ISBN-3-934584-64-0 Order Number 1 987 722 134 AA/PDT-04.

AA/PDT-04.03-En The Bosch Yellow Jackets Edition 2003 Expert Know-How an Automotive Technology Safety, Comfort and Convenience Systems

2003 ACC Adaptive Cruise

The Bosch Yellow Jackets

Control

The Program Order Number ISBN

ACC
Automotive Electrics/Automotive Electronics
Batteries 1 987 722 153 3-934584-21-7 Automotive Technology
Alternators 1 987 722 156 3-934584-22-5

Expert Know-How an Automotive Technology

Starting Systems 1 987 722 170 3-934584-23-3
Lighting Technology 1 987 722 176 3-934584-24-1
Electrical Symbols and Circuit Diagrams 1 987 722 169 3-934584-20-9
Automotive Sensors 1 987 722 131 3-934584-50-0
Automotive Microelectronics 1 987 722 122 3-934584-49-7

Diesel-Engine Management
Diesel-Engine Management: an Overview 1 987 722 138 3-934584-62-4
Electronic Diesel Control EDC 1 987 722 135 3-934584-47-0
Diesel Accumulator Fuel-Injection System Radar ranging, radar modules
Common Rail CR 1 987 722 175 3-934584-40-3 ACC electronic module, system network
Diesel Fuel-Injection Systems Unit Injector
System/Unit Pump System 1 987 722 179 3-934584-41-1
Operation, object detection and selection, control
Radial-Piston Distributor Data processing and transmission
Fuel-Injection Pumps Type VR 1 987 722 174 3-934584-39-X
Diesel Distributor-Type Fuel-Injection Pumps VE 1 987 722 164 3-934584-38-1
Diesel In-Line Fuel-Injection Pumps 1 987 722 162 3-934584-36-5

Gasoline-Engine Management
Emissions-Control Technology
for Gasoline Engines 1 987 722 102 3-934584-26-8
Gasoline Fuel-Injection System K-Jetronic 1 987 722 159 3-934584-27-6
Gasoline Fuel-Injection System KE-Jetronic 1 987 722 101 3-934584-28-4
Gasoline Fuel-Injection System L-Jetronic 1 987 722 160 3-934584-29-2
Gasoline Fuel-Injection System Mono-Jetronic 1 987 722 105 3-934584-30-6
Spark Plugs 1 987 722 155 3-934584-32-2
Ignition 1 987 722 154 3-934584-31-4
M-Motronic Engine Management 1 987 722 161 3-934584-33-0
ME-Motronic Engine Management 1 987 722 178 3-934584-34-9
Gasoline-Engine Management:
Basics and Components 1 987 722 136 3-934584-48-9

Safety, Comfort and Convenience Systems

Conventional and Electronic Braking Systems 1 987 722 103 3-934584-60-8
ESP Electronic Stability Program 1 987 722 177 3-934584-44-6
ACC Adaptive Cruise Control 1 987 722 134 3-934584-64-0
Compressed-Air Systems for Commercial
Vehicles (1): Systems and Schematic Diagrams 1 987 722 165 3-934584-45-4
Compressed-Air Systems for Commercial
Vehicles (2): Equipment 1 987 722 166 3-934584-46-2
Safety, Comfort and Convenience Systems 1 987 722 150 3-934584-25-X
Audio, Navigation and Telematics in the Vehicle 1 987 722 132 3-934584-53-5

The up-to-date program is available on the Internet at:

www.bosch.de/aa/de/fachliteratur/index.htm
 Robert Bosch GmbH

Imprint

Published by: Unless otherwise stated, the above are all

Robert Bosch GmbH, 2003 employees of Robert Bosch GmbH, Stuttgart.
Postfach 1129,
73201 Plochingen. Reproduction, duplication and translation of this
Automotive Aftermarket Business Sector, publication, either in whole or in part, is permis-
Department AA/PDT5. sible only with our prior written consent and
Product Marketing, Diagnostics & provided the source is quoted.
Test Equipment. Illustrations, descriptions, schematic diagrams
and the like are for explanatory purposes and
Editor-in-Chief: illustration of the text only. They cannot be used
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Horst Bauer. as the basis for the design, installation, or speci-
fication of products. We accept no liability for
Editorial team: the accuracy of the content of this document in
Dipl.-Ing. Karl-Heinz Dietsche, respect of applicable statutory regulations.
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Thomas Jger, Robert Bosch GmbH is exempt from liability,
Subject to alteration and amendment.
Authors:
Prof. Dr. rer. nat. H. Winner, Printed in Germany.
Dr.-Ing. K. Winter, Imprim en Allemagne.
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) B. Lucas,
Dipl.-Ing. (FH) H. Mayer, 1st edition, April 2003.
Dr.-Ing. A. Irion, English translation of the 1st German edition
Dipl.-Phys. H.-P. Schneider, dated: April 2002
Dr.-Ing. J. Lder, (1.0)
Dr.-Ing. E. Zabler,
Dr. rer. nat. V. Denner,
Dr.-Ing. M. Walther

and the editorial team in co-operation with the

responsible technical departments of Robert
Bosch GmbH.
Robert Bosch GmbH

ACC Adaptive Cruise Control

Robert Bosch GmbH

 Robert Bosch GmbH

Contents

4 System overview 45 Future developments

4 Benefits and applications 45 Sensor technology
4 Operation 45 Function
6 Components
48 Frequently asked questions
7 Radar ranging
7 Physical principles of 52 Glossary of ACC terms
measurement
10 Radar modules 54 Sensors
54 Automotive applications
15 ACC sensor & control unit 55 Yaw-rate sensors
15 Physical structure 58 Steering-wheel-angle sensors
17 Adjustment 60 Acceleration sensors
19 Electronic hardware 64 Wheel-speed sensors

22 System network 66 Data processing in the vehicle

22 System architecture 66 Requirements
23 Drivetrain control 66 Microcomputer
23 Brake control 66 ECU
24 Corner sensing systems 69 Complete system
24 Safety concept 70 Severe demands on electronic
systems
28 Controls and displays
28 Function 70 History of development
28 Design and method of operation
72 Data transfer between
32 Object detection and selection automotive electronic systems
32 Radar-signal processing 72 System overview
33 Object selection 72 Serial data transfer (CAN)
34 Course prediction 77 Prospects

38 ACC control sequence 78 Index of technical terms

38 Control-unit structure 78 Technical terms
39 Control-unit functions 80 Abbreviations
42 Limits of function
 Robert Bosch GmbH

Mentally, driving is a highly demanding activity a driver must maintain a high level
of concentration for long periods and be ready to react within a split second to changing
situations. In particular, drivers must constantly assess the distance and relative speed
of vehicles in front and adjust their own speed accordingly.
Those tasks can now be performed by Boschs electronic Adaptive Cruise Control
(ACC) system, which is an extension of the conventional cruise control system.
Like a conventional cruise control system, ACC keeps the vehicle at a set constant
speed. The significant difference, however, is that if a car with ACC is confronted with
a slower moving vehicle ahead, it is automatically slowed down and then follows the
slower vehicle at a set distance. Once the road ahead is clear again, the ACC accelerates
the car back to the previously set cruising speed. In that way, ACC integrates a vehicle
harmoniously into the traffic flow.
Of course, the driver can always override the automatic control system at any time.
When the accelerator is pressed, the vehicle responds in the normal way. And when the
accelerator is released, the ACC adjusts the vehicles speed back to the set cruising speed.
A brief press of the brake pedal is enough to deactivate the ACC.

This publication in the Bosch Technical Instruction series provides comprehensive

information about the system structure, its components and method of operation,
and the different approaches to this interesting topic.
 Robert Bosch GmbH

4 ACC Adaptive Cruise Control System overview

ACC Adaptive Cruise Control

ACC (Adaptive Cruise Control) simplifies
the task of driving a car because it relieves
the driver of the mentally demanding task
of keeping a check on the cars speed, thus
enabling relaxed and safe driving behind
slower vehicles.
System overview
Benefits and applications
It is that following slower vehicles function
in particular that is perceived by the driver
as a major gain in convenience and as a sub-
stantial mental relief. The side effects of that
function also include improved road safety
due to greater distances between vehicles and
greater relaxation on the part of the driver.
The main area of application for ACC
(Figure 1) is on motorways and multilane
trunk roads with light to relatively high traffic
densities. Although use of the system in traffic
jams and urban conditions may be desirable,
at present this remains an objective for future
systems as the technical difficulties associated
with such a function demand considerable
further development of sensor capabilities
(see also the chapter Future Developments).
Operation
Every Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) system
incorporates the standard, basic cruise control
function whereby the vehicle is held at a
constant speed selected by the driver. That
function, also referred to in this manual as
set speed control, is employed primarily
when there is no vehicle in front forcing the
driver to adopt a slower speed than the set
speed. It also comes into effect when the
vehicle in front of the car with ACC is trav-
elling faster.
The essential difference in function be-
tween ACC and standard cruise control is that
a car with ACC will safely follow a vehicle
that is travelling at a slower speed than the
cruising speed to which the driver has set
the ACC (Figure 2).
If the vehicle in front is travelling at a
constant speed, a car fitted with ACC will
follow it at the same speed and a virtually
constant distance. That is because the distance
between the two vehicles is within a broad
speed range at least virtually proportional
to their speed. That constant time gap is
equal to (regardless of speed) the time required
for the most forward point on the car fitted
with ACC to reach the momentary position
of the rearmost point on the vehicle in front.
Changeover between the two main functions
of the system is performed automatically

1 Bosch ACC Adaptive Cruise Control

Fig. 1
1 ACC sensor &
control unit
2 Engine-management
6
ECU
3 Active intervention in
braking via ESP 2 4
4 Controls and display 6
6
C

6
A
N

5 Intervention at the 5 6
engine via EM
7
system with ETC
1
(Electronic Throttle
Control or EGAS) 6
C
AN

3
UAE0732-1Y

(gasoline engines) or
EDC (diesel engines)
6 Sensors
7 Transmission
intervention (optional)
 Robert Bosch GmbH

ACC Adaptive Cruise Control System overview 5

2 ACC function. The main application for ACC is in light to relatively heavy traffic conditions

240
260
220
200
180
140 160
120
100
80
60
40

220
200
180
140 160
120
100

200
80

180
140 160
120
100
80

Fig. 2
a Car with ACC
approaching a
slower vehicle when
travelling at a
240
260

constant speed
220

(set cruising speed)

200

b Car with ACC

180

reduces speed to
match speed of
140 160

slower vehicle in
front
c After vehicle
in front turns off,
UFS0011Y
120

car with ACC

accelerates back to
100

set speed originally

80
60
40

selected
 Robert Bosch GmbH
6 ACC Adaptive Cruise Control System overview
without intervention by the driver. If the sit-
uation should change, e.g. as a result of an-
other vehicle pulling into the gap between
the two vehicles from another lane and
thereby itself becoming the vehicle in front
of the ACC car, the necessary readjustment
is also carried out automatically without the
need for driver input.
In order to adjust the vehicles speed, the
ACC system electronically opens the throttle
within defined limits by means of the engine-
management system in order accelerate or
electronically applies the brakes in order to
decelerate.
Components
In order to detect vehicles in front and to
measure the distance and the speed of such
vehicles, the ACC system requires a ranging
sensor. In Europe, this takes the form of a
microwave radar transmitter/receiver. It is
incorporated within the same unit that also
performs the control functions and is there-
fore referred to as the ACC Sensor &
Control Unit (ACC SCU).
3 Basic structure and components of ACC system
Radar-sensor check unit
Sensors for yaw Vehicle
rate, lateral movement
acceleration,
wheel speed and
steering angle
Object
selection
Object
detection
Radar
sensor
Adjustment and control of vehicle speed is
effected by means of existing subsystems
which, however, are modified for the pur-
poses of ACC (Figure 3):

Engine-management system with torque
control, e.g. Motronic with ETC (Elec-
tronic Throttle Control or EGAS) (gaso-
line engines) or EDC (diesel engines)

Electronic brake modulation system with
active brake-pressure-increase capability
(generally based on ESP Electronic Stabil-
ity Program).
In order to ensure reliable functioning of the
ACC (including when cornering), the ESP
provides other important sensor signals re-
lating to dynamic handling parameters in
addition to the deceleration facility. For ulti-
mate driving convenience, the combination
of ACC with an automatic gearbox is also
desirable.
The system incorporates special switches
and displays to enable the driver to activate
functions and set the desired speed and time
gap. The instrument cluster then indicates
the current settings and other ACC-related
information.
ECUs
Motronic
Gearbox
Distance ESP
controller
Engine
UAE0733-1E
Gearbox
Brake
 Robert Bosch GmbH

ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Radar ranging 7

Radar ranging echo. If the signal is reflected back directly,

Physical principles of measurement
Reflection
RADAR (Radio Detecting and Ranging)
emits an electromagnetic beam from an
antenna. Objects in the path of the beam
reflect it back to the radar antenna.
RADAR beams can be reflected by any
electrically conductive material, and there-
fore particularly by metal-bodied motor
vehicles. For that reason, RADAR is ideally
suited to use as a distance measuring device
for cars. In addition, RADAR is superior to
optical systems in poor weather conditions
(e.g. fog and rain) because of its longer
wavelength.
Other conceivable ranging devices
(e.g. optical rangers) require objects to have
surfaces with good light-reflecting properties.
Objects whose reflective surfaces are not
clearly visible or are dirty cannot be reliably
detected.
Echo timing
Measurement of distance by all RADAR sys-
tems is based on direct or indirect timing of
the interval between transmission of the
RADAR signal and reception of the signal
that time interval, , is represented by formula
below, where d is the distance to the reflector
and c is the speed of light.
= 2d/c
At a distance, d, of 150 m and assuming
c 300,000 km/s, the time interval, 1.0 s.
Doppler effect
If the object detected is moving relative to
the RADAR transmitter/receiver at a relative
speed, rel, the signal echo undergoes a fre-
quency shift, fD, relative to the transmitted
signal. At the speed differences encountered
in this scenario (Figure 1), that frequency
shift is given by
fD = 2fC rel/c
where
fC is the signal carrier frequency
At the RADAR frequency normally used for
ACC of fC = 76.5 GHz, a frequency shift of
fD 510 rel/m results, i.e. 510 Hz at a
relative speed of 1 m/s (distance to detected
object is closing).

1 Use of radar ranging system (Doppler effect)

fD
d Fig. 1
d Object distance
Licht ! fC fC Carrier frequency
fD Differential frequency
1 Road speed of
UFS0001Y

vehicle 1
1 2 Road speed of
vehicle 2
rel = 2- 1 rel Relative speed
 Robert Bosch GmbH

8 ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Radar ranging

2 Modulation of transmission frequency Frequency modulation

(with positive frequency gradient) Direct measurement of the time interval is
a complicated. For that reason, it is normally
measured indirectly. One of the methods used
is known as FMCW (Frequency Modulated
Continuous Wave). Instead of timing the
B interval between transmission of the signal
B
and reception of the echo, an FMCW RADAR
C
system compares the frequencies of the trans-
Frequency B

mitted signal and the echo. The basic pre-

B
B
ges1
D requisite for a meaningful measurement is a
transmission frequency that alters over time.
This is normally achieved by using a VCO
(Voltage-Controlled Oscillator) to modulate
the transmission frequency at a linear rate of

change, m = df/dt (Figure 2a). By the time the
Time J
echo signal is received after an interval of
= 2d/c, the transmission frequency has al-
b tered by the differential frequency fD = m.
Thus the time interval, and therefore the dis-
B tance of the object, can be established indirectly
by determining the frequency difference be-
tween the transmitted and received signals.
For its part, the differential frequency can be
obtained by means of a mixer and a low-pass
Power 2

filter. For the purposes of determining the

frequency, the signal is digitized and converted
into a frequency spectrum with the aid of an
Fig. 2 FFT (Fast Fourier Transform). A peak in the
a Positive addition
B B
spectrum at fD (Figure 2b) corresponds to an
p D
of Doppler shift to object distance of
differential frequency
b Effect of Differential frequency B
d = fD c/2m
D
Doppler shift
c Distance versus c The differential frequency information con-
relative speed tains, however, not only the interval compo-
nent but also the Doppler-shift component,
fC Carrier frequency which combine to give the overall frequency
(modulated difference described by the formula fges 1 = fD
Relative speed rel

transmission
f. This circumstance means that in the
frequency)
fD Differential
first instance there is an ambiguity with regard
frequency to interpretation. That is because in addition
f Doppler shift to an individual differential frequency, a linear
fges1 = fD f Overall combination of object distance and relative
frequency shift speed has to be taken into account, which is
(positive frequency
represented on the Distance versus relative
gradient)
speed graph by a straight line (Figure 2c).
UFS0012E

fp Positive frequency
shift due to Doppler @
effect
Distance
Time interval
 Robert Bosch GmbH

ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Radar ranging 9

That ambiguity can be resolved by the use of 3 Modulation of transmission frequency

multiple FMCW modulation cycles with dif- (with negative frequency gradient)
fering rates of frequency change. a
When the transmission frequency is mod-
ulated with a different rate of change, although
there is still an ambiguity between distance
B
and relative speed, that ambiguity is expressed
by a different linear relationship on the
Distance versus relative speed graph.
Frequency B
B B
If for example, the second frequency gra- C ges2

dient used is the inverse of the first frequency

gradient, the relationship illustrated by
Figure 3a results. A negative frequency gra-
dient accordingly results in addition of the
Doppler shift, f, to the differential frequency,
fD, that results from the time interval
(Figure 3b). Time J
The linear progression of distance plotted
against relative speed corresponding to the b
negative gradient now intersects the straight B
line for the positive frequency modulation
gradient. The point of intersection of the
two lines then provides the correct values for
object distance and relative speed (Figure 3c).
Power 2

Fig. 3
However, this method must also be applicable
a Negative addition
when there is more than one target object of Doppler shift to
present. To make that possible, the procedure differential frequency
has to be extended by the addition of more b Effect of Doppler
B B
modulation cycles so that unambiguous D n shift
allocation of target frequencies to objects is c Distance versus
relative speed
possible.
Differential frequency B
D
fC Carrier frequency
Echo-angle detection c (modulated
In order to determine the angle at which the transmission
RADAR locates an object, multiple RADAR frequency)
lobes are transmitted and analysed. fD Differential
frequency
Relative speed rel

Positive frequency gradient f Doppler shift

Each RADAR beam has a characteristic
fges2 = fD + f Overall
antenna pattern. For a defined target, the frequency shift
amplitude of the signal echo has a character- @
(negative frequency
istic dependency on the angle at which the gradient)
rel
signal is received by the RADAR (Figure 4). fp Positive and
On the other hand, the reflective properties fp Negative frequency
shift due to Doppler
of a located target are unknown. Thus no
effect
definite conclusion as to the angle of inci-
UFS0013E

Negative frequency gradient

d ~ fp + fn Object
dence of the signal can be drawn from the distance
information provided by a single RADAR rel ~ fp fn Relative
Distance
beam. speed
 Robert Bosch GmbH

10 ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Radar ranging

4 Antenna patterns of various RADAR beam lobes Radar modules

a Function
The actual ranging unit of the ACC SCU
1 2 3 is the RADAR transmitter/receiver unit or
RTC (RADAR Transceiver).
Its functions are as follows:

Generation of high-frequency radar signals

Signal amplitude

in the range 76...77 GHz

Separation and emission of three simulta-
neous RADAR beam lobes

Subsequent reception of the echoes of those
beams reflected from target objects, and

Conditioning of these echo signals for
subsequent digital electronic signal pro-
0
cessing.
Angle
b
100 The transceiver also contains an electronic
circuit for high-precision stabilisation of the
transmission frequency and linear frequency
10 modulation.
Fig. 4
Signal amplitude ratio

a Overlap of antenna
A Bosch radar unit has the following technical
patterns
b Scanned angular
1 specifications (Table 1):
range of RADAR
beam lobes
2 /1
0.1
1 Left lobe 3/2
2 Center lobe 3 /1
UFS0014E

3 Right lobe 0.01

2/1 Signal amplitude - 8 - 4 0 4 8
ratio between pairs Angle
of beam lobes

Adequate conditions for making that judge-

ment are provided, however, by the use of
multiple RADAR lobes. As their antenna
patterns are sensitive within a different angular
range in each case, a comparison of the 1 Technical specifications of a Bosch radar unit

amplitudes for a signal echo at the various Range 2...120 m

RADAR lobes can provide the basis on which Detectable

to determine the angle of incidence of the relative speed 50...+50 m/s

beam. The quality of the amplitude compar- Angular range 4

ison depends on the overlap of the individual Resolution 0.85 m; 1.7 m/s
antenna patterns (Figure 4a). Scanning rate 10 Hz
In order to be able to scan an angular Frequency range 76...77 GHz
range of 8, three parallel RADAR lobes with Mean transmission power approx. 1 mW
a lobe width of +/ 2 are used (Figure 4b).
Bandwidth approx. 200 MHz
Table 1
 Robert Bosch GmbH

ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Radar ranging 11

Design and method of operation
A divider circuit for the antenna feed and
The basic components of the RTC (RADAR return-signal mixing
transceiver, Figures 5 and 6) are the following:
An electronic frequency modulator and

A high-frequency oscillator (Gunn oscilla- reference oscillator, and
tor) for generating the radar signal
A signal preamplifier.

5 RADAR transceiver

UFS0015Y

6 RADAR transceiver (schematic diagram)

+ 8V supply
Switch on signal for
VCO Gunn-effect oscillator
Voltage- FLL-ASIC frequency
control circuit Input for saw-tooth
controlled control voltage
oscillator Harmonic
mixer DRO Frequency monitoring

Mic.
+ 5V supply
12.65GHz
2 Radar signal, left
3-channel
pre-amplifier ASIC 2 Radar signal, center

2 Radar signal, right

Directional coupler
Lens Antenna Mixer Ground
UAE0705-1E

(Fresnel) feed point

 Robert Bosch GmbH

12 ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Radar ranging

7 Gunn oscillator (arrangement of components) whereby certain semiconductors (gallium

arsenide) produce microwave oscillations
1 when subjected to strong electrical fields.
The Gunn diode is enclosed in a ceramic
2
casing and fitted in an aluminum oscillator
block.

