2U Maths

Epping Boys High School
Mathematics
HSC
Vinodh Thanabalasingham, Lawrence Feng,

Pasan Waidyasekara, Amit Dharamdasani
2014
Contents
CONTENTS
Basic Arithemetic and Algebra 2
Real Functions 7
Trigonometric Ratios 9
Linear Functions 25
The Quadratic Polynomial and the Parabola 40
Plane Geometry 42
Tangent to a Curve and Derivative of a Function 46
Geometrical Applications of Differentiation 48
Integration 50
Trignometric Functions 81
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 84
Application of Calculus to the Physical World 97
Probability 100
Series 107
MATHEMATICS | PAGE 1 OF 121

Basic Arithemetic and Algebra
BASIC ARITHEMETIC AND ALGEBRA
OVERVIEW
This is essentially the fundamentals of mathematics, and is basically learnt through high
school. This topic is basically a review of previous years.
BASIC OPERATIONS
There are 4 basic operations that are applied:
Operations Symbol Result

Addition + Sum
Subtraction - Difference
Multiplication Product
Division Quotient
There is an order in certain questions in which the operations must be done.
BIDMAS
Brackets
Indices
Division
Multiplication
Addition
Subtraction
This rule is follow from left to right, or top to bottom.
Example 1
Simplify 3 + 15 3 + 4 (3 1)2
3 + 15 3 + 4 (3 1)2 = 3 + 15 3 + 4 4
= 3 + 15 3 + 16
= 3 + 5 + 16
= 24
INTEGERS
Integers are values that can be expressed as a whole number.
Such as: 1, 1 000 000, etc.

FRACTIONS

Fractions are numbers written in the form where n is the numerator, and d is the

denominator.
Both the numerator and denominator are integers.
NOTE:
0
=0

=
0
To perform addition or subtractions on fractions, we must modify them so that they have a
common denominator. Then we can continue as if they were integers, and express them in
the simplest form.
When attempting to multiply fractions, we may simply multiply the numerators and
denominators.

i.e. =

When dividing fractions, we may simply multiply by the reciprocal of the divisor.

i.e. = =

Example
Simplify
1 1
a) +5
4
1 1 5 4 9
+ = + =
4 5 20 20 20
1 1
b) 3
3 4
1 1 10 1 40 3 37
3 = = =
3 4 3 4 12 12 12
1 3
c) 4
4
1 3 3
=
4 4 16
8 3
d) 4
9
8 3 8 4 32
= =
9 4 9 3 37

FRACTIONS, DECIMALS AND PERCENTAGES
Sometimes it is needs to convert fractions into decimals and percentages, and vice versa.
such as:
3
0.3 = = 30%
10
To convert recurring decimals, we use algebra.
Step 1: Identify the number of repeating digits, and refer to this as n
Step 2: Multiply the decimal by 10n
Step 3: Subtract the original decimal
Step 4: Simplify the expression
Example
Express 0. 34 as a fraction
= 0.34343434343434
There are 2 recurring digits.
100 = 34.34343434343434
100 = 34.34343434343434 0.34343434343434

99 = 34
34
=
99
34
Therefore, it can denote as 99
INDICES: POWERS AND ROOTS
Some rules to remember:
(-ve)even =+ve
( ) =

(-ve)odd =-ve
1 =
= +
0 = 1
= 1
=

( ) = 1

=
() =

=

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
Scientific notation is a shorter form for writing down large or small numbers, it is in the
form:
10
Where 1 < 10 and b is an integer.
Often ask to a certain decimal or significant figure.
RATIONAL NUMBERS

A rational number is a number than can be expressed as a fraction
where p and q are
integers and 0
IRRATIONAL NUMBERS/S URDS

A irrational number is a number than cannot be expressed as a fraction where p and q are

integers and 0
Surd rules include:
+ = 2

=

( ) =
Conjugate surds are two surds which multiply together to give a rational number.

Rationalising the denominator of a fraction is done to simplify a fraction of the form +

To rationalise it, just multiply by .

SIMPLIFICATION AND S UBSTITUTION OF ALGEBRA
Done in the same matter as arithmetic, but involves using like terms.

FACTORISATION OF SIMPLE EXPRESSIONS
This is standard factorisations or expansions that should be remembered.
2 + 2 + 2 = ( + )2
2 2 + 2 = ( )2
2 2 = ( + )( )
3 + 32 + 32 + 3 = ( + )3
3 32 + 32 + 3 = ( )3
3 + 3 = ( + )(2 2 )
3 3 = ( )(2 + 2 )

Real Functions
REAL FUNCTIONS
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS
A relation (such as an equation in x and y) is a function if it passes the vertical line test when
graphed. That is, no vertical lines cut the curve at more than one point.
Even Function : f x f x Odd Function : f x f x
TRANSFORMATION OF KNOWN GRAPHS
To stretch the graph in a vertical direction by a factor of a, replace y by y/a. To stretch the
graph in a horizontal direction by a factor of a, replace x by x/a. For example, y 4 sin x is
y sin x stretched vertically by a factor of 4. Replacing x by x-a shifts the graph to the right
by a units (think of x-a being zero when x=a). Similarly replacing y by y-a shifts it a units up.
Replacing x by x reflects it in y-axis (just visualise it). Replacing y by y reflects in x-axis.
LOCUS AND ALGEBRAIC REPRESENTATION
Example 1:
Point P(x,y) moves so that its distance from A(1,0) is two times its distance from B(7,0). What
is the Cartesian equation of the locus of P?
x 12 y 02 2 x 7 y 0 x 1 y 0 4x 7 4 y 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
After expansion and simplification, locus is 3 x 54 x 3 y 195 0 .

2 2
Example 2:
Find the centre and radius of the following circle: x 4 x y 6 y 12 .

2 2
Completing the square, x 2 4x 4 y 2 6 y 9 12 4 9 x 2 y 3 25 .

2 2
Centre is (2, -3) and radius is 5.
Example 3:
What is the locus whose equation is x y 0 ?

2 2
x 2 y 2 x y so its either the line y x or y x .

Real Functions
REGION AND INEQUALIT Y
To draw the region y x 1 , draw the line y x 1 and the region will be above the line.
Similarly y x is above the parabolic curve, so is y x . Now,

2 2
x 12 y 12 25 is
outside the circle (and excludes the circle).

Trigonometric Ratios
TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS
OVERVIEW
The rules of trigonometry arises from trigonometric ratios.
RIGHT-ANGLE TRIANGLES
There are three main rules for right-angle triangles:
opposite adjacent opposite

Sine: sin = Cosine: cos = Tangent: tan =
hypotenuse hypotenuse adjacent
An easy way to remember these ratios is the acronym SOH CAH TOA:
S ine (is) C osine (is) T angent (is)

O pposite (over) A djacent (over) O pposite (over)
H ypotenuse H ypotenuse A djacent
The inverse of these ratios are:
1 1 1
Cosecant: cosec = Secant: sec = Cotangent: cot =
sin cos tan
Complementary angles arise from this. They are derived from looking at the relationship
between the ratios above, and the same ratios when measuring from the other acute angle
of the triangle (i.e. sin(90 ), cos(90 ) etc.). From this, the following ratios can be
found:
sin = cos(90 ) sec = cosec(90 ) tan = cot(90 )

cos = sin(90 ) cosec = sec(90 ) cot = tan(90 )

EXAMPLES
Example 1
2
If = , find the exact ratios of , , and .
7
Solution
By Pythagoras theorem:
2 = 2 + 2
72 = 2 + 22
49 = 2 + 4
2 = 45
= 45
45
cos =
7
2
tan =
45
45
cot =
2
Example 2
Simplify 50 40.
Solution
tan 50 = cot(90 50)

= cot 40
tan 50 cot 40 = tan 50 tan 50
=0
Example 3
Find the value of , correct to 1 decimal place.

cos 23 49 =
11.8
= 11.8 cos 23 29
10.8 cm (to 1 decimal point)

ANGLES IN A CALCULATOR
On a calculator, the value of an angle will often be given as a decimal. Sometimes, the angle
may be required to be represented in degrees, minutes and seconds.
60 minutes = 1 degree (60 = 1)

60 seconds = 1 minute (60 = 1 )
Angles are rounded off to the nearest degree by rounding up if there are 30 minutes or
more. Rounding from seconds to minutes is done in the same way.
Most calculators will represent angles in decimal form by default. To change to the degrees,
minutes and seconds form, press the DMS or button on the calculator.
EXAMPLES
Example 1
Round off 23 12 22 to the nearest minute.
Solution
23 12 22 = 23 12
Example 2
Round off 59 34 41 to the nearest minute.
Solution
59 34 41 = 59 35
Example 3
Round off 16 54 30 to the nearest degree.
Solution
16 54 30 = 17
Example 4
Find the value of in degrees and minutes.
2.1
Solution
4.9
4.9
tan =
2.1
4.9
= tan1 ( )
2.1
66 48

APPLICATIONS OF RIGHT-ANGLE TRIGONOMETRY
Angle of Elevation
The angle of elevation, , is the angle measured when looking from the ground up to the
top of an object, assuming the ground is horizontal. General right-angle trigonometry ratios
apply. See Example 1.
Angle of Depression
The angle of depression, , is the angle measured when looking down from the horizontal
to an object below. General right-angle trigonometry ratios apply. See Example 2.
Bearings
Bearings can be described in two different ways:
N70W means starting at North, measure 70 towards West.
070 is known as a true bearing. The angle given is always measured clockwise from north,
and is always 3 digits.
See Examples 3 and 4.
EXAMPLES
Example 1
The angle of elevation of a tree from a point 50 m out from its base is 38 14. Find the
height of the tree to the nearest metre.
Solution
The tree is assumed vertical.

tan 38 14 =
50
= 50 tan 38 14
39 m

Example 2
A bird sitting on top of an 8 m tall tree looks down at a possum 3.5 m out from the base of
the tree. Find the angle of elevation to the nearest minute.
Solution B A
Since (horizontal lines)

= (alternate angles)
8 8m
tan =
3.5
8
= tan1 ( )
3.5
66 22 C 3.5 m D
Example 3
Sketch a diagram of bearing N70W.
Solution
Example 4
is on a bearing of 030 from . Sketch this diagram.
Solution

EXACT RATIOS
By utilising a unit circle (i.e. a circle with radius 1 unit), various exact ratios can be derived.
These are useful when simplifying trigonometric functions.
45 TRIANGLE
1 1
sin 45 = cos 45 = tan 45 = 1
2 2
Proof:
2 = 2 + 2
A
2 = 12 + 12
=2
1 = 2
45
B 1 C
60 TRIANGLE
3 1 tan 60 = 3
sin 60 = cos 60 =
2 2
1 3 1
sin 30 = cos 30 = tan 30 =
2 2 3
Proof:
A
2 = 2 + 2
2 = 22 12
30 =3
2
= 3
60
B 1 C

EXAMPLES
Example 1
Find the exact value of sec 45.
Solution
1
sec 45 =
cos 45
1
=
1
2
= 2
Example 2
A boat ramp is to be made with an angle of 30 and base length 5m. What is the exact
length of the surface of the ramp?
Solution
Let be the length of the surface of the ramp.

5
cos 30 =

cos 30 = 5
5
=
cos 30
5
=
3
2
2
=5
3
= 103
103
= m
3

ANGLES OF ANY MAGNITUDE
A circle can be used to find trigonometric ratios of any angles. Angles are measured in an
anti-clockwise direction.
A circle is divided up into four quadrants, where the 1 st quadrant is from 0 to 90, 2nd
quadrant is from 90 to 180, 3rd quadrant is from 180 to 270, and 4th quadrant is from
270 to 360.
90
2nd 1st
0
180
360
3rd 4th
270
Angles in the first quadrant are given as .

