Digital Manual

DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
LIST OF EXPERIMENT
1. Basic Logic Gates using Diode & Transistor
2. Universal Gate Using NAND & NOR Gate
3. Multiplexer4:1 / De-multiplexer 1:4
4: study of binary counter
5. Study of Ring counter
6. Study of Synchronous counter
7. Study of Asynchronous counter
8. IC 555 Trainer
9. Bread board trainer

1. Basic Logic Gates using Diode & Transistor
Aim:-Design and build Basic Logic Gates using Diode & Transistor
Apparatus Required
Digital trainer kit
Theory:-
Diode-Transistor Logic, or DTL, refers to the technology for designing and fabricating
digital circuits wherein logic gates employ both diodes and transistors. DTL offers better
noise margins and greater fan-outs than RTL, but suffers from low speed, especially in
comparison to TTL RTL allows the construction of NOR gates easily, but NAND gates
are relatively more difficult to get from RTL. DTL, however, allows the construction of
simple NAND gates from a single transistor, with the help of several diodes and resistors
Figure 1 shows an example of an 3-input DTL NAND gate. It consists of a single
transistor Q configured as an inverter, which is driven by a current that depends on the
inputs to the three input diodes D1-D3
In the NAND gate in Figure 1, the current through diodes DA and DB will only be large
enough to drive the transistor into saturation and bring the output voltage Vo to logic '0'
if all the input diodes D1-D3 are 'off', which is true when the inputs to all of them are
logic '1'. This is because when D1-D3 are not conducting, all the current from Vcc
through R will go through DA and DB and into the base of the transistor, turning it on
and pulling Vo to near ground.
However, if any of the diodes D1-D3 gets an input voltage of logic '0', it gets forward-
biased and starts conducting. This conducting diode 'shunts' almost all the current away
from the reverse-biased DA and DB, limiting the transistor base current. This forces the
transistor to turn off, bringing up the output voltage Vo to logic '1'. One advantage of
DTL over RTL is its better noise margin. The noise margin of a logic gate for logic level
'0', 0, is defined as the difference between the maximum input voltage that it will
recognize as a '0' (Vil) and the maximum voltage that may be applied to it as a '0' (Vol of
the driving gate connected to it). For logic level '1', the noise margin 1 is the
difference between the minimum input voltage that may be applied to it as a '1' (Voh of
the driving gate connected to it) and the minimum input voltage that it will recognize as
a '1' (Vih). Mathematically, 0 = Vil-Vol and 1 = Voh-Vih. Any noise that causes a
noise margin to be overcome will result in a '0' being erroneously read as a '1' or vice
versa. In other words, noise margin is a measure of the immunity of a gate from reading
an input logic level incorrectly. In a DTL circuit, the collector output of the driving
transistor is separated from the base resistor of the driven transistor by several diodes.
Circuit analysis would easily show that in such an arrangement, the differences between
Vil and Vol, and between Voh and Vih, are much larger than those exhibited by RTL
gates, wherein the collector of the driving transistor is directly connected to the base
resistor of the driven transistor. This is why DTL gates are known to have better noise
margins than RTL gates
Procedure:-
1. Switch on the power supply
2. Toggle switch ON for 1 and OFF for 0
3. Observe the output of logic gates on LED display
4. Also we can observe output on CRO.
Observation:-
Precaution:-
1. Handle all the apparatus carefully.
2. Connect all components as per Circuit Diagram
3. All the connection should be tight and right position
4. be careful about power supply it should be under digital range
5. The given signal or data should be proper value
6. LED connection should be proper and brightness should be observable
7. Take observation very carefully
Result:-