3 The contact pin for the power supply incor-

porates filter structures and a resonator disc
that, in combination with the rectangular in-
4 ternal cross-section of the block, forms a cav-
ity resonator. The oscillation characteristics
Fig. 7 of the diode are essentially determined by the
11 Fixing screw 5
geometry of the components surrounding it.
12 Supplementary
circuit board 6 Consequently, extremely exacting standards
13 Insulator of precision are required in the manufacture
14 Coil spring of those components.
15 Ferrite sleeve The frequency can be varied within the
16 Bias choke 7 useful range of 76...77 GHz by altering the
17 Oscillator body 8
applied voltage, which explains why this
18 Locating pin
component is referred to as a voltage-con-
UFS0016Y

19 Gunn semiconductor
element 8 11 trolled oscillator (VCO). The high-frequency
10 9 energy generated is passed to a divider circuit
10 Frequency-tuning pin
11 Power-tuning pin via a square waveguide integrated in the os-
cillator.
8 Divider circuit (in situ)
Fig. 8 Divider circuit and antenna feed
1 Micro printed-
The divider circuit (Figure 8) is an electrical
conductor circuit
on quartz glass
printed-conductor circuit with gold conduc-
substrate tor tracks on a quartz glass substrate only
2 Wilkinson power 0.17 mm thick.
divider with two 1 2 3 4 5 First of all, a small proportion of the trans-
surface resistors mitted power is tapped off and fed into the
3 Directionally selective
frequency modulator described further on.
signal separator
The energy is then divided between three
UFS0017Y

for receive and

transmission signals
4 3 antenna patches
5 7 mixer diodes
Gunn oscillator
At the centre of the oscillator (Figure 7) is
an electronic semiconductor component
made of n-type gallium arsenide that pro-
duces electromagnetic oscillations of a very
high frequency when a DC voltage is applied
to it.
It is called a Gunn diode after the American
physicist I. G. Gunn. In 1963, he discovered
the effect now known as the Gunn effect
separate but identical transmitter/receiver
branches. Each of those branches contains a
double ring junction and is terminated by a
rectangular element known as an antenna
patch, the function of which is to transmit
and receive a radar beam lobe.
On top of the antenna patches there are
components made of dielectric material.
These pre-focus the emitted energy and beam
it onto an antenna lens that, in similar fashion
to an optical lens, focusses the radar beam
into three overlapping beam lobes, each with
an angular width of approximately 4. A
greater degree of focussing would only be
 Robert Bosch GmbH

ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Radar ranging 13

9 Signal path in divider-circuit mixer

2 Fig. 9
5 A Transmission signal
B Receive signal

1 Micro printed-
conductor circuit
5 3
on quartz glass
substrate
2 Wilkinson power
divider with two
surface resistors
4 3 Directionally selective
signal separators

UFS0002Y
for receive and
transmission signals
A B 4 3 antenna patches
5 7 mixer diodes

possible with a larger antenna lens. As each
beam lobe overlaps its neighbour by about
half its width, the overall beam scanning
width is 8 extending outwards from the
radar module on the front of the vehicle.
The Bosch system is a monostatic radar sys-
tem, that means it uses the same antenna
arrangement in reverse to receive the radar
echoes. This type of system requires less
space than a bistatic system with separate
transmitter and receiver set-ups. It is there-
fore better suited to use in a motor vehicle.
Mixer
The first ring junction in each divider circuit
branch splits the power fed to it so that the
antenna patch (Figure 9) receives only ap-
proximately half the power. The other half is
fed to another ring junction. Simultaneously
arriving at that point is the radar echo en-
ergy received by the antenna patch.
This second ring junction in each branch of
the divider circuit combines with the anti-
parallel diodes connected at that point to
form a mixer in which an electrical signal
is generated from the transmission and re-
ceived energy. The frequency of that signal
is equal to the difference between the trans-
mitted and received frequencies.
It is this electrical signal that is actually the
useful radar signal. Its frequency, which is
in the range of 20...200 kHz, contains the in-
formation about the distance ahead and the
relative speed of the detected objects. The
differences in amplitude between the three
branches of the circuit are analysed to deter-
mine the echo angle.
The electronic circuitry of the radar trans-
ceiver receives the useful signal via two sig-
nal lines in each case.
 Robert Bosch GmbH
14 ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Radar ranging
Pre-amplifier
The overall transmission power of the ACC
radar module is only approximately 1 mW.
Consequently, the electrical voltages of the
useful signals are so small that, before they
can be processed, they have to be amplified
several million times in a specially designed
three-channel integrated amplifier circuit.
The amplifier circuits frequency-dependent
amplification characteristic ensures that echo
signals even from far distant objects are reliably
processed.
Echoes from distant objects produce higher
mixed frequencies and lower voltage ampli-
tudes because the more distant the reflective
object is, the weaker is the received radar sig-
nal. For that reason, they have to be ampli-
fied even more.
Frequency-control electronics
As all the essential information is contained
within the frequency of the useful signal,
fluctuations in the transmission frequency
or inconsistencies in the linear progression
of the transmitted-frequency gradient would
lead to misinterpretation of the receive signals.
The Bosch ACC radar module is therefore
equipped with high-speed electronic fre-
quency control which compares the trans-
mitted frequency with the required setting
and adjusts it as necessary about one million
times a second.
At the same time, it ensures that the fre-
quency consistently remains within the
range of 76...77 GHz, which are the statu-
tory limits imposed by telecommunications
authorities for longer-range motor-vehicle
radar systems.
In order to perform those functions, the
frequency control contains not only the
main oscillator but also a reference oscillator
in the form of a DRO (Dielectric Resonator
Oscillator) with a nominal frequency of
12.65 GHz. This is an electronic resonator
circuit consisting of a power transistor and a
dielectric resonator element for stabilising
the frequency (like the Quartz circuit in a
clock or watch, this oscillator is extremely
stable over a prolonged period of time and a
wide range of temperatures).
The energy from the DRO is fed into a
harmonic mixer in the divider circuit.
This mixes the base frequency multiplied by
a factor of six (6 12.65 = 75.9 GHz) with a
small proportion of the output from the
main oscillator, with the result that mixed
frequencies of 100...1100 MHz are obtained.
That signal is the input for the electronic
frequency control. Following further divi-
sion (the frequencies are still too high for
processing by the standard electronics) the
signal is fed into a discriminator and con-
verted into a voltage that is proportional to
the frequency. That is then compared with
the required frequency setting which is also
provided in the form of a voltage. If there is
a difference, the supply voltage of the oscil-
lator is adjusted until the required frequency
is obtained.
The required frequency itself is, of course,
a variable quantity. The signal processing
unit specifies its value so as to obtain the
transmission frequency alteration rate of
200 MHz per millisecond that is required for
interpretation of the return signals.
In addition, there are permanently pro-
grammed maximum and minimum levels
that ensure that even if the frequency con-
trol fails, the frequency cannot go beyond
the permissible frequency band.
 Robert Bosch GmbH
ACC sensor & control unit
Physical structure
Requirements
The purpose of the ACC radar module dic-
tates that it has to be fitted at the front of the
vehicle. As a consequence of that, it must
satisfy the following requirements:

Temperature resistant within the range
40 C... +80 C,

Proof against splashwater and pressurised
steam,

Immune to vehicle vibrations due to poor
road surfaces,

Resistant to stone impact,

As small as possible.
In addition there must be a facility for ad-
justing the radar sensor, as very precise
alignment of the centre of the radar beam
with the centerline of the car is essential to
the response of the vehicle when the ACC is
active.
1 ACC sensor & control unit (ACC SCU)
UFS0004Y
ACC Adaptive Cruise Control ACC sensor & control unit 15
Components
The Bosch ACC electronic module (Figure 1)
incorporates not only the actual radar sensor
but also the entire electronic circuits for ve-
hicle-speed control. That is why it is referred
to as the ACC SCU (ACC Sensor & Control
Unit).
This module does not require additional
fitting space or extra wiring, as all commu-
nication between the ACC system and the
engine management and brake control sys-
tems and the display instruments takes place
via the vehicles existing data bus (CAN).
Lens
Generally, two fundamental physical quantities
determine the size of a radar unit (Figure 2):

the external dimensions of the antenna
system, and

its focal length, i.e. the distance of the
beam source from the back of the lens.
At a given frequency, the diameter of a lens
is determined by the desired beam concen-
tration. The greatest possible utilization of
the lens area is achieved by positioning the
2 ACC sensor & control unit (sectional view)
1 2 3 4
Fig. 2
1 Circuit board 1
2 Oscillator block
3 Beam sources
(rod emitters)
4 Lens
UFS0005Y
8 7 6 5 5 Lens heater contact
6 Circuit board 3
7 Circuit board 2
8 Radar transceiver
 Robert Bosch GmbH

16 ACC Adaptive Cruise Control ACC sensor & control unit

beam source at the optimum distance from Radar transceiver unit

the lens.
The lens of the Bosch radar module is made
of a special temperature and stone-impact
resistant plastic. It is part of the plastic module-
casing cover and also seals the casing against
outside conditions.
If required, the lens can also incorporate
an electric heater element in order to prevent
it becoming covered in ice or snow which
might interfere with the beam (wet snow in
particular has a marked attenuating effect
on radar beams).
Electronic components
The basic electronic circuitry of the ACC
SCU is made up of three printed-circuit
boards and the radar transceiver unit (Fig-
ures 2 and 3).
The radar transceiver unit is mounted di-
rectly on circuit board 1, thus keeping the
connections as short and as insusceptible to
interference as possible.
Circuit board 1
Circuit board 1 contains all the components
necessary for digital signal processing (calcu-
lation of object positions and speeds from
raw radar data). Its central component is a
digital signal processor.
Circuit board 2
On circuit board 2 there is another proces-
sor (16-bit microcontroller) which performs
all calculations for vehicle speed control, as
well as a voltage regulator and other switch-
ing and monitoring components.
Circuit board 3
Circuit board 3 contains the connector and
the driver modules for connection to the ve-
hicles electrical system and for communica-

3 ACC sensor & control unit (ACC SCU), electrical components

Plus (Term. 87)

76,5 GHz Signal- Regulation Plus (Term. 15)
Radar Processing Processing Unit
CAN
transceiver Unit + voltage regulator
Diagnosis
(2 W) (2 W) (1 W + 8 W) Mass
Fig. 3
11 Dielectric resonator 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
oscillator (DRO)
12 Rod emitters
13 SRAM
14 Flash
15 16-bit microcontroller
16 Terminal, 5 V (digital)
17 Switch, 3 A
18 MQS connector and
CAN transceiver
19 Gunn oscillator
10 CC610 ASIC
11 Switching controller,
4.1 V 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
12 DSP 56002
UFS0003E

13 Regulator, 8 V Radar transceiver unit Circuit board 1 Circuit board 2 Circuit board 3
14 Terminal, 5 V with connector
(analog)
15 K-line interface
 Robert Bosch GmbH

ACC Adaptive Cruise Control ACC sensor & control unit 17

tion with the CAN bus, plus interference- 5 Adjustment of ACC module in horizontal and vertical
suppression chokes and capacitors. planes (front view)
y
Integrated connections effectively combine
all three circuit boards into a single electrical
module. As those connections are flexible,
they allow the individual circuit boards to be
folded over one another so as to save space
inside the ACC SCU casing (Figure 4). 1
Fig. 5
1 Adjusting screw 1
Outer casing and adjusters for vertical alignment
3
The Bosch radar sensor and control unit is 2 Screw 2
housed in a pressure die-cast aluminum cas- (fixed anchor point)
ing. The electronic printed-circuit boards 3 Lens
are fitted inside it in such a way that the heat 4 Adjusting screw 3
for horizontal
generated by the circuit components is dissi-
alignment
pated as efficiently as possible.

On the outside of the casing are three locating
eyes with plastic ball-joint sockets which
form the fixings for the module. A screw
with specially shaped collar passes through
each of these eyes and screws into a plastic
thread in the mounting bracket.
4 ACC sensor & control unit (ACC SCU), physical
structure
1
SFS0019Y
2 x x Axis for vertical
adjustment
4 y Axis for horizontal
adjustment
The positioning of the screws at the corners
of the casing allows the module to be tilted
in two planes (Figure 5). Adjusting screw 1
tilts the casing in the vertical plane (x axis is
the axis of rotation), while screw 3 adjusts the
casing in the horizontal plane (y axis is the
axis of rotation). Screw 2 acts in both cases
as the fixed anchor point and is not adjusted.

In order to correct any inaccuracies in its fit-

2 ting position on the vehicle, the unit can be
3 aligned with this adjustment mechanism in
a similar fashion to a headlamp. The mounting
4 bracket is adapted to the particular vehicle,
with some versions having pinioned adjusters
5
in cases where the mounted position does not
allow access to the adjusting screws from the
6 Fig. 4
front.
1 Lens
2 Pressure equalizer
7 Adjustment 3 Casing front cover
Adjustment involves two stages: 4 Radar transceiver

determining the vehicles longitudinal 5 Rigid folding
axis (centre line), and printed-circuit board
8

aligning the radar axis parallel to the 6 12-pin connector for
MQS contacts
vehicles longitudinal axis.
7 Casing base
SFS0018Y

8 Adjusting screws
9 The vehicle centre line can be determined (to suit particular
using conventional wheel-alignment methods. vehicle)
9 Sensor bracket
 Robert Bosch GmbH
18 ACC Adaptive Cruise Control ACC sensor & control unit
The adjustment accuracy of the ACC sensor,
i.e. the accuracy with which the sensor is
aligned with the vehicle centre line is very
important for the correct functioning of the
ACC.
Misalignment of the sensor in the horizontal
plane can impair the units ability to accu-
rately locate target objects because it results
in misinterpretation of the angular position
of vehicles in front. As a consequence, ap-
proach responses may be impaired and vehi-
cles in other lanes may be taken as target ob-
jects.
Misalignment of the sensor in the vertical
6 ACC sensor & control unit (ACC SCU), cutaway view
1
Fig. 6
1 Lens
2 Radar transceiver
3 Beam sources
(rod emitters)
plane can reduce its range and produce er-
rors in echo-angle detection.
The degree of adjustment accuracy de-
manded is determined by the lane prediction
and echo-angle evaluation functions and by
plausibility algorithms (sequences of com-
puting operations). Misalignment of the
sensor has an effect on those functional
components that is similar to an offset error.
Upwards of approximately 0.3 of horizontal
misalignment, the impairment of function
starts to be discernible to the driver. The de-
gree of adjustment accuracy demanded
should therefore be well inside that limit.
3
UFS0020Y
 Robert Bosch GmbH

ACC Adaptive Cruise Control ACC sensor & control unit 19

Electronic hardware Design and method of operation

Digital electronic circuitry
Functions
The digital electronic circuitry must do the
following:

Digitise radar signals

Perform FFTs (Fast Fourier Transforms)

Calculate target-object distance, relative
speed and angular position

Control vehicle speed (maintain a safe
distance from the vehicle in front), predict
vehicle course and perform self-diagnosis

Exchange data with the ESP (Electronic
Stability Program), Motronic, transmission
control system and dashboard display via
CAN

Enable diagnosis via a connector

Activate the lens heater under certain
conditions

Monitor voltages and signals.
The digital electronic circuitry (Figure 7)
can be subdivided into the RPU (Regulation
Processing Unit) and the SPU (Signal Pro-
cessing Unit).
The central component of the SPU is a
DSP (Digital Signal Processor). This is a
highly integrated electronic component that
was originally used in car audio applications.
It is ideally suited to performing large num-
bers of mathematical operations (e.g. multi-
plication and division) very quickly. It is
thus the ideal component for performing
the necessary calculations for the object de-
tection, distance, speed, angle and tracking
functions.
For those computing operations, the signals
have to be available in digital form. The task
of converting them into the required form is
performed by a highly complex CC610 circuit.
It was developed by Bosch specifically for
ACC signal processing.

7 ACC radar sensor (processing unit), schematic circuit diagram

+8V power supply V+

8V regulator

+5V power supply V+

5V regulator
Gunn-oscillator
activation signal
5V regulator
Frequency monitoring
Lens
heater

EEPROM
CC 610
Input saw-tooth Flash
control voltage D/A
10 bit ADR
SRAM 2 CANH
16 DSP 16 Bit C
CAN

Left lobe signal SDADC CANL

12 bit A0,1 2
2
Central lobe signal SDADC DATA CTRL
2 12 bit
Diagnosis

24 4
K line
CONTROL Sc
Right lobe signal SDADC
12 bit 3 2
2
XTAL
UFS0006E

Ground Ground

Q SPU RPU Q
 Robert Bosch GmbH

20 ACC Adaptive Cruise Control ACC sensor & control unit

An additional integral DAC (Digital-Analog cycle is 80...100 ms. The program required
Converter) generates an incremental voltage for controlling the procedure is stored in a
gradient. This provides the specified levels for separate SPU Flash EEPROM.
FLL modulation (Frequency Locked Loop, The target-object data comprising details of
see also the section Frequency control) the object attributes distance,speed,angle,
and results in linear modulation of the etc. is transmitted via the serial interface to
transmission frequency. While the voltage the RPU. The function of the RPU is described
rises along that gradient, the three mixed in a separate section of this manual.
radar signals are amplified in the pre-ampli-
fier, digitised with a resolution of 12 bits, The single-chip controller of the RPU incor-
filtered and passed through an FFT (Fast porates all circuit components such as
Fourier Transform). The FFT enables ex- processor, RAM, CAN controller, ADC (ana-
tremely fast conversion of the timing signals log-digital converter), counters, and digital
into frequency signals (Figure 8). interfaces with the EEPROM (erasable, pro-
The DSP controls the timing of the grammable, non-volatile, read-only memory),
modulation process and obtains the results with the SPU, with the diagnostic module
from the CC610 circuit via the parallel inter- and with the oscillator for timing-pulse gen-
face. The data is temporarily stored in an eration.
SRAM with fast read/write access. Once the The program, which is stored in an integral
two double gradients for frequency modula- Flash EEPROM, can also be modified by the
tion have been completed, the mathematical vehicle manufacturer after installation in the
operations described above are performed. vehicle, assuming the appropriate interfaces
The time required for completion of a single are provided.

8 Conversion of timing signals to frequency signals using FFT

1.5
V
Voltage

-1.5
0 0.0002 0.0006 0.001 s
Time

mV
60
Voltage level (absolute)

40

20
UFS0021E

0
Fig. 8 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 Hz
a Timing signals Frequency
b Frequency signals
 Robert Bosch GmbH
The analog/digital converters monitor the
voltages. If, for example, the monitored power
supply voltage drops below a specified level,
the ACC function is disabled. The stabilized
generated power-supply voltages are also
monitored for compliance with specific
tolerances. In the event of a fault, the ACC
function would be disabled, a System inac-
tive signal sent to the display and a fault
code stored in the EEPROM.
The CAN interface module enables reliable
digital data communication with the partner
control units on the vehicle. In recent years,
the CAN bus has become established as the
standard for serial data transmission in vehicle
systems. Common transmission rates are
250...500 kBit/s.
At such fast transmission speeds, special
precautions have to be adopted. The methods
employed include the use of suitable filters.
They prevent harmonic interference that
could adversely affect such things as radio
signal reception in the vehicle.
In order to enable fault diagnosis in the
course of vehicle servicing, any faults that
occur have to be stored. The ACC SCU has
an integral EEPROM for that purpose. A
certain area of that memory is set aside for
storing faults. The information stored in that
memory area can be read and interpreted
using a special diagnostic tester unit con-
nected via a diagnosis interface. In addition,
the vehicle manufacturer can program the
EEPROM with supplementary, vehicle-spe-
cific data.
The diagnosis module forms a bidirec-
tional interface with the diagnostic tester.
If the diagnostic tester sends the command
Read fault memory, that instruction is in-
terpreted by the RPU controller.
The controller then reads the data from the
EEPROM and converts it into a protocol
which is readable by the diagnosis tester. The
diagnosis module also performs a protective
function by shielding the sensitive controller
from direct exposure to other vehicle systems.
ACC Adaptive Cruise Control ACC sensor & control unit 21
The control function for the lens heater
switches on the heater filament in the lens in
cold weather conditions. As the surface of
the lens heats up, it prevents the build-up of
ice or snow on the lens. Both snow and ice
can attenuate the radar beam to a certain
degree and thus limit its intended range.
Although a monitoring circuit could ensure
that under such circumstances the ACC
function were disabled, such an arrangement
would restrict the availability of the system
in poor weather conditions. By employing
pulse-width modulation, the lens heater
control circuit is a versatile setup that is re-
sponsive to temperature and power supply
voltage.
Voltage regulators
In order that the digital and analog compo-
nents can operate correctly, they require a
power supply with a constant voltage. The
task of keeping that voltage constant is per-
formed by a number of voltage regulators.
The power supply provided by the battery or
alternator would destroy the sensitive elec-
tronic components. The voltage peaks of
100 V that occur and a superimposed AC
voltage of 2 V have to be filtered out because
of their potential for causing malfunctions.
In addition, the ACC SCU has to be protected
from the effect of inadvertent battery pole
reversal or the vehicle being started with a
24 V car battery.
In order to dissipate the power loss it is
necessary to share this task between two
voltage regulators. These provide the power
supply for the analog and digital components
of the RPU, SPU and RTC.
The Gunn oscillator is supplied by an 8 V
voltage regulator.
 Robert Bosch GmbH

22 ACC Adaptive Cruise Control System network

System network That required acceleration is subsequently

System architecture
Function of system architecture
As ACC performs a function that involves
interaction with a number of other systems,
the system architecture plays a key role. Only
with a suitable system architecture can the
various contributory functions be interlinked
in such a way that an effective and reliable
overall function is achieved.
A particular challenge to the design of the
system architecture is the fact that the con-
tributory systems are often developed by dif-
ferent, and in many cases, competing suppliers
and sometimes vary even within the same
vehicle model.
Structure of the system network
A general view of the basic structure of the
ACC system and how it is incorporated in
the vehicles overall system network has al-
ready been given in Figures 1 and 3 in the
chapter System overview. The ACC sensor
& control unit detects vehicles ahead and
calculates the acceleration1) required in order
to maintain a safe distance.
converted into appropriate instruction signals
for the engine management and braking con-
trol systems. The ACC system is therefore not
an autonomous system but depends on other
partner systems within a network in order to
be able to perform its function.
Method of operation of the system network
Figure 1 provides an overview of the con-
tributory partner systems that are required
for the overall function of the ACC.

