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Op inion Quarter ly , v ol .10 (Winter 1946-1947), pp.501-517.
, ,
, R .K napp , A Psychology of Rumor , " Public Opinion
Quarterly , vo l.8 , no .1 (Spring 1944), pp .22-37 .
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Cur zo n to A lsto n, July 8 , 1921 , Documents on British Forei gn Policy ( DBF P), v ol .14,
Lo ndon , 1966, pp.329-331. 1921 7 20 ,
, 312 , 308
Cur zo n to C.Eliot , 8 July , 1921 , DBFP , vo l.14 , pp.331-334 .
M emor andum by the M a rquess Cur zo n of K edleston o n the situatio n re proposed conference at
Washingto n, 24 July , 1921, DBFP , vol .14, pp.345-351 ;T he A mba ssado r in G reat Britain (Har vey)
to the Secretary of State , 19 July , 1921 , Papers Relating to The Foreign Relations of T he United S tates ,
Washingto n:U nited S ta te s G over nment P rinting O ffice , 1936, vo l.1 , pp .36-37.
0
1 Eilo t to Curzo n, 27 July , 1921 , DBFP , v ol .14 , pp .354-355 ;Eilo t to Curzon , 1 Aug ust , 1921, DBFP ,
vo l.14, pp.364-365.
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Japa ns O ffer of K iao cho w Rema rkable Stor y o f H ow It Came to Be Deliv ered ," The N orth China
Dai ly N ews , Se ptember 22, 1921 ; , 1921 10 2 , 11 ;
2 , 514 , 89
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2 , 53
T he Watchful Eye on Japan Rumor in the Ear of Chinese Students, " T he N orth China Dai ly
New s , A ugust 18 , 1921.
G ua rded Statement by Japanese P remier ," T he N orth China Daily N ew s , A ugust 10 , 1921 ;
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499 502
, E .H .Erikso n, I dentity :Y outh and Crisis ,
New Y or k:W .W .N or ton & Co mpany , 1968, pp .44-75 .
, X u Guoqi, China
and the Great War :China s Pursuit of a New N ational I dentity and I nternationalization , Cambridge :
Cambridg e U niver sity P ress , 2005.
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A rchive Editio ns , 2001, pp.528-529.
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Rejectio n o f Shantung M emo randum ,"T he N orth China Daily N ews , Octo ber 7, 1921.
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T he U tmost She Can Co ncede N ow Said to Be Reached ," T he North China Daily N ews , Octo ber 10,
1921 .
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70
 CONTENTS

Research Art icles

Disintegration of the Alliance between the Kingdom of Han s Xiongnu and the Di ()Tribes , as
Seen from the Case of Liu Yi C H EN Yong ( 4)
In the early years of t he Ki ng dom o f H an , the five Xiongnu tribes made alli ance w ith Shan
Z heng , t he head of a Di ()t ribe .T he lat ter became Liu Yuan s major support w hen he sought
to rule the Cent ral Plains .Ho wever , histo ri cal reco rds about Liu Yuan s son Li u Yi are rather
questio nable .Liu Yi m ay have been the son of Liu Yuan and Empress Shan , t he daughte r o f Shan
Z heng , and spent many years in t he Di t ribe , keeping a close relat ionship w it h the head of t he
t ribe .W hen Liu Yuan made Shan hi s em press , he also made Liu Yi t he P rince of Beihai and
seco nd hei r t o t he t hrone imm ediately f ollow ing t he crow n prince , Li u H e .Af ter L iu H e s dea th ,
Liu Co ng ascended t he throne , but he promised t o re turn t he sovereig n pow er to Li u Yi w hen he
reached mat uri ty .T hat w as in acco rdance wi th Liu Yuan s last w ill , and w as also an ef f ort t o win
suppor t fro m the Di .H ow ever , the alliance betw een t he Ki ng dom o f H an s Xiongnu and t he Di
t ribes w as solely dependent upon Empress Shan and Liu Yi .W hen relations betw een Liu Cong
and Li u Yi dete rio rated , t he al liance soon di sinteg ra ted .T his i s a facto r t hat can never be
overloo ked w hen w e consider the f ate of t he Liu f amily s sho rt-lived ki ng dom of Han .

