d d h h lf
y Industry fortheproductionofaneconomicgoodor
servicewithinaneconomy.
y alterationofthechemicalcompositionofthe
atmosphere
h
y constructionofdams
y deforestation andafforestation
y removalofgroundwaterfromwells
y waterabstraction fromriversusedforirrigationor
treatmenttoproducedrinkingwater.
p g
y urbanization
b) W t B l
b)WaterBalance
 WaterBalance
Whenrainfalls,
Somewillevaporatetoatmosphere
Someevaporatefromlandandsurfacetoatm
Someabsorbbycultivationandtranspiredtoatm
Somewillrunofftorivers,lakes
S ill ff i l k
Somegoestogroundwater
Figure610showswaterbalance:
Flowinandoutofasystem
In Out=Accumulation

Ageneralwaterbalanceequationis:

P =Q +E +S
where
P
P isprecipitation,
Q isrunoff
E
E isevapotranspiration, Q
S isthechangeinstorage(insoilorthebedrock)
Waterrichcountries

54
Waterpoorcountries
p

55
Break(
(

56
a RainfallLosses
a.
b. Surfacerunoff
 a) Rainfall losses
Rainfall = liquid precipitation
primary
i source off ffresh
h water
t ffor
most areas of the world
Rain provides
1
1. suitable conditions for diverse
ecosystems
2. water for hydroelectric power plants
3. crop irrigation.

Portion of Rainfall becomes

1. Surface Run off
2. Infiltrates to ground or plants atm
3. Intercept by vegetation evaporates

Also,
l not all
ll rain
i reaches
h the
h surface;
f
some evaporates while falling through dry
air or known as virga
ap
phenomenon often seen in hot,, dryy
desert regions
 Rainfall Interception
p

y Rainfall is intercepted by the canopy of vegetation and evaporates

directly back into the atmosphere (interception loss).

y The magnitude of interception loss depends on

{ the distribution and intensity of rainfall
{ th canopy storage
the t capacity
it
{ the rate of evaporation from the wet canopy.
{ Since radiation is low during rainfall
rainfall, the evaporation rate during
storms is predominantly determined by the aerodynamic roughness
of the surface (aerodynamic conductance). This is why the
interception loss from forests is much higher than that from short
vegetation.
Rainfall Interception
p
 Rainfall Interception
p

The interception loss

from forests ~8 60%
(significant % of gross
rainfall)
Hence contribute to
overall forest
evaporation (25 75%).
plays an important role
in the water balance of
f
forested
t d watersheds.
t h d
 Interception
p Loss

y Hi
Higher
h interception
i t ti llosses occur in
i climates
li with
ih
frequent small storms (e.g., temperate climates) than in
climates with a small number of large,
large high-intensity
storms (e.g., Mediterranean and tropical climates).

y Interception loss is considered higher in

evergreen than
th iin d
deciduous
id fforests,
t
{ due to low canopy storage capacity of the latter during
th lleafless
the fl period.
i d
 b) Surface runoff Stormwater
b)Surfacerunoff Storm water
y Firstpartofthestormrunoffismorepolluted
p p
y Capturingthatportionofrunoffwouldhelp
controlstormgeneratedpollutioneconomically

63
 b)) Surface Runoff

RUN OFFS SURFACE AND CHANNEL

y Surface runoff is the water flow which occurs when soil is

infiltrated to full capacity
p y and excess water, from rain,
snowmelt, or other sources flows over the land.
{ Surface runoff can be generated either by rainfall or by
the melting of snow or glaciers

y Channel runoff, is the flow of water in streams, rivers

and other channels.
{ one component water runoff from the land to
waterbodies
{ Water flowing in channels comes from surface runoff
from adjacent hill slopes, from groundwater flow out of
the
h ground,d andd ffrom water di
discharged
h d ffrom pipes.
i
{ Flooding occurs when the volume of water exceeds the
capacity of the channel.
{ Streamflow is the main mechanism by which water
moves from the land to the oceans.
 45,000
40 000
40,000
35,000
30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
Runoff
ff (cu.
( Km per
year)
Europe 3,210
A i
Asia 14,410
Africa 4,570
North America 8,200
South America 11,760
Oceania 2,388
World 44,540
Malaysia 990
Larger effect of surface Run-Off in cities
 Eff t off S
Effect Surface
f run-off
ff
y Erosion= Surface runoff causes erosion of the Earth's surface.
{ Reduced crop productivity

y Environmental impacts = transport of water pollutants to surface water,

water
groundwater and soil
{ Surface water contamination - effect human health risk, ecosystem
disturbance and aesthetic impact to water resources.
resources
{ Groundwater (aquifer)- contamination of drinking water