Implementation of the ACC speed-con-
trol instructions is carried out by the en-
gine management and braking control
systems. Conversely, the ACC requires in-
formation from those partner systems
about the current status of the vehicle,
e.g. its speed, acceleration, whether it is
cornering, the current engine torque, etc.
1) Acceleration in this case refers to both positive and nega-
tive acceleration (i.e. deceleration).

1 ACC within the network of associated partner systems

ACC sensor & control unit

Radar Signal ACC Relevant

transceiver processing control to ACC

Drivetrain control Transmission control

Engine ACC/CC Engine Power/torque Drivetrain
management input signals torque ratio control
control

CAN
ESP Electronic Stability Program Displays and controls
Electronic Sensor Deceleration Set "speed" Selected "Target object
Stability signal pre- control "time gap" detected"
SFS0022E

Program (ESP) processing indication

Sensors
 Robert Bosch GmbH

The displays and controls are also accessible
via the CAN. The ACC requires details of
the drivers instructions (set speed, selected
time gap) and also passes information back
to the driver (e.g. whether a target object
has been detected). The controls are also
required by the conventional cruise control
system and are therefore generally inter-
preted by the engine-management system.

The transmission-control system is not
used as an actuator system by the ACC.
Nevertheless, it needs information from
the transmission control system on the
current effective power/torque ratio of the
transmission.
The data transmission medium is the control-
unit bus, or CAN (Controller Area Network).
This links the individual systems with one
another. Often, there are also other devices
connected or available via gateway functions.
Not only does the network use a defined
manner of data transfer, there is also a speci-
fied convention for the data content of net-
work communications. This arises from the
allocation of tasks. Depending on the installed
partner systems, therefore, the content of the
individual interface signals can vary.
Drivetrain control
The ACC system needs to be able to intervene
in the engine-management system in order
to effect a required rate of acceleration or
level of engine torque.
Most modern engine-management systems
afford this possibility (e.g. ETC (Electronic
Throttle Control) systems, Motronic ME7,
EDC electronic diesel control). They make
use of the existing internal interface with the
conventional cruise control system. Conse-
quently, power transmission can be con-
trolled on the basis of engine torque without
the knowledge of engine data maps.
ACC Adaptive Cruise Control System network 23
Brake control
If the deceleration due to the engine and
transmission drag is insufficient to slow the
vehicle down at the rate required by the ACC,
active application of the brakes is necessary.
There are two ways in which this can be
achieved.
Active brake servo unit
A brake servo unit with electronically con-
trolled actuation of the pedal linkage offers
the facility for automatic operation of the
brakes rather than by manual operation on
the part of the driver. The basic requirement
for such an arrangement is a modified di-
aphragm design and an additional pneumatic
proportional control valve. The brake light
continues to be controlled by the brake-light
switch on the brake pedal. An extra release
switch indicates when the driver is braking
manually.
Provided there is a pressure sensor at the
master-cylinder outlet port (as is usual with
the ESP vehicle-dynamics control system),
active braking by the ACC is also frequently
controlled via a pressure or torque interface.
Hydraulic brake actuator
Electronically controlled brake actuators are
already widely used by vehicle safety systems
such as TCS and ESP though only in po-
tentially hazardous vehicle-handling situations
and not under normal driving conditions.
With improved control techniques, the hy-
draulic actuators (generally motor-driven
pumps and valves) can be triggered so as to
facilitate brake control.
So that the brake lights are operated when
the brakes are automatically applied, as well as
when they are applied by the driver, a second
switch signal is generated in addition to that
triggered by the action of the brake pedal.
The SBC (Sensotronic Brake Control) elec-
trohydraulic brake system can perform the
required functions without any additional
hardware whatsoever. As a brake-by-wire
system, SBC is ideal for combination with
 Robert Bosch GmbH
24 ACC Adaptive Cruise Control System network
ACC. For this system, the ACC instructions
are merely an additional control input.
Bend-sensing systems
Present-day ACC systems use ESP sensor
signals to ascertain the way in which the
vehicle is moving. Typically, the CAN trans-
fers the measured data from the ESP control
unit to the ACC control unit. In this way the
cost of a separate set of sensors for the ACC
can be avoided.
The ESP sensors described below are available
to the ACC (the chapter Sensors contains
detailed descriptions of the design, usage
and method of operation of those sensors).
Yaw-rate sensor
The yaw-rate sensor detects the rate of rota-
tion of the vehicle around its vertical axis.
The physical principle on which operation is
based is measurement of the Coriolis force.
Under the effect of a rotational movement,
the pattern of oscillation of an oscillating
mass is made to change.
Steering-wheel-angle sensor
The physical principle on which operation is
based is measurement of the angle of rotation
of the steering column. Depending on the
type of application, these sensors may detect
movement by means of sliding contacts or
by proximity sensing.
Acceleration sensor
The physical principle on which operation is
based is measurement of the deflection of a
flexibly mounted mass under the effect of
inertial forces acting along or across the
vehicle axis.
Wheel-speed sensor
The signals from the wheel-speed sensors
are used by the control unit concerned to
determine the speed of rotation of the wheels.
The following types of sensor are used:

Passive (inductive) speed sensors with a
reluctor ring attached to the wheel hub.

Active speed sensors with a multipolar ring
consisting of a series of adjacent magnets
of alternating polarity which is attached
to the wheel hub. The sensing probe thus
detects the change in magnetic flux.
Safety concept
Purpose of the safety concept
The aim of the ACC safety concept is to pre-
vent faults in the ACC system causing critical
driving situations or vehicle handling scenarios.
At the same time, however, the object is to
minimise the limitations on system avail-
ability resulting from the safety measures.
The safety concept must ensure that the
ACC control unit has fail-safe characteristics,
and must facilitate selectively targeted fault
diagnosis by providing for

shut-down of the radar transceiver,

deactivation of ACC function, and

recording a fault in the fault memory.
This demands that all possible fault scenarios
are reliably distinguished and detected and a
response appropriate to the nature of the fault
is initiated.
Structure of safety concept
The generally accepted methods of monitor-
ing safety-related systems are the principles
of diversity and redundancy.
With diverse systems, all computing oper-
ations are performed simultaneously on
different types of computer with different
software.
With redundant systems, identical hard-
ware and software is simply duplicated on
multiple systems.
With the increasing complexity of todays
automotive-control-unit functions, bit-for-
bit identity of computing results obtained
from diverse systems is not achievable. In-
stead of a straightforward check for identity,
a complex plausibility algorithm which tol-
erates divergence of results within defined
limits has to be developed. However, ab-
 Robert Bosch GmbH

ACC Adaptive Cruise Control System network 25

solutely comprehensive fault detection is
then no longer possible.
In addition, in the development of control
units it can be said that as objectives, both
diversity and redundancy are in conflict
with the aims of cost and size reduction.
For those reasons, a monitoring concept
was developed for the ACC control unit
which is based on the specific processor
structure of the ACC module and takes equal
account of the complexity of the tasks and
the specific safety requirements of the sys-
tem. As a consequence, the ACC control unit
with its twin-processor structure and the as-
sociated internal communication facilities
satisfies the safety requirements in respect of
redundant hardware structures and monitor-
ing units.
The monitoring concept of the ACC con-
trol unit is subdivided into three logical lev-
els which are located within the two con-
troller units and the external partner control
units.
Component monitoring level
The component monitoring level consists of
two independent sections of the two con-
trollers. Its functions are restricted to detec-
tion of faults within the controllers periph-
erals. It is not linked in any way with moni-
toring of the computation logic.
Examples of component monitoring in-
clude
units checking the plausibility and consis-
tency of ACC messages. In that way, ACC
malfunctions that result in implausible CAN
signals or irregular CAN transmission cycles
can be detected.
Examples of function monitoring include

internal processor hardware tests

internal processor checksum tests

checking of CAN checksums

checking of CAN message counters

CAN time-out monitoring
Reciprocal monitoring level
The reciprocal monitoring level involves the
interaction of the two controllers within a
common monitoring structure. The essen-
tial difference from the function monitoring
level is that the monitoring and the moni-
tored functions are not running on the same
hardware; instead, each of the two con-
trollers monitors the other.
Examples of reciprocal monitoring in-
clude

checksum verification of internal commu-
nications

monitoring of internal communication
timing

calculation and reciprocal checking of test
functions.

monitoring of the radar transceiver

detection of sensor misalignment

detection of sensor blindness

power-supply monitoring

monitoring of the CAN data bus

lens-heater monitoring

Function monitoring level

The function monitoring level is similarly im-
plemented independently on both con-
trollers. Each controller performs internal
tests on its own computation logic.
Outside of the ACC control unit, there are
also localized tests carried out by the partner
control units. These involve those control
 Robert Bosch GmbH
26 ACC Adaptive Cruise Control System network
Method of operation of the safety concept
The error messages from the individual
monitoring procedures are centrally analysed
by the control unit. There is a differentiated
response to errors depending on their severity
and the current dynamic status of the vehicle
as well as the traffic situation.
The possible responses are as follows:

unrestricted continuation of ACC function,
no fault indication, recording of fault for
subsequent diagnosis,

completion of ACC deceleration sequence
followed by indication of fault and record-
ing of fault for subsequent diagnosis,

immediate deactivation of ACC function
combined with fault indication and
recording of fault for subsequent diagnosis.
Furthermore, a distinction is made between
reversible and irreversible faults as follows:

reversible faults disable the ACC function
only while the fault is present,

irreversible faults disable the ACC function
for the duration of the current journey.
Thus in all fault scenarios, the ACC will be
functional again if the fault is no longer pre-
sent after the ignition has been switched off
and on again. The only exception to this is
sensor misalignment; in that case, the ACC
function must be re-enabled by a service
centre.
The majority of faults recorded for subse-
quent diagnosis can be allocated to one of
the following categories:

Control unit fault (requires replacement
of control unit)

Power supply voltage too high/low

Temperature too high

Sensor misalignment

CAN bus hardware fault

Fault in communication with partner
control units

Fault signal received from a partner
control unit
If the ACC shuts down due to a fault, the
vehicle can still be driven without any other
functions being restricted in any way. The
car does not have to be taken to a service
centre immediately.
Only a few component failures within the
ACC control unit can only be detected by a
single monitoring process. In most cases,
more than one fault detection function will
be triggered, depending on the nature of the
fault.
The example set out below illustrates how
the different monitoring levels complement
each other. Let us assume the power supply
voltage for the controller units is incorrect.
The component monitoring level has a
voltage check for detecting such faults whereby
the supply is passed through a monitoring
circuit and compared with tolerance limits.
However, this demands that the monitoring
controller continues to operate correctly de-
spite the assumed voltage discrepancy.
If, however, the assumed fault leads to a
malfunction on one of the two controller
units, this can be detected by the reciprocal
monitoring of internal communication.
The most likely course of events in this
example, though, is the total failure of both
controllers, which would be detected as a
CAN time-out error by the function moni-
toring level on one of the partner control
units.
 Robert Bosch GmbH
ACC Adaptive Cruise Control
 Very severe demands are made on the ECU
Basically, the ECU in the vehicle functions the
same as a conventional PC. Data is entered
from which output signals are calculated. The
heart of the ECU is the printed-circuit board
(pcb) with microcontroller using high-precision
microelectronic techniques. The automotive
ECU though must fulfill a number of other
requirements.
Real-time compatibility
Systems for the engine and for road/traffic safe-
ty demand very rapid response of the control,
and the ECU must therefore be "real-time com-
patible". This means that the control's reaction
must keep pace with the actual physical
process being controlled. lt must be certain that
a real-time system responds within a fixed peri-
od of time to the demands made upon it. This
necessitates appropriate computer architecture
and very high computer power.
Integrated design and construction
The equipments weight and the installation
space it requires inside the vehicle are becom-
ing increasingly decisive. The following tech-
nologies, and others, are used to make the ECU
as small and light as possible:

Multilayer: The printed-circuit conductors are
between 0.035 and 0.07 mm thick and are
stacked on top of each other in layers.

SMD components are very small and flat
and have no wire connections through holes
in the pcb. They are soldered or glued to the
pcb or hybrid substrate, hence SMD (Sur-
face Mounted Devices).

ASIC: Specifically designed integrated com-
ponent (Application-Specific Integrated Cir-
cuit) which can combine a large number of
different functions.
Operational reliability
Very high levels of resistance to failure are pro-
vided by integrated diagnosis and redundant
mathematical processes (additional processes,
usually running in parallel on other program
paths).
Demands placed on a control unit 27
Environmental influences
Notwithstanding the wide range of environmen-
tal influences to which it is subjected, the ECU
must always operate reliably.

Temperature: Depending upon the area of
application, the ECUs installed in vehicles
must perform faultlessly during continual
operation at temperatures between 40C
and + 60...125C. In fact, due to the heat
radiated from the components, the tempera-
ture at some areas of the substrate is consid-
erably higher. The temperature change
involved in starting at cold temperatures and
then running up to hot operating tempera-
tures is particularly severe.

EMC: The vehicle's electronics have to go
through severe electromagnetic compatibility
testing. That is, the ECU must remain com-
pletely unaffected by electromagnetic distur-
bances emanating from such sources as the
ignition, or radiated by radio transmitters and
mobile telephones. Conversely, the ECU
itself must not negatively affect other elec-
tronic equipment.

Resistance to vibration: ECUs which are
mounted on the engine must be able to with-
stand vibrations of up to 30 g (that is, 30
times the acceleration due to gravity).

Sealing and resistance to operating medi-
ums: Depending upon installation position,
the ECU must withstand damp, chemicals
(e.g. oils), and salt fog.
The above factors and other requirements mean
that the Bosch development engineers are con-
tinually faced by new challenges.
 Hybrid substrate of an ECU
UAE0744Y
 Robert Bosch GmbH

28 ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Controls and displays

Controls and displays to be switched on by the driver.

Function
Controls and displays constitute the direct
interface between the ACC system and the
driver. Operation and interpretation should
be as straightforward, unambiguous and in-
tuitive as possible (in other words, a control
operation or the meaning of a display indi-
cation should be immediately obvious).
Design and method of operation
Specifically with regard to the controls and
displays on the drivers instrument panel,
there is a large degree of scope for variation
in design which vehicle manufacturers use
to differing extents (Example: Figure 1).
For that reason, this description will re-
strict itself to the typical controls and displays
and their functions without consideration of
individual design variations. As control op-
erations are frequently acknowledged by a
display indication, the particular control and
its associated display indication are dealt
with together in each case.
Activation
Although ACC is used frequently, it still has
On some vehicle models, it first has to be
enabled by a master switch. On other models,
it is automatically set to stand-by when the
ignition is switched on.
The conditions for activation include the
following:

The vehicle speed must be higher than the
minimum possible cruising-speed setting.

The brake pedal must not be depressed.

The handbrake must be off.

No fault must have been detected on the
ACC SCU or the ACC system as a whole.
Assuming the conditions for activation are
satisfied, the ACC commences speed control as
soon as the driver operates a control provided
for activation of the system.
An important precondition for commence-
ment of speed control is, of course, availabil-
ity of the initial settings for desired speed
and desired time gap so that the driver can
immediately be informed of the active settings
and can adjust them if required. For that reason,
the display of those settings is absolutely es-
sential, at least at the time at which the system
is activated.

Fig. 1 1 Drivers instrument panel incorporating ACC displays (example)

1 Speedometer with
LEDs for indicating
1
the desired speed
setting
(ACC active)
2 Relevant target
object detected
(ACC active)
3 Indication of
Selected distance
by means of car
pictograms
(displayed for
6 seconds after
ACC activation
and when setting
is changed)
or error message
UFS0007Y

ACC inactive
or instruction
Clean sensor 2 3 4
4 Stand-by
 Robert Bosch GmbH

ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Controls and displays 29

In order to ensure unambiguous distinction 2 ISO display symbols for ACC activation
from other functions, the ISO (International
Organization for Standardization) has defined
a
a symbol (Figure 2). That symbol may be used
to indicate that the system is on stand-by or
that it is active.

Setting and display of desired speed

All currently known control concepts combine
the operations of activating the system and
setting the desired speed i.e. as soon as the
driver first operates the control for setting
the desired speed while the system is on
stand-by, the ACC is simultaneously acti-
vated (Figure 3). Fig. 2
b
a ACC active/on
Although ACC frequently uses the same stand-by
controls as conventional cruise control, the b ACC malfunction
method of setting the desired speed is signif-
icantly different. In particular, operation in
Fig. 3
practice has shown that with ACC, larger 1 Resume:

UFS0008Y
speed-setting increments are more helpful to recalls the last
the driver. For example, instead of the speed selected speed
increments of around 1 km/h used on con- setting
ventional cruise control systems, steps of (ACC passive)
Displays and selects
between 5 and 10 km/h have proved to be
the set distance
more effective with ACC. 3 ACC controls on the steering wheel (example)
from three possible
With those larger increments, it is easier settings
to make larger adjustments to the desired (ACC active)
speed, e.g. when exiting a stretch of road 2 + button:
where there is a low speed limit because of adopts the speed
currently indicated
roadworks and entering a section of clear 1
by the speedometer
motorway, or vice versa.
as the set speed
(ACC passive)
There are four functions for setting the speed: Increases the set
2 speed in
1. Adoption of the actual speed as the desired increments of
speed (Set). 10 km/h
3 (ACC active)
3 button:
2. Adoption of the next increment above the same by analogy as
actual speed as the desired speed (Set +). 4 + button, i.e.
decreases the set
3. Adoption of the next increment below the speed in decrements
actual speed as the desired speed (Set ). of 10 km/h
4 I/O button:
Switches the ACC
UFS0009Y

4. Adoption of the stored speed setting as

system on/off when
the desired speed it is off/active,
(R, Resume). and to
ACC passive
 Robert Bosch GmbH

30 ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Controls and displays

4 Activating ACC and setting desired speed using

The Set and Step functions are combined,
four buttons and a display integrated in the though often in different ways by the various
speedometer scale
vehicle manufacturers (Figure 4).

The following are typical combinations:

set set +

Step + combined with Set or Set +

90 110 130
70 150 Step combined with Set, Set or Resume
50 170
30 190 The setting is indicated either on the
10 210 speedometer scale (Figure 4) or on a separate
digital display.

Resume
+ Settingdesired distanceordesired time gap
R STEP+ The desired distance or time gap from the
SET+
vehicle in front depends not only on the dri-
+ vers personal preference, but also on traffic
ACC passive ACC active and weather conditions. In order to be able
SET
to accommodate those variations, all manu-
SFS0023E

STEP facturers offer at least three different settings

Off 0 within the range of 1.0 ... 2.0 s (time gap).

Even with that range of settings there are a
number of different control concepts, in-
5 Controls for setting desired distance/ cluding
desired time gap

a b
infinitely variable adjustment using an

adjuster wheel (Figure 5a)
1
incremental switch (Figure 5b), and
1
2 2

button for cycling through a sequence of
3 options, e.g. long, medium, short, long,
3 medium, ... etc. (Figure 5c).

When the time gap is altered, the driver is

informed of the setting selected. There are
c
SFS0024Y

two methods of displaying that information

1 2 3
as shown in Figure 6.
Fig. 5
a Adjuster wheel
b Incremental switch
Indication of object detected
c Button for cycling In addition to the absolutely essential display
through sequence of of desired speed and desired distance,
options an indication that an object has been de-
Some or all of those options may be offered tected has become an established feature.
1 Green zone,
depending on the control concept. Once the It informs the driver whether or not the
large distance
desired speed has been set, it can be in- ACC sensor has detected a relevant object
2 Amber zone,
medium distance creased in the above increments by repeated (i.e. a vehicle ahead).
3 Red zone, and/or continuous pressing of the button
short distance (Step +)/(Step ).
 Robert Bosch GmbH

ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Controls and displays 31

If the detected object is found to be travelling 6 Display symbols for indicating desired distance/
at a slower speed than the currently set desired desired time gap setting
speed, it is classified as a ranging object.

Figure 7 shows some examples of the possible a 1 2 3

display symbols.
green
Other display functions
An unwanted but essential display item is the yellow
error message that appears when the system red
is shut down or fails to activate due to a fault.

