RETAINING STRUCTURES
1. Definitions
A retaining wall is defined, for the purposes of this
chapter, as a slim vertical structure used for ground
retention during excavation. Unlike gravity retaining
walls, the weight of a slim retaining wall has little effect
on its capacity to balance the pressures. A slim retaining
wall acts like a series of juxtaposed vertical beams
holding back the pressures exerted by the soil, water and
existing structures. It is supported by struts or ground
anchors and is embedded into the ground below excava-
tion level, in order to:
- mobilise the passive pressure at the toe,
- allow the wall to support vertical loads if necessary,
- Provide hydraulic stability (for which a continuous
wall is required).
2. The different types of retaining structures
2.1. Discontinuous walls
Discontinuous walls include:
- regularly-spaced deep foundation elements (piles,
micro piles, barrettes) that form the rigid vertical struc-
ture. These elements are installed before the start of
earthworks,
- shoring between these elements, hence transferring
the soil loads to them. The lagging is installed in succes-
sive phases during the excavation process and often
includes a drainage system to prevent the build up of
water pressure.
The table below summarises the various types of discontinuous wall:
Name Vertical elements
Berlin-type wall Steel sections
Lutetian-type wall Bored piles
Parisian-type walls Precast piles
Moscow-type walls Barrettes (elements of diaphragm walls)
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There are two main types of retaining walls:
- continuous walls: diaphragm or precast walls, sheet
piling, slurry trenches, secant piles, etc.,
- discontinuous walls: Berlin and Parisian-type walls,
Lutetian and Moscow-type walls, contiguous piles, etc.
The vertical structural components which provide the
flexural capacity of the wall are installed before the
excavation work commences and therefore do not inter-
fere with the earthworks.
The temporary supports (and sometimes permanent
supports), and lagging in the case of discontinuous walls,
are installed during earthworks. This needs to be consi-
dered in the construction sequence.
The following conditions must be satisfied during exca-
vation and the lagging phase:
- there must be no significant flow of water through
the ground,
- the ground must be able to stand vertically until the
lagging is installed.
Shoring
Wood, shotcrete or cast-in-situ concrete
Sprayed or formed concrete
Sprayed or formed concrete
Sprayed or formed concrete