Angles in the second quadrant are given as 180 .
Angles in the third quadrant are given as 180 + .
Angles in the fourth quadrant are given as 360 .
For example:
90 90
2nd 1st 2nd 1st
180 360
0 0
180 180
360 360
3rd 4th 3rd 4th
270 270
The sign of trigonometric ratios change in each quadrant:
1st: All ratios are positive

2nd: Sin is positive (i.e. cos and tan are negative)

3rd: Tan is positive

4th: Cos is positive
From this, the rule All Stations to Central can be used to remember which ratios are
positive and negative.
90
2nd 1st
S A
0
180
360
T C
3rd 4th
270
The following general formulas apply as a result:
sin = sin(180 ) cos = cos(180 ) tan = tan(180 )
sin = sin(180 + ) cos = cos(180 + ) tan = tan(180 + )
sin = sin(360 ) cos = cos(360 ) tan = tan(360 )
When a negative angle is given (e.g. sin(), cos(), tan()), it is measured in a clockwise
direction beginning from the same position. Other rules still apply.
The domain given will change the value of an angle.
EXAMPLES
Example 1
Find the exact ratio of tan 330.
Solution
330 is in the 4th quadrant

tan will be negative.
tan 330 = tan(360 330)
= tan 30
1
=
3

Example 2
Find the exact value of cos 510.
Solution
As 510 is greater than 360, it is measured around the circle more than once.
510
30 150

510 360 = 150

510 = 360 + 150
The angle is in the 2nd quadrant, i.e. cos is negative. The triangle has 30 in it.
cos 510 = cos 30
3
=
2
Example 3
Simplify (180 + ).
Solution
180 + is an angle in the 3rd quadrant where cos is negative.

As cos = cos(180 + ),
cos(180 + ) = cos
Example 4
Find the exact value of (120).
Solution
The angle is in the 3rd quadrant, with 60 in the triangle.

Tan is positive in the 3rd quadrant.
1
cot(120) =
tan 60
1
=
3

Example 5
3
Solve = in the domain 0 360.
2
Solution
3
is positive and cos is positive in the 1st and 4th quadrants.
2
3
cos =
2
= 30, 360 30
= 30, 330
Example 6
Solve = 3 for 180 180.
Solution
Tan is positive in 1st and 3rd quadrants.

In the domain 180 180, positive angles are used for 0 180 while negative angles are
used for 180 0.
tan = 3
= 60, (180 60)
= 60, 120
Example 7
Solve 2 2 1 = 0 for 0 360.
Solution
The angle is 2 but the domain is for .

The domain must be changed to 2, i.e. 0 2 720.
2 sin 2 1 = 0
2 sin 2 = 1
1
sin 2 =
2
1
sin 30 =
2
Sin is positive in the 1st and 2nd quadrants.
2 = 30, 180 30, 360 + 30, 360 + (180 30)
= 30, 150, 390, 510
= 15, 75, 195, 255

TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
Again using a unit circle, various trigonometric identities can be proven.
sin
tan =
cos
cos
cot =
sin
Proof:
1
cot =
tan
tan =
1
=
sin sin
= cos
cos cos
=
sin
PYTHAGOREAN IDENTITIES
cos2 + sin2 = 1
Proof:
A circle has equation 2 + 2 = 1.
Substitute = cos and = sin :
(cos )2 + (sin )2 = 1
cos 2 + sin2 = 1
1 + tan2 = sec 2
Proof:
cos 2 + sin2 = 1
cos 2 sin2 1
+ =
cos 2 cos 2 cos 2
1 + tan2 = sec 2
cot 2 + 1 = cosec 2
Proof:
cos 2 + sin2 = 1
cos 2 sin2 1
+ 2 =
sin sin sin2
2
cot 2 + 1 = cosec 2

EXAMPLES
Example 1
Simplify .
Solution
cos
sin cot = sin
sin
= cos
Example 2
Simplify 4 + 2 2 .
Solution
sin4 + sin2 cos 2 = sin2 (sin2 + cos 2 )

= sin2 (1)
= sin2
= sin
NON-RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES
Sine Rule:

= =
sin sin sin
Proof:
In , draw perpendicular and call it .
From ,

sin =

= sin
From ,

sin =

= sin
sin = sin
sin sin
=

Similarly, drawing a perpendicular from , it can be proven that
sin sin
= .


Cosine Rule:
2 = 2 + 2 2 cos
Proof:
b c
p
C x ax B
D
In , draw perpendicular with length and let = .

Since = , =
2 = 2 + 2

cos =

= cos
= 2 + ( )2
2
= 2 + 2 2 + 2
= 2 + 2 + 2 2
= 2 + 2 2
= 2 + 2 2( cos )
= 2 + 2 2 cos
EXAMPLES
Example 1
Find the value of , in degrees and minutes.
Solution
sin sin 86 11
=
6.7 8.3
6.7 sin 86 11
sin =
8.3
6.7 sin 86 11
= sin1 ( )
8.3
53 39

Example 2
Find the value of , correct to the nearest whole number.
Solution
2 = 2 + 2 2 cos
2 = 5.62 + 6.42 2(5.6)(6.4) cos 112 32
99.79
99.79
10
Example 3
Evaluate in degrees and minutes. A
Solution 4.5 cm 6.1 cm
2 = 2 + 2 2 cos
2 + 2 cos = 2 + 2 B 8.4 cm C
2 cos = 2 + 2 2
2 + 2 2
cos =
2
4.52 + 6.12 8.42
cos =
2(4.5)(6.1)
4.52 + 6.12 8.42
= cos 1 ( )
2(4.5)(6.1)
103 48
Example 4
The angle of elevation of a tower from point is 72. From point , 50 m further away from
the tower than , the angle of elevation is 47.
a) Find the exact length of .
Solution
= 180 72 (straight angle)

= 108
= 180 (47 + 108) (angle sum of )
= 25
50
=
sin 47 sin 25
50 sin 47
=
sin 25

b) Hence, or otherwise, find the height of the tower to 1 decimal place.
Solution

sin 72 =

= sin 72
50 sin 47
= sin 72
sin 25
82.3 m
AREA OF A TRIANGLE
1
The area of a triangle is often calculated using = , however it can also be calculated
2
using trigonometry.
1
=
2
Proof:
From ,

sin =

= sin
1
=
2
1
= sin
2
EXAMPLE
Example
Find the area of correct to 2 decimal places.
Solution
1
= sin
2
1
= (4.3)(5.8) sin 112 34
2
11.52 units 2

Linear Functions
LINEAR FUNCTIONS
OVERVIEW
Linear functions are straight-line graphs.
DISTANCE
The distance between two points can be found using the following formula:
= (2 1 )2 + (2 1 )2
Proof:
Let = (1 , 1 ) and = (2 , 2 )
Length = 2 1 and length = 2 1
By Pythagoras theorem
2 = 2 + 2
2 = (2 1 )2 + (2 1 )2
= (2 1 )2 + (2 1 )2

Linear Functions
EXAMPLES
Example 1
Find the distance between the points (1, 3) and (3, 0).
Solution
Let (1, 3) be (1 , 1 ) and (3, 0) be (2 , 2 )
= (3 1)2 + (0 3)2
= (4)2 + (3)2
= 16 + 9
= 25
=5
So the distance is 5 units.
Example 2
Show that the points (3, 3), (7, 4) and (4, 1) form the vertices of an isosceles right-
angled triangle.
Solution
= (7 3)2 + [4 (3)]2
= 42 + 72
= 16 + 49
= 65
= (4 7)2 + (1 4)2
= (11)2 + (3)2
= 121 + 9
= 130
= (4 3)2 + [1 (3)]2
= (7)2 + 42
= 49 + 16
= 65
Since = , triangle is isosceles.
2 + 2 = 65 + 65
= 130
= 2
So triangle is right angled. (Pythagoras theorem)

Linear Functions
MIDPOINT
The midpoint is the point halfway between two other points. It can be found using this
formula:
1 + 2 1 + 2
=( , )
2 2
Proof:
Find the midpoint of points (1 , 1 ) and (2 , 2 ).

Let = (, )
Then |||

=

1 1
=
2 1 2
2( 1 ) = 2 1
2 21 = 2 1
2 = 1 + 2
1 + 2
=
2
1 + 2
Similarly, =
2
EXAMPLES
Example 1
Find the midpoint of (1, 4) and (5, 2).
Solution
1 + 5 4 + 2
Midpoint = ( , )
2 2
4 6
=( , )
2 2
= (2, 3)

Linear Functions
Example 2
Find the values of and if (2, 3) is the midpoint between (7, 8) and (, ).
Solution
Midpoint = (2, 3)
= 2, = 3
7 +
=2
2
7 + = 4
=4+7
= 11
8 +
= 3
2
8 + = 6
= 6 + 8
=2
So = 11 and = 2.
Example 3
A circle with centre (2, 5) has one end of a diameter at (4,3). Find the coordinates of the
other end of the diameter.
Solution
Centre (2, 5)
Midpoint at (2, 5)
Let coordinates at other end of diameter be (1 , 1 )
4 + 1
= 2
2
4 + 1 = 4
1 = 4 4
= 8
3 + 1
=5
2
3 + 1 = 10
1 = 10 + 3
= 13
coordinates of other end of diameter are (8, 13).

Linear Functions
GRADIENT
The gradient of a straight line is its slope, i.e. it compares its vertical rise with the horizontal
run. This is a measure of change of with respect to .
When the line rises as increases, it has a positive gradient.
When the line lowers as increases, it has a negative gradient.
When the horizontal run and vertical rise is known, the gradient can be found using:
rise
=
run
The gradient of a line between two points (1 , 1 ) and (2 , 1 ) can be found using:
2 1
=
2 1
Proof:
= 2 1 and = 2 1
rise
Gradient =
run
2 1
=
2 1
The gradient of a line when given the angle the line makes with the -axis in the positive
direction can be found using:
Where: = angle the line makes with the -axis in the positive direction
EXAMPLES
Example 1
Find the gradient of the line between points (2, 3) and (3, 4).

Linear Functions
Solution
2 1
=
2 1
43
=
3 2
1
=
5
1
=
5
Example 2
Prove that points (2, 3), (2, 5) and (0, 1) are collinear.
Solution
Collinear points have the same gradient.

Gradient of the interval between (2, 5) and Gradient of the interval between (0, 1) and
(0, 1): (2, 3):
1 (5) 3 (1)
= =
0 (2) 20
1 + 5 3+1
= =
2 2
4 4
= =
2 2
=2 =2
As the gradient of both intervals is the same, the points are collinear.
Example 3
Find the gradient of the straight line that makes an angle of 42 51 with the -axis to 2
significant figures.
Solution
= tan 42 51
0.93 (2 sig. figs.)
Example 4
Find the gradient of the line that makes an angle of 87 14 with the -axis to 2 significant
figures.
Solution
= tan 87 14 = tan(90 87 14 )
21

Linear Functions
EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE
General Form: Intercept Form:

+ + = 0 + =1

Gradient Form: Where: = -intercept
= + = -intercept
Where: Point-gradient Formula:

= gradient 1 = ( 1 )
= -intercept
Where: (1 , 1 ) lies on the line with gradient
EXAMPLES
Example 1
Find the equation of the straight line with gradient 4 and passing through the point (2, 3).
Solution
= 4
At (2, 3), 3 = 4[ (2)]
= 4( + 2)
= 4 8
= 4 5 (gradient form)
or 4 + + 5 = 0 (general form)
Example 2
Find the equation of the line with -intercept 3 and -intercept 2.
Solution
= 3, = 2

+ =1
3 2
2 + 3 = 6
2 + 3 6 = 0

Linear Functions
PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES
If two lines are parallel, they will have the same gradient. i.e.:
1 = 2
For two lines that are parallel, the following general equations can be found:
+ + 1 = 0
+ + 2 = 0
Proof:

+ + 1 = 0 has the gradient 1 =

+ + 2 = 0 has the gradient 2 =

Since 1 = 2 , the two lines are parallel.
For perpendicular lines, the gradients of each are negative reciprocals of each other, i.e.:
1 2 = 1
1
i.e. 2 =
1
Proof:
Let line have gradient 1 = tan .
Let line have gradient 2 = tan .