{ soil contamination,

runoff water can extract soil contaminants and carry them in the form of
water pollution to even more sensitive aquatic habitats.
runoff can deposit
p contaminants on relativelyy p
pristine soils, creating
g
health or ecological consequences.
 Effect of Surface Run-off

Flooding
g = Flooding g occurs when a watercourse is unable to conveyy the
quantity of runoff flowing downstream.

Agricultural issues
rainwater carries billions of tons of topsoil into waterways each year,
loss of valuable topsoil and add sediment to produce turbidity in surface
waters.
waters
transport of agricultural chemicals (nitrates, phosphates, pesticides,
herbicides etc) via surface runoff.
Due
D to t excessive
i chemical
h i l use or poorly l ti
timedd with
ith respectt tto hi
high
h
precipitation.
Create : waste of agri chemicals and environmental threat to
ecosystems.
S f
SurfaceRunoffWaterIssues
R ff W t I
availability of raw water in the country, generally, is not an issue.

The problem :
y rainfall
i f ll is
i nott uniformly
if l distributed
di t ib t d over the
th year temporally
t ll
and spatially;
y supply is less than the demand in the city centres,
centres

y distribution network is not adequate

q to transfer water from the
low demand to the high demand areas,

Issues: water get polluted and rendered less suitable for the
intakes when passing through the urban centres.
 slightlyincreasingtrendofannualrainfall.

4000
Trend Line of Mean Annual Rainfall
m)
nnual Raiinfall (mm

3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
Mean An

1000
M

500
0
71
73
75
77
79
81
83
85
87
89
91
93
95
97
99
01
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
Year
Fi
Figure 1:
1 Variation
V i ti off Mean
M Annual
A l Rainfall
R i f ll att A
Ampang (St
(Stn. N
No. 3117070)
Break

y Hesendsdownwater(rain)fromthesky,andthevalleys
flowaccordingtotheirmeasure butthefloodbearsaway
flowaccordingtotheirmeasure,butthefloodbearsaway
thefoamthatmountsuptothesurface..(ArRa'd verse17)
y Ia menurunkan air(hujan)dari
j langit,lalu
g membanjiri
j
tanahtanah lembah (dengan airnya)menurut kadarnya
yangditetapkan Tuhan untuk faedah makhlukNya,
kemudian banjir itu membawa buih yangterapung
yangterapungapung
apung.

71
 INTERESTING Facts
y There are currently 1,100 million people without
access to safe water.
y It is estimated that 3,000 million people lack of toilets.
y The lack of sanitary facilities for the disposal of waste
and clean water consumption is the cause of more than
12 million
illi ddeaths
th a year.
The effects of water pollution
are not only devastating to
people but also to animals, fish,
Effects of water pollution
and birds. Polluted water is
unsuitable for drinking,
drinking
recreation, agriculture, and
industry.
d
Polution results to

y poisoning drinking water

y poisoning food animals
y unbalanced river and lake
ecosystems that cant
s pport full
support f ll biological
diversity any more
y deforestation from acid
rain, and many others.
Waterrelateddiseasesareinhighabundanceinthetropics,where
hot, wet climates provide ideal environments for insects and bacteria
hot,wetclimatesprovideidealenvironmentsforinsectsandbacteria
tothriveandmultiply.
 Water-related diseases include:

y those
th d
due tto micro-organisms
i i and
d chemicals
h i l iin
water people drink;
y diseases
di like
lik malaria
l i with
i h water-related
l d vectors;
y drowning and some injuries;
y and others such as legionellosis carried by aerosols
containing certain micro-organisms e.g haze
 Types
yp of Pollutions