In addition to plain-language messages,

there is also an ISO symbol that can be b
Fig. 6
displayed for this purpose. 1 a Symbolic
representation of
As well as genuine faults on the various straight-ahead view
control units within the network utilised by 2 b Side-on view
the ACC, transient faults can also cause the
1 Green zone,
system to shut down.
3 large distance

SFS0025E
2 Amber zone,
In particular, if the sensors vision is im- medium distance
paired, e.g. by a thick layer of wet snow, the 3 Red zone,
system informs the driver of the problem short distance
and shuts down.
7 Display options for indicating object detected
Deactivation
Deactivation is effected in similar fashion to
a conventional cruise control system by op- a
erating an OFF switch or the brake pedal.
Other conditions for deactivation include
incompatible vehicle operating statuses and
vehicle speeds below the minimum possible
speed setting.
A B
Partial deactivation is provided for in the
event of active intervention by the TCS or
ESP slip-control systems. In such cases, the b
ACC may still operate the brakes but the ac-
A
celeration facility is disabled. This allows a
deceleration sequence already in progress to
be completed. In order to restore full ACC Fig. 7
function, the driver must manually reactivate a Symbolic
the system. representation of
straight-ahead view
B
45 b Side-on view
SFS0026Y

A No relevant object
B Relevant object
detected
 Robert Bosch GmbH
32 ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Object detection and selection
Object detection and selection
Radar-signal processing
Fourier Transform
All simultaneously located objects (i.e. dif-
ferent vehicles) produce characteristic signal
attributes the frequency of each individual
signal is determined by the distance and rel-
ative speed of the object, while the amplitude
is dependent on the reflective properties of
the object. All echo signals superimposed
make up the return signal.
The return signal is first passed through an
analog-digital converter and then subjected
to spectral analysis in order to determine the
distance and relative speed of the objects. A
powerful algorithm (calculation procedure)
known as an FFT (Fast Fourier Transform)
is applied for this purpose. It converts a se-
quence of scanned equidistant timing-signal
levels into a sequence of spectral (differenti-
ated) power-density values with equidistant
frequency intervals.
In the classical FFT algorithm, the quantity
must be a power of 2 (e.g. 512, 1024, 2048).
In the case of the frequencies, the calculated
spectrum reveals particularly high power
densities which are assigned to the radar
echoes. In addition, the spectrum also con-
tains noise signals that are generated within
the sensor and superimposed on the useful
signals originating from the target objects.
The spectral resolution is determined by
the number of scanned levels and the scan-
ning rate.
Detection
Detection involves the isolation of the charac-
teristic frequency signals that are reflected by
target objects. Because of the widely varying
strengths of signal from different objects,
and even from the same object at different
times, a special type of detector is used.
That detector must, firstly, find all the signal
peaks originating from real objects. Secondly,
however, it must be insensitive to signal
components that are produced by noise or
interference signals. The noise signal gener-
ated within the radar unit itself, for example,
does not occupy a fixed position within the
spectrum but rather is frequency and time-
dependent.
Every spectrum is first of all subjected to
noise analysis. Based on the spectral distrib-
ution of the noise component, a threshold
curve is then defined. Only signal peaks that
are above that threshold are then interpreted
as target frequencies.
Object identification
Although the echo signals in each modulation
cycle contain information about the distance
and relative speed of the detected objects,
they cannot be definitely assigned to indi-
vidual objects. Only by comparing the de-
tection results between modulation cycles
can the distance and speed information be
assigned to specific objects.
A detected target frequency is made up of a
distance-dependent component and a rela-
tive-speed-dependent component. Thus, in
order that the distance and relative speed of
a particular object can be determined, target
frequencies from multiple modulation cycles
must match up with one another.
For a physically present radar target, the
multi-cycle FMCW method requires the
identification in every modulation cycle of a
target frequency that results from the distance
and relative speed of the object (cf chapter
Radar ranging sensor).
Allocation of signal to object becomes dif-
ficult if the spectra contain large numbers of
target frequencies.
The angular position of a radar target relative
to the radar axis is determined by comparing
the amplitudes of a signal from the same ob-
ject in the three adjacent antenna lobes.
 Robert Bosch GmbH

ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Object detection and selection 33

Tracking Echo signals are also analysed for indications

The tracking function compares the signal of sensor blindness and radar-component
data from the detected objects in the current malfunctions.
detection cycle with the signal data from the
last detection cycle. Object selection
The first step in the selection of relevant ob-
An object that was identified in the last de- jects is the determination of the lateral posi-
tection cycle at a distance, d, and travelling tion, dyc (course offset) of an object relative
at a relative speed, r, will have moved in the to the predicted course of the ACC systems
period, t, between the last detection cycle own vehicle. As shown in Figure 1, it is de-
and the one that follows it so that it would termined firstly by the lateral offset, dyv, rela-
then be expected to be detected at the distance tive to the vehicles longitudinal axis. In order
to arrive at that figure, the information de-
de = d + r t termined by the sensor for lateral offset of
the object relative to the sensor axis, xS, is
If we also take into account the fact that the transformed on the basis of the sensor offset,
detected object may accelerate or decelerate dySensor, into a figure representing the object
during that period, then there is an area of offset relative to the vehicles centre line, xF.
uncertainty around the distance de within
which the objects new position may fall.
1 Determination of lateral object offset, dyc, relative to
course (course offset)
If the following detection cycle does actually
find an object within the expected zone based
on distance and relative speed, it can be as-
sumed that it is the same vehicle. Because,
therefore, the previously detected object has
been identified again in the current detection
d yvCourse
cycle, the object data is filtered on the basis
of the historical data. d yv 1 d yc 4
If, however, a previously detected object is
not identified in the current detection cycle xF
(e.g. because it is outside the radar beams
Fig. 1
field or because its echo signal is too weak),
1 Object
the predicted object data continue to be used. d ySensor
2 Sensor
xS 3 ACC vehicle
Additional object-tracking procedures are 4 Course
necessary if an object produces multiple echo
signalsfromdifferentdistances.Thisistypically dyv Lateral offset
d

dyc Course offset

the case with large trucks. Such vehicles must
dyvCourse = ky d2/2
be combined into a single object. predicted course

where d is calculated
distance to object
ky current course
2
curvature
A dySensor Sensor offset
xF Vehicle centre line
C
UFS0027Y

3 xS Sensor axis
C Angular offset of
object from sensor
axis
 Robert Bosch GmbH
34 ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Object detection and selection
Secondly, however, by plotting a predicted
course, dyvCourse = ky d2/2 (e.g. using a para-
bolic projection as an approximation of the
arc) the offset relative to the predicted
course can be represented by
dyc = dyv dyvCourse
Thus the determination of dyc depends on
the nature of the description of the ACC ve-
hicles course for which there are various
procedures, some of which are examined a
little further on.
The second step involves the calculation of
the objects lane probability, spw, in each
detection cycle. This figure indicates the
degree of probability that the detected radar
object is in the same lane as the ACC vehicle.
The ACC vehicles lane is described by means
of geometrical projections which take account
not only of the lane width but also other
factors such as the uncertainty of course
prediction.
The lane probability, spw, is the input vari-
able for the integral object attribute plausi-
bility, plaus. The latter quantity is used as
an index of the relevance of the object when
combined with the frequency and reliability
of detection. It also takes account of charac-
teristics of the sensors such as accuracy of
angle detection and detection capability.
If there is a positive probability that the
object is in the same lane as the ACC vehicle,
the attribute plaus (plausibility) can be in-
creased. If, on the other hand, the object is
not in the same lane in the current detection
cycle, or if it is not detected at all, plaus is
reduced.
The object is only selected as a target object
Fig. 2 if there is more than a certain minimum de-
1 Object 1 gree of probability that it is in the same lane
2 Object 2
as the ACC vehicle. Similarly, the known
3 ACC vehicle
ACC systems take account only of moving
A Course A objects travelling in the same direction as
B Course B the ACC vehicle. Because of the risk of mis-
dyc Course offset detection and the present impossibility of
object classification (i.e. determining whether
the detected object is a metal can or a station-
ary vehicle) the ACC system ignores
stationary objects.
Course prediction
Performance quality
Course prediction plays a decisive role in
determining which of the vehicles detected
ahead of the ACC vehicle are in its path, and
therefore has a substantial influence on the
quality of ACC performance.
In the example illustrated in Figure 2, the
response of an ACC vehicle travelling in the
left-hand lane and following a constant
curved path, Course A, is guided by the vehicle
that is ahead of it in the same lane, i.e.
Object 1. This produces the desired behaviour
and the ACC vehicle maintains a constant dis-
tance from Object 1.
The straight-ahead course, Course B,
would incorrectly take account of a slower
vehicle, Object 2 , in the right-hand lane in a
2 Course prediction and object selection
B
1
2
A
dyc
UFS0028Y
3
A
C
C
 Robert Bosch GmbH
ACC Adaptive Cruise Control
situation such as that illustrated. This would
cause the ACC vehicle to slow down in a
manner that would be unexpected and dis-
concerting for the driver.
A reliable course prediction capability is
therefore of great benefit in reducing the risk
of incorrect object selection as illustrated in
the above example.
The basic variable for determining the course
of the vehicle is initially the trajectory cur-
vature. This defines the change of direction
of the ACC vehicle as a function of the dis-
tance travelled. Supplementary to that infor-
mation, the current and past positions of
moving or stationary objects may also be
used to determine the projected course of
the vehicle.
Future ACC systems will make use not only
of navigation systems but also of video sys-
tems with image-analysis capabilities to de-
termine the curvature of the vehicles path.
Trajectory-curvature calculation
The trajectory curvature, k, defines the change
of a vehicles direction relative to distance
travelled. It is given by the formula
R = 1/k
A number of vehicle sensors are used to de-
termine the curvature of the vehicles trajec-
tory, whereby it is assumed that all calcula-
tions are only applied inside the vehicles
stable-handling limits. In other words, they
do not apply to situations in which the vehi-
cle is skidding or there is a high level of
wheel spin.
The ACC systems known at present require
a yaw rate corrected for offset in order to be
able to determine vehicle course. This is ob-
tained either directly by the ESP system using
the signals from the steering-wheel-angle
sensor, lateral-acceleration sensor, wheel-
speed sensors and yaw-rate sensor, or by the
ACC system itself using offset correction.
Object detection and selection 35
The yaw rate, d/dt, being the rotation of
the vehicle around its vertical axis, defines
the current curvature, ky, of the vehicle tra-
jectory at the speed of travel, x, in the for-
mula
ky = (d/dt) / x
The trajectory curvature is generally averaged,
e.g. using a simple low-pass filter.
ESP sensor data for calculating trajectory
curvature
Apart from the yaw-rate sensor, known ESP
systems also make use of three other sensors
which allow the curvature to be calculated
by the methods set out below.
In order to calculate the course curvature, ks,
from the steering-wheel-angle, , two other
vehicle parameters in the form of the steer-
ing-gear ratio, isg, and the wheelbase, dax, are
required. The following formula then gives a
very good approximation of ks under the
conditions that are typical for ACC operation:
ks = /(isg dax)
Calculation of the trajectory curvature, ka,
from the lateral acceleration, ay, also requires
the vehicle speed, x, thus:
ka = ay/x2
Calculating the curvature, kv, from the wheel
speeds requires the relative wheel-speed dif-
ference, /x, and the track measurement,
day. In order to minimise power-transmission
effects, the speed difference = (l r) and
the linear speed at the non-driven wheels are
also calculated.
kv = /(x day)
Although all the methods described can be
used to determine the trajectory curvature,
they have varying degrees of suitability in
different conditions. They differ primarily
under conditions where there is a crosswind,
where the road is banked, where there are
differences in wheel radius, and with regard
to their accuracy of measurement at different
speeds.
 Robert Bosch GmbH

36 ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Object detection and selection

As Table 1 shows, the curvature ky calculated Navigation systems

from the yaw rate has the best overall suit-
ability of all the methods discussed.
Nevertheless, a further improvement in signal
quality can be obtained if several or all of the
methods are used in combination and their
various results compared. In particular, this
will be possible if the ACC vehicle is also
equipped with a vehicle dynamics control
system such as the Electronic Stability Pro-
gram (ESP). In that case, all the sensors
referred to above will be present.
Bend prediction
On roads with pronounced changes of di-
rection (e.g. on winding motorways), there
is a potential for incorrect selection of target
object when using the ESP-assisted course-
curvature calculation, which defines the cur-
rent trajectory of the vehicle. Prediction of
course curvature at a distance is theoretically
possible using the approaches described be-
low.
Prediction based on radar data
Two different methods are conceivable using
radar data.
1. Analysis of the lateral movement of vehicles
in front as the basis for predicting a bend
In this case, the collective lateral movement
of a number of vehicles ahead of the ACC
vehicle is taken as an indication of an ap-
proaching bend. Associated misinterpreta-
tions such as may be caused by vehicles
changing lanes must be prevented.
Predictive curvature information at defined
intervals can theoretically be calculated on
the basis of digital road maps supported by
datum points along the route at distances of
no more than 100 meters. The curvature
could then be detected, for instance, 50 m
before the bend using interpolation proce-
dures assisted by reference to the available
datum points.
Inherent problems arise from factors such as
digital road maps that are insufficiently ac-
curate or which do not reflect recent changes
to the road layout. Additional information
(e.g. the number of lanes or the type of road)
will in future enable wider application.
Video-image analysis
A very effective but expensive method is lane
identification with the aid of a video camera
and image analysis. This technology was
adopted on the first ACC system for the
Japanese market. Since then, however, there
have been no other known ACC systems that
use video as a means of acquiring data.
3 Production of ACC radar sensor at
Bosch factory in Backnang

2. Analysis of stationary objects at the edge

of the road as a means of predicting the
course of the road
In this case, approximation procedures can
be used, though objects more distant from
UFS0029Y

the roadside must be reliably ignored.

 Robert Bosch GmbH

ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Object detection and selection 37

1 Comparison of alternative methods for curvature calculation

Method Curvature calculation based on

Steering-wheel-angle Yaw rate Lateral Wheel speeds
acceleration
ks ky ka kv
Immunity to + + +
cross wind
Immunity to + +
road camber
Immunity to o + +
wheel-radius differences
Accuracy at ++ o
low speeds
Accuracy at o ++
high speeds
Key to suitability + + high suitability, + good suitability o acceptable suitability,
rating poor suitability, unsuitable
Table 1

4 Test set-up at Bosch research facility: detection of moving objects using radar sensors

UFS0030Y
 Robert Bosch GmbH

38 ACC Adaptive Cruise Control ACC control sequence

ACC control sequence Level 2

Control-unit structure
The basic structure of the ACC control unit
is illustrated in schematic form in Figure 1.
Levels 1 to 3 have already been described in
detail in the chapter Object detection and
selection. The present chapter focusses pri-
marily on Levels 4 to 6 (Figure 1).
Level 1
At this first level of signal processing (func-
tional level) the available physical quantities
are measured (e.g. signal frequencies, echo
timings, signal amplitudes, etc.).
The ACC detects some of that data itself
(e.g. radar signal data), while other informa-
tion is obtained from the sensors of external
systems (e.g. wheel-speed sensor data from
the ESP electronic stability program which
controls vehicle dynamics).
At this level (plausibility checking level) the
physical data acquired at the previous level is
processed with reference to its relevance for
the specific vehicle concerned. The result is
an initial group of radar target objects that
are potentially of relevance to the ACC con-
trol sequence, each with a set of attributes
comprising distance, relative speed and
lateral position.
In addition, the information from the ESP
sensors is also analyzed at this level in order
to determine the curvature of the vehicles
course.
Level 3
This next stage of processing (verification
level) involves selection of the specific target
object which is to be the basis for control
from the group of potentially relevant ob-
jects. The selected vehicle then becomes the
target vehicle. In virtually every case, that
target vehicle will be the vehicle that is im-

1 Basic structure of ACC control unit

Radar Wheel-speed Yaw-rate Other

Level 1
data sensor sensor sensors

Radar Determination of
Level 2
object detection course curvature

Object selection
Level 3
course prediction, tracking

Level 4 ACC control

Level 5 Linear-speed control

SFS0031E

Engine management Active brake

Level 6
Drivetrain intervention
 Robert Bosch GmbH
mediately in front of the ACC vehicle and in
the same lane. Exceptions to that rule will
occur primarily when vehicles ahead of the
ACC vehicle change lanes, or the ACC vehicle
does so itself. In such cases, a group of several
possible target vehicles is offered.
The decision is then deferred to the next
level. For correct selection of the target vehicle
or vehicles, effective course prediction and
tracking are indispensable requirements
(see also the chapter Object detection and
selection).
Level 4
Following selection of the target vehicle,
this level is where the actual modulation se-
quence takes place. The result is the calcula-
tion of a required acceleration.
If, after object classification at Level 3, there
should be more than one target vehicle se-
lected, the control algorithms can be calcu-
lated for several potential target objects and
subsequently assessed. The conventional
cruise-control function and the bend-detec-
tion function may also take place at this
stage.
Level 5
At Level 5, it is now a case of implementing
the output variable required acceleration
from the fourth processing stage through
linear-speed control. To begin with, this in-
volves selection of the actuation system that
can effect the desired acceleration. In the
case of positive and small negative rates of
acceleration, that will be the drivetrain.
If, however, the engine drag effect is insuffi-
cient to achieve the required negative accel-
eration, the alternative actuation system is
selected, which actively intervenes in the
braking system to produce a retardation effect.
Both actuation systems must compensate for
interference effects that arise from changes
in the resistance to motion (particularly
variations in the gradient of the road).
ACC Adaptive Cruise Control ACC control sequence 39
Level 6
This last level of the overall processing se-
quence involves the generation and control
of forces acting on the vehicles wheels by
two alternative actuation systems. The first
of those actuation systems is the drivetrain,
which is controlled primarily by the engine
management system, although a degree of
modulation is also achievable by means of
the transmission.
The second actuation system consists of a
pneumatic or hydraulic braking system which
is the chief means of bringing about deceler-
ation. It is controlled by active intervention
(i.e. without driver input) on the part of a
control system in order to produce a braking
effect.
Control-unit functions
The ACC control unit (Figure 2 overleaf)
incorporates the following functions that
are described in more detail below:

cruise control,

constant gap,

bend detection, and

acceleration control.
Output of the command signals to the actu-
ation systems takes place via a torque or ac-
celeration interface.
Cruise-control function
The driver uses the controls to set a desired
constant speed. The control unit then first
calculates the required adjustment for chang-
ing the current vehicle speed to match the
desired vehicle speed. It should be noted in
this connection that the speed indicated on
the display instrument is in advance of the
actual speed.
The display and control concept of ACC
systems currently fitted on vehicles has in-
herent characteristics that dictate that in the
two situations outlined below, there may be
a substantial difference (unintended by the
driver) between the current vehicle speed
and the set speed.
 Robert Bosch GmbH

40 ACC Adaptive Cruise Control ACC control sequence

Resumption of the cruise-control function
using the Resume button (Resume func-
tion) adopts the last desired speed setting
as the current desired speed. It is possible
that the driver may have accelerated the
vehicle to a much higher speed than the
set desired speed before pressing the Re-
sume button to reactivate the ACC func-
tion.

The driver may cancel active ACC function
by pressing the accelerator. Thus the vehicle
may be travelling at a much higher speed
than the set desired speed.
In either situation, the driver may not be fully
aware of how large the difference is between
the actual and the desired speed. The ACC
cruise-control function assists the driver in
such situations by gradual adjustment of
vehicle speed.
Follow-on control
This second function requires selection of
the target vehicle from which a constant gap
is to be maintained. To that end, the target
object data is compared with the geometry
of the ACC vehicles predicted path. If there
is more than one vehicle in the predicted path,
then normally, the nearest of the vehicles
ahead of the ACC vehicle is selected as the
target vehicle.
Ideally, the vehicle selected will be the one
whichproducesthelowestrequiredacceleration
as specified by the control unit. However, this
necessitates feedback of the control unit out-
put to the target-vehicle selection procedure.
Once the target vehicle has been selected, a
required acceleration is calculated on the basis
of the object distance and relative speed.
The required distance is calculated from
the desired/required time gap, Set, specified
by the driver thus:
dSet = Set F

2 ACC control loop showing control-unit functions

Actuation systems
(engine management Linear-speed
Vehicle with braking system control
ESP sensors transmission control)

Wheel speed
Yaw rate
Steering-wheel angle Acceleration
Acceleration signal

ACC controller

Bend Control-mode
detection selection

Desired speed Cruise

control

Driver Calculated Follow-on

Desired required distance control
time gap

Radar Object selection

SFS0032E

system Object detection Target object selection

 Robert Bosch GmbH

ACC Adaptive Cruise Control ACC control sequence 41

The required time gap is generally in the range
of 1 to 2 seconds with a tendency towards
longer times at slower speeds.
That range can usefully be divided into three
levels so that the driver is then offered three
time-gap programs, i.e.

Short,

Medium and

Long
as illustrated in Figure 3.

The limited field of view of the sensor in
tight bends also leads to situations where
the target vehicle selected for the constant-
gap function may no longer be visible. In
such situations, the bend-detection func-
tion prevents the ACC from immediately
accelerating the vehicle.
3 ACC control unit time-gap programs (stationary)

The choice of control parameters represents s

a compromise between two opposing opti-
mization objectives.
3
The first optimization is the adjustment of
the actual speed and object distance as
Time gap

quickly as possible to match the required 2

1
status represented by a relative speed of
rel = 0 and the specified object distance. 2
The second optimisation objective requires 1 3
that, for the sake of comfort, the system should
react as gradually as possible to small changes UFS0033E Fig. 3
in the distance and the speed of the vehicle 0
Time-gap programs:
ahead. 50 100 150 km/h
1 Long
A non-linear control characteristic resolves Vehicle speed
2 Medium
this optimization problem, though changes 3 Short
in relative speed provoke more sensitive re-
actions than changes in object distance. As a 4 Field of view of radar sensor on a straight road and
in a bend
rule of thumb, it can be assumed that a rela-
tive speed of 1 m/s triggers roughly the same
required acceleration as a divergence of 5 ... 2 Range
10 m from the specified object distance.

Bend-detection function
Although the ACC system is primarily de-
signed for use on motorways (with relatively
long bend radii), it can also be used on roads
with sharper bends. A number of specific
considerations have to be taken into ac- d Range
count, however.