tan =

= 180 (straight angle)

tan(180 ) =

cot(180 ) =

tan = cot(180 )
= cot
1
=
tan
1
2 =
1
1 2 = 1
For two lines that are perpendicular, the following general equations can be found:
+ + 1 = 0
+ 2 = 0

Linear Functions
EXAMPLES
Example 1
Prove that the straight lines 5 2 1 = 0 and 5 2 + 7 = 0 are parallel.
Solution
5 2 1 = 0
5 1 = 2
5 1
=
2 2
5
1 =
2
5 2 + 7 = 0
5 + 7 = 2
5 7
+ =
2 2
5
2 =
2
5
1 = 2 =
2
the lines are parallel.
Example 2
Find the equation of a straight line parallel to the line 2 3 = 0 and passing through
(1, 5).
Solution
2 3 = 0
2 3 =
1 = 2
For parallel lines, 1 = 2
2 = 2
Equation: 1 = ( 1 )
(5) = 2( 1)
+ 5 = 2 2
0 = 2 7

Linear Functions
Example 3
Show that the lines 3 + 11 = 0 and 3 + 1 = 0 are perpendicular.
Solution
3 + 11 = 0
= 3 + 11
1 = 3
3 + 1 = 0
+ 1 = 3
1 1
+ =
3 3
1
2 =
3
1
1 2 = 3
3
= 1
the lines are perpendicular.
Example 4
Find the equation of the straight line through (2, 3) perpendicular to the line that passes
through (1, 7) and (3, 3).
Solution
Line through (1, 7) and (3, 3) has gradient:

73
1 =
1 3
4
=
4
= 1
For perpendicular lines, 1 2 = 1
i.e. 1 2 = 1
2 = 1
Equation through (2, 3):
3 = 1 ( 2 )
=2
0 =+1

Linear Functions
INTERSECTION OF LINES
The intersecting point of two lines can be found using simultaneous equations.
To find the equation of a line through the intersection of two other lines, the following
formula can be used:
(1 + 1 + 1 ) + (2 + 2 + 1 ) = 0
Where: 1 + 1 + 1 = equation of the first line

2 + 2 + 2 = equation of the second line
= a constant
Proof:
Let 1 have equation 1 + 1 + 1 = 0.
Let 2 have equation 2 + 2 + 2 = 0.
Let the point of intersection of 1 and 2 be (1 , 1 ).
Then satisfies 1
i.e. 1 1 + 1 1 + 1 = 0
also satisfies 2
i.e. 2 1 + 2 1 + 2 = 0
Substitute into (1 + 1 + 1 ) + (2 + 2 + 2 ) = 0
(1 1 + 1 1 + 1 ) + (2 1 + 2 1 + 2 ) = 0
0 + (0) = 0
0=0
if point satisfies both equations 1 and 2 then it satisfies 1 + 2 = 0.

Linear Functions
EXAMPLES
Example 1
Find the point of intersection between lines 2 3 3 = 0 and 5 2 13 = 0.
Solution
Solve simultaneous equations:

2 5 13
1 =
2 3 3 = 0 3 2 2
3 = 2 3 4 6 = 15 39
2 3
= 15 4 = 6 + 39
3 3
2
= 1 11 = 33
3
33
5 2 13 = 0 =
11
2 = 5 13
=3
5 13
= 2
2 2 = (3) 1
3
= 21
=1
point of intersection at (3, 1)
Example 2
Show that the lines 3 + 1 = 0, + 2 + 12 = 0 and 4 3 7 = 0 are concurrent (i.e. the

pass through the same point).
Solution
3 + 1 = 0 = 3(2) + 1
= 3 + 1 = 6 + 1
+ 2 + 12 = 0 = 5
point of intersection is (2, 5).
2 = 12
At (2, 5), LHS = 4 3 7
1 12
= = 4(2) 3(5) 7
2 2
1 = 8 + 15 7
= 6
2
=0
1
3 + 1 = 6 = RHS
2
6 + 2 = 12 the lines are concurrent.
6 + = 12 2
7 = 14
= 2

Linear Functions
Example 3
Find the equation of the line through (1, 2) that passes through the intersection of lines
2 + 5 = 0 and 3 + 1 = 0.
Solution
2 + 5 1 + 1 + 1
3 + 1 2 + 2 + 2
(2 + 5) + ( 3 + 1) = 0
The line passes through (1, 2), therefore
At (1, 2), [2(1) + 2 5] + [1 3(2) + 1] = 0
5 6 = 0
6 = 5
5
=
6
5
(2 + 5) + ( ) ( 3 + 1) = 0
6
6(2 + 5) 5( 3 + 1) = 0
12 + 6 30 5 + 15 5 = 0
7 + 21 35 = 0
+ 3 5 = 0

Linear Functions
PERPENDICULAR DISTANCE
Perpendicular distance is the shortest distance between a point and a line, given by:
|1 + 1 + |
=
2 + 2
which is the perpendicular distance between point (1 , 1 ) and the line + + = 0.
Proof:
Let be the perpendicular distance of (1 , 1 ) from the line + +
= 0.

= ( , 0)

= (0, )

1
= (1 , )

2 2
In , = 2 + 2

2 2 + 2 2
=
2 2
2 + 2
=

1
= 1 ( )

1 + 1 +
=

is similar to

=

=

1 + 1 + 2 + 2
=

(1 + 1 + )
=
2 + 2
1 + 1 +
=
2 + 2
Now distance must be positive,
|1 + 1 + |
=
2 + 2

Linear Functions
EXAMPLES
Example 1
Find the perpendicular distance of (4, 3) from the line 3 4 1 = 0.
Solution
1 = 4, 1 = 3, = 3, = 4, = 1
|1 + 1 + |
=
2 + 2
|3(4) + (4)(3) + (1)|
=
33 + (4)2
|12 + 12 1|
=
25
23
=
5
= 4.6 units
Example 2
Prove that the line 6 + 8 + 20 = 0 is a tangent to the circle 2 + 2 = 4.
Solution
=2
Centre = (0, 0)
|6(0) + 8(0) + 20|
=
62 + 82
|20|
=
100
20
=
10
=2
=
the line is a tangent to the circle.

The Quadratic Polynomial and the Parabola
THE QUADRATIC POLYNOMIAL AND THE PARABOLA
OVERVIEW
The axis of symmetry and the vertex are always midway between the x-intercepts.
The quadratics whose zeroes (x-intercepts) are and form a family with equation
y ax x .
b
Axis of Symmetry : x (think of quadratic formula with zero discriminant)
2a
b
Zeroes : x , b 2 4ac
2a
b
Vertex : ,
2a 4a
THEORY OF DISCRIMINANT
If > 0, there are two distinct real zeroes.
If = 0, there are two equal real zeroes (or one real double zero).
If < 0, there are two distinct unreal zeroes.
DEFINITE AND INDEFIN ITE QUADRATICS
A quadratic is definite is it has no real zeroes,
being positive definite if it is always positive,
and negative definite if it is always negative.
A quadratic is indefinite if it has at least one zero.
b c
Sum of Roots (Zeroes) : Product of Roots (Zeroes) :
a a

The Quadratic Polynomial and the Parabola
QUADRATIC IDENTITY
F(x) is identical to G(x) when they give the same value for all values of x. If two quadratics
intersect at more than two points then they are identical.
Example: Express 2 x 3x 6 in the form ax 1 bx 1 c .

2 2
We set up an identity, 2x 2 3x 6 ax 1 bx 1 c .
2
We can expand the RHS and equate coefficients. RHS is ax 2a b x a b c so a 2

2
, 2a b 3 and a b c 6 .
Or, we can use substitution. When x 1 LHS = 5 and RHS = c, and so on.
Sample question #2: Given that a, b and c are three distinct constants, prove that
x a x b x bx c x b2 x a c . Instead of expanding it is suffice to show
that LHS = RHS when x = a, x = b and x = c.
PARABOLA
A parabola is the locus of a point which moves so that its distance to a fixed point (the focus)
is equal its perpendicular distance to a fixed line (the directrix) not passing through the focus.
A locus of P is the set of points, all denoted by P, which fit the given conditions. In a sense P
is movable.
The axis of parabola is the line through focus and vertex. The latus rectum is the line parallel
to the directrix, passing the focus. Note that all parabolas are similar (i.e. have the same
shape, only enlarged or shrunk).
STANDARD NOTATIONS
Parabolas with vertex at the origin: 2 = 4 , x 2 4ay, y 2 4ax, y 2 4ay , where a is

the focal length. The first concaves up, the second concaves down, the third concaves right
and the fourth concaves left. As with other functions, parabolas can be translated by doing
this kind of thing: x h2 4a y k has vertex at (h, k) and concaves up.

Plane Geometry
PLANE GEOMETRY
OVERVIEW
Acceptable symbols include the following:
is parallel to || is similar to |||
is perpendicular to I therefore ..
is congruent to because .
Collinear: when three or more points lie on the same line

Concurrent: when three or more lines intersect at the same point
Line: technically, a line with no endpoints
Interval AB: a line with two endpoints, A and B
Intercept: a section of an interval, for example, a point P on an interval AB divides the
interval into two intercepts, AP and PB
Transversal: a line that crosses two or more other lines
Ray AB: a line with one end, A, extending towards B onwards
Opposite ray AB: a line with one end, A, but extending not towards B
Straight angle: has a size of 180 degrees
Reflex angle: has a size of more than 180 degrees [and less than 360 degrees]
Complementary angle: the angle which adds up to 90 degrees with another angle
Supplementary angle: the angle which adds up to 180 degrees with another angle
Vertically opposite angles: a pair of angles, one behind the other, created by the same two
lines; they are equal in size
The Three Lines (the two lines dont need to be parallel) and Angles on Them
Name: example in diagram [property if the two lines are parallel]
Corresponding angles: the two angles facing up on the right of the / [equal]
Alternate angles: the angle facing down on the left of the / and the angle facing up on the
right of the /; technically they must be inside the = [equal]
Co-interior angles: they are inside the = and to the right of the / [supplementary]
Conversely, if one of the parallel properties above is satisfied, the two lines are parallel.
INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR ANGLES
Interior angle: the angle inside a polygon at its vertex (when a question mentions only angle
then its the interior angle)
Exterior angle: the angle between a side and the extension of another side, located at the
vertex and outside the polygon; each vertex actually has two exterior angles but they are
equal

Plane Geometry
SUM OF INTERIOR ANGLES
Triangle: anything with 3 vertices. Sum of interior angles: 180 degrees.
Quadrilateral: anything with 4 vertices. Sum of interior angles: 360 degrees.
Polygon: any closed figure with vertices [including triangle and quadrilateral]. Sum of interior
angles: n 2180 , n is the number of sides or of vertices [hint: think of triangle and
quadrilateral and follow the pattern]. Proof: draw up n triangles with one side of each triangle
being a side of the polygon and all triangles having a common vertex inside the polygon. Sum
of angles of the triangles is n 180 degrees. But we have 360 around the common vertex.
CONVEX AND NON-CONVEX POLYGON
A convex polygon is the one youre probably imagining just now. A non-convex polygon has
at least one interior angle greater than 180 (try to draw one).
Sum of exterior angles of any convex polygon : is 360 degrees. Proof: use the fact that at each
vertex, the interior and exterior angles form a straight line and add to 180 degrees and that
the sum of interior angles is n 2180 degrees.
Regular polygon: has equal sides, and so equal interior angles and equal exterior angles
TRIANGLES
STANDARD CONGRUENCE TESTS FOR TRIANGLES (NOTATION: )
SSS; SAS [A is the included angle]; AAS; RHS [the hypotenuse and one other side of a triangle
are equal to those of another triangle]
Note: there is no ASS test for congruence (unless the angle is obtuse).
It is a good idea to name the vertices, sides and angles in corresponding order. When
A F , B D and C E , write ABC FDE instead of ABC DEF .
Two vertices in two triangles are called corresponding if the angles at those vertices are equal.