Foreign Medicine at Khotan during the Han and Tang Dynasties CH EN M ing (17)
Duri ng t he H an and T ang Dynasties , the Kho tan region w as o ne of t he main art eries o f t he
Silk Road .Despite an inf lux o f fo reig n medici ne , Kho tan s medical cul ture did no t lose it s
i ndig enous character .In the course o f the t ranslatio n of fo reig n medical classics and int roduction
of f oreig n medical practi ces , local medici nal ing redient s and custom s we re retained .A t t he same
time , f oreig n cult ures f rom India , Pe rsia , t he Central P lai ns and T ibet f ound t heir w ay i nt o lo cal
medicine .Fo r inst ance , w it h the spread of Mahayana Buddhism in t he area , t he m edical
know ledg e of Ay urveda i n t he Brahm an (Hindu)cul tural sy st em w as int ro duced into and ming led
wi th it s Buddhi st count erpar t , t o an even g reate r ex tent than in Indi a .When Eso teric Buddhism
became prevalent , it combi ned w i th local Khot an medicine and played an ev en m ore prominent
role .

Land Mortgage in Mountainous Regions of Southern Zhejiang during the Mid- and Late Qing :A
Study Based on Land Mortgage Contracts"from Shicang Vil lage , Songyang County
CAO Shuji and L I Feiji (40)
Land mo rt gage is a comm on economic activi ty .Amo ng t he village rs of Shicang Village ,
S ong yang County , Zheji ang , t he re w ere v ario us w ays t o discharg e a m ort gage .T hese varying
w ay s , as w ell as t he shif t of vi llag ersstat us bet ween m ort gago r and credit or , and the inte r-
related fluctuatio n of land prices , g rain prices and t he m ort gage rate , reveal t hat , in t raditio nal
mountain village s i n southern Z hejiang or an even larger area , the pro cess of land purchase by t he
bet ter-of f w as a process of decent ralizatio n of w eal th .In buying and selling land and dividing up
family assets , t radi tional village s underwent tw o processes , di ff erent in kind , that decent ralized
wealt h .T hese t w o proce sses produced an equal y et po or socie ty .

Rumor and Diplomacy :A Preliminary Exploration of the Rumor of Direct Negotiation between
China and Japan on the Shandong Issue"before the Washington Conference MA Jianbiao (55)
O n t he eve o f the 1921 Washing t on Co nf erence (fo rmally know n as t he Internatio nal
Co nf erence on N av al Limit atio n), there w ere rum ors about direct neg ot iation bet ween China and
Japan o n the Shando ng issue ,"im plyi ng that Beijing intended t o nego tiate di rect ly w it h Japan .
T he f act that t he Chinese and Japanese g overnments had initially entered int o com municat ion via
privat e i ntermediaries se rved bo t h as t he source of t he rumo r and as a piece o f evidence f or
Beijing s successf ul refut ation of the rum or .T he process o f ref ut atio n involved a clash betw een
the prag matism of go vernment diplomacy and the ideali sm of ci tizen diplo macy .U sing t he
principle of open diplomacy and hi s personal ne tw ork" of elit e public opi nion , the f o reign
190
 H IST O RICA L RESEA RCH N O.4, 2008

minister Yan Huiqing successf ul ly g uided public opinion .In so doing , he saved the Beijing
gove rnment f rom t he passiv e state it had f allen i nt o as a result of t he i ssue of di rect neg oti ation ,
and made skilful use of public opinion as a suppo rt fo r of ficial di plom acy .H e was t hus able t o
thro w of f Japan s stro ng dem ands f or direct neg otia tion and t o pass t he issue to the Washing ton
Co nf erence fo r di scussion .