As a convenience system, the ACC should
not surprise the driver by abrupt changes
in linear acceleration in bends.
Fig. 4

Because of the limited width of the radar
UFS0034Y

A 1 ACC vehicle
beam (Figure 4), the ACC system modifies C
C
1 k Curvature of bend
the allowable acceleration to suit the reduced 2Range Radar field of view
visibility when negotiating tight bends. dRange
2Range/k
 Robert Bosch GmbH
42 ACC Adaptive Cruise Control ACC control sequence
Selection of control mode
At the same time as calculating the required
settings for the constant-gap function, the
control unit does the same for the desired-
speed function and the bend-detection func-
tion. A subsequent control-mode selection
procedure analyses the various specified set-
tings and ensures that the ACC never follows
the vehicle ahead at a speed greater than the
desired speed set by the driver.
Linear-speed control
The ACC control unit calculates a required
setting on the basis of acceleration rates. A
separate acceleration-control sequence con-
verts that required setting into actual vehicle
acceleration. That involves first of all select-
ing the appropriate actuation system either
the drivetrain or the braking system as dic-
tated by the required setting and the current
status.
Subsequently, the actuation system concerned
calculates the control operations necessary
to implement the required acceleration.
The main requirements that must be satis-
fied by linear-speed control are

smooth transitions when changing from
drivetrain to braking system (and vice
versa), and

compensation for interference effects such
as uphill or downhill gradients.
Interfaces with actuation systems
It would be easiest if the acceleration setting
required by the ACC control unit could be
passed directly to the actuation systems.
However, that would require an underlying
acceleration-control system in the actuation
systems which does not always exist.
In practice there are primarily two interfaces
as outlined below.
Torque interface
Most engine-management systems operate
on the basis of engine torque. They handle
ACC instructions in the same way as con-
ventional cruise-control instructions. For
that reason, only minor adaptations to the
engine-management system are required in
order to implement a specified output torque
demanded by the ACC.
Within the ACC unit, however, the required
acceleration has to be converted into a re-
quired engine torque. This requires calculation
of the forces in the drivetrain and estimation
of the positive or negative gradient of the
road, or else performance of the torque con-
trol within the ACC control unit.
The torque interface is only of any use if the
actuation system can reliably implement the
specified torque.
Acceleration interface
Most commonly used braking systems
(Smart Booster, ESP or SBC employing hy-
draulic brake intervention) support the ac-
celeration interface.
Limits of function
Speed range
ACC systems are primarily intended for use
on motorways and fast trunk roads. The
sensors currently used have a detection range
for vehicles in the same lane on a straight
road which starts at a distance of about
40 m. This means that they have difficulty
detecting vehicles on roads with tight bends
and in urban traffic.
For that reason, the minimum speed limit
for operation of ACC systems is between
30 and 50 km/h (depending on system design,
see also Figure 4 above).
Because of the comfort considerations of
common ACC systems, the upper speed
limit is in the range of 160...200 km/h.
 Robert Bosch GmbH
Linear dynamics
As absolutely correct control-unit response
cannot be guaranteed, the effects of control-
unit function (i.e. acceleration and decelera-
tion) must be limited. Such limitation may
relate both to absolute acceleration and to its
variation over time.
Whereas the upper acceleration limits repre-
sent levels that are also normal for conven-
tional cruise-control systems (approx.
0.6...1.0 m/s2), the deceleration limit for
ACC systems with active braking is typically
2.5 m/s2. That figure is generally sufficient for
speed regulation. But although such a rate of
deceleration is clearly discernible by the dri-
ver, it is still only a quarter of the maximum
possible deceleration on a dry road.
As a result of the limitations on deceleration
combined with the similarly limited range of
the radar sensor, there is also a maximum
differential speed that the ACC system is ca-
pable of responding to without intervention
by the driver (Table 1). The tempting con-
clusion to call for a greater sensor range in
order to obtain an earlier response is not
achievable for the following reasons:

The reliability with which correct lane al-
location can be achieved diminishes rapidly
with increasing target distance.

The probability of an overtaking manoeuvre
increases as the differential speed rises and
can only be definitely confirmed in the
immediate proximity of the target object.
This produces a conflict of aims:
with a high differential speed, on the one
hand an early reaction is necessary, while
on the other hand it is precisely in such a
situation that the probability of overtak-
ing is very high so that premature deceler-
ation is undesirable.
ACC Adaptive Cruise Control ACC control sequence 43

The effect of a change of lane by vehicles
ahead, or by the ACC vehicle itself, is that
the point of response is determined not
simply by object distance but also by the
point at which the object is recognised as
being in the ACC vehicles lane. For that
reason, the driver must expect that in the
event of lane changes, the ACC may not
be able to cope with the speed difference.

In bends with a radius of less than 1000 m,
the ACC sensors view can be restricted by
roadside structures and vehicles in the ad-
jacent lane, so that although constant gap
maintenance remains possible through
the corner, the forward scanning range is
insufficient for early reaction if confronted
with a new slower vehicle.
Although in a few cases higher detection
quality is achievable, this is often at the cost
of transparency and can therefore make as-
sessment by the driver more difficult.
Stationary objects
ACC has the fundamental capability to dis-
tinguish stationary objects from moving ones.
The radar system measures the relative speed,
rel, j of an object and by comparing it with the
ACC vehicles own speed, F, is able to obtain
the absolute speed, j, of the object thus:
j = F + rel, j
However, stationary objects are normally
ignored by the ACC constant-gap function.
There are two main reasons for this:

ACC is a convenience system. Its deceler-
ation capability is therefore not designed
to be able to brake the vehicle in time to
avoid collision with a stationary object.
 Robert Bosch GmbH

44 ACC Adaptive Cruise Control ACC control sequence

It is currently not technically possible
for the system to decide with sufficient
certainty whether or not an object is in
the same lane as the ACC vehicle. With
the large number of stationary objects at
the roadside, it would therefore be highly
likely that the ACC would react to one of
them by mistake.
For those reasons, the Bosch ACC system
operates according to the following strategy:

Stationary objects are taken account of and
analysed by the sensor system only at low
speeds.

Only moving or stopping objects are taken
account of for the purposes of constant gap
maintenance. This virtually excludes the
possibility of mistaken deceleration in
response to a stationary object at the road-
side.

ACC prevents acceleration of the vehicle if
it detects stationary objects in its own lane.

1 Maximum approach speed

At a distance, d, an even rate of deceleration, a, will allow adjustment to a relative speed of

2d 
rel =  a

Target vehicle ACC vehicle

2 1 > 2 =
rel = 2 - 1
UFS0035E
@

For various pairings of d and a, the table below details the corresponding maximum approach speed that can be adjusted to.
The average deceleration has to be based on a smaller figure than the maximum deceleration since deceleration generally
takes time to build up.

d a rel rel
m m/s2 m/s km/h

50 1 10 36
100 1 14 51
150 1 17 62
50 2 14 51
100 2 20 72

Table 1
150 2 24 88
 Robert Bosch GmbH
Future developments
Sensor technology
At the forefront of continuing development
of the ACC sensor system are the preparations
for wider distribution of ACC systems.
In the very near future ACC will also be avail-
able on mid-range and small cars.
The efforts of the developers are thus essen-
tially directed towards three key areas:

Components that can be produced eco-
nomically in large numbers, particularly
for the high-frequency circuits of the
radar sensor:
Up to now, such components have only
been available for aircraft, military or
radio-relay applications in small numbers
and at relatively high prices. Development
of these items is particularly important in
order to be able to make ACC affordable
to large numbers of motorists.

Further reduction of the external dimen-
sions of the sensor & control unit. The
overall size of the unit needs to be reduced
to less than half its present volume as even
the Bosch ACC system which is the smallest
currently available is difficult to accom-
modate at the front of many vehicles.
Advances in the area of electronic compo-
nentry will enable more compact and
more highly integrated modules.

Expansion of the detection range.
In order to make ACC usable on roads
with tighter bends, the sensor beam width
needs to be increased to about double its
current span (to around 16). This can be
achieved by making the lens antenna
smaller and/or increasing the number of
radar beam lobes from the present three
to four or five.
Broadening the field of vision in that way
would mean spreading the radar energy
over a wider area. Without other modifi-
cations, this would produce an undesir-
able reduction in beam range. Develop-
ment activities are therefore focussed on
improving the circuitry in order to increase
ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Future developments 45
the signal quality so that the range can at
least be maintained at the same distance as
the present system.
In addition to the activities mentioned above
in the area of ACC sensor technology, Bosch
is also working on the development of new,
supplementary near-vicinity sensors. These
will be used in future driver-assistance sys-
tems such as close-range radar (Figure 1
overleaf).
Function
Perfecting the present range of functions
Perfecting the present range of functions in
the course of product improvement will give
future systems a greater degree of reliability
in the selection of target objects and even
better adaptive performance. The latter will
be evident primarily in more balanced re-
sponse in lane-change situations and in bends.
Use of ACC in traffic jams
To enable use of ACC in traffic jams in the
future, three function levels are to be added
to the present capability:
Braking to a standstill
Two preconditions must be satisfied in order
to enable braking to a standstill behind a
target vehicle:

The target vehicle must not be lost at
close range, i.e. the ranging sensor must
cover a sufficiently wide area (upwards of
15 beam width if fitted centrally).

Once the vehicle has been brought to a
standstill, the system must ensure that it is
not inadvertently allowed to roll forwards.
One solution might be an electronically
controllable parking brake operated by
the ACC.
 Robert Bosch GmbH

46 ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Future developments

1 Ambient sensors

Fig. 1
Driver-assistance systems
with multiple sensors for

ranlose
motor vehicles

ge
3

C
a Test vehicle with
video-sensor
technology that
recognises road
signs
2

b Following at a
constant gap on
motorways or in
urban stop-and-go
traffic
1

1 Long range:
the 77-GHz radar
tracks the vehicle
ahead in the same
lane; it detects the
distance and relative
m
speed of the target
id u
vehicle as the basic
functions for the e ge
M n
ra
constant-gap func-
tion (range 120 m,
width of field 8)
2 Close range:
one or more 24-GHz g e
n
ra
radar sensors scan
a broad area
immediately in front
n g
of the vehicle;
Lo
vehicles cutting in
sharply in front can
be reliably detected
(range 14 m, width
of field 50)
3 Medium range:
a stereo camera
scans the lane
ahead of the vehicle
for the constant-gap
function; it also
detects road signs
UFS0036E

and measures
object dimensions
b

(range 50 m, width
a

of field 20)
 Robert Bosch GmbH
Follow-on function at low speeds
When this function is active, the ACC vehicle
locks onto the vehicle ahead and follows it
at a constant time gap. The preconditions and
consequences associated with making such a
function suitable for use in slow-moving traffic
on a motorway (Figure 1) are the following:

Sensor technology that ensures total cov-
erage of the area in front of the vehicle from
a distance of 1 m upwards across the full
width of the vehicle so that vehicles cutting
in very sharply can also be detected.

An additional sensor system for close
range (e.g. with radar technology opti-
mised for close-range detection).

A function that prevents the vehicle
pulling away automatically after it has
been stationary longer than a certain
period.
This mode of operation can and should only
be used for typical traffic-jam situations. As
a result there are restrictions with regard to
the maximum applicable speeds (approx.
20...30 km/h) and deactivation of the func-
tion if there is no target vehicle within close
range.
Stop-and-go in urban traffic
The most difficult function to implement is
the stop-and-go function for heavy urban
traffic. At speeds of 0...50 km/h or 0...60 km/h,
the system must be capable of automatically
distinguishing between relevant and irrelevant
objects.
As, in contrast with ACC function at high
speeds, stationary objects also have to be
taken into account, absolutely reliable dis-
tinction is very difficult. Depending on the
traffic conditions, a car parked at the kerb-
side and partially blocking the carriageway
may represent an obstruction that you have
to stop behind or which you can manoeuvre
around.
ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Future developments 47
With currently available technology, this is a
challenge that can only be met by means of
an image-producing sensor (e.g. stereo video
sensor).
Thus a stop-and-go system with normal
ACC function would have a triple sensor
system (Figure 1):

A radar ranging sensor similar to the pre-
sent technology for the longer distances
(10...120 m)

An image-producing sensor (e.g. stereo
video) for medium-range detection
(5...50 m)

A specially optimized radar system for
close-range operation (0.5...10 m).
The overlaps between the ranges of the three
sensor systems will allow the reliability of
detection to be increased. But in spite of the
highly involved technology, a dilemma still
remains.
Response to stationary objects is necessary,
and it is achievable since the decision to re-
act to them can be left until they are at a dis-
tance of < 50 m. At speeds of 70 km/h
though, this distance is no longer sufficient.
At greater distances, however, the frequency
of incorrect decisions is so high that station-
ary objects have to be ignored.
As a consequence, stop-and-go and normal
ACC function have to be implemented as
two separate modes of operation which offer
the driver different functionalities. The driver
will then have to adjust to the differing cir-
cumstances. For that reason, driver input
will probably be required in order to switch
from stop-and-go to the lower-level normal
ACC function.
 Robert Bosch GmbH
48 ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Frequently asked questions
Frequently asked questions
How easy is ACC to use?
Using ACC is comparable with operating a
conventional cruise-control system and is
thus very quickly learned.
A short introductory phase for learning
the basic controls is followed by a familiariza-
tion phase lasting several weeks during which
the driver internalizes the limits of the system
and establishes a personal usage profile.
Comprehensive trials1) using test subjects
(including long-term tests) revealed no indi-
cations of problems with the operation and
function of ACC. Instead, virtually all users
underlined the reduction of mental effort
and the greater convenience.
Does ACC still function in fog and rain?
In general, yes. Nevertheless, atmospheric
propagation conditions do affect the radar
beams electromagnetic wave to a certain de-
gree. Raindrops and the water droplets in fog
disperse a proportion of the wave. Thus there
is a degree of attenuation dependent on the
droplet size and frequency.
In extremely heavy rain, attenuation levels of
approx. 30 dB/km have been measured. In
view of the ACC functional range of approx.
150 m, however, such a level of attenuation
is not drastic. The analyzable return signal is
weaker and, therefore, the maximum range
of the radar is reduced.
1) See:
Markus Weinberger.
Der Einfluss von Adaptive Cruise Control Systemen
auf das Fahrverhalten
Dissertation, Shaker Verlag, Aachen, 2001.
In such weather conditions, the range of the
sensor for less distinct targets (e.g. motor-
cycles) may thus be reduced. But at the same
time, sensible drivers will moderate their
speeds in such weather conditions so that
the ACC will not require such a long range
in any case.
Are radar beams dangerous?
The ACC SCU produces a radar beam with a
frequency in the range of 76...77 GHz. That
is equivalent to a wavelength of approx. 4 mm.
Because of the high frequency of the beam,
its effect on humans is comparable with that
of heat radiation (infrared range). The aver-
age emitted power is only approx. 1 mW and
is thus at least 500 times lower than the radi-
ation from a mobile telephone.
Research has shown that this level of radi-
ation is absolutely uncritical in terms of its
effect on sensitive parts of the human organ-
ism. Even pointing such a beam directly at
the human eye has no known negative effects.
Do radar sensors interfere with one another?
Radar sensors only interfere with one another
if they are operating simultaneously within
the same frequency band. A number of
properties on the part of the radar sensors
ensure that if this occurs at all, it only does
so very sporadically.
Firstly, the radar beam is only activated for
the precise period that it is actually required.
This alone reduces the likelihood of mutual
interference to less than 10 %.
Secondly, FMCW modulation ensures that
for each time unit, only an effective band-
width of less than 500 kHz within the fre-
quency band of 76...77 GHz is used. This
makes mutual interference between radar
sensors extremely unlikely.
In addition, the filtering and plausibility
checking of measured data ensures that in-
terference signals do not cause the vehicle to
react incorrectly.
 Robert Bosch GmbH
In practical terms, therefore, mutual inter-
ference between radar sensors is virtually
impossible.
Do ACC radar sensors interfere with speed
traps?
Police speed-enforcement equipment is not
affected by ACC systems. As far as radar equip-
ment is concerned, it operates at much lower
frequencies (< 35 GHz) or is based on entirely
different methods of operation (photoelectric
or laser beam).
What happens if another vehicle cuts in very
sharply in front of you?
This question expresses the worry that a gap
control system would respond by restoring
the required gap without appropriately
modifying the deceleration rate. In fact,
however, the system response is designed to
be similar to that of a real driver.
If the gap reduces even further (i.e. if the rel-
ative speed is negative), then the speed dif-
ference is equalized relatively quickly. After
that, however, the ACC vehicle drops back
gradually in the same way as when the vehi-
cle cutting in is travelling at the same speed.
What happens if you are faced with an on-
coming vehicle in your lane?
Oncoming vehicles are totally ignored because
it is not possible to define an appropriate
reaction on the part of the ACC.
The system is able to identify an oncoming
vehicle by virtue of the fact that the relative
speed measured by the radar sensor is greater
than the ACC vehicles own speed (in the
opposite direction) as measured by the
ABS/ESP wheel-speed sensors.
It is ultimately the responsibility of the drivers
of the two converging vehicles to take the ap-
propriate action in order to avoid a collision.
When will cars be driven completely auto-
matically?
It is a dream that we have had almost since
the invention of the automobile that we might
ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Frequently asked questions 49
one day simply be able to tell the car where
we want to go and it would do the rest. We
would then lean back and relax and occupy
ourselves in other ways such as reading the
newspaper.
Unfortunately, even in the information-tech-
nology age, that dream remains largely unre-
alisable. Even the most sophisticated sensor
systems and powerful computers do not begin
to approach the capabilities of a human being.
And even if the technological capability ex-
isted, there would be serious legal issues to
consider.
The responsibility for driving the vehicle
would shift from the driver to the manufac-
turer of the automatic vehicle. At present, it
is difficult to imagine how this problem could
be solved, because with manufacturers lia-
bility legislation in its present form, no com-
pany would be prepared to take on such re-
sponsibility.
Nevertheless, there are one or two niches for
automatically driven vehicles:
1. Special stretches of road (e.g. tunnels or
bridges) with a clearly defined infrastruc-
ture. The chief motive for such an appli-
cation would not be driver convenience
but a higher rate of traffic flow, thus ob-
viating the need for expensive road im-
provements.
2. Situations where traffic moves very slowly
(no more than 10...20 km/h), and in
which incorrect system response would
only involve very slight risk for the ACC
vehicle and for other traffic.
Why are there not yet any collision-
avoidance systems?
Collisions are prevented either by braking or
by an avoidance manoeuvre. The distance at
which braking would have to begin in order
to prevent a collision increases exponentially
in relation to relative speed. The distance re-
quired for an avoidance manoeuvre, on the
other hand, increases only at a linear rate
(Figure 1).
 Robert Bosch GmbH

50 ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Frequently asked questions

Consequently, at closing speeds of The real challenge for a collision-avoidance

> 50 km/h, an avoidance manoeuvre rather system, however, is the need to ensure an ex-
than braking is the appropriate reaction. tremely low rate of false alarms. A false alarm,
Avoiding a collision by braking alone only namely, would be very likely to create an ex-
makes sense at low relative speeds. Collision tremely dangerous situation, particularly in
avoidance at higher relative speeds necessitates the case of steering manoeuvres.
the driver steering around the obstacle or Estimates indicate the necessity for less than
oncoming vehicle. one false alarm per 10 million kilometres,
which represent an enormous challenge to
the developers of such systems.

1 Avoiding a collision by braking or avoidance manoeuvre

100
m

80
Distance for start of manoeuvre

60

1
40

2
20

Fig. 1
Assumptions: 0
Course deviation 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 km/h
of 2.5 m Relative speed
Mean maximum
deceleration =
Mean maximum lateral
acceleration of 8 m/s2
UFS0037E

1 Braking
2 Avoidance
manoeuvre
 Robert Bosch GmbH

History of radar
Technology borrowed from the animal world
RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging) is a
system that uses radio waves to locate distant
objects and is traditionally employed primarily
in aviation and shipping. It has also been widely
used for military applications since the devel-
opment of radar-assisted air defences in the
Second World War. More recent areas of ap-
plication include space exploration, weather
forecasting and, now, motor vehicles where it is
used to measure the distance between vehicles
for the ACC (Adaptive Cruise Control) system.
The idea for RADAR came from the sonar
(Sound Navigation and Ranging) system which
uses sound echoes to determine the distance
and position of objects, and which itself was
copied from the navigation techniques of certain
animals. Bats, for example, make high-pitched
sounds with frequencies in the ultrasonic range
of 30...120 kHz. The echoes that bounce back
off solid objects are picked up by the bats highly
sensitive ears. That information then helps the
bat to find its way around and to locate its prey.
UFS0038Y
RADAR functions in a similar manner but by
using radio signals instead of sound. Mea-
surement of distance by RADAR is based on
timing the interval between transmission of an
electromagnetic wave signal and reception of
the signal echo that is reflected back by an
object in its path.
ACC Adaptive Cruise Control History of radar 51
While radar systems used in aviation and ship-
ping operate at frequencies between 500 MHz
and 40 GHz, the frequency band approved for
ACC is 76...77 GHz.
Stages in the development of RADAR
The development of electromagnetic detecting
and ranging equipment with long-range capa-
bilities was an enormous challenge to the de-
signers. Only a minute part of the energy origi-
nally transmitted was reflected back by the tar-
get. For that reason a very high-energy signal
that is concentrated in as narrow a beam as
possible has to be produced. This demands
highly sensitive transmitters and receivers using
signals with a wavelength that is shorter than
the dimensions of the target.
The development of radar technology was
marked by the following milestones and per-
sonalities:
1837 Morse: The telegraph becomes widely
established. Here, electrical currents are
used for the first time in communicating
over longer distances.
1861/1876 Reis and Bell: Replacement of the
telegraph by the telephone provides a
much more direct and user-friendly method
of telecommunication
1864 Maxwell, Hertz and Marconi:
Existence of radio waves is theoretically
and experimentally confirmed. Radio
waves are reflected off metal objects in
precisely the same way as light is reflected
by a mirror.
1922 Marconi: The pioneer of radio provides
the impetus for the continuation of earlier
research into radio ranging
1925 Appleton and Barnett: The principle of
radio-wave reflection is used to demon-
strate the existence of conductive layers
in the atmosphere
Breit and Tuve: Development of pulse
modulation which enables precise
measurement of distances
1935 Watson-Watt: Invention of radar
1938 Ponte: Invention of the magnetron
(velocity-modulated electron tube for
generating high-frequency oscillations)
 Robert Bosch GmbH

52 ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Glossary

Glossary
Abbreviation Stands for Explanation

ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Cruise-control system which automatically

adapts speed if there is a vehicle ahead
ADC Analog-Digital Converter Converts analog signals to digital
Bistatic RADAR system with separate transmitter
RADAR and receiver antennae
CAN Controller Area Network Data network for electronic control units
Dielectric Material with specific transmission
material properties for microwaves
DAC Digital-Analog Converter Converts digital signals to analog
DRO Dielectric Resonator Oscillator
DSP Digital Signal Processor Signal processor for performing complex
calculations at high speed
ECD Electronically Controlled
Deceleration
EDC Electronic Diesel Control Engine-management system for diesel engines

EEPROM Electrically Erasable

Programmable
Read-Only Memory
EGAS Electronic Gas (Pedal) Electronic throttle-control system
ESP Electronic Electronic vehicle-dynamics control system
Stability Program
Flash Flash Electrically Erasable
EEPROM Programmable Read-
Only Memory
FFT Fast Fourier Transform Mathematical procedure for fast conversion
of timing signals to a frequency spectrum
FMCW- Frequency-modulated
RADAR Continuous Wave RADAR
Gallium Chemical compound with semiconductor
properties
arsenide
Yaw rate Rate of vehicle rotation around its vertical
axis
 Robert Bosch GmbH

ACC Adaptive Cruise Control Glossary 53

Abbreviation Stands for Explanation

Gunn diode Electronic component for generating high-

frequency oscillations
MIC Microwave Integrated Circuit
Mixer Component or module for mixing signals
generally for the purposes of demodulation
(separating the information from the carrier)
Modulation The impression of an information-bearing
signal onto a carrier signal, e.g. by the mul-
tiplication of electrical signals relative to time
Monostatic RADAR system which uses the same
RADAR antenna for transmission and reception

Motronic BOSCH trademark Electronic engine-management system

Polyrods Dielectric material in conical shape for con-
centrating microwave beams
PU Processing Unit Control and signal-processing unit
RADAR Radio Detection and System for detecting and locating objects
Ranging using microwave technology
RAM Random-Access Memory Memory whose data can be accessed
randomly (usually also a volatile memory)
RPU Regulation Processing Unit ACC controller
RTC Radar transceiver RADAR transmitter and receiver unit
SBC Sensotronic Brake Control Electronically controlled power-braking
system with hydraulic force transmission
(electrohydraulic braking system)
SCU Sensor and Control Unit
SPU Signal Processing Unit ACC signal processing unit
TCS Traction Control System System which improves vehicle handling by
preventing wheel spin and increasing traction
VCO Voltage Controlled Oscillator
 Robert Bosch GmbH

54 Sensors Automotive applications

Sensors
Sensors register operating states (e.g. engine
speed) and setpoint/desired values (e.g. ac-
celerator-pedal position). They convert
physical quantities (e.g. pressure) or chemi-
cal quantities (e.g. exhaust-gas concentra-
tion) into electric signals.
Automotive applications
Sensors and actuators represent the inter-
faces between the ECUs, as the processing
units, and the vehicle with its complex drive,
braking, chassis, and bodywork functions
(for instance, the Engine Management, the
Electronic Stability Program ESP, and the air
conditioner). As a rule, a matching circuit in
the sensor converts the signals so that they
can be processed by the ECU.
The field of mechatronics, in which mech-
anical, electronic, and data-processing com-
ponents are interlinked and cooperate
closely with each other, is rapidly gaining in
importance. These are integrated in modules
(e.g. in the crankshaft CSWS (Composite
Seal with Sensor) module complete with
rpm sensor).
Since their output signals directly affect not
only the engines power output, torque, and
emissions, but also vehicle handling and
safety, sensors, although they are becoming
smaller and smaller, must also fulfill de-
mands that they be faster and more precise.
These stipulations can be complied with
thanks to mechatronics.
Depending upon the level of integration,
signal conditioning, analog/digital conver-
sion, and self-calibration functions can all
be integrated in the sensor (Fig. 1), and in
future a small microcomputer for further
signal processing will be added. The advan-
tages are as follows:

Lower levels of computing power are
needed in the ECU,

A uniform, flexible, and bus-compatible
interface becomes possible for all sensors,

Direct multiple use of a given sensor
through the data bus,

Registration of even smaller measured
quantities,

Simple sensor calibration.