Plane Geometry
STANDARD SIMILARITY TESTS FOR TRIANGLES (NOTATION: ||| )
SSS; SAS; AA [or AAA]; RHS [hypotenuse and another side are proportional in the s]
[A is for equal angles, S is for proportional sides]
Again, you should write the vertices in corresponding order.
Test for a triangle to be isosceles : if two angles of that triangle are equal
Test for a triangle to be equilateral (has equal sides): if the 3 angles are equal, each being 60
Median: the line joining a vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side. Altitude: the line
perpendicular from a vertex to the opposite side. The three medians are concurrent. The three
altitudes are also concurrent.
The size of an exterior angle in a is equal to the sum of the two interior opposite angles.
Ratios of Intercepts on Sides of Triangle: suppose we have triangle ABC and a line parallel to
BC cuts the triangle at P and Q, P is on side AB. If AP : PB k : l , then AQ : QC k : l and
PQ : BC k : k l . Proof: use similarity of triangles APQ and ABC.
TRANSVERSALS TO THREE PARALLEL LINES
The previous result can be used to obtain the following general result.
If we have 3 parallel lines and a number of transversals (lines) that cross the three of them,
the ratio of the intercepts on one transversal is the same as the ratio on any other transversals.
The transversals dont need to be parallel.
Conversely, if the ratios are equal, the lines are parallel.
SPECIAL QUADRILATERALS
A trapezium is a quadrilateral with at least one pair of opposite sides parallel.
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides parallel.
A rhombus is a parallelogram with a pair of adjacent sides equal.
A rectangle is a parallelogram with one angle a right angle.
A square is both a rectangle and a rhombus.
Tests for parallelogram: Opposite angles are equal OR Opposite sides are equal OR One pair
of opposite sides are equal and parallel OR The diagonals bisect each other

Plane Geometry
Tests for rhombus: All sides are equal OR The diagonals bisect each other at right angles OR
The diagonals bisect each vertex angle
Tests for rectangle: All angles are equal [so they are 90 degrees] OR The diagonals are equal
and bisect each other
Tests for square: Must be a rhombus and also a rectangle
Area of Plane Figures
Square: (side length)2

Rectangle: (length) x (breath)
Parallelogram: (base) x (perpendicular height)
Triangle: x (base) x (perpendicular height)
Rhombus: x (product of the diagonals)
Trapezium: (average of parallel sides) x (perpendicular height)
Note: some figures belong to other more general figures. For example, a rhombus belongs to
the parallelogram family, and so you can use the formula for parallelogram.

Tangent to a Curve and Derivative of a Function
TANGENT TO A CURVE AND DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION
OVERVIEW
The derivative represents the instantaneous rate of change of something with respect to
dy
another thing. For example,
dx shows how y is changing as x changes.
THE DERIVATIVE AS A LIMIT OF THE GRADIENT OF A CHORD
f x h f x y
f ' x lim
dy
and lim
ho h dx x 0 x
Note that it is actually a two-sided limit and needs a continuity around that point.
Also, suppose that f(x) and g(x) are both continuous. Then f(x) + g(x), f(x) - g(x) and f(x)g(x)
will all be continuous.
If f x x n , then f ' x n x n1
Rule 1
If f x K , then f ' x 0
Rule 2 If f x K g x , then f ' x K g ' x
Rule 3 If f x g x hx , then f ' x g ' x h' x
Product Rule If y u v, then y' u' v u v'
u u ' v u v'
Quotient Rule If y , then y'
v v2
(if you forget which one to differentiate first, just do a quick test with something like
y x2 / x )
dy dy du
Chain Rule : (also called function of a function rule)
dx du dx
The chain rule can be used for algebraic and non-algebraic functions (learnt later).

Tangent to a Curve and Derivative of a Function
Example 1:

Differentiate y 3 x x
4
3
2
with respect to x.
u 12 x 3 1 12 x 3 1 3x 4 x .
dy 3 12 3
Let u 3x x .
4
dx 2 2
Example 2:
Differentiate y ln sin x with respect to x.
dy 1 cos x
Let u sin x . cos x cot x .
dx u sin x
TRIVIAL NOTES ON NOTATIONS
Example 1:
Find the derivative of x 2 when x 1
Correct answers:
Let y x , then y ' 2 x and at x 1, y' 2

2
Let f x x , then
2
f ' x 2 x and f ' 1 2
NOTATION OF SECOND DERIVATIVE:
d2y d dy
f ' ' x OR y ' ' OR (think of , d is squared and dx is too)
dx 2
dx dx
Example 1:
Find the second derivative of x3 when x 1
Y = x3, then y = 3x2 then y = 6x
y = 6(1)
and at x = 1 y = 6

Geometrical Applications of Differentiation
GEOMETRICAL APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
Geometrically the derivative represents the gradient of the tangent to a curve at a point.
This is often called the gradient of the curve.
A normal is the line through that point perpendicular to the tangent.
There are three types of stationary points: maxima, minima and horizontal points of
inflexion. Maxima and minima are also called turning points.
There are global (absolute) and local (relative) maximum and minimum. Any local maximum
or minimum is called an extremum.
A function can only change from increasing to decreasing (or vice versa) at the critical
points. Critical points ate points where the derivative is zero or undefined.
APPLICATION OF THE S ECOND DERIVATIVE
If f ' ' x 0 , the graph of f(x) is concave up at that point.
If f ' ' x 0 , the graph of f(x) is concave down at that point.
If f ' ' x 0 and there is a change in f ' ' x around that point, it is a point of inflexion.
SKETCHING CURVES (IF ONE COLUMN APPLIES, THE OTHERS APPLY TOO)
Function f(x) Derivative f(x) Second Derivative f(x)
Stationary point* f(x) = 0 N/A
Increasing** f(x) > 0 N/A
Decreasing** f(x) < 0 N/A
Concave up f(x) is increasing f(x) > 0
Concave down f(x) is decreasing f(x) < 0
Point of inflexion f(x) has a turning point f(x) = 0***

Geometrical Applications of Differentiation
Example: Find any stationary points on the curve y = x3 48x 7
For stationary points y = 0
3 2 48 = 0
3 2 = 48
i.e.
2 = 16
= 4
Therefore
When x = 4 When x = -4,
= (4)3 48(4) 7 = (4)3 48(4) 7

= 135 = 121
So the stationary points are (4,-135) and (-4, 121)
* When its a horizontal point of inflexion, the graph of f(x) will only touch the x-axis (be
tangential to x-axis). When it is a turning point, it will cut the x-axis.
** At a horizontal point of inflexion, we can still call the curve increasing or decreasing.
*** f(x) = 0 doesnt automatically mean columns 1 and 2 apply. But if column 2 applies
then column 1 applies.
VOLUME AND SURFACE AREA OF SOLIDS (FOR MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM

PROBLEMS AND FOR RATES OF CHANGE LATER ON)
For a cone :
For a sphere : For a cylinder : For a pyramid :
V 13 r 2 h
V r4 3
V r h2
V 13 base height
3
A r2 rl
A 4 r 2 A 2 r 2 2 r h A sum of faces
(l r 2 h 2 )

Integration
INTEGRATION
Integration is essentially reverse of differentiation. It is the process of find a primitive

function.
We use integration to find the area and volume under a curve.
New notation
2
, ( ) = 2

, 2 = 2 +
METHOD
To integrate a standard term, we add one to the power and divide by the new power. This is
the reverse of differentiation.
+1
= +
+1
The c accounts for any constants that could have been differentiated to zero, such as:
2
( ) = 2

( 2 + 5) = 2

Example
Integrate 4 3
4 4
4 3 = +
4
4
= +
When integrating with respect to x, this is an operation involving x only, thus any constant
terms that do not involve x can be removed.
( ) = ( )
Therefore the previous question can also be done as:
4 3 = 4 3
4
= 4( + )
4
= 4 +

Integration
When integrating a sum or difference, integrate them term by term. That is,
( ) ( ) = () ( )
Example
Find
a. (3 2 + )
(3 2 + ) = (3 2 ) + ()
3 3 2
= + +
3 2
3
1 2
= + +
2
b. (4 5 6)
(4 5 6) = (4 5 ) (6)
4 6
= + 6 +
6
2 6
= + 6 +
3
CHAIN RULE FOR INTEGRATION
The chain rule of integration only works when the expression inside the brackets is linear.
( + )
( + ) = +
( + 1)
Example
Using chain rule for integration, find:
a) ( + 2)4
( + 2)5
( + 2)4 = +
51
( + 2)5
= +
5
b) (3 8)10
(3 8)11
(3 8)10 = +
3 11
(3 8)10
= +
33

Integration
TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGR ATION
When integrating trigonometric functions, remember:
sin( + )
cos( + ) = +

cos( + )
sin( + ) = +

tan( + )
sec 2 ( + ) = +

Example
Find:
a) sin(2 + 1) b) sec 2 (3 4 )
cos(2 + 1) tan(3 4)
sin(2 + 1) = + sec 2 (3 4 ) = +
2 4
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Given that ( ) = ():

() = () ()

Proof
a) Let () be any primitive of () and note that () and () (the specific primitive) must
differ by a constant (proven below). Write () in terms of () and .
( ) = ( ) +
b) By letting = , find the value of .
Since () = 0 (the area from to is 0), we have:
( ) = ( ) +
0 = ( ) +
= ()
c) Hence, find the area from to (that is, find ()) in terms of .
( ) = ( ) +
= ( ) ( )

Integration
Example
3
Evaluate 1 ( + 2)
3
2 3
( + 2) = [ + 2]
1 2
1
9 1
= ( + 6) ( + 2)
2 2
21 5
=
2 2
16
= =8
2
NOTE: we can swap the limits of integrating by negating an integral, i.e.

( ) = ( )

THE AREA BENEATH A CURVE
The area of region about the x-axis and is bounded by the curve y=f(x) and the axis for
is given by

= ( )

=

NOTE: Integrals give the signed area. That is, areas above the axes are counted as positive
whilst areas underneath the axes are counted as negative.
Take the absolute value of all areas underneath the curve, since areas are positive. Add the
areas of the region to find the total area.
STEPS TO FOLLOW TO FIND AREA
STEP 1: Sketch the curve in question and identify the area to be found.
STEP 2: Split the area up into regions which lie above the axis and regions which lie below
the axis.
STEP 3: Find the area of each region by taking the absolute value of definite integral in that
region.
STEP 4: Add up each of the areas found.

Integration
Example 1
Find the area enclosed by the curve = 2( + 1)( 3) and the axis
STEP 1: Sketch the curve, noting in particular its roots, and identify the area to be found.
Note that the curve has roots at = 1, 0, 3 and since it is a cubic, the graph is sketched
below:
the axis.
The area to be found is the area of plus the area of since these are the only regions
enclosed by the curve and the axis.

Integration
region.
The definite integral for the area of is:
0 0
: 2( + 1)( 3) = (2 3 4 2 6)
1 1
0
2 4 4 3
=[ 3 2 ]
4 3 1
1 4
= [0] [ + 3]
2 3
7
=
6
7
| | =
6
And for , the definite integral required is:
3 3
: 2( + 1)( 3) = (2 3 4 2 6)
0 0
3
2 4 4 3
=[ 3 2 ]
4 3 0
81
=[ 36 27] [0]
2
45
=
2
45
| | =
2
7 45
+ = +
6 2
142
=
6
71
=
3
2
= 23
3

Integration
Example 2
Find the area bounded by the axis, the curve = 2 and the line = + 6
The area is made up of two separate areas: One under the graph of = 2 from = 0 to =
2, and the other under the graph of = + 6 from = 2 to = 6
2 6
Total Area = 0 2 + 2 + 6
2 6
3 2
= [ ] + [ + 6]
3 0 2 2
8 36 4
= 3 0 + ( + 36) ( 2 + 12)
2
8
= + 18 10
3
32
= 3

Integration
AREAS BOUNDED BY THE Y-AXIS
An area enclosed by the Y-axis is found by interchanging y and x in the formula before.
The area of region about the y-axis and is bounded by the curve y=f(x) and the axis for
is given by

=

=

NOTE: Integrals give the signed area. That is, areas right of the axes are counted as
positive whilst areas left the axes are counted as negative.
Take the absolute value of all areas underneath the curve, since areas are positive. Add the
areas of the region to find the total area.
To find the area bounded by a curve and the axis, we must first following the following
steps:
STEP 1: Sketch the curve in question and identify the area to be found.
STEP 2: Express the curve in the form = (). (As opposed to = ())
STEP 3: Identify the definite integral required which will be in terms of (ensure that the
limits of integration are in terms of )
STEP 4: Evaluate the definite integral and take the absolute value if necessary.