Classes off Pollution,

Cl P ll ti pollutants
ll t t
y Oxygen-Demanding material
y Pathogenic Organisms
y Inorganic
g chemicals
y Inorganic plant nutrients
y Organic chemicals
y Suspended Solids, Sediments
y Radioactive
R di i materiali l
y Heat (thermal pollution)
 water pollution
80

y Lakes and Reservoir

{ long residence time
{ Pollutants accumulate and concentration

y Streams and River

{ Higher flow rate, dilution effect
{ Turbulent
T b l
Well mixed
Well oxygenated
{ Long riverbanks, contact with land
Subject to non-point source pollutants
{ Often flow near cities

y Groundwater
{ Pollution of aquifers
Global warming
g

y Due
ue to greenhouses
g ee ouses eeffect,
ect,
increase in greenhouse
gases by burning fossil
fuel
y Heat from sun get trapped
y Rise in global temperature
rise in water
temperature
y Causes
{ Death of aquatic organisms
Water Quality Criteria
 Water q
qualityy Criteria

y Water quality is the physical

physical, chemical and biological characteristics
of water.
y frequently used by reference to a set of standards against which
compliance can be assessed.
y Most common standards used to assess water quality relate to drinking
water safety of human contact
water, contact, and for health of ecosystems.
ecosystems

y Physical taste, odor, colour, turbidity, solids

y Chemical- organic, inorganics, disinfection byproducts, radionucleics,
emerging pollutants (MTBE, perchlorate)
y Biological total coliform and faecal coliform
 Water Quality assessment
Chemical assessment Biological assessment
y pH y Biological monitoring metrics have
y Conductivity been developed in many places, and
y Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
one widely used measure is the
presence and abundance of members of
y nitrate-N
the insect orders or Pathogens, parasites
y orthophosphates
y Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
y Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
y Pesticides

Physical assessment
y Temperature
y Total suspended
p solids ((TSS))
y Turbidity
y Colour
 RIVERWATERQUALITYSTANDARD
Q
87

Water Quality Standard for both river and marine,

marine which is practiced
in Malaysia will be discussed in this Module.

Water Quality Index (WQI)

The standard method of assessment of the WQI uses COD, BOD, DO,
TSS pH and AN input
TSS, inp t in the formula.
form la The formula
form la for Water Quality
Q alit
Index (WQI) is as below :

WQI = (0.16
( 6 x SI.COD)
SI COD) + (0.19
( x SI.BOD)
SI BOD) + (0.22
( x SI.DO)
SI DO) +
(0.16 x SI.TSS) + (0.12x SI.PH) + (0.15 x SI.AN)

Note : SI is the Sub Index of each parameter

88
Range and Description of every
Classes for WQI
Class WQI Description
General:Conservationofnaturalenvironment
1 > 92.7
>92.7 Water supply : practically no treatment is necessary
Watersupply:practicallynotreatmentisnecessary
Fishery:containverysensitiveaquaticspecies
General:Recreationalusewithbodycontact
2 76.5 92.7 Watersupply:conventionaltreatmentrequired
Fishery:containsensitiveaquaticspecies
h
Watersupply:extensivetreatmentrequired
3 51.9 76.5 Fishery:commonofeconomicvalueandtolerantspecieslivestock
drinking
4 31.0 51.9 Forirrigationusageonly
5 <31.0 Noneoftheabove

Ri
RiverWaterQualityIndex
W t Q lit I d
Class
Parameter
I II III IV V
BOD <1
<1 1 3
1 3 6
3 6 12
6 > 12
>12
COD <10 10 25 25 50 50 100 >100
NH3N <0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.9 0.9 2.7 >2.7
DO >7
>7 57
5 35
3 13
1 <1
<1
pH 7 6 7 5 6 <5 >5
TSS <25 25 50 50 150 150 300 >300
Upstream of Sg Langat Sg Merbau
Water Quality Index Class 2 Water Quality Index Class 3
Sg Rinching Sg Cheras
Water Quality Index Class 3 Water Quality Index Class 4
Table 3.1 : Best Fit Equation for the Estimation of the Various Sub-Index Values
92
PARAMETER SUBINDEXFORMULA CONDITION
SI.DO=100 For8or92
DO
SI.DO=0.395+0.0302 0.00020 3 For<8or<92
SI.BOD=100.4 4.23 For5
BOD
SI.BOD=108xe0.055 0.1 For5
SI.COD=1.33+99.1 For20
COD
SI.COD=103xe0.0157 0.04 For20
SI.AN=100.5 105 For0.3
NH3N(AN) SI.AN=94xe0.573 5x( 2) For0.34
SI.AN=0 For4
SI TSS = 97 5 x e0.00676 +0.05
SI.TSS=97.5xe + 0 05 For 100
For100
TSS SI.TSS=71xe 0.0016 0.015 For1001000
SI.TSS=0 For1000
SI.PH=17.2 17.2+5.02 2 For5.5
SI.PH=242+95.5 6.67 2 For5.5<<1000
PH
SI.PH=181+82.4 6.05 2 For7<8.75
SI.PH=536 77.0+2.76 2 For8.75
Note: =concentrationforallparameter
x=multiply
 Water Quality Standards for Malaysia
Classes
Parameters Units
I IIA IIB III IV V