1 Sensor integration levels

Sensors Transmission path ECU

Susceptible to
Conventional SE interference SA A SG
(analog) D

Resistant to
Multiple interference A
Figure 1 1st integration level SE SA SG
tap-off (analog) D
SE Sensor(s)
SA Analog signal
conditioning Immune to
Bus-
2nd integration level SE SA A interference SG
A/D Analog-digital D compatible (digital)
UAE0037-1E

converter
SG Digital ECU Immune to
Bus-
MC Microcomputer 3rd integration level SE SA A MC interference SG
D compatible (digital)
(evaluation
electronics)
 Robert Bosch GmbH

Speed and rpm sensors Piezoelectric yaw-rate sensors 55

Piezoelectric oscillating which are detected by a third pair of piezo el-

drum yaw-rate sensors
Applications
In vehicles with vehicle-dynamics control
(ESP), the piezoelectric yaw-rate sensors
(otherwise known as gyrometers) register
the vehicles rotation about its vertical axis,
for instance when cornering, but also when
the vehicle swerves or goes into a skid.
Design and construction
The piezoelectric yaw-rate sensors are high-
precision mechanical sensors. Two diametri-
cally opposed piezoceramic elements (Fig. 1,
1 + 1
) are used to cause sympathetic oscil-
lations in a hollow metal cylinder. Another
pair of piezoceramic elements (2 + 2
) are
used to control and maintain this oscillation
at a constant amplitude which has four axi-
ally aligned oscillation nodes (offset by 45
to the direction of excitation). Refer to
Figs. 1...3.
When rotation takes place at a yaw rate
about the cylinders axis, the nodes are
shifted slightly at the circumference due to
ements (3 + 3
). Using a fourth pair of piezo
excitation elements (4 + 4
) in a closed con-
trol loop, these forces are then controlled
back to a reference value Uref = 0. The ma-
nipulated variable needed here is then care-
fully filtered and subjected to phase-synchro-
nous rectification before being used as a
highly accurate output signal. The selective,
temporary change of the desired value to
Uref = 0 permits an easy check of the overall
sensor system (built-in test). This sensors
temperature sensitivity necessitates a com-
plex compensation circuit, and the material-
based aging of the piezoceramic elements
necessitates painstaking preliminary aging.
2 Piezoelectric yaw-rate sensor
UAE0789Y

the effects of Coriolis acceleration. The result

is that in the nodes, which otherwise feature
zero force, forces are now generated which
are proportional to rotational speed and
Fig. 1
1 Piezoelectric yaw-rate sensor (measuring principle) 3 Piezoelectric yaw-rate sensor (design principle)
1....4 Piezo elements
5 Circuit
14
5 6 6 Bandpass filter

(phase-locked)
1 7 Phase reference
Uref 8 Rectifier (phase-
4 3 5 selective)
UA Output voltage
Yaw rate
2
2 Uref = 0 (normal
6 operation)
4 6 Uref  0 (built-in test)
3
1 Fig. 3

UAE0662-1Y

UAE0644-1Y

1....4 Piezo element pairs

8 7
7 5 Oscillatory cylinder
6 Baseplate
UA 7 Connection pins
Yaw rate
 Robert Bosch GmbH

56 Speed and rpm sensors Micromechanical yaw-rate sensors

Micromechanical yaw-rate Design and construction

sensors
Applications
In vehicles with Electronic Stability Program
(ESP), the rotation of the vehicle about its
vertical axis is registered by micromechani-
cal yaw-rate (or yaw-speed) sensors (also
known as gyrometers) and applied for vehi-
cle-dynamics control. This takes place dur-
ing normal cornering, but also when the
vehicle breaks away or goes into a skid.
These sensors are reasonably priced as
well as being very compact. They are in the
process of forcing out the conventional
high-precision mechanical sensors.
1 Structure of the MM1 yaw-rate sensor
200 m
3
Fig. 1
1 Retaining/guide
spring 1
UAE0790Y
MM1 micromechanical yaw-rate sensor
A mixed form of technology is applied in
order to achieve the high accuracies needed
for vehicle-dynamics systems. That is, two
somewhat thicker oscillating elements (mass
plates), which have been machined from a
wafer using bulk micromechanics, oscillate
in counter-phase to their resonant frequency
which is defined by their mass and their
coupling springs (>2 kHz). On each of these
oscillating elements, there is a miniature,
surface-type micromechanical capacitive
acceleration sensor. When the sensor chip
rotates about its vertical axis at yaw rate ,
these register the Coriolis acceleration in the
wafer plane vertical to the direction of oscil-
lation (Figs. 1 and 2). These accelerations are
proportional to the product of yaw rate and
and the oscillatory velocity which is main-
tained electronically at a constant value.
To drive the sensor, all that is required is a
simple, current-carrying printed conductor
on each oscillating element. In the perma-
nent-magnet field B vertical to the chip sur-
face, this oscillating element is subjected to
an electrodynamic (Lorentz) force. Using a
further, simple printed conductor (which

2 Part of the
saves on chip surface), the same magnetic
oscillating element 2 field is used to directly measure the oscilla-
3 Coriolis acceleration tion velocity by inductive means. The differ-
sensor ent physical construction of drive system

2 MM1 micromechanical yaw-rate sensor

Fig. 2
1 Frequency-determin-
ing coupling spring
2 Permanent magnet
3 Direction of
oscillation
3
4 Oscillating element
5 Coriolis acceleration
2 N
sensor
S
6 Direction of Coriolis
acceleration 1
7 Retaining/guide B
UAE0706-1Y

spring
Yaw rate
Oscillating velocity
B Permanent-magnet 7 6 5 4 0 2 mm
field
 Robert Bosch GmbH

Speed and rpm sensors Micromechanical yaw-rate sensors 57

and sensor system serves to avoid undesir-
able coupling between the two sections. In
order to suppress unwanted external acceler-
ation effects, the opposing sensor signals are
subtracted from each other. The external ac-
celeration effects can be measured by apply-
ing summation. The high-precision micro-
mechanical construction helps to suppress
the effects of high oscillatory acceleration
which is several factors of 10 higher than the
low-level Coriolis acceleration (cross sensi-
tivity far below 40 dB). Here, the drive and
measurement systems are rigorously decou-
pled from each other.
oscillator. To avoid excessive damping of this
movement, the sensor must be operated in a
vacuum. Although the chips small size and
the somewhat simpler production process
result in considerable cost reductions, this
miniaturization is at the expense of reduc-
tions in the measuring effect, which in any
case is not very pronounced, and therefore
of the achievable precision. It also places
more severe demands on the electronics.
The systems high flexural stability, and
mounting in the axis of gravity, serve to me-
chanically suppress the effects of unwanted
acceleration from the side.

MM2 micromechanical yaw-rate sensor

Whereas this silicon yaw-rate sensor is pro-
duced completely using surface-microme-
chanic techniques, and the magnetic drive 4 MM2 yaw-rate sensor: Structure
and control system have been superseded by 50 m
an electrostatic system, absolute decoupling
of the power/drive system and measuring
system is impossible. Comb-like structures
2
(Figs. 3 and 4) electrostatically force a cen-
trally mounted rotary oscillator to oscillate.
The amplitude of these oscillations is held
constant by means of a similar capacitive 1
pick-off. Coriolis forces result at the same
UAE0791Y

time in an out-of-plane tilting movement,

the amplitude of which is proportional to Fig. 4
the yaw rate , and which is detected capac- 1 Comb-like structure
itively by the electrodes underneath the 2 Rotary oscillator

3 MM2 surface-micromechanical yaw-rate sensor

CDrv1
CDrv2 1
CDrv Det1

CDrv Det2
0.5 mm
Fig. 3

1 Comb-like structure
2 2 Rotary oscillator
CDet1 CDet2 3 Measuring axis
CDrv Drive electrodes
-FC +FC
UKI0044-1Y

CDet Capactive pick-off

3
FC Coriolis force
Oscillatory velocity
= CDet, measured
yaw rate
 Robert Bosch GmbH

58 Position sensors Steering-wheel-angle sensors

Steering-wheel-angle sensors similar in operation to a light barrier. A

Hall-effect element measures the magnetic
Application field of an adjacent magnet. A magnetic
The Electronic Stability Program (ESP) ap- code disc rotates with the steering shaft and
plies the brakes selectively to the individual strongly reduces the magnets field or
wheels in order to keep the vehicle on the screens it off completely. In this manner,
desired track selected by the driver. Here, the with nine Hall ICs it is possible to obtain the
steering-wheel angle and the applied brak- steering wheels angular position in digital
ing pressure are compared with the vehicles form. The remaining five Hall-effect sensors
actual rotary motion (around its vertical register the particular steering-wheel revolu-
axis) and its road speed. If necessary, the tion which is transformed to the final 360
brakes are applied at individual wheels. range by 4:1 step-down gearing.
These measures serve to keep the float angle The first item from the top in the exploded
(deviation between the vehicle axis and the view of the LWS 1 steering-wheel-angle sensor
actual vehicle movement) down to a mini- (Fig. 1) shows the nine permanent magnets.
mum and, until the physical limits are These are screened individually by the mag-
reached, prevent the vehicle breaking away. netically-soft code disc beneath them when
Basically speaking, practically all types of this rotates along with the steering shaft, and
angle-of-rotation sensors are suitable for depending upon steering-wheel movement.
registering the steering-wheel angle. Safety The pcb immediately below the code disc con-
considerations, though, dictate that only tains Hall-effect switches (IC), and a micro-
those types are used which can be easily
checked for plausibility, or which in the ideal 1 Exploded view of the digital LWS1 steering-wheel-
angle sensor
case automatically check themselves. Poten-
tiometer principles are used, as well as opti-
cal code-registration and magnetic princi-
ples. Whereas a passenger-car steering wheel 1
turns through 720 (a total of 4 complete
turns), conventional angle-of-rotation sen-
sors can only measure maximum 360. This 2
means that with the majority of the sensors
actually used for this purpose it is necessary 3
to continually register and store the data on
the steering wheels actual setting.
Fig. 1
1 Housing cover with Design and operating concept 4
nine equidistantly There are two absolute-measuring (in con-
spaced permanent trast to incremental-measuring) magnetic
magnets
angle-of-rotation sensors available which are
2 Code disc
(magnetically soft
matched to the Bosch ECUs. At any instant
in time, these sensors can output the steer- 5
material)
3 pcb with 9 Hall- ing-wheel angle throughout the complete
effect switches and angular range.
microprocessor
4 Step-down gearing Hall-effect steering-wheel-angle sensor
5 Remaining 5
(LWS1)
UFL0029Y

Hall-effect vane 6
switches
The LWS1 uses 14 Hall-effect vane switches
6 Fastening sleeve to register the angle and the rotations of the
for steering column steering wheel. The Hall-effect vane switch is
 Robert Bosch GmbH

Position sensors Steering-wheel-angle sensors 59

processor in which plausibility tests are per- 2 AMR steering-wheel-angle sensor LWS3 (principle)
formed and information on angular position
decoded and conditioned ready for the CAN-
Bus. The bottom half of the assembly contains 1
the step-down gearing and the remaining five
Hall-effect vane switches.
The LWS1 was superseded by the LWS3 Fig. 2
1 Steering-column
due to the large number of sensor elements
shaft
required, together with the necessity for the 2 5
2 AMR sensor
magnets to be aligned with the Hall-IC. 6 elements
3 3 Gearwheel with m
Magnetoresistive steering-wheel-angle 4 7 teeth
sensor LWS3 4 Evaluation
The LWS 3 also depends upon AMR (aniso- electronics
5 Magnets
tropic magnetoresistive sensors) for its oper-

UFL0030Y
6 Gearwheel with
ation. The AMRs electrical resistance n > m teeth
changes according to the direction of an ex- 7 Gearwheel with
ternal magnetic field. In the LWS3, the infor- m + 1 teeth
mation on angle across a range of four com-
plete rotations is provided by measuring the 3 AMR steering-wheel-angle sensor LWS3
angles of two gearwheels which are rotated
by a third gearwheel on the steering-column
shaft. The first two gearwheels differ by one
tooth which means that a definite pair of
angular variables is associated with every
possible steering-wheel position.
By applying a mathematical algorithm (a
computing process which follows a defined
step-by-step procedure) referred to here as a
modified vernier principle, it is possible to
UFL0031Y

use the above AMR method for calculating

the steering-wheel angle in a microcom-
puter. Here, even the measuring inaccuracy
of the two AMR sensors can be compensated
for. In addition, a self-check can also be im- 4 AMR steering-wheel-angle sensor LWS4 for attach-
plemented so that a highly plausible mea- ment to the end of the steering-column shaft
sured value can be sent to the ECU.
Fig. 2 shows the schematic representation 1 2 3 4
of the LWS3 steering-wheel-angle sensor. The
two gearwheels, with magnets inserted, can be
seen. The sensors are located above them
togther with the evaluation electronics. With
this design too, price pressure forces the devel-
opment engineers to look for innovative sens-
Fig. 4
ing concepts. In this respect, investigation is
1 Steering column
proceeding on whether, since it only measures
UFL0032Y

2 Steering box
up to 360, a single AMR angle-of-rotation 3 Steering-wheel-
sensor (LWS4) on the end of the steering shaft angle sensor
would be accurate enough for ESP (Fig. 4). 4 Steering rack
 Robert Bosch GmbH

60 Acceleration sensors and vibration sensors Hall-effect acceleration sensors

Hall-effect acceleration Design and construction

sensors
Applications
Vehicles equipped with the Antilock Braking
System ABS, the Traction Control System
TCS, all-wheel drive, and/or Electronic Sta-
bility Program ESP, also have a Hall-effect
acceleration sensor in addition to the wheel-
speed sensors. This measures the vehicles
longitudinal and transverse accelerations
(depending upon installation position
referred to the direction of travel).
A resiliently mounted spring-mass system is
used in the Hall-effect acceleration sensors
(Figs. 1 and 2).
It comprises an edgewise-mounted strip
spring (3) tightly clamped at one end. At-
tached to its other end is a permanent mag-
net (2) which acts as the seismic mass. The
actual Hall-effect sensor (1) is located above
the permanent magnet together with the
evaluation electronics. There is a small
copper damping plate (4) underneath the
magnet.

Operating concept
When the sensor is subjected to acceleration
which is lateral to the spring, the spring-
1 Hall-effect acceleration sensor (opened)
mass system changes its neutral position ac-
cordingly. Its deflection is a measure for the
acceleration. The magnetic flux F from the
moving magnet generates a Hall voltage UH
1
in the Hall-effect sensor. The output voltage
NAE0795Y

UA from the evaluation circuit is derived

3 2 from this Hall voltage and climbs linearly
a
Fig. 1 along with acceleration (Fig. 3, measuring
a Electronic circuitry
range approx. 1 g).
b Spring-mass system
1 Hall-effect sensor b This sensor is designed for a narrow
2 Permanent magnet bandwidth of several Hz and is electrody-
3 Spring namically damped.

2 Hall-effect acceleration sensor 3 Hall-effect acceleration sensor (example of curve)

V
UH = const a
4
U0

1
Output voltage UA

3

Fig. 2
N
S

1 Hall-effect sensor 2 3
2
2 Permanent magnet
3 Spring a
4 Damping plate 1
4
IW Eddy currents IW
(damping)
UH Hall voltage
UAE0645Y

0
UAE0796E

U0 Supply voltage -1g 0g 1g

Magnetic flux Acceleration a
a Applied (transverse)
acceleration

Acceleration sensors and vibration sensors
Piezoelectric acceleration
sensors
Application
Piezoelectric bimorphous bending elements
and two-layer piezoceramic elements are
used as acceleration sensors in passenger-re-
straint systems for triggering the seat-belt
tighteners, the airbags, and the roll-over bar.
Design and operating concept
A piezo bending element is at the heart of
this acceleration sensor. It is a bonded struc-
ture comprising two piezoelectric layers of
opposite polarities (bimorphous bending
element). When subjected to acceleration,
one half of this structure bends and the
other compresses, so that a mechanical
bending stress results (Fig. 1).
The voltage resulting from the element
bend is picked off at the electrodes attached
to the sensor elements outside metallized
surfaces.
The sensor element shares a hermetically-
sealed housing with the initial signal-ampli-
fication stage, and is sometimes encased in
gel for mechanical protection.
1 Bending element from a piezoelectric acceleration
sensor
a 1
a =0
U A= 0
b 1
UA>0
Robert Bosch GmbH
Piezoelectric acceleration sensors 61
2 Piezoelectric acceleration sensor (dual sensor for
vertical mounting)
1
UAE0797Y
Fig. 2
1 Bending element
For signal conditioning, the acceleration
sensor is provided with a hybrid circuit
comprised of an impedance converter, a fil-
ter, and an amplifier. This serves to define
the sensitivity and useful frequency range.
The filter suppresses the high-frequency sig-
nal components. When subjected to acceler-
ation, the piezo bending elements deflect to
such an extent due to their own mass that
they generate a dynamic, easy-to-evaluate
non-DC signal with a maximum frequency
which is typically 10 Hz.
By reversing the actuator principle and ap-
plying voltage, the sensors correct operation
can be checked within the framework of
OBD on-board diagnosis. All that is re-
quired is an additional actuator electrode. Fig. 1
a=0 a Inoperative
Depending upon installation position and b Applied acceleration a
direction of acceleration, there are single or
UAE0293-1Y
1 Piezo-ceramic bim-
dual sensors available (Fig. 2). Sensors are
porphous bending
also on the market which are designed element
specifically for vertical or horizontal mount- UA Measuring-circuit
ing (Fig. 2). voltage
 Robert Bosch GmbH
62 Acceleration sensors and vibration sensors
Surface micromechanical
acceleration sensors
Application
Surface micromechanical acceleration sen-
sors are used in passenger-restraint systems
to register the acceleration values of a frontal
or side collision. They serve to trigger the
seatbelt tightener, the airbag, and the roll-
over bar.
Design and operating concept
Although these sensors were initially in-
tended for use with higher accelerations
(50...100 g), they also operate with lower ac-
celeration figures when used in passenger-
restraint systems. They are much smaller
than the bulk silicon sensors (typical edge
length: approx. 100...500 m), and are
mounted together with their evaluation
electronics (ASIC) in a waterproof casing
(Fig. 1). An additive process is used to build
up their spring-mass system on the surface
of the silicon wafer.
1 Surface micromechanical acceleration sensors for airbag triggering (Example)
a b
3
Fig. 1
a Side-airbag sensor
b Front-airbag sensor
1 Casing
2 Sensor and evalua- 1 2
tion chip
3 Cover
Surface micromechanical acceleration sensors
The seismic mass with its comb-like elec-
trodes (Figs. 2 and 3, pos. 1) is spring-
mounted in the measuring cell. There are
fixed comb-like electrodes (3, 6) on the chip
on each side of these movable electrodes.
This configuration comprising fixed and
movable electrodes corresponds to a series
circuit comprising two differential capaci-
tors (capacity of the comb-like structure: ap-
prox. 1 pF). Opposed-phase AC voltages are
applied across the terminals C1 and C2, and
their superimpositions picked-off between
the capacitors at CM (measurement ca-
pacity), in other words at the seismic mass.
Since the seismic mass is spring-mounted
(2), linear acceleration in the sensing direc-
tion results in a change of the spacing be-
tween the fixed and movable electrodes, and
therefore also in a change in the capacity of
C1 and C2 which in turn causes the electrical
signal to change. In the evaluation electron-
ics circuit, this change is amplified, and then
filtered and digitalized ready for further sig-
nal processing in the airbag ECU. Due to the
low capacity of approx. 1 pF, the evaluation
electronics is situated at the sensor and is
1
2
3
UAE0799Y
 Robert Bosch GmbH

Acceleration sensors and vibration sensors Surface micromechanical acceleration sensors 63

either integrated with the sensor on the
same chip, or is located very close to it.
Closed-loop position controls with electro-
static return are also available.
The evaluation circuit incorporates func-
tions for sensor-deviation compensation
and for self-diagnosis during the sensor
start-up phase. During self-diagnosis, elec-
trostatic forces are applied to deflect the
comb-like structure and simulate the
processes which take place during acceler-
ation in the vehicle.
Dual micromechanical sensors (4) are
used for instance in the ESP Electronic Sta-
bility Program for vehicle dynamics control:
Basically, these consist of two individual sen-
sors, whereby a micromechanical yaw-rate
sensor and a micromechanical acceleration
sensor are combined to form a single unit.
This reduces the number of individual com-
ponents and signal lines, as well as requiring
less room and less attachment hardware in
the vehicle.