Integration
Example
Find the area bounded by the curve = 3, the axis and the lines = 1, = 4.
STEP 1: Sketch the curve and identify the area to be found.
STEP 2: Rearrange the equation given to be in the form = ()
Rearranging:
= 3
= 3
STEP 3: Identify the definite integral required which will be in terms of (ensure that the
limits of integration are in terms of )
Hence the integral required is:
4
3
1
STEP 4: Evaluate the definite integral and take the absolute value if necessary.
4 4
3
4
= [ ]
1 4 1
1
= [64] [ ]
4
3
= 63
4

Integration
Example 2
Find the area bounded by the curve = + 2, the axis and the axis.
Since the area lies to the left of the -axis, the absolute value of the integral must be taken
2
Area = |0 |
= + 2
2 = + 2
= 2 2
2
Area = | 0 2 2 |
3 2
= |[ 3 2] |
0
22
=| 22|
3
42
= | |
3
42
= 3

Integration
AREAS BETWEEN CURVES
The area between two curves, upper curve f(x) and lower curve g(x) with points of
intersection at x=a and x=b is given by:

(() ( ))

To find the area between two curves = () and () as above, follow the following steps:
STEP 1: Sketch the curves on the same graph and identify the area to be found.
STEP 2: If required, split the area up into different regions if the curves cross over each
other.
STEP 3: For each region, find the area by evaluating the definite integral:

(() ( ))

Where () is above () in that region.
STEP 4: Add up the areas of each of the regions to find the total area.

Integration
Example 1
Find the area enclosed by the curve = 2( + 1)( 3) and the axis
STEP 1: Sketch the curve, noting in particular its roots, and identify the area to be found.
Note that the curve has roots at = 1, 0, 3 and since it is a cubic, the graph is sketched
below:
the axis.
The area to be found is the area of plus the area of since these are the only regions
enclosed by the curve and the axis.
region.
The definite integral for the area of is:
0 0
: 2( + 1)( 3) = (2 3 4 2 6)
1 1
0
2 4 4 3
=[ 3 2 ]
4 3 1
1 4
= [0] [ + 3]
2 3
7
=
6
7
| | =
6

Integration
And for , the definite integral required is:

3 3
: 2( + 1)( 3) = (2 3 4 2 6)
0 0
3
2 4 4 3
=[ 3 2 ]
4 3 0
81
= [ 36 27] [0]
2
45
=
2
45
| | =
2
7 45
+ = +
6 2
142
=
6
71
=
3
2
= 23
3
Example 2
Find the area bounded by the axis, the curve = 3 + 1 and the lines = 2 and = 0
The area is made up of two areas, one below and one above the -axis
1 0
Total area = |2 3 + 1 | + 1 3 + 1
1 0
4 4
= |[ 4 + ] | + [ 4 + ]
2 1
1 16 1
= |(4 1) ( 4 2)| + 0 (4 1)
3 3
= | 4 2| + 4
11 3
= +
4 4
7
= 2 units2

Integration
VOLUMES FORMED BY ROTATING A CURVE
Integration can be used to find the volume of solids formed by rotating a curve about a line.
These solids are known as solids of revolution
SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION ABOUT THE AXIS
Given the solid of revolution formed by rotating the curve = () between = and =
about the axis, its volume is:

= 2

Since we are integrating 2 it doesnt matter where the curve is negative or positive when
making this calculation. So to find the volume of a solid of revolution about the axis,
follow the following steps:
STEP 1: Sketch the curve and the solid of revolution
STEP 2: Identify the limits of integration and write down the definite integral using the
formula above.
STEP 3: Evaluate the definite integral.
Proof
a) Give the general formula for the area of a circle, and the volume of a cylinder.
= 2
= 2
b) Consider the cylinder shown below. Express the radius and height of the cylinder in terms
of and . Hence, find the volume, , of the cylinder

=
=
= 2

= 2

Integration
c) Now, by recognizing that the total volume, V, is the sum of volumes of all the small
cylinders from = to = , give a formula for V:
= 2

d) By taking the limit as 0 (i.e. the cylinders become infinitely thin),give a formula for
the exact volume of solid of revolution.
= lim 2 1
x0

= 2

= 2

Example
Find the volume of the solid of revolution formed when the curve = 3 is rotated about the
axis between = 1 and = 4.
1 4

Integration
formula.
2 = 9
4
= 1 9
= [9]14
= (36 9)
= 27
Find the volume of this solid using a different method [Hint: what type of solid is it?]. Are
these two answers equal?
The solid of revolution is a cylinder, of height 3 and radius 3. Hence, the volume is -
= 32 3 = 27
Example 2
Find the volume of a cone of radius and height .
a) Let the cone have its apex (point) at the origin and let it be formed by rotating a line about
the axis. Find the equation of this line.

The point (, ) lies on the line, and the gradient of the line is

Hence, the equation of the line is =

Integration
b) Find the definite integral that represents the volume of the cone and evaluate the integral
1
to show that the volume of a cone is 3 2 .
2 2
2 = 2
2 2
= 0
2

23
= [ 32 ]
0
23
= 3 2
1
= 3 2
Example
Find the volume of a sphere of radius .
a) Write down the equation of a circle centred at the origin with radius .
2 + 2 = 2
b) Consider a sphere as the solid of revolution formed by rotating the upper semi-circle from
4
part (a) about the axis. Show that the volume of the sphere is 3 3 .
2 = 2 2

= 2 2

3
= [ 2 ]
3
3 3
= [( 3 ) ( 3 )]
3 3
2 3 2 3
=[ ( )]
3 3
4
= 3 3

Integration
SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION ABOUT THE AXIS
Just like when finding the area about the y-axis, volume about the y-axis can be found by
interchanging the y and x.
Given the solid of revolution formed by rotating the curve = () between = and =
about the axis, its volume is:

= 2

Example 1
The region bounded by the curve = 2 , the axis and the lines = 1 and = 4 is rotated
about the axis. Find the volume of the solid formed.
formula.
2 =
4
= 2

4
2
= [2]
2
16 4
= ( 2 2)
= 6

Integration
Example 2
An ellipse has the equation 9 2 + 2 = 36 and is sketched below.
A football-like shape is formed by rotating this ellipse about the axis.
a) Find the intercepts of the ellipse
When = 0
2 = 36
= 6
intercepts at (0, 6)
b) Hence, find the volume of the football.
9 2 = 36 2
2
2 = 4 9
6 2
= 6 4
9
6
3
= [4 27 ]
6
= [(24 8) (24 + 8)]

= 32

Integration
VOLUMES FROM MULTIPLE CURVES
Harder questions will ask for volumes formed by multiple curves.
Step 1: Find the volume of the solid of revolution formed by rotating the curve = () about
the axis.
Step 2: Find the volume of the solid of revolution formed by rotating the curve = () about
the axis.
Noting that the volume we wish to find is the difference of the two above volumes, find
the volume of this solid.

= (( )2 ( )2 )

NOTE: for multiple curves about the y axis, once again interchange the x and y values as
previously done.
Proof
Sometimes a solid may be formed by rotating two curves about an axis and taking the inside
of these two figures.
Suppose the area between the following two curves is rotated about the axis forming a
solid of revolution:

Integration
Find the volume of the solid of revolution formed by rotating the area above about the
axis.
a) Find the volume of the solid of revolution formed by rotating the curve = () about
the axis.
The volume of the solid is:

= ( )2

b) Find the volume of the solid of revolution formed by rotating the curve = () about the
axis.
The volume of the solid is:

= ( )2

c) Noting that the volume we wish to find is the difference of the two above volumes, find
the volume of this solid.
The volume of the resulting solid is:

= (( )2 ( )2 )


Integration
Example 1
Find the volume of the solid formed when the region enclosed by the curves = 2 and =
3 + 4 is rotated about the axis.
a) Sketch a graph, indicating the area to be rotated and identifying the end points of the area
by solving for the points of intersection.
= 3 + 4
= 2 (4, 16)
(1, 1)
Solving simultaneously,
2 = 3 + 4
2 3 4 = 0
( 4)( + 1) = 0
= 4 or = 1
b) Hence, find the volume of the solid formed when this area is rotated about the axis.
Let ( ) = 3 + 4, [ ( )]2 = (3 + 4)2
Let ( ) = 2 , [( )]2 = 4
4
= 1(3 + 4)2 4
4
= 1 9 2 + 24 + 16 4
4
5
= [3 3 + 12 2 + 16 ]
5 1
1024 1
= [(192 + 192 + 64 ) (3 + 12 16 + 5)]
5
= 250

Integration
Example 2
Question 15
Consider an ice-cream cone shaped solid of revolution formed by rotating the area bounded
by the axis, the line = 3 3 and the first quadrant of the circle 2 + 2 = 1 about the
axis.
a) Sketch a graph showing the area to be rotated.
1 = 3 3
b) Consider the volume in two different parts and find the definite integral for each part.
Consider the volume generated by the circle, 1
Rotating the first quadrant around the -axis is equivalent to rotating the top half of the
circle about the -axis
2 = 1 2
1
1 = 0 1 2
Consider the volume generated by the line, 2
3 = + 3

= 3+1
2
2 = (3 + 1)
2 2
= + +1
9 3
0 2 2
2 = 3 + + 1
9 3

Integration
c) Evaluate each definite integral and add them to find the total volume of the solid.
1
3
1 = [ ]
3 0
1
= (1 3)
2
= 3
0
3 2
2 = [27 + + ]
3 3
= [0 (1 + 3 3)]
=
2
Total Volume = +
3
5
= 3
Example 2
A spinning top is formed from a solid of revolution. The area bounded by the curves = 2 ,
= + 2 and the axis is rotated about the axis. Find the volume of the spinning top.
(2, 4)
(1, 1)
Consider the volume generated by = 2
2 = 4
1
= 0 4
1
5
= [5]
0

= 5
Consider the volume generated by = + 2
2 = ( + 2)2
= 2 4 + 4
2
= 1 2 4 + 4
2
3
= [ 3 2 2 + 4]
1
8 1
= [(3 8 + 8) (3 2 + 4)]

= 3

Integration
APPROXIMATE METHODS OF INTEGRATION
Sometimes an integral is too difficult to find directly.
However it is still possible to approximate the value of the integral by finding the
approximate area enclosed by the curve.
TRAPEZOIDAL RULE
In this method, approximation of the area underneath a curve is done by a number of
trapeziums.
= ()
= 0 1 2 =
The general form of the trapezoidal rule is given below:
Given that 1 , 2 , , 1 are equally spaced with width along the interval from = 0 to =
, then the integral of () is approximately:

() ((0 ) + 2 (1 ) + 2 (2 ) + + 2 (1 ) + ( ))
2
NOTE: An easy way to remember the trapezoidal rule is:

() (1 + 2() + )
2

Integration
When specifying the number of trapeziums to use in your approximation, the question
might ask for:
Function values
Sub-intervals
Strips
It is important to note that a question asking for 3 strips/sub-intervals/trapeziums requires
4 function values.
NOTE: h is an equal spacing so to find h, find the distance between the furthest two values
and divide by the number of sub intervals.