Ammonical nitrogen mg/l 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.9 2.7 > 2.7
BOD mg/l 1 3 3 6 12 > 12
COD mg/l 10 25 25 50 100 > 100
DO mg/l
/l 7 57 57 35 <3 <1
pH 6.5 8.5 6.0 9.0 6.0 9.0 5.0 9.0 5.0 9.0 -
Colour TCU 15 150 150 - - -
Conducticity# Umhos/cm 1000 1000 - - 6000 -
Salinit #
Salinity 0/00 05
0.5 1 - - 2 -
Total dissolved solids # mg/l 500 1000 - - 4000 -
Total suspended solids mg/l 25 50 50 150 300 > 300
Normal Normal
0
Temperature C - - - -
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -
Faecal coliform Counts/100ml 10 100 400 5000 5000
(20000)a (20000)a
Total coliform Counts/100ml 100 5000 5000 50000 50000 > 50000
Al mg/l NL - - (0 06)*
-(0.06)* 05
0.5 LA IV
LA-IV
As mg/l NL 0.05 0.05 0.04(0.05) 0.1 LA-IV
Ba mg/l NL 1 1 - - LA-IV
Cd mg/l NL 0.01 0.01 0.01@ 0.01 LA-IV
(0 001)*
(0.001)*
Legislation
i l i on Water quality
li
Protection
 Dept of Environment -
Environmental Quality Act 1974
96

Section 25 of the Environmental

Quality Act 1974 (EQA) related
to pollution
ll i off water bodies
b di

Industrial Effluent Regulations,

Regulations
2009
 Section 25 EQA: Restrictions on
pollution of inland waters
97
1. (1) No person shall, unless licensed, emit, discharge or deposit any
environmentally
i t ll hhazardous
d substances,
b t pollutants
ll t t or wastes
t into
i t any
inland waters in contravention of the acceptable conditions specified
under section 21.

y (2) Without limiting the generality of subsection (1), a person shall be

deemed to emit, discharge or deposit wastes into inland waters if

{ he places any wastes in or on any waters or in a place where it may gain

access to any waters;

{ he places any waste in a position where it falls,

falls descends,
descends drains
drains,
evaporates, is washed, is blown or percolates or is likely to fall,
descend, drain, evaporate or be washed, be blown or percolated into any
waters, or knowingly or through his negligence, whether directly or
indirectly causes or permits any wastes to be placed in such a position;
indirectly,
or

{ he causes the temperature of the receiving waters to be raised or

lowered by more than the prescribed limits.
EQAs regulations on water pollution
control
t l
98

y EIA
y Industrial Effluent Regulations, 2009
y S
Sewage Regulations,
R l i 2009
y Control of pollution from solid waste
transfer station and landfill Regs,
Regs 2009
y REGULATIONS ON PALM OIL MILLS
y REGULATIONS ON RAW NATURAL
RUBBER MILLS
Policy
li andd Controll off Water
Resource Conservation
 Importance
p about water conservation

y The problem of water is local as well as global.

global The
resources of water on earth are limited and are reducing
everyy yyear. Due to the effects of g
global warming
g the
frequency of rain has become unpredictable

y And in parts of the world where rainwater is available,

major problems are still prevalent because of a lack of
proper systems to clean the water.
water

y Methods of water conservation must be implemented in

these areas if our planet is to continue to sustain itself.
 Legislation
g and Policyy

y Water Conservation ideas are cropping up in exciting

legislation
legislation.
y Water conservation is a huge issue throughout the
world
y Some country/states are making a difference over
others because of detailed legislation that they have
put in motion to help conserve one of our most
precious natural resources.
resources
Water Resource Conservation
103
Water Conservation Legislation / Proposed Laws by
California case
case studies