The Nobodies Who Changed History :Debate over the Composition Questions in the Entrance
Examination of Tsinghua University in 1932 L UO Zhitian (71)
Changes to t he fo rm of T sing hua Univer si ty s 1932 ent rance examinatio n stirred up debate .
La ter discussio ns of these debates usually f ocused on t he co uplet"part of the e xamination ,
although the debate w it hin societ y at the time also involved t he essay-w riti ng quest ion , w hich
w as equally hot ly debat ed .In t he course of this debate , protest s"f rom examinees and t he
general public w ere f ully considered by the universi ty authorit ies , and had direct ef fects on
underg raduate admi ssio ns in that year , as w ell as on t he composi tion quest ions in t he nex t y ea r s
e xam .In t his reg ard , t he protest s may be said to have been highly eff ect ive .T he univ ersity
e xamination ceased t o be me rely a qualifyi ng test t o select successful candidates , but instead
became a t opic fo r public di scussion t hat w as it self subject to scrut iny .In ot her w o rds , i t became
a public ex pression subject to review and judg ment by socie ty .At t he sam e time , readerslet te rs
i n t he new spapers and relat ed debates also reveal an aspect of the e thos and thought of the times .

Chiang Kai-shek s Statements on China s Destiny" and the Slogans of the Communist and the
Nationalist Parties DENG Ye (84)
In January 1943 , China signed new equal t reaties w it h Bri tain and A meri ca , in name a t least
ending i ts st atus as a semi-colo ny .Independence had been one of the major them es of t he Chi nese
revolutio n in modern times ;now , t his go al had been achieved by the Natio nalists .Seizi ng on t he
pro paganda signi ficance o f the event , Chiang Kai-shek published China s Desti ny .T he cent ral
i dea of the bo ok w as to replace t he quest ion of nati onal equali ty bet ween China , Brit ai n and
America w i th the questio n of politi cal choice bet ween t he Nati onalists and t he Com munist s .T w o
slog ans emerged in China o n the thesis of China s dest iny":one w as there w o uld be no Chi na
wi thout t he Nati onalist Part y ;
"and t he o ther , there w o uld be no China w it hout the Comm unist
Part y ." T he tw o slog ans highlight ed the class relat ions bet ween the Com munist and t he
Nationalist Part ies even t houg h t he Nati onal Unit ed F ront against Japanese Agg ression
cont inued .

The Return of the Chinese Changchun Railway and Its Impact on Sino-Soviet Relations
Z H ANG Shengf a (99)
Neg ot iations on t he return o f t he Chang chun Railw ay to Chi na t rave rsed a dif ficul t pa th .
Duri ng the War of Li beratio n ( 1946-1949), as China s politi cal si tuation changed rapi dly , leade rs
of t he Co mmuni st Par ties o f China and the All-Union Comm unist P arty (Bo lshevik ) held
tent ative di scussions over So vie t privileges in No rtheast Chi na , including the Chi nese Chang chun
Railw ay .During M ao Zedo ng s visit to M oscow a t the turn of 1949 and 1950 , Chi na and t he
S oviet Union sig ned ag reement s on a series of i ssues including t he Changchun Railw ay .During
the nego tiatio ns , the Soviet U nion ag reed to t he return o f the railw ay m ainly because i t badly
needed China as an ally t o deal w it h it s o w n Cold War dilemmas .St ali n believed China could
beco me such an ally .It w as in particular China s perf ormance i n t he Ko rean Wa r that proved it
w as a reliable ally and f inally resulted in t he return of the railw ay .In t he long run , t his w eakened
the Soviet inf luence on China s economy as a w hole , and dimi nished t he influence o f the Soviet
rai lw ay manag ement mo del o n China s m anagement of it s rai lroad sy st em .It al so eliminated a
source of f rict ion in t he t w o count rieseconomic cooperation and g radually eroded So vie t migr
socie ty in Nor theast China .

The Role Dilemma of the Catholic Church in the Modern West :From the Perspective of Cognitive
Differences among Sub-cultures C H EN Wenhai (122)
s t ransfo rmatio n f rom a medieval to a modern so ciety , t he
In the course o f Weste rn Euro pe
Ca tholic church launched a movement aimed at protecting t he f aith"t o save it self .H ow ever , it
191