=
.
Proof
Approximate the area underneath the curve = () from to by two trapeziums as
shown above. Note that 1 is the midpoint of the interval from to .
a) Write down the formula for a trapezium of sides of length a and b and width h.
+
=
2
b) Find the area of the trapezium shaded below
The height of the trapezium is = 1 0 (letting =
0). The length of the two parallel sides is (0 ) and

(0 )
(1 ) (1 ). Hence the area is:
(0 ) + (1 )
= (1 0 )
2
1 0

Integration
c) Similarly, find the area of the second trapezium.
The height of the trapezium is = 2 1 (letting = 2 ). The length of the two parallel
sides is (1 ) and (2 ). Hence the area is:
(1 ) + (2 )
= (2 1 )
2
d) Find the approximate area underneath the curve by adding the areas from (a) and (b). Let
be the height of the trapeziums in your answer.
Since 1 is the midpoint of the interval, = 1 0 = 2 1 . Hence, the area underneath
the curve is approximately:
(0 ) + (1 ) (1 ) + (2 )
+
2 2

= ((0 ) + 2(1 ) + (2 ))
2
Example 1
3
Approximate the integral 2 + 1 using the trapezoidal rule with 4 function values.
0
a) Find the width, , of each sub-interval.
Four function values corresponds to 3 subintervals
The total length of the interval is 3, and this must be divided into 3 equal subintervals
Each subinterval is 1 unit in length
=1
The function values are then 0, 1, 2, and 3

Integration
b) Complete the following table of function values.
0 1 2 3
() 1 2 5 10
c) Hence, apply the formula for the trapezoidal rule to approximate the integral.
3 1
0 2 + 1 2 [ (0) + 2(1) + 2(2) + (3)]
1
= 2 (1 + 22 + 25 + 10)
=5.73142037 (8dp)
d) The correct value of this integral is 5.65263972 (8 dp). How does your approximation
compare to this?
The approximation differs by 0.078780649, which is a fairly good approximation
Example 2
5
Approximate the integral using the trapezoidal rule with 3 sub-intervals.
1
2 +1
1
Each subinterval is 2 units in length
=2
Three subintervals require 4 function values
The function values are then 1, 1, 3, and 5
1 1 3 5
() 1 1 1 1
2 2 10 26
5
1 2
[(1) + 2 (1) + 2(3) + (5)]
1 2 +1 2
1 1 1 1
= + 2( )+2( )+
2 2 10 26
113
= or 1.74 (to 2 dp)
65

Integration
SIMPSONS RULE
The trapezoidal rule can be fairly inaccurate though because it approximates curves by
straight lines. A more accurate approximation method is called Simpsons Rule which uses
parabolas to approximate a curve.
= ()
1 2
= 0 =
Because a parabola requires three points to be specified, Simpsons rule requires at least 2
sub-intervals to begin with. Given that 1 is the midpoint of the interval and that is the
width of each strip, i.e. = 1 = 1 , Simpsons Rule states that:

+
( ) (() + 4 ( ) + ())
6 2
Simpsons rule can also be generalized and can be used whenever there are an even number
of sub-intervals (i.e. an odd number ( 1) of function values). The general formula is below:
Given that 1 , 2 , 1 are evenly spaced along the interval from = 0 to = and that
is the width of each sub-interval:

( ) ((0 ) + 4 (1 ) + 2 (2 ) + 4 (3 ) + + ( ))
3
NOTE: Easy way to remember the Simpsons rule is

( ) ( + 4() + 2() + )
3
NOTE: The Simpsons provides the exact answer for quadratic and cubic functions as
opposed to just an approximation

Integration
Example 1
4
Approximate the value of the integral using Simpsons rule with 5 function

2 +4
0
values.
a) Find the width, of each sub-interval.
Five function values corresponds to 4 subintervals
Each interval is 1 unit in length
=1
The function values are then 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4
b) Fill out the following table with the function values.
0 1 2 3 4
1 1 3 2
() 0
5 2 13 5
c) Apply the formula for Simpsons rule to find an approximation for the integral.
4
1
[ (0) + 4 (1) + 2(2) + 4 (3) + (4)]
0 2 +4 3
1 4 2 12 2
= (0 + + + + )
3 5 2 13 5
=2.475232104 (to 8 dp)
d) The correct value of this integral is 2.47213595 (8 dp). Find the percentage error of your
calculation.
|2.475232104 2.47213595|
% = 100% = 0.1%
2.47213595

Integration
Example 2
2
Approximate the value of the integral using Simpsons rule with 5 function values.
1

1
Five function values corresponds to 4 subintervals
Each interval is 0.25 unit in length
1
= 0.25 = 4
The function values are then 1, 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, and 2
1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
1 1 1 1
() 1
1.25 1.5 1.75 2
2
1 1 1
[ (1) + 4 (1.25) + 2 (1.5) + 4(1.75) + (2)]
1 4 3
1 4 2 4 1
= (1 + + + + )
12 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
= 0.6933 (to 4 dp)

Trignometric Functions
TRIGNOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
TRIG. RATIOS

=

=

DERIVATION OF TRIG. IDENTITIES

+ =
+ = ( 2 )
+ = ( 2 )

LENGTH OF AN ARC AREA OF AN ARC
RADIANS
To convert degrees into radians:

180
To convert radians into degrees:
180

AREA OF A TRIANGLE

DERIVING COSINE RULE DERIVING SINE RULE
AREA OF A SEGMENT

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
DEFINITION OF A LOG
A log allows the index to be written as the subject of the equation:
= = log
Examples
Example 1
24 = 16
log 2 16 = 4
Example 2
log 3 9 = 2
32 = 9
Example 3
log 49 = 2
2 = 49
=7
EXPONENTIAL AND LOG LAWS
Index Laws Log Laws

= + log () = log + log

= log = log log

( ) = log = log
= log 1 = 0
= log = 1
1
= log =


Example 1
log 3 + log 4 log 6

= log(3 4 6)
= log 2
Example 2
2543 = 5+7
52(43) = 5+7
8 6% = + 7
7 = 13
13
=
7
CHANGE OF BASE FORMULA
Change of base formula is used to evaluate complex logs which cannot be inputted in to
calculators.
log
log =
log
Example 1
log 3 5 =
log 5
=
log 3
= 1.46
Example 2
log 2
log 2
=
log
= 0.30
log 2 =
log 2
=
log
= 0.30

THE DERIVATIVE OF THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION
FORMULAE
Derivative of
1
log =

Derivative of
1
log =

Derivative of ( + )

log ( + ) =
+
PROOF

Find if = log ( + )by using the chain rule:

Let = +
So = log
1
=

Using the chain rule,

=

1
=

=
+

Derivative of ()
()
log () =
()
PROOF

If = log ( ) find
Let = ()

= ()

So = log
1 1
= =
()
Using the chain rule,

=

1
= ()
()
()
=
()
Example 1
Find the derivative of 3
3
=
3
1
=

Example 2
Find the derivative of (10 + 3)
10
=
10 + 3

Example 3
Find the derivative of =
1
= log
2
1
=
2
Example 4
Differentiate = 3 7 4
Tip: If we want to differentiate logs with a base other than , use the change of base formula
to express the log in terms of log , and then differentiate.
3 log 4
=
log 7
3 4
=
log 7 4
3
=
log 7
Example 5
Differentiate
1
( ln ) = ln +

= ln + 1
APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
Tangents and Normals
STEP 1: Find the y co-ordinate of the point
STEP 2: Find the derivative ( ), and then find the gradient of the tangent or normal
(Remember = 1)
STEP 3: Find the equation of the line using point-gradient form

Example 1
Find the normal to the curve = at (1,0)
=0
1
=

At = 1, =1

= 1
= 1
Equation of normal:
0 = 1( 1)
= + 1
Example 2
Find the equation of the tangent to the curve = at the point = 1.
(1) = log 1
=0
So the coordinate is (1, 0)
= log
1
=

= 1 = 1
1 = ( 1 )
0 = 1( 1)
=1

CURVE SKETCHING
In sketching curve involving compound logarithmic functions, such as log , you will need
to understand which function dominates. For example, consider the function log
a) What happens to the curve = as 0
As 0, 0
b) What happens to the curve = as 0
As 0,
c) What happens to the curve = , as 0
To answer the last question, we must recognise that:
dominates log
dominates log
This means that beats log , or that the curve follows the behavior of in priority of log .
Hence
lim log = 0
0
Example
Consider the function =

a) Find the domain of the function
b) Find any vertical or horizontal asymptotes
c) Find any stationary points and determine their nature
d) Find the point of inflexion
e) Sketch the curve, and hence find the range of the function.
a) Domain: > 0
b) Vertical asymptote exists at = 0
log 1
Since dominates log , = behaves like = for large positive and negative values

of
Horizontal asymptote exists at = 0

1
log
c) = 2
1 log
=
2
Stationary points occur when = 0
1 log
=0
2
log = 1
=
1
When = , =
1
Stationary point occurs at (, )
1
2 2(1 log )

=
4
2 log 2
=
4
2 log 3
=
3
When = , < 0
1
Relative maximum occurs at (, )
d) Point of inflexion occurs when = 0
2 log 3
=0
3
3
log =
2
3
= 2
3 3
3
When = 2 , = 2 2
3 3
3
Point of inflexion occurs at ( 2 , 2 2 )
1
e) (, )

(1,0)

INTEGRATION OF THE RECIPROCAL FUNCTION
We previously defined:
1
log =

So, integrating both sides gives:

Integral of
1
= log

Since:

log( + ) =
+
Integrating both sides gives:

log( + ) =
+
Divide both sides by :
1 1
log( + ) =
( + )

Integral of +
1 1
= log( + )
( + )
We know that:
( )
log () =
( )
Integrating both sides, gives:
( )
log ( ) =
( )
Standard Form of Integration
()
= log ()
Example 1 ()

1
=

= log +
Example 2
2
=
3 + 1
2 1
=
3 +1
1
= 2 log(3 + 1) +
3
2
= log(3 + 1) +
3
Example 3
a) Differentiate
b) Hence, find
3
c) Evaluate 2
1
a) ( log ) = log +

= log + 1

b) ( log ) = log + 1
log = ( log )
= log +
3
c) = [ log ] 2
= ( 3 log 3 3 ) ( 2 log 2 2 )
= 3 3 log 3 2 2 log + 2
= 3 3 3 2 2 + 2
= 2 3 2
Example 4
Find the area bounded by the curve = , the , and the lines = 1 and = 2
1
2
1
=
1
2
= [log ]
1
= log 2 log 1
= log 2

THE DERIVATIVE OF THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION
DERIVATIVE OF
To find the derivative of = , following the steps below.
Let =
Express = in logarithmic form:
= ln
Differentiate with respect to :
1
=

Find

=

= [ = ]
Derivative of

=

If = + use the chain rule to find :

Let = +
So =
Using the Chain rule:

=

= = +

Derivative of +
+
= +

If = () , use chain rule to find
Let = ()

= ()

So =
Using the Chain rule:

=

= ( )

= ( ) ()
Derivative of ()
()
= () ()

Example 1
3
=

= 3 3
Example 2
23
=

2
= (2 3) 3

Example 3

(1 + )

(log(1 + )) =
(1 + )

=
1 +
Example 4

( )=
+
( (1) )( + ) ( + (1) )( )
=
( + )2
( + )( + ) ( )( )

=
( + )2
2 + 2 + 2 ( 2 2 + 2 )
=
( + )2
+ 2 + 2 ( 2 2 + 2 )
2
=
( + )2

Application of Calculus to the Physical World
APPLICATION OF CALCULUS TO THE PHYSICAL WORLD
OVERVIEW
Once you grasp the following concepts, much of the wording of questions that come under
this topic become easier to understand. It is important to understand these concepts
thoroughly.
Firstly, the idea of distance and displacement must be understood.
Displacement: the position of an object relative to a point (usually the origin)
Distance: the space between an object and a point
Distance, is different to displacement, because distance cannot be negative. However

displacement can. If you imagine the origin as a point, and then a particle moving from it to
the left 50 metres, we would say that the particle has been displaced by -50 metres.
(Convention in mathematics: to the left normally means negative displacement).
= Horizontal Displacement
= Velocity
= Acceleration
Displacement, Velocity and acceleration are all vector quantites and thus you need to state
the direction of the moving particle.