2 Comb-like structure of the sensor measuring element 4 Lateral-acceleration sensor combined with yaw-rate
sensor (dual sensor)
100 m

3 Fig. 2
2 1 Spring-mounted
seismic mass with
1 electrode
2 Spring
3 Fixed electrodes
UAE0800Y

UAE0678Y

Fig. 4
a Acceleration in
a
sensing direction
Yaw rate

3 Surface micromechanical acceleration sensor with capacitive pick-off

1 2 3
C2 CM C1
Fig. 3
1 Spring-mounted
seismic mass with
electrodes
a 2 Spring
3 Fixed electrodes
with capacity C1
4 Printed Al conductor
5 Bond pad
6 Fixed electrodes
with capacity C2
UAE0801Y

C1 C2 CM 7 Silicon oxide
a Acceleration in
4 5 6 7 sensing direction
CM Measuring capacity
 Robert Bosch GmbH

64 Speed and rpm sensors Wheel-speed sensors

Wheel-speed sensors installation conditions encountered with

various wheels. The most common variant is
Application the chisel-type pole pin (also called a flat pole
It is from the wheel-speed sensor signals that pin Fig. 1a) for radial installation at right
the ABS, TCS, and ESP control units (ECUs) angles to the pulse rotor. The rhombus-type
derive the wheel-rotation rates. These wheel (lozenge-shaped) pole pin (Figure 1b) de-
speeds are applied in preventing the wheels signed for axial installation is located radi-
blocking or spinning so that the vehicles ally with respect to the trigger wheel. Both
stability and steerability are maintained. In pole-pin designs necessitate precise align-
vehicle navigation systems, the signals are ment to the trigger wheel. Although precise
used for calculating the distance travelled. alignment is not so important with the
round pole pin (Figure 1c), the trigger wheel
Design and operating concept must have a large enough diameter, or less
teeth.
Passive (inductive) wheel-speed sensors
The inductive wheel-speed sensor's pole pin,
surrounded by its coil winding, is installed
directly above a trigger wheel (rotor) at-
tached to the wheel hub. This soft-magnetic
pole pin is connected to a permanent mag- 1 Wheel-speed sensors: Pole-pin shapes and types
of installation (DF6 as example)
net which projects a magnetic field toward
and into the trigger wheel. The continuously
alternating sequence of teeth and gaps that
accompanies the wheel's rotation induces
corresponding fluctuations in the magnetic
field through the pole pin and its coil wind-
a
ing. These fluctuations induce an alternating 1
current in the coil suitable for monitoring at
the ends of its winding.
2
The frequency and amplitude of this alter-
3
nating current are proportional to wheel
4
speed, and with the wheel not rotating, the
induced voltage is zero. Tooth shape, air gap, 5

Fig. 1 rate of voltage rise, and the ECU input sensi-

a Chisel pole pin: tivity define the smallest still measurable
b
Radial installation, rotation rate and thus, for ABS applications, 1
radial scan the minimum switching speed. 2
b Rhombus pole pin:
Axial installation,
radial scan
To ensure interference-free signal detection,
c Round pole pin: the gap separating the wheel-speed sensor
c
Radial installation, and the trigger wheel is only approx. 1 mm, 1
axial scan and installation tolerances are narrow. The
1 Sensor case with wheel-speed sensor is also installed on a 2
electrical connections
stable mounting to prevent oscillation pat-
UAE0476-1Y

2 Permanent magnet
3 Soft-iron core (pole
terns in the vicinity of the brakes from dis-
pin) torting the sensor's signals. Various pole-pin
4 Winding configurations and installation options are
5 Trigger wheel available to adapt the system to the different
 Robert Bosch GmbH
Active wheel-speed sensors
The conventional inductive units are in-
creasingly being replaced by active wheel-
speed sensor types in which the function
formerly performed by the trigger ring's
teeth is taken over by peripheral magnets.
These are installed around the periphery
of a multipole ring so that their polarities
alternate (Fig. 2).
The sensor element of such an active
wheel-speed sensor is located in the contin-
uously changing fields generated by these
magnets. Rotation of the multipole ring is
thus accompanied by a continuous alterna-
tion in the magnetic flux through the sensor
element.
Compact dimensions combine with low
weight to make the active wheel-speed sen-
sor suitable for installation on and even
within the vehicles wheel-bearing assem-
blies (Fig. 3). In the latter case, the bearing
seal contains magnetic powder instead of
fixed magnets. This means that a second
function has been added and the bearing
seal now becomes a multipole device.
The most important sensor components are
either Hall or magnetoresistive elements,
both of which generate a voltage that varies
according to the magnetic flux through the
measuring element. This voltage is then con-
ditioned by the active wheel-speed sensor.
One of the active sensor's advantages is the
fact that in contrast to the inductive sensors,
its output voltage is independent of the wheel
speed. This fact permits monitoring to con-
tinue until the wheel is practically stationary.
A typical feature of the active wheel-speed
sensor is the local amplifier circuit. Both
components measuring element and am-
plifier are integrated in a single sensor
casing. The active sensor requires a power
supply of between 4.5 and 20 volts, and it is
connected to the ECU by a two-conductor
wire. The wheel-speed data is impressed on
one of the two conductors (supply lines) as
load-independent current. As with the in-
ductive wheel-speed sensor, the current's
Speed and rpm sensors Wheel-speed sensors 65
frequency is proportional to wheel speed.
This single-wire data-transmission strategy
uses pre-conditioned digital signals. These
are less sensitive to interference than the sig-
nals from the inductive sensor. The concept
also features the following options:

Data transmission identifying the wheel's
direction of travel. This option is espe-
cially significant for the hill-holding
feature, which relies on selective braking
to prevent the vehicle from rolling back-
wards when starting off on a hill. Also
used in vehicle navigation systems.

Relay of information on sensor-signal qual-
ity, including a display indicating that the
driver should have the vehicle serviced in
order to check correct sensor functioning.
2 Active wheel-speed sensor showing a section of the
multipole ring
1 2 3
UAE0688-1Y
Fig. 2
1 Multipole ring
2 Sensor element
3 Sensor case
3 Example of sensor installation in the wheel bearing
1 2 3
Fig. 3
UAE0878Y
1 Wheel bearing
2 Sensor
3 Multipole ring/
Bearing seal
 Robert Bosch GmbH
66 Data processing in the vehicle Requirements/Microcomputer/Electronic control unit (ECU)
Data processing in the vehicle
Requirements
Highly sophisticated state-of-the-art open-
loop and closed-loop control concepts are
essential for meeting the demands for func-
tion, safety, environmental compatibility and
comfort associated with the wide range of
automotive subsystems installed in modern-
day vehicles. Sensors monitor the reference
and controlled variables, which an electronic
control unit (ECU) then converts into the
signals required to adjust the final control-
ling elements/actuators. The input signals
can be analog (e.g. voltage characteristic at
pressure sensor), digital (e.g. switch position)
or pulse-shaped (i.e. information content as
a function of time; e.g. engine-speed signal).
These signals are processed after being con-
ditioned (filtering, amplification, pulse shap-
ing) and converted (analog/digital); digital
signal-processing methods are preferred.
Thanks to modern semiconductor tech-
nology, powerful computer units, with their
accompanying program and data memories,
and special peripheral circuitry, designed
specifically for real-time applications, can all
be integrated on only a few chips.
Modern vehicles are equipped with nu-
merous digital control units (ECUs), e.g. for
engine management, ABS, and transmission-
shift control. Improved performance and ad-
ditional functions are obtained by synchro-
nizing the processes controlled by the indi-
vidual control units, and by adapting (in real
time) their respective parameters to each
other. An example of this type of function is
traction control (TCS) which reduces the
driving torque when the drive wheels spin.
Up to now, data between the control units
(in the example cited above, ABS/TCS and
engine management) has been exchanged
mostly through separate lines. However, this
type of point-to-point connection is only
suitable for a limited number of signals. The
data-transmission potential between the in-
dividual ECUs can be enhanced by using a
simple network topology designed specifi-
cally for serial data transmission in automo-
tive applications.
Microcomputer
The microcomputer comprises both the cen-
tral processing unit (CPU) for processing
arithmetic operations and logical relation-
ships, and special function modules to moni-
tor external signals and to generate the con-
trol signals for external servo elements. These
peripheral modules are largely capable of as-
suming complete control of real-time oper-
ations. The program-controlled CPU could
only discharge these at the price of both ad-
ditional complication and curtailment in the
number of functions (e.g. determining the
moment at which an event occurred).
Computing power
Apart from the architecture (e.g. accumu-
lator, register machine) and the word length
(4 ... 32 bits), the product of the internal
clock frequency and the average number of
clock pulses required per instruction deter-
mines the CPUs power:

Clock frequency: 1 ... 40 MHz (typical),

Clock pulses per instruction:
1 ... 32 pulses (typical), depending on the
CPU's architecture and the instruction
(e.g. 6 pulses for addition, 32 pulses for
multiplication).
Electronic control unit (ECU)
Digital input signals
For registering a switch position or digital
sensor signals (e.g. rotational-speed pulses
from a Hall-effect sensor).
Voltage range: 0 V to battery voltage.
Analog input signals
Signals from analog sensors (lambda sensor,
pressure sensor, potentiometer).
Voltage range: Several mV up to 5 V.
Pulse-shaped input signals
Signals from inductive rpm sensors. After
signal conditioning, they are further
processed as digital signals.
Voltage range: 0.5 V to 100 V.
 1
Microcomputer

Microprocessor Data memory Program memory Data memory

Central Processing Unit (User memory) Read-only memory Non-volatile read/

Microcomputer
(CPU) Volatile read/write (ROM, EPROM, write memory
memory (RAM) flash EPROM) (EEPROM)
for variable data For programs and
Arithmetic and Logic Unit permanent data records
(ALU) Memory capacity
4-, 8-, 16-, 32-bit Memory capacity Memory capacity 32 bytes
64 bytes 32 kbytes 2 kbytes 512 kbytes 1 kbyte

Internal Bus 4-, 8-, 16-, 32-bit data circuit

clock
(oscillator)

I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O

Interrupt Event Signal acquisition Analog/ Digital Serial Bus
controller counter and output with Digital inputs/ interface controller
time reference (A/D) outputs
converter (I/O) (UART,

(Timer, time SPI,
processing unit, CAN)
input capture,
Robert Bosch GmbH

Data processing in the vehicle

output-compare
register)
Communication
Monitoring Resolution Resolution with external
circuit 50 ns 8 10 bit Data rate chips via
(watchdog) Counter Time range 4 32 8 32 200 bit/s address/
8 64 bit 50 ns 1s channels channels 1 Mbit /s data bus

UAE0454-1E
Electronic control unit (ECU)
67
 Robert Bosch GmbH

68 Data processing in the vehicle Electronic control unit (ECU)

Signal conditioning most unlimited number of logic operations

Protective circuits (passive: R and RC cir- can be established and data records stored
cuits; active: special surge-proof semicon- and processed in the form of parameters,
ductor elements) are used to limit the volt- characteristic curves and multidimensional
age of the input signals to acceptable levels program maps.
(microcomputer operating voltage). Filters
remove most of the superimposed noise Output signals
from the useful signals, which are then am- Power switches and power-gain circuits am-
plified to the microprocessor's input voltage. plify the microprocessor's output signals
Voltage range: 0 V to 5 V. (0 V .. 5 V, several mA) to the levels required
by the various final-controlling elements/
Signal processing actuators (battery voltage, several A).
ECUs usually process signals in digital form.
Rapid, periodic, real-time signals are
processed in hardware modules specifically
designed for the particular function. Results,
e.g. a counter reading or the time of an
event, are transmitted in registers to the
CPU for further processing. This procedure
substantially reduces the CPUs interrupt-
response requirements (s range).

The amount of time available for calcu-

lations is determined by the open-loop or
closed-loop control system (ms range).
The software contains the actual control
algorithms. Depending on the data, an al-

2 Signal processing in ECU

Signal conditioning Microcomputer Power controller

1 3

6
Fig. 2
1 Digital input signals 9
2 Analog input signals 2
3 Protective circuit 3 4 5 7
4 Amplifier, filter 2
5 A/D converter 9
UAE0455-1E

6 Digital signal
processing
7 D/A converter
8 Circuit-breaker
9 Power amplifier
 Robert Bosch GmbH

Data processing in the vehicle Complete system 69

Complete system between the individual control units. Proce-

Logistical concept (CARTRONIC)
This concept divides the vehicles complete
electrical system into conveniently dimen-
sioned subsystems. Units with closely-
coupled functions (that is, units with high
rates of mutual data exchange) are com-
bined in a sub-network. Although this logis-
tical concept results in sub-networks with
varying requirements on transmission ca-
pacity, demands on data exchange do not
vary.
Topology
At the logical level, all the known communi-
cations systems developed for automotive
applications are based on a single serial con-
nection of the ECUs. The physical layout
employs one-wire or differential two-wire
interfaces in bus form to interconnect the
control units.
dures have been laid down for bus access,
message structure, bit and data coding, error
recognition and response, and the identifi-
cation of faulty bus users (CAN).
Transmission speed
Multiplex bus: 10 kbit/s...125 kbit/s,
Drivetrain bus: 125 kbit/s...1 Mbit/s,
Telecommunications bus:
10 kbit/s...125 kbit/s.
Latency time
Latency time is defined as the time that
elapses between the transmitters send
request and the target stations receipt of the
error-free message.
Multiplex bus: 5 ms...100 ms,
Drivetrain bus: 0.5 ms...10 ms,
Telecommunications bus: 5 ms...100 ms.

Protocol
The protocol consists of a number of a spe-
cific collection execution statements which
are used to control data communications

3 Bus-system interfacing

1 1 1
3
2 2 ... 2

Multiplex bus
2

1 1 1

2 2 ... 2

Drivetrain bus
2

1 1 1

2 2 ... 2
UAE0456-1E

Telecommunications bus
2 Fig. 3
1 ECU
2 Bus controller
3 Gateway
 Robert Bosch GmbH
70 Automotive microelectronics Severe demands on electronic systems/History of development
Severe demands on
electronic systems
Electronic systems in motor vehicles are
exposed to extreme stresses (e.g. due to
extreme temperature variations, unusual
climatic conditions, poor road surfaces and
the effects of corrosive substances). These
are some of the requirements they must
meet in order to be able to function reliably
and without faults over long periods:

Resistance to temperatures ranging from
40 C ... 125 C

EMC (electromagnetic compatibility):
immunity to external interference (e.g.
mobile phone signals) and no emission of
electromagnetic radiation likely to cause
interference on other equipment

Resistance to shocks and vibration

Resistance to water and damp

Resistance to corrosive fluids (e.g. oils and
salt-water spray)

Light weight

Economical production costs and

Secure and trouble-free mounting
2 Proportion of cost per vehicle
(overall average)
0.5 % 7%
1980 1990
17 %
2000 2010
Prognosis
Table 1
History of development
The amount of electronic equipment in
motor vehicles is continually increasing.
Fig. 2 provides an overview of the growth
of electronic equipment expressed as a pro-
portion of vehicle cost.
Because of their cost, electronic systems
were initially reserved for vehicles at the lux-
ury end of the market. This explains why in
1980 electronic equipment accounted for
only half a percent of vehicle cost. From that
time onwards, and particularly in the 1990s,
that proportion grew rapidly as the price of
electronic equipment continually dropped
with the result that more and more electronic
systems could be fitted to mid-range and even
small cars.
Gradually, more and more electronic sys-
tems were fitted to motor vehicles (Table 1).
And the trend continues.
The new science of mechatronics deals
with the interaction between mechanical,
electronic and data processing devices.
1 Historical development of electronic systems in
motor vehicles (examples)
1958 DC generator with variode
1962 3-phase alternator with variode
1965 Transistorized ignition
1967 D-Jetronic gasoline-injection system
(pressure-controlled)
1978 Antilock braking system (ABS)
1979 Motronic
(combined ignition and fuel-injection system)
1982 Electronic ignition system
1982 Knock control
1986 Electronic diesel control (EDC)
1986 Electronic throttle control (ETC)
1987 Traction control system (TCS)
1989 Electronic transmission-shift control
(stand-alone system Tiptronic)
24 % 1989 Mono-Motronic
(single-point injection system SPI)
1989 CAN (Controller Area Network)
1989 Vehicle navigation system (Travelpilot)
1991 Litronic
1994 ME-Motronic (integrated ETC)
UAE0855E
1997 Electronic stability program (ESP)
1997 Radiophone (car radio + mobile telephone)
2000 MED-Motronic (gasoline direct injection)
2000 Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC)
 Robert Bosch GmbH
Miniaturization
Transistorized ignition was first used on
gasoline engines in 1965. It did away with
the negative effect on ignition timing accu-
racy of erosion caused by electrical arcing
between the contact-breaker points. The
transistor had gained a foothold in the mo-
tor vehicle, heralding the start of the elec-
tronic age. But is wasnt until electronic
componentry was miniaturized that the de-
cisive step was taken in making automotive
electronic systems capable of the levels of
performance that are taken for granted to-
day. Enormous advances in miniaturization
were made in the area of semiconductor
components in particular, making it possible
to integrate more and more functions within
a component that occupied only a tiny
amount of space. Every ECU contains micro-
controllers that combine millions of transis-
tor functions on semiconductor chips that
take up only a few square millimetres.
It has also been possible to substantially
reduce the dimensions of power compo-
nents such as output stages for controlling
actuators. For example, multiple ignition-
output stages are now combined in a single
component. This means that an external ig-
nition output stage is no longer required. It
is now integrated in the engine-management
3 Gasoline-engine ECUs
a b
Automotive microelectronics History of development 71
ECU. Consequently, the external ignition-
output stage previously used can be dis-
pensed with. The associated reduction in the
number of components also improves the
reliability of the system.
The size of discrete components (resistors,
capacitors) has similarly been significantly
reduced. SMDs (Surface Mounted Devices)
are soldered or bonded to the circuit board
without wire connections.
In spite of the continual growth in the
number and complexity of the functions
performed, the miniaturisation of electronic
equipment has meant that the size of the
ECUs continues to shrink (Fig. 3).
Memory capacity
Whereas in 4 kilobyte memory capacity was
adequate for the modest requirements of a
gasoline-engine management system in the
late 1970s, 10 years later the figure had
reached 30 kilobytes. The incorporation of
more and more functions in the engine-
management ECU led to an explosion in
the demand for memory capacity. By the
year 2000, the required capacity had reached
500 kilobytes. Other automotive electronic
systems have followed a similar pattern of
development. And there is no foreseeable
end to this trend.
Fig. 3
a 1979 Jetronic ECU
with 290 compo-
nents and a weight
of 1.14 kg
UAE0857Y
b 1996 Motronic
hybrid ECU with
82 components and
a weight of 0.25 kg
 Robert Bosch GmbH
72 Data transfer between electronic systems System overview, serial data transfer (CAN)
Data transfer between
automotive electronic systems
Todays vehicles are being equipped with a
constantly increasing number of electronic
systems. Along with their need for extensive
exchange of data and information in order
to operate efficiently, the data quantities
and speeds concerned are also increasing
continuously.
For instance, in order to guarantee perfect
driving stability, the Electronic Stability Pro-
gram (ESP) must exchange data with the en-
gine-management system and the transmis-
sion-shift control.
System overview
Increasingly widespread application of elec-
tronic communications systems, and elec-
tronic open and closed-loop control sys-
tems, for automotive functions such as