2. Universal Gate Using NAND & NOR Gate

Aim:-To study NAND & NOR as Universal Gate
Apparatus Required :-
Digital trainer kit
Theory:-
All other gates/functions can be implemented by NOR or NAND gates. So they are called
universal gates. In fact, in chips, entire logic maybe built using only NAND (or NOR)
gates. eg: inverter-- nand with inputs shorted. And ------ nand followed by an inverter
(using nand). Or--------- giving inverted inputs to nand gate. If you delve deep into realms
of VLSI you maybe able to understand the reason .Implementing with NAND is easier
when considering power and area of the chip. They are called universal gates because all
of the other gates may be constructed using only those two gates. That is important
because it's a lot cheaper in practice to make lots of similar things than a bunch of
different things (different gates).
NAND Gate:-
AND Gate:- The AND gate has two or more then two inputs and only one output this
operation is represented by a dot or by absence of an operator e.g. X.Y=Z is read X and
Y is equal to Z. Meaning that z=1,if X=1,Y=1 and Z=0 if any X or Y =0. The output
voltage of and gate is high if and only if both inputs are high or +5V.
NOR Gate:-A NOR gate can have two or more inputs and one output.NOR function is
compliments of OR functions. The output is low if any input is high. A NOR gate can
have two or more inputs . the 0 on the output means NOT showing that it is a NOT of
OR gate. The output of NOR gate is true when none of its inputs are true.
Procedure:-
Observation:-
Precaution:-
3. Multiplexer4:1 / De-multiplexer 1:4
Aim: - To study of De-multiplexer 1.4 using Gates
Apparatus Required:-
Digital trainer kit
Theory:-
These are also called data distributors. A demultiplexer performs a reverse operation of a
multiplexer. That is, it takes a single input and distributes it over several outputs.
1 to 4 line Demultiplexer:
Demultiplexer means one into many . A demultiplexer is a circuit that receives
information on a single line and transmits this information on one of 2n possible output
lines. The selection of a specific output line is controlled by the bit value of n selection
lines. The single input variable D has a path to tell four outputs, but the input information
is directed to only one of the output lines, as specified by the two selection lines s1 and
s0. if the selection line S1S0=10 output D2 will be same as the input value D,provided
D=0 while all other outputs are minted at 1.
Procedure:-
Observation:-
Precaution:-
Result:-

..
4: study of binary counter
Aim: - To study and verify UP-Down Counter using Flip-Flop
Digital trainer kit
Theory:-
In digital logic and computing, a counter is a device which stores (and sometimes
displays) the number of times a particular event or process has occurred.
UP-Down Counter:-
A counter that can change state in either direction, under control an updown selector
input, is known as an updown counter. When the selector is in the up state, the counter
increments its value; when the selector is in the down state, the counter decrements the
count.
Procedure:-
1. Connect +5V and ground to their indicated position on experimental board from
external DC power supply.
2. Connect inputs as per truth table to pin X and Y of logic gate.
4. Observe the output Z of logic gates on multimeter or LED display
Observation:-
Precaution:-
Result:-
..
5. Study of Ring counter
Aim: - To study of Ring Counter
Digital trainer kit
Theory:-
Shift register counters are the counters that use feedback, i.e the output of the last flip-
flop is connected back to the first flip-flop in some way.
There are two different shift register counters namely
(1) Ring counter and (2) Johnson counter
Ring shift counter:- A four bit ring shift counter using D-type flip-flop. The J-K flip-
flop can also be used instead of d flip-flops. For convenience purpose, the PRESET AND
CLEAR is not indicated on the flip-flop. They are assumed to be connected HIGH.
Johnson counter: - The ring counter can be modified slightly to produce another type
of shift-register counter called Johnson or twisted-ring counter. This counter is
constructed exactly like abnormal ring counter except that the inverted output of the last
flip-flop is connected to the input of the first flip-flop.
Procedure:-
Observation:-
Precaution:-
Result:-
..
6. Synchronous counter
Aim: - To Study of synchronous counter

Digital trainer kit
Theory :-
Synchronous in contrast to an asynchronous counter, is one whose output bits change