EXAMPLES
Question 1
The displacement of a particle which moves along the x axis is given by = 4 2 + 6 + 5

i) Find where the particle is initially
ii) Find an expression for its velocity at time t
iii) Find its velocity after 2 seconds
iv) Find at what time the particle is stationary
Answers
i) To find where the particle is initially, we have to find it when it hasnt even moved, yet, when nothing's
happened, at the very beginning of everything. Thus, to find where the particle is initially, we substitute
the value = 0 because that's the beginning, thus the particle's initial position. Thus whenever the words
initial appear, you now know it means when t (time) = 0
= 4 2 + 6 + 5
when = 0
= 4 (0 ) 2 + 6 (0 ) + 5
= 5
Thus, the particle's initial position (when = 0) is = 5
ii) Velocity if we recall, is just the derivative of x. Therefore

= 4 2 + 6 + 5
iii) To find the velocity after 2 seconds, we just plug in = 2 into the equation of the velocity:
= 8 + 6
when = 2
= 8 (2 ) + 6
= 22
Thus the velocity, after 2 seconds, is 22 units/s
(When we state velocities, we use the notation units/s and for acceleration, we use units/s.)

iv) To find the time when the particle is stationary, we have to find the time when the velocity is 0. When
the particle is stationary, its not moving. The original equation = 4 2 + 6 + 5
only tells us how far the particle moves, or its displacement. The derivative of it tells us how fast the
particle is moving, which is the velocity. But if the particle has stopped moving, then obviously the speed
it'll be going at is 0. That will be the velocity. Think of it like a car, if you want to know when the car's
stopped, that'll be when its got no speed, or it's going at 0km/h. That's why we use when = 0:
So when = 0
= 8 + 6 = 0
Thus
8 = 6
6
=
8
6
Therefore, the particle is stationary when the velocity = 0, which is at =
8
Question 2
The acceleration of a particle is given by = 2 6. When = 6, the particle is stationary.

Find its velocity when = 2.
Answers
We know that the derivative of X will give us V. And we know that the derivative of V gives us A (where X
is displacement, V is velocity and A is acceleration). So therefore, the integral of A should give us V. And
the integral of V will give us X! So if we know that A = something, then the integral of that something will
give us V
= 2 6
(2 2 )
Therefore = Which is the same as = , Therefore = 6 + where
2
is a constant
Simplifying, we get = 2 + 6 + where is a constant
Thus, we now have a constant to deal with, because the integral we solved was an INDEFINITE integral.
Using the information we have of course - When = 6, the particle is stationary. That's the same as
saying when = 6, the velocity = 0
= 2 6 + When = 6, = 0
0 = ((6)2) 6(6) + Therefore 0 = 0 +
Therefore , the constant = 0! So now we know that the Velocity equation is actually:
= 2 6 + 0
So we can now use the equation to figure out what the velocity is when = 2. Therefore, plugging it in,
we get the velocity being = 56 units per second.

Probability
PROBABILITY
OVERVIEW
Probability is the study of how likely an event will occur.
MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE EVENTS
Mutually exclusive events are where if one event is to occur, another cannot. For example,
when rolling a die, a 6 cannot occur at the same time as a 2.
If ( ) is the probability of an event occurring, then:
no. of favourable outcomes

( ) =
total no. of outcomes
If ( ) = 0, then the event is impossible.

If ( ) = 1, then the event is certain to happen
0 ( ) 1
The sum of all mutually exclusive probabilities is 1.
EXAMPLES
Example 1
A container holds 5 blue, 3 white and 7 yellow marbles. If one marble is selected at random,
find the probability of getting a white marble.
Solution
3 1
( ) = =
15 5
Example 2
The probability that a traffic light will turn green as a car approaches it is estimated to be
5
. A taxi goes through 192 intersections where there are traffic lights. How many of these
12
would be expected to turn green as the taxi approached?
Solution
5
It is expected that of the traffic lights would turn green.
12
5
192 = 80
12
it would be expected that 80 traffic lights turn green as the taxi approaches them.

Probability
COMPLEMENTARY EVENTS
The complement of an event happening is the event not happening, i.e. the complement of
( ) is (not ). This is written as ( ).
( ) + ( ) = 1
Proof:
Let be the number of ways can happen out of a total of events. Then the number of ways will not
happen is .

( ) =

( ) =

=

=1

= 1 ( )
EXAMPLES
Example 1
1
The probability of a win in a raffle is . What is the probability of losing?
350
Solution
(lose) = 1 (win)
1
=1
350
349
=
350
Example 2
The probability of a tree surviving a fire is 72%. Find the probability failing to survive a fire.
Solution
(fail) = 1 (survive)
= 100% 72%
= 28%

Probability
NON-MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE EVENTS
Non-mutually exclusive events occur where more than one event occurs at the same time.
Venn diagrams prove useful when this occurs.
In addition, a formula can be used for these events:
( or ) = () + () ( and B)
EXAMPLES
Example 1
In a class of 32 students, 18 do music and 16 do sport. Find the probability that if a student
is selected at random, that:
a) They do sport
Solution
18 + 16 = 34
There are only 32 students in the class.
2 students do both music and sport.
M S 32
16 2 14
16
(S ) =
32
1
=
2
b) They do music only c) They do both
Solution Solution
16 2
(M only) = (both) =
32 32
1 1
= =
2 16

Probability
Example 2
One card is drawn from a set of cards numbered 1 to 10. Find the probability of drawing out
an odd number or a multiple of 3.
Solution
The odd cards are 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9.

The multiples of 3 are 3, 6 and 9.
The numbers of 3 and 9 are both odd and multiples of 3.
So there are 6 numbers that are odd or multiples of 3: 1, 3, 5, 6, 7 and 9
8 odd multiples 2
of 3
5 3
1
9 6
7
10 4
the probability of drawing out an odd number or a multiple of 3 will be all the numbers in the circles.
6
(odd or multiple of 3) =
10
3
=
5
Example 3
From 100 cards, numbered from 1 to 100, one is selected at random. Find the probability
that the card selected is even or less than 20.
Solution
Some cards are both even and less than 20 (i.e. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18).
9
(even and < 20) =
100
50
(even) =
100
19
(< 20) =
100
(even or < 20) = (even) + (< 20) (even and < 20)
50 19 9
= +
100 100 100
60
=
100
3
=
5

Probability
MULTI-STAGE EVENTS
Each possible outcome (sample space) is represented in tables and tree diagrams.
Two methods of writing the possible outcomes:
Table List all the outcomes

Probability Trees Shows the probability of each event
Two general rules:
and means (chances are decreased when more than one condition is satisfied)
or means + (chances are increased when one or the other condition can be
satisfied)
This means that:
( and ) = () ()
( or ) = () + ()
EXAMPLES
Example 1
Find the sample space and the probability of each outcome for each question by using a
table or tree diagram.
Solution
Using a table gives: Using a tree diagram gives:
H T H
H HH HT H
T TH TT
T
H
T
1
Since there are four possible outcomes (HH, HT, TH, TT), each outcome has a probability of .
4
1
Remember that each outcome when tossing 1 coin is .
2
1 1 1
Notice that = .
2 2 4

Probability
Example 2
7
The probability of a missile hitting a target is . Find the probability that two missiles fired
8
will:
a) Hit two targets b) Miss both targets
Solution Solution
7 7 1 1
(H & H) = (M & M) =
8 8 8 8
49 1
= =
64 64
Example 3
Find the probability of the upper most face being a 3 or 4 if a die is rolled.
Solution
(3 or 4) = (3) + (4)
1 1
= +
6 6
1
=
3
Example 4
Bob buys 5 tickets in a raffle in which 95 tickets are sold. There are 2 prizes to be won. Find
the probability that he wins:
a) Both prizes b) At least one prize
Solution Solution
5 4 (at least one W) = 1 (L & L)

(W & W) =
95 94
As one raffle has 90 89
20 =1( )
= 95 94
8930 been taken out, the
92
2 probability has =
= decreased 893
893

Probability
Example 5
If 2 coins are tossed, find the probability of tossing a head and a tail.
Solution
(H and T) = (H & T) or (T & H)
1 1 1 1
= (2 2) + (2 2)
1 1
=4+4
1
=2
Example 6
A person has probability of 0.2 of winning a prize in a competition. If he enters 3

competitions, find the probability of his winning 2 competitions.
Solution
Probability of losing is 1 0.2 = 0.8

(2W) = (W & W & L) + (W & L & W) + (L & W & W)
= (0.2 0.2 0.8) + (0.2 0.8 0.2) + (0.8 0.2 0.2)
= 0.096

Series
SERIES
OVERVIEW
A series (also known as a progression) is a sequence of numbers which follow a certain

pattern. There are two types of series: arithmetic and geometric.
ARITHMETIC SERIES
In an arithmetic series, each term is a constant amount greater or less than the previous
term. This constant is called the common difference.
If 1 , 2 and 3 are consecutive terms of an arithmetic series (AP), then:
= 2 1 = 3 2
To calculate the value of a particular term within an AP, the following formula can be used:
= + ( 1)
Where: = first term in the series

= position of the term in the series, i.e. the th term
= common difference
To calculate the sum of an arithmetic series, two formulas can be used.
If the last term (i.e. ) is known,

= ( + )
2
Where: = last or th term
If the last term is unknown,

= [2 + ( 1) ]
2

Series
EXAMPLES
Example 1
If 5 + + 31 + is an arithmetic series, find .
Solution
For an AP:
2 1 = 3 2
i.e. 5 = 31
2 5 = 31
2 = 36
= 18
Example 2
a) Evaluate if ( + 2) + (3 + 2) + (6 1) + is an arithmetic series.
Solution
For an arithmetic series, 2 1 = 3 2

So 3 + 2 ( + 2) = (6 1) (3 + 2)
3 + 2 2 = 6 1 3 2
2 = 3 3
0=3
3=
b) Write down the first 3 terms of the AP.
Solution
Substituting = 3:
1 = + 2 3 = 6 1
=3+2 = 631
=5 = 17
2 = 3 + 2
= 33+2
= 11
c) Find the common difference .
Solution
= 2 1 = 3 2
= 11 5 = 17 11
=6

Series
Example 3
The 5th term of an arithmetic progression is 37 and the 8th term is 55. Find the common
difference and the first term of the series.
Solution
= + ( 1) 37 4 = 55 7
5 = 37 3 = 18
i.e. + (5 1) = 37 =6
+ 4 = 37 = 37 4(6)
= 37 24
= 37 4 = 13
9 = 55
= 6, = 13
i.e. + (8 1) = 55
+ 7 = 55
= 55 87
Example 4
Evaluate 9 + 14 + 19 + + 224.
Solution

= 9, = 5 = ( + )
2
44
44 = (9 + 224)
2
= 22 233
= 5126
Example 5
The 6th term of an AP is 23 and the sum of the first 10 terms is 210. Find the sum of 20
terms.
Solution
6 = 23 2(23 5 ) + 9 = 42
+ (6 1) = 23 46 10 + 9 = 42
+ 5 = 23 = 46 42
= 23 5 =4
10 = 210 = 23 5(4)
10 =3
[2 + (10 1) ] = 210
2
5(2 + 9 ) = 210
2 + 9 = 42

Series
20
20 = [2(3) + (20 1)4]
2
= 10[6 + 19(4)]
= 10 82
= 820
Example 6
A stack of cans on a display at a supermarket has 5 cans on the top row. The next row down
has 2 more cans and the next one has 2 more cans and so on.
a) Calculate the number of cans in the 11 th row down.
Solution
= 5, = 2
11 = 5 + (11 1)2
= 5 + 2(10)
= 25
b) If there are 320 cans altogether, how many rows are there?
Solution
= 320

= [ 2(5) + ( 1 )2]
2
(10 + 2 2) = 640
22 + 8 = 640
2 + 4 320 = 0
( 16)( + 2) = 0
16 = 0, + 20 = 0
= 16, 20
Because must be a positive integer, = 16.
16 rows.