Electronic engine management (EDC and
Motronic),

Electronic transmission-shift control
(GS),

Antilock braking system (ABS),

Traction control system (TCS),

Electronic Stability Program (ESP),

Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC), and

Mobile multimedia systems together with
their display instrumentation
has made it vital to interconnect the individ-
ual ECUs by means of networks.
The conventional point-to-point exchange
of data through individual data lines has
reached its practical limits (Fig. 1), and the
complexity of current wiring harnesses and
the sizes of the associated plugs are already
very difficult to manage. The limited num-
ber of pins in the plug-in connectors has
also slowed down ECU development work.
To underline this point:
Apart from being about 1 mile long, the
wiring harness of an average middle-class
vehicle already includes about 300 plugs and
sockets with a total of 2000 plug pins. The
only solution to this predicament lies in the
application of specific vehicle-compatible
Bus systems. Here, CAN has established it-
self as the standard.
Serial data transfer (CAN)
Although CAN (Controller Area Network)
is a linear bus system (Fig. 2) specifically de-
signed for automotive applications, it has al-
ready been introduced in other sectors (for
instance, in building-installation engineering).
Data is relayed in serial form, that is, one
after another on a common bus line. All
CAN stations have access to this bus, and via
a CAN interface in the ECUs they can re-
ceive and transmit data through the CAN
bus line. Since a considerable amount of
data can be exchanged and repeatedly ac-
cessed on a single bus line, this networking
results in far fewer lines being needed.
1 Conventional data transfer
Transmission-shift control Engine management
Station 1 Station 2
UAE0745E
ABS/TCS/ESP Instrument cluster
Station 3 Station 4
 Robert Bosch GmbH
Data transfer between electronic systems
Applications in the vehicle
For CAN in the vehicle there are four areas
of application each of which has different
requirements. These are as follows:
Multiplex applications
Multiplex is suitable for use with applications
controlling the open and closed-loop control
of components in the sectors of body elec-
tronics, and comfort and convenience. These
include climate control, central locking, and
seat adjustment. Transfer rates are typically
between 10 kbaud and 125 kbaud (1 kbaud =
1 kbit/s) (low-speed CAN).
Mobile communications applications
In the area of mobile communications, CAN
networks such components as navigation
system, telephone, and audio installations
with the vehicles central display and operat-
ing units. Networking here is aimed at stan-
dardizing operational sequences as far as
possible, and at concentrating status infor-
mation at one point so that driver distrac-
tion is reduced to a minimum. With this ap-
plication, large quantities of data are trans-
mitted, and data transfer rates are in the 125
kbaud range. It is impossible to directly
transmit audio or video data here.
2 Linear bus topology
Transmission-shift Engine
control management
Station 1 Station 2
CAN
UAE0283-2E
ABS/TCS/ESP Instrument cluster
Station 3 Station 4
Serial data transfer (CAN) 73
Diagnosis applications
The diagnosis applications using CAN are
aimed at applying the already existing net-
work for the diagnosis of the connected
ECUs. The presently common form of diag-
nosis using the special K line (ISO 9141)
then becomes invalid. Large quantities of
data are also transferred in diagnostic appli-
cations, and data transfer rates of 250 kbaud
and 500 kbaud are planned.
Real-time applications
Real-time applications serve for the open
and closed-loop control of the vehicle's
movements. Here, such electronic systems as
engine management, transmission-shift con-
trol, and electronic stability program (ESP)
are networked with each other.
Commonly, data transfer rates of between
125 kbaud and 1 Mbaud (high-speed CAN)
are needed to guarantee the required real-
time response.
Bus configuration
Configuration is understood to be the layout
and interaction between the components in
a given system. The CAN bus has a linear
bus topology (Fig. 2) which in comparison
with other logical structures (ring bus
and/or star bus) features a lower failure
probability. If one of the stations fails, the
bus still remains fully accessible to all the
other stations. The stations connected to the
bus can be either ECUs, display devices, sen-
sors, or actuators. They operate using the
Multi-Master principle, whereby the stations
concerned all have equal priority regarding
their access to the bus. It is not necessary to
have a higher-order administration.
 Robert Bosch GmbH

74 Data transfer between electronic systems Serial data transfer (CAN)

Content-based addressing Bus arbitration

The CAN bus system does not address each
station individually according to its features,
but rather according to its message contents.
It allocates each message a fixed identi-
fier (message name) which identifies the
contents of the message in question (for in-
stance, engine speed). This identifier has a
length of 11 bits (standard format) or 29 bits
(extended format).
With content-based addressing each sta-
tion must itself decide whether it is inter-
ested in the message or not (message filter-
ing Fig. 3). This function can be performed
by a special CAN module (Full-CAN), so
that less load is placed on the ECUs central
microcontroller. Basic CAN modules read
all messages. Using content-based address-
ing, instead of allocating station addresses,
makes the complete system highly flexible so
that equipment variants are easier to install
and operate. If one of the ECUs requires
new information which is already on the
bus, all it needs to do is call it up from the
bus. Similarly, provided they are receivers,
new stations can be connected (imple-
mented) without it being necessary to mod-
ify the already existing stations.
The identifier not only indicates the data
content, but also defines the messages prior-
ity rating. An identifier corresponding to a
low binary number has high priority and
vice versa. Message priorities are a function
for instance of the speed at which their con-
tents change, or their significance with re-
spect to safety. There are never two (or
more) messages of identical priority in the
bus.
Each station can begin message transmis-
sion as soon as the bus is unoccupied. Con-
flict regarding bus access is avoided by ap-
plying bit-by-bit identifier arbitration (Fig.
4), whereby the message with the highest
priority is granted first access without delay
and without loss of data bits (nondestruc-
tive protocol).
The CAN protocol is based on the logical
states dominant (logical 0) and recessive
(logical 1). The Wired And arbitration
principle permits the dominant bits trans-
mitted by a given station to overwrite the re-
cessive bits of the other stations. The station
with the lowest identifier (that is, with the
highest priority) is granted first access to the
bus.

3 Addressing and message filtering (acceptance check) 4 Bit-by-bit arbitration (allocation of bus
access in case of several messages)

CAN CAN CAN CAN

Figure 3 Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4
Station 2 transmits, 1
Bus line
Station 1 and 4 accept Provision
0
Accept Accept
the data. 1
Station 1
0
Selection Send Selection Selection
message 1
Figure 4 Station 2
0
Station 2 gains first
access Reception Reception Reception 1
Station 3
UAE0284-1E

(Signal on the bus = 0

UAE0742E

signal from Station 2) Station 1 Station 3

Bus loses the loses the
arbitration arbitration
0 Dominant level
1 Recessive level
 Robert Bosch GmbH
Data transfer between electronic systems
The transmitters with low-priority messages
automatically become receivers, and repeat
their transmission attempt as soon as the
bus is vacant again.
In order that all messages have a chance of
entering the bus, the bus speed must be ap-
propriate to the number of stations partici-
pating in the bus. A cycle time is defined for
those signals which fluctuate permanently
(e.g. engine speed).
Message format
CAN permits two different formats which
only differ with respect to the length of their
identifiers. The standard-format identifier is
11 bits long, and the extended-format iden-
tifier 29 bits. Both formats are compatible
with each other and can be used together in
a network. The data frame comprises seven
consecutive fields (Fig. 5) and is a maximum
of 130 bits long (standard format) or 150
bits (extended format).
The bus is recessive at idle. With its domi-
nant bit, the Start of frame indicates the
beginning of a message and synchronizes all
stations.
The Arbitration field consists of the mes-
sages identifier (as described above) and an
additional control bit. While this field is be-
ing transmitted, the transmitter accompa-
nies the transmission of each bit with a
check to ensure that it is still authorized to
transmit or whether another station with a
higher-priority message has accessed the
Bus. The control bit following the identifier
is designated the RTR-bit (Remote Trans-
mission Request). It defines whether the
message is a Data frame (message with
data) for a receiver station, or a Remote
frame (request for data) from a transmitter
station.
The Control field contains the IDE bit
(Identifier Extension Bit) used to differen-
tiate between standard format (IDE = 0) and
extended format (IDE = 1), followed by a bit
Serial data transfer (CAN) 75
reserved for future extensions. The remain-
ing 4 bits in this field define the number of
data bytes in the next data field. This enables
the receiver to determine whether all data
has been received.
The Data field contains the actual message
information comprised of between 0 and
8 bytes. A message with data length = 0 is
used to synchronize distributed processes. A
number of signals can be transmitted in a
single message (e.g. engine rpm and engine
temperature).
The CRC Field (Cyclic Redundancy
Check) contains the frame check word for
detecting possible transmission interference.
The ACK Field contains the acknowledge-
ment signals used by the receiver stations to
confirm receipt of the message in non-
corrupted form. This field comprises the ACK
slot and the recessive ACK delimiter. The
ACK slot is also transmitted recessively and
overwritten dominantly by the receivers
upon the message being correctly received.
Here, it is irrelevant whether the message is
of significance or not for the particular re-
ceiver in the sense of the message filtering or
acceptance check. Only correct reception is
confirmed.
5 CAN message format
Start of Frame
Arbitration Field
Control Field
Data Field
CRC Field
ACK Field
End of
Frame
Inter
Frame
Space
1
IDLE 1* 12* 6* 0...64* 16* 2* 7* 3* IDLE
UAE0285-1E
0
Data frame Figure 5
0 Dominant level,
Message frame
1 Recessive level.
* Number of bits
 Robert Bosch GmbH
76 Data transfer between electronic systems Serial data transfer (CAN)
The End of frame marks the end of the
message and comprises 7 recessive bits.
The Inter-frame space comprises three bits
which serve to separate successive messages.
This means that the bus remains in the re-
cessive IDLE mode until a station starts a
bus access.
As a rule, a sending station initiates data
transmission by sending a data frame. It is
also possible for a receiving station to call in
data from a sending station by transmitting
a remote frame.
Detecting errors
A number of control mechanisms for de-
tecting errors are integrated in the CAN pro-
tocol.
In the CRC field, the receiving station
compares the received CRC sequence with
the sequence calculated from the message.
With the Frame check, frame errors are
recognized by checking the frame structure.
The CAN protocol contains a number of
fixed-format bit fields which are checked by
all stations.
The ACK check is the receiving stations
confirmation that a message frame has been
received. Its absence signifies for instance
that a transmission error has been detected.
Monitoring indicates that the sender ob-
serves (monitors) the bus level and com-
pares the differences between the bit that has
been sent and the bit that has been checked.
Compliance with Bitstuffing is checked by
means of the Code check. The stuffing rule
stipulates that in every data frame or re-
mote frame, a maximum of 5 successive
equal-priority bits may be sent between the
Start of frame and the end of the CRC
field. As soon as five identical bits have been
transmitted in succession, the sender inserts
an opposite-priority bit. The receiving sta-
tion erases these opposite-polarity bits after
receiving the message. Line errors can be de-
tected using the bitstuffing principle.
If one of the stations detects an error, it in-
terrupts the actual transmission by sending
an Error frame comprising six successive
dominant bits. Its effect is based on the in-
tended violation of the stuffing rule, and the
object is to prevent other stations accepting
the faulty message.
Defective stations could have a derogatory
effect upon the bus system by sending an
error frame and interrupting faultless
messages. To prevent this, CAN is provided
with a function which differentiates between
sporadic errors and those which are perma-
nent, and which is capable of identifying the
faulty station. This takes place using statisti-
cal evaluation of the error situations.
Standardization
The International Organization for Stan-
dardization (ISO) and SAE (Society of Auto-
motive Engineers) have issued CAN stan-
dards for data exchange in automotive appli-
cations:

For low-speed applications up to
125 kbit/s: ISO 11519-2, and

For high-speed applications above
125 kbit/s: ISO 11898 and SAE J 22584
(passenger cars) and SAE J 1939 (trucks
and buses).

Furthermore, an ISO Standard on CAN
Diagnosis (ISO 15765 Draft) is being
prepared.
 Robert Bosch GmbH
Prospects
Along with the increasing levels of system-
component performance and the rise in
function integration, the demands made on
the vehicles communication system are also
on the increase. And new systems are con-
tinually being introduced, for instance in the
consumer-electronics sector. All in all, it is to
be expected that a number of bus systems
will establish themselves in the vehicle, each
of which will be characterized by its own
particular area of application.
In addition to electronic data transmission,
optical transmission systems will also come
into use in the multimedia area. These are
very-high-speed bus systems and can trans-
mit large quantities of data as needed for au-
dio and video components.
Individual functions will be combined by
networking to form a system alliance cover-
ing the complete vehicle, in which informa-
tion can be exchanged via data buses. The
implementation of such overlapping func-
tions necessitates binding agreements cover-
1 CARTRONIC: Design schematic
Functions
Vehicle coordination
Vehicle
Drive
movement
Actuators
Sensors
Modules
Data transfer between electronic systems Prospects 77
ing interfaces and functional contents. The
CARTRONIC from Bosch is the answer to
these stipulations, and has been developed
as a priority-override and definition concept
for all the vehicles closed and open-loop
control systems. The possible sub-division of
the functions which are each controlled by a
central coordinator can be seen in Fig. 1.
The functions can be incorporated in vari-
ous ECUs.
The combination of components and sys-
tems can result in completely novel func-
tions. For instance, the exchange of data be-
tween the transmission-shift control and the
navigation equipment can ensure that a
change down is made in good time before a
gradient is reached. With the help of the
navigation facility, the headlamps will be
able to adapt their beam of light to make it
optimal for varying driving situations and
for the route taken by the road (for instance
at road intersections). Car radios, sound-
carrier drives, TV, telephone, E-mail, Inter-
net, as well as the navigation and terminal
equipment for traffic telematics will be net-
worked to form a multimedia system.
Mobile
Multimedia
Bodywork and On-board
electrical
interior system
UAE0674-3E
 Robert Bosch GmbH
78 Index of technical terms
Index of technical terms
Technical Terms
A CAN, 72
ACC, 4-6
ACC adjustment, 17
ACC control sequence, 38-44
ACC electronic module, 15
ACC SCU, 10, 15
ACC sensor & control unit, 15-21
Acceleration-control interface, 42
Acceleration limits, 43
Acceleration sensor, 24
Acceleration sensors, Hall-type, 60
Acceleration sensors, piezoelectric, 61
Acceleration sensors, surface
mechanical, 62-63
ACK field (CAN), 75
Activation (controls and displays), 28
Active brake servo unit, 24
Active speed sensor, 65
Adaptive Cruise Control, 4
Addressing (CAN), 74
Adjustment (radar module), 17-21
Ambient sensors, 45, 46
Amplifier circuit, 14
AMR steering-wheel-angle sensor, 59
Analog input signals
(data processing), 66
Analog/digital conversion, 32
Angular position, determining, 9
Antenna feed, 12
Antenna patch, 12
Antenna pattern, 9, 10
Approach speed, 44
Approximation method, 36
Arbitration field (CAN), 75
Areas of application on motor vehicles
(CAN), 73
B Desired speed, 28, 29
Basic structure (ACC control unit), 38
Bend-detection function, 41
Bend prediction, 36
Bend-sensing systems, 24
Brake actuation system, 24
Brake actuator, hydraulic, 24
Brake control, 24
Brake light operation, 23
Brake servo unit, active, 24
Braking system control, 24
Bus arbitration (CAN), 74
Bus configuration (CAN), 73
Bus topology (CAN), 73
C Doppler effect, 7
Calculating (trajectory curvature), 35
CAN interface module, 21
CAN protocol, 74, 7
Carrier frequency, 7
CARTRONIC, 77
Change of direction, 35
Close-range radar, 45
Collision, 50
Collision avoidance, 50
Components (ACC), 6
Constant-gap function, 40
Content-related addressing (CAN), 74
Control field (CAN), 75
Control intervention, 33
Control mode, 42
Control unit (data processing), 66
Control-unit bus, 23
Control-unit structure, 38
Control units in motor vehicles, 27
Controller functions, 39-44
Controller parameters, 41
Course offset, 33
Course prediction, 34-37
CRC field (CAN), 75
Cruise control, 4, 39
D Fog, 48
Data field (CAN), 75
Data frame, 75
Data processing in motor vehicles,
66-69
Data transmission, 23
Data transmission, serial, 72-77
Deactivation, 31
Deceleration control, 39
Deceleration threshold, 43
Desired distance, 30
Desired time gap, 28, 30
Detection, 32-37
Determining course, 35
Determining trajectory curvature, 35
Development stages (RADAR), 51
Diagnosis module, 21
Diagnostic applications (CAN), 73
Dielectric resonator oscillator, 14
Differential speed, 43
Digital-analog converter, 20
Digital electronics, 19-21
Display, 28-31
Display functions (other), 31
Divider circuit, 12
Driver-assistance system, 45
Drivetrain control, 23
E
Echo signals, 32
Echo timing, 7
Electrohydraulic braking system, 24
Electronic components (ACC sensor), 16
Electronic hardware, 19-21
Electronic systems (properties), 70-71
End Of Frame (CAN), 76
Engine-output control, 39
ESP sensor signals, 24
ESP sensors, 24
F
False alarm, 50
Fast Fourier Transform, 20, 32
Fault detection (CAN), 76
Fault diagnosis, 26
Fault, irreversible, 26
Fault, reversible, 26
Field of vision (radar sensor), 41
Field of vision, 42
FMCW modulation cycles, 9
FMCW radar, 8
Forces acting on wheels, 39
Fourier Transform, 32
Frequency modulation, 8
Frequency modulator, 14
Frequency range, 14
Frequency shift, 7
Frequently asked questions, 48-50
Function level, 38
Functional limits, 42-44
Future developments, 45
G
Glossary, 52-53
Gunn diode, 12
Gunn oscillator, 12
H
Hall-type acceleration sensors, 60
Hall-type steering-wheel-angle sensor,
58
History (electronic systems), 70-71
Hydraulic brake actuator, 24

I O
Indication of object detected, 30
Input signals (data processing), 66
Interfaces with actuation systems, 42
Inter-frame space (CAN), 76
ISO symbols, 29
L Overall system (data processing), 69
Lane change, 44
Lane prediction, 18
Lane probability, 34
Latency time (data processing), 69
Lateral offset, 33
Lens (radar module), 15
Lens heater, 21
Linear dynamics, 43
Linear-speed control, 39, 42
Location (radar module), 15
Logistical concept (CARTRONIC)
(data processing), 69
M Protocol (data processing), 69
Magnetoresistive steering-wheel-angle
sensor, 59
Main oscillator, 14
Maximum approach speed, 44
Memory capacity (electronic systems),
71
Message format (CAN), 75
Microcomputers, 66
Micromechanical yaw-rate sensors,
56-57
Microwave radar, 6
Millimeter-wave radar, 6
Miniaturization (electronic systems), 71
Misalignment (radar module), 18
Mixer, 13
Modulation of transmission frequency, 8
Monitoring (components), 25
Monitoring (function), 26
Monitoring level, 38
Monitoring, reciprocal, 26
Multigradient FMCW method, 32
Multiplex application (CAN), 73
N Real-time applications (CAN), 73
Navigation systems, 36
Networking, 22
Noise analysis, 32
Noise signal, 32
Robert Bosch GmbH
Object classification, 34, 44
Object identification, 32
Object selection, 34
Object tracking, 33
Objects, stationary, 44
Operation, 28-31
Output signals (data processing), 68
P Signal conditioning (data processing),
Partial deactivation, 31
Passive wheel-speed sensor, 64
Performance quality, 34
Physical principles of measurement, 7
Piezoelectric acceleration sensors, 61
Piezoelectric yaw-rate sensors, 55
Plausibility checking level, 38
Pre-amplifier, 14
Principle of radar ranging, 7
Principles of measurement (physical), 7
Prospects (data transmission), 77
Pulse-type input signals
(data processing), 66
Q System overview (ACC), 4-6
Questions, frequently asked, 48-50
R
Radar (module) adjusting mechanism, 17
Radar (module) housing, 17
RADAR (principle of ranging), 7
RADAR
(Radio Detection and Ranging), 51
RADAR beam, 10
RADAR frequencies, 7
RADAR lobes, 9, 10
RADAR modules, 10-14
Radar ranging sensor, 7-14
Radar signal processing, 32
Radar transceiver unit, 16
RADAR transceiver, 10, 11
RADAR transmitter and receiver, 10
Rain, 48
Reference oscillator, 14
Reflection, 7
Required acceleration, 39
Requirements (data processing), 66
Requirements (radar module), 15
Response options, 26
Index of technical terms 79
S
Safety concept, 25-27
Sensor and control unit, 15
Sensor technology
(future developments), 45
Sensors, 54
Sensotronic Brake Control, 24
Serial data transmission (CAN), 72
Set, 29
Set Speed Control, 4
Shutdown due to fault, ACC, 27
68
Signal echo, 7
Signal processing (data processing),
68
Spectral analysis, 32
Speed range, 42
Standardisation (CAN), 76
Start Of Frame (CAN), 75
Stationary objects, 44
Steering-angle sensors, 24, 58-59
Stop-and-go (future developments), 47
Surface micromechanical acceleration
sensors, 62-63
Symbols (ISO), 29
System architecture, 22
System network, 22-27
System overview (data transmission),
72
T
Target frequency, 32
Target-object selection, 34
Time-gap programs, 41
Topology (data processing), 69
Torque-control interface, 42
Tracking, 33
Trajectory curvature, 35
Trajectory curvature changes, 36
Transceiver, 16
Transceiver unit, 16
Transfer rates, 21
Transmission frequency, 8
Transmission power, 14
Transmission speed (data processing),
69
 Robert Bosch GmbH

80 Index of technical terms Abbreviations

U Abbreviations M
Use on motor vehicles (sensors), 54 MIC: Microwave Integrated Circuit
A
ACC: Adaptive Cruise Control
V ACC SCU: ACC Sensor & Control P
Vehicle trajectory, 35 Unit PU: Processing Unit
Video-image analysis, 36 ADC: Analog-digital converter
Voltage regulators, 21
R
C RADAR: Radio Detection and Ranging
W CAN: Controller Area Network RAM: Random Access Memory
Wheel-speed sensors, 24, 64 RPU: Regulation Processing Unit
Wheel-speed sensors (active), 25 D RTC: Radar Transceiver
Wheel-speed sensors, passive DAC: Digital-analog converter
(inductive), 25 DRO: Dielectric Resonator Oscillator
DSP: Digital Signal Processor S
SBC: Sensotronic Brake Control
Y SCU: Signal and Control Unit
Yaw rate, 35 E SMD: Surface Mounted Device
Yaw-rate sensor, 24 ECD: Electronically Controlled SPU: Signal Processing Unit
Yaw-rate sensors, micromechanical, Deceleration
56-57 EDC: Electronic Diesel Control T
Yaw-rate sensors, piezoelectric, 55 EEPROM: Electrically Erasable TCS: Traction Control System
Programmable Read-Only Memory
EMC: Electromagnetic compatibility
ESP: Electronic Stability Program V
VCO: Voltage Controlled Oscillator

F
FFT: Fast Fourier Transform
FMCW: Frequency Modulated
Continuous Wave
FMCW RADAR: Frequency Modulated
Continuous Wave RADAR

I
ISO: International Organization for
Standardization