y Expand
E d upon existing
i ti plans
l and
d processes to
t establish
t bli h
and track water conservation targets. Establishing a
statewide target for water conservation
conservation, and encouraging
the development of new technologies and investments
necessaryy to meet that target.
g
y Set a statewide target for water conservation. The target
would pprovide for the maximum feasible and cost
effective increase in water conservation, and would be
updated every five years. The bill would set the initial
target at 3 million acre feet per year by 2030 for
combined agricultural and urban water conservation.
 Water Conservation Legislation / The
Future California
California Case Studies (PDCA)

y Require the department to publish a list of technically feasible urban and

agricultural water conservation measures. Require water suppliers to adopt a
numeric water conservation target for 2030 based on either the implementation of
those water conservation measures identified by the department which are both
technicallyy feasible and cost-effective for the local area,, OR alternative measures
that achieve equal or greater water savings.

y Require water suppliers to report to the department, confirmed by independent

evaluation, on the basis of their adopted water conservation target and their
progress in reaching the target. The department will develop standardized
evaluation methodologies and reporting formats.

y Based on the water supplier report and the independent evaluation,

evaluation the department
may require additional conservation measures if there is insufficient progress in
meeting the target, or if the conservation target does not meet specified
methodology and guidelines.

y Because of the broad public benefits associated with achieving the states greatest
conservation potential, require the department to implement a plan of action,
including funding, sufficient to fill the gap if the locally cost effective conservation
t
targets
t do
d nott meett the
th statewide
t t id ttarget. t
 Water Conservation at Home
106
y Check for hidden water leaks.
y Check your toilets for leaks.
y Put plastic bottles or float booster in
your toilet
il tank.
k
y Insulate your water pipes
y Take shorter showers.
showers
y Turn off the water after you wet your
toothbrush
y Use your dishwasher and clothes
washer for only full loads.
 Tokyo, World Leader in Stopping Water Leakage

y Tokyo
T k has
h one off the
th mostt efficient
ffi i t water
t systems
t iin
the world. Its method of detecting and repairing
leaks has halved the amount of water wasted by the
City in the past ten years from 150 million m3 water
to 68 million m3 water
water. Its'
Its focus on same-day-repair
same day repair
work - has helped to drastically reduce the leakage
rate - from 20% in 1956 to 3.6%
3 6% in 2006,
2006 as well as
reduce carbon dioxide emissions by about 73,000 t
CO2 annually.
annually
Tokyo, World Leader in Stopping Water Leakage
 Water Conservation for Irrigation
y Buy
y improved
p irrigation
g hardware and equipment
q p that is optimized
p for
water conservation while covering larger areas at the same time.
y Pressurized systems, improved furrows and sprinklers can be used in
farms to save huge amounts of water
y Devise proper scheduling systems and improved water management
techniques to irrigate depending upon the type of crops, predictions
about
b the
h weather
h and d type off lland.
d

111
 Water Conservation for Irrigation
y Devise p
proper
p scheduling
g systems
y and improved
p water management
g
techniques to irrigate depending upon the type of crops, predictions
about the weather and type of land.
y Use better canal systems since they contribute towards water
conservation. Saved water can be used later.

112
 Water conservation Industries
113

y Conduct regular surveys and examinations to find

out the ways for conserving water. Also conduct
awareness programs at an employee level.

y Dont use water where it is unnecessary like,

washing driveways, washing trucks frequently, etc.

y install high-pressure but low volume spray nozzles

on spray washers.

y Reuse water when it is discharged from various

processes.

y Check the efficiency of your water equipment on

regular basis.
 Summaryy

y Water
W t isi a valuable
l bl resources
y Hydrology cycle and water balance
y Water Loss
y Health impact
p
y Water Quality
y Legislation /Policy water conservation
Lets
et s be tthankful
a u by eefficient
c e t water
ate management
a age e t

Have you observed the water you drink? Do you

bring it down from the rainclouds? Or do We? If it
were O
Our will,
ill We could
ld make
k it
i salty.
l Then
h why
h are
you not thankful? [Quran 56: 68-70]
 ASSIGNMENT

y Give
Gi your view
i on h
how d
does P
Palm
l oil/Rubber
il/R bb
plantation effects the water cycle in Malaysia.

y What is the efficiency of tap water supply in

Malaysia? Where and how much are losses? How can
we outcome this loss problem?

y Water conservation p
program
g in yyour institute
/company / area
ThankYOU..
ThankYOU

169