Series
GEOMETRIC SERIES
In a geometric series, each term is formed by multiplying the previous term by a constant.
This constant is known as the common ratio.
If 1 , 2 and 3 are consecutive terms of a geometric series, then:
2 3
= =
1 2
To calculate the value of a particular term in a GP, the following formula can be used:
= 1

= position of the term in the series, i.e. the th term
= common ratio
To calculate the sum of a geometric series, two formulas can be used depending on the
value of :
( 1)
= for || > 1
1
(1 )
= for || < 1
1
When || < 1, there is a limiting sum, i.e. the sum of the series will eventually reach a limit.
This formula can be used to find the limit of a series:

= where || < 1
1
EXAMPLES
Example 1
Find if 5 + + 45 + is a geometric series.
Solution
2 3 = 225 = 15
= =
1 2 If = 15, the series is 5 + 15 + 45 + where = 3.
45
= If = 15, the series is 5 15 + 45 where = 3.
5

Series
Example 2
Find the 10th term of the series 5 + 10 20 + .
Solution
= 5, = 2, = 10 10 = 5(2)101
= 1 = 5(2)9
= 5(512)
= 2160
Example 3
1
Find the first value for for which the terms of the series +1 + 5 + exceed 3000.
5
Solution
1 log 15000
= , = 5 1 >
5 log 5
When > 3000 log 15000
> +1
log 5
1 > 3000
1 1 > 6.97
(5 ) > 3000
5 =7
51 > 15000 the 7th term will be the first to exceed 3000.
log 51 > log 15000
( 1) log 5 > log 15000
Example 4
Find the sum of the first 10 terms of the series 3 + 12 + 48 + .
Solution
=3 | | > 1
12 48 3(410 1)
= = 10 =
3 12 41
= 410 1
=4
= 10 = 1 048 575

Series
Example 5
The sum of terms of 1 + 4 + 16 + is 21,845. Find the value of .
Solution
=1 1 (4 1)
= 21 845
4 16 41

= = 4 1
1 4 = 21 845
3
=4
4 1 = 65 535
= 21 845 4 = 65 536
| | > 1 = log 4 65 536
=8
Example 6
2
Find the sum of the series 6 + 2 + + .
3
Solution
=6
2
2 3
= =
6 2
1
=
3
|| < 1, limiting sum exists
6
=
1
13
6
=
2
3
3
=6
2
=9

Series
Example 7
A layer of tinting for a car window lets in 95% of light. How many layers will let in 40% of
light?
Solution
= 0.95, = 0.95
When = 0.4, 0.95(0.95)1 = 0.4
0.95 = 0.4
= log 0.95 0.4
17.9
approximately 18 layers of tinting will let in 40% of light.
Example 8
Write 0. 5 as a fraction.
Solution
0. 5 = 0.555555
5 5 5
= + + +
10 100 1000
This is a GP with:
5 1 1
= = , =
10 2 10
1
= 2
1
1 10
1
= 2
9
10
5
=
9

Series
Example 9
1
A ball is dropped from a height of 1 metre and bounces up to of its height on each
3
bounce until it eventually reaches the ground. What is the total vertical distance it travels?
Solution
The first distance is 1m because it is dropped from that height.

From there onwards, when the ball bounces up, it also comes back down, meaning it travels the same
distance twice.
1 1
The first bounce up is a distance of m, therefore = .
3 3
1 1
The difference between the distance of each bounce is of the previous, therefore = .
3 3
As a result:
1 1 1 1 1 1
Total Distance = 1 + 2 [ + ( ) + ( ) + ]
3 3 3 3 3 3
1 1 1
= 1 + 2( + + + )
3 9 27
|| < 1, limiting sum exists.
1
= 3
1
13
1
=3
2
3
1
=
2
1
Total Distance = 1 + 2 ( )
2
=1+1
=2

Series
SIGMA NOTATION
Sigma notation is a way of representing the sum of a series.
Sigma notation is generally expressed as:
( )
=

= last term in the series
() = the formula for a term in the series
The series () will be in the following format:
() = () + ( + 1) + ( + 2) + + ( )
=
The number of terms in the series is:
+1
EXAMPLES
Example 1
5
2
Evaluate
=1
Solution
2 = 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + 5 2
=1
= 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + 25
= 55
Example 2
7
Evaluate (2 + 5)
3
Solution
(2 + 5) = (2 3 + 5) + (2 4 + 5) + (2 5 + 5) + (2 6 + 5) + (2 7 + 5)
3
= 11 + 13 + 15 + 17 + 19
= 75

Series
Example 3
Write 7 + 11 + 15 + + (4 + 3) in sigma notation.
Solution
Formula is 4 + 3 where the last term is at = .

=7
4 + 3 = 7
4 = 4
=1

(4 + 3)
=1
Example 4
100
Find the number of terms in the series (3 7)

1
Solution
number of terms = + 1
= 100 1 + 1
= 100

Series
Example 5
1 1 1
Write the series 1 + + ++ in sigma notation.
2 4 512
Solution
1 1 1
1 + + + +
2 4 512
Series is a GP
1 1
= 2= 4
1 1
2
1
=
2
1
=
512
1 1 1
1( ) =
2 512
1
log 1 =1
2 512
1
= log0.5 +1
512
= 10
10 1 9
1 1
( ) =
2 2
=1 =0
9
1 1 1 1
1+ + ++ =
2 4 512 2
=0
Example 6
Write 1 + 8 + 27 + 64 + 125 in sigma notation.
Solution
1 + 8 + 27 + 64 + 125
Now 1 = 13
8 = 23
27 = 33
64 = 43
125 = 53
5
1 + 8 + 27 + 64 + 125 = 3
=1

Series
COMPOUND INTEREST
Compound interest is where the interest on an investment is calculated from the original
interest as well as the interest that may have already been accumulated. It is a form of
geometric series.
In general, the compound interest formula is:
= (1 + )
Where: = final amount

= principal (initial investment)
= interest rate as decimal
= number of time periods
EXAMPLE
Find the amount that will be in the bank after 6 years if $2000 is invested at 12% p.a. with
interest paid yearly and monthly.
Solution
= 2000
For yearly:
= 12%
= 0.12
=6
= (1 + )
= 2000(1 + 0.12)6
= 2000(1.12)6
= 3947.65
For monthly:
must be divided in to the rate for each month, i.e. divide by 12.
= 0.12 12
= 0.01
In addition, the number of time periods must change because interest is paid 12 times each year.
= 6 12
= 72 months
= 2000(1 + 0.01)72
= 2000(1.01)72
= 4094.20

Series
SUPERANNUATION
Superannuation attracts interest when an initial investment is put in, however it is different
to compound interest. Each time money is invested, it attracts its own interest separate from
the other payments that are already there. It is important to take note of when the money is
invested, usually the beginning or end of a time period.
The compound interest formula is used.
EXAMPLES
Example 1
A sum of $1500 is invested at the beginning of each year in a superannuation fund. If

interest is paid at 6% p.a., how much money will be available at the end of 25 years?
Solution
= 1500, = 6% = 0.06
= (1 + )
= 1500(1 + 0.06)
= 1500(1.06)
At the end of the first year: 1 = 1500(1.06)
At the end of the second year: 2 = [1 ](1.06) + 1500(1.06)
= 1500(1.06)2 + 1500(1.06)
At the end of the third year: 3 = [2 ](1.06) + 1500(1.06)
= 1500(1.06)3 + 1500(1.06)2 + 1500(1.06)
= 1500(1.06 + 1.062 + 1.063 )
And so this continues on to create this formula:
= 1500(1.06 + 1.062 + 1.063 + + 1.06 )
25 = 1500(1.06 + 1.062 + 1.063 + + 1.0625 )
Now (1.06 + 1.062 + 1.063 + + 1.0625 ) is a geometric series with = 1.06, = 1.06 and = 25.
1.06(1.0625 1)
24 =
1.06 1
1.06(1.0625 1)
25 = 1500 [ ]
0.06
87 234.57
at the end of 25 years, there will be $87 234.57

Series
Example 2
An amount of $50 is put into an investment account at the end of each month. If interest is
paid at 12% p.a. paid monthly, how much is in the account at the end of 10 years?
Solution
= 50
= 12% 12 = 0.01
= 12 10 = 120
1 = 50
2 = [1 ](1 + 0.01) + 50
= 50(1.01) + 50
3 = [2 ](1.01) + 50
= 50(1.01)2 + 50(1.01) + 50
= 50(1 + 1.01 + 1.012 )
= 50(1 + 1.01 + 1.012 + + 1.011 )

120 = 50(1 + 1.01 + 1.012 + + 1.01119 )
1(1.01120 1)
120 =
1.01 1
1.01120 1
=
0.01
1.01120 1
120 = 50 ( )
0.01
= 11501.93
after 10 years, there is $11 501.93

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Epping Boys High School

Vinodh Thanabalasingham, Lawrence Feng,

Basic Arithemetic and Algebra 2

The Quadratic Polynomial and the Parabola 40

Tangent to a Curve and Derivative of a Function 46

Geometrical Applications of Differentiation 48

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 84

Application of Calculus to the Physical World 97

MATHEMATICS | PAGE 1 OF 121

BASIC ARITHEMETIC AND ALGEBRA

There are 4 basic operations that are applied:

Operations Symbol Result

There is an order in certain questions in which the operations must be done.

Integers are values that can be expressed as a whole number.

Such as: 1, 1 000 000, etc.

MATHEMATICS | PAGE 2 OF 121

Both the numerator and denominator are integers.

MATHEMATICS | PAGE 3 OF 121

FRACTIONS, DECIMALS AND PERCENTAGES

To convert recurring decimals, we use algebra.

Step 1: Identify the number of repeating digits, and refer to this as n

Step 2: Multiply the decimal by 10n

Step 3: Subtract the original decimal

Step 4: Simplify the expression

There are 2 recurring digits.

100 = 34.34343434343434 0.34343434343434

INDICES: POWERS AND ROOTS

Some rules to remember:

MATHEMATICS | PAGE 4 OF 121

Where 1 < 10 and b is an integer.

Often ask to a certain decimal or significant figure.

IRRATIONAL NUMBERS/S URDS

Surd rules include:

SIMPLIFICATION AND S UBSTITUTION OF ALGEBRA

MATHEMATICS | PAGE 5 OF 121

FACTORISATION OF SIMPLE EXPRESSIONS

This is standard factorisations or expansions that should be remembered.

MATHEMATICS | PAGE 6 OF 121

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

Even Function : f x f x Odd Function : f x f x

TRANSFORMATION OF KNOWN GRAPHS

LOCUS AND ALGEBRAIC REPRESENTATION

After expansion and simplification, locus is 3 x 54 x 3 y 195 0 .

Find the centre and radius of the following circle: x 4 x y 6 y 12 .

Completing the square, x 2 4x 4 y 2 6 y 9 12 4 9 x 2 y 3 25 .

Centre is (2, -3) and radius is 5.

What is the locus whose equation is x y 0 ?

x 2 y 2 x y so its either the line y x or y x .

MATHEMATICS | PAGE 7 OF 121

REGION AND INEQUALIT Y

Similarly y x is above the parabolic curve, so is y x . Now,

MATHEMATICS | PAGE 8 OF 121

The rules of trigonometry arises from trigonometric ratios.

There are three main rules for right-angle triangles:

opposite adjacent opposite

S ine (is) C osine (is) T angent (is)

The inverse of these ratios are:

sin = cos(90 ) sec = cosec(90 ) tan = cot(90 )

MATHEMATICS | PAGE 9 OF 121

tan 50 = cot(90 50)

Find the value of , correct to 1 decimal place.

MATHEMATICS | PAGE 10 OF 121

60 minutes = 1 degree (60 = 1)

MATHEMATICS | PAGE 11 OF 121