state simultaneously, with no ripple. The only way we can build such a counter circuit
from J-K flip-flops is to connect all the clock inputs together, so that each and every flip-
flop receives the exact same clock pulse at the exact same time: Now, the question is,
what do we do with the J and K inputs? We know that we still have to maintain the same
divide-by-two frequency pattern in order to count in a binary sequence, and that this
pattern is best achieved utilizing the "toggle" mode of the flip-flop, so the fact that the J
and K inputs must both be (at times) "high" is clear. However, if we simply connect all
the J and K inputs to the positive rail of the power supply as we did in the asynchronous
circuit, this would clearly not work because all the flip-flops would toggle at the same
time: with each and every clock pulse!
Procedure:-
Observation:-
Precaution:-
Result:-
..
7. Asynchronous counter
Aim: - To Study of Asynchronous counter
Digital trainer kit
Theory:
In the previous Asynchronous binary counter tutorial, we saw that the output of one
counter stage is connected directly to the input of the next counter stage and so on along
the chain, and as a result the asynchronous counter suffers from what is known as
"Propagation Delay". However, with Synchronous Counters, the external clock signal is
connected to the clock input of EVERY individual flip-flop within the counter so that all
of the flip-flops are clocked together simultaneously (in parallel) at the same time giving
a fixed time relationship. This results in all the individual output bits changing state at
exactly the same time with no ripple effect and therefore, no propagation delay.It can be
seen that the external clock pulses (pulses to be counted) are fed directly to each J-K flip-
flop in the counter chain and that both the J and K inputs are all tied together, but only in
the first flip-flop, flip-flop A (LSB) are they connected HIGH, logic "1" allowing the flip-
flop to toggle on every clock pulse.The J and K inputs of flip-flop B are connected to the
output "Q" of flip-flop A, but the J and K inputs of flip-flops C and D are driven from
AND gates which are also supplied with signals from the input and output of the previous
stage. If we enable each J-K flip-flop to toggle based on whether or not all preceding flip-
flop outputs (Q) are "HIGH" we can obtain the same counting sequence as with the
asynchronous circuit but without the ripple effect, since each flip-flop in this circuit will
be clocked at exactly the same time. As there is no propagation delay in synchronous
counters because all the counter stages are triggered in parallel the maximum operating
frequency of this type of counter is much higher than that of a similar asynchronous
counter.
Because the counter counts sequentially on every clock pulse the resulting outputs count
upwards from 0 ("0000") to 15 ("1111") therefore, this type of counter is also known as a
"4-bit Synchronous Up Counter".
Counters can count on either the "rising-edge" or the "falling-edge" of the clock pulse
resulting in one single count when the clock input changes state. Generally, synchronous
counters count on the rising-edge which is the low to high transition of the clock signal
and asynchronous ripple counters count on the falling-edge which is the high to low
transition of the clock signal.
It may seem unusual that ripple counters use the falling-edge of the clock cycle to change
state, but this makes it easier to link counters together because the most significant bit
(MSB) of one counter can drive the clock input of the next. This works because the next
bit must change state when the previous bit changes from high to low - the point at which
a carry must occur to the next bit. Synchronous counters usually have a carry-out and a
carry-in pin for linking counters together without introducing any propagation delays.
Procedure:-
Observation:-
Precaution:-
Result:-
..
8. IC 555 Trainer
Aim: - To Study A stable, monostable& bistable multivibrator
1.Trainer Kit
2.CRO
3.Multimeter
4.Patchcrord
5.BNC cable
Theory:
The 555 timer can be used with supply voltage in the range of +5v to +18v and can drive
upto 200 mAmps. It is compatible with both TTL and CMOS logic circuit because of the
wide range of supply voltage the 555 timer is versatile and easy to use in the a stable
multi-vibrator . the timer is oscillated between two threshold levels 1/3Vcc and 2/3Vcc in
order to generate a square wave form. No external signal source is required for such
generation and hence this is called as a free running multivibrator .
Circuit diagram:-
In the monostable mode, the 555 timer acts as a one-shot pulse generator. The pulse
begins when the 555 timer receives a trigger signal. The width of the pulse is determined
by the time constant of an RC network, which consists of a capacitor (C) and a resistor
(R). The pulse ends when the charge on the C equals 2/3 of the supply voltage. The pulse
width can be lengthened or shortened to the need of the specific application by adjusting
the values of R and C. The pulse width of time t, which is the time it takes to charge C to
2/3 of the supply voltage, is given by
Circuit Diagram:-
The Bistable Multivibrator

In these circuits, the output is stable in both the states. The states are switched using an
external trigger but unlike the monostable multivibrator, it does not return back to its
original state. Another trigger is needed for this to happen.This operation is similar to a
ip-op. There are no design parameters in this output and hence the following circuit can
be used.
Name
G
r1
o
u
n
d
,
l
o
w
l
e
v
e
l
(
0
V
)
P
u
r
p
o
s
e
A
2
s
h
o
r
t
p
u
l
s
e
h
i
g
h
-
t
o
-
l
o
w
o
PROCEDURE:-
1. Before making the connections, check the components using multimeter
2. . Make the connections as shown in figure and switch on the power supply
3. Observe the capacitor voltage waveform at 6 the pin of 555 timer on CRO
4. Observe the output waveform at 3rd pin of 555 timer on cro
5. Note down the amplitude levels, time period and hence calculate duty cycle
9. Bread board trainer

Breadboard
Temporary, no soldering required
This is a way of making a temporary circuit, for testing purposes or to try out an idea. No
soldering is required and all the components can be re-used afterwards. It is easy to
change connections and replace components. Almost all the Electronics Club projects
started life on a breadboard to check that the circuit worked as intended.
Breadboard
Uses of Breadboard
A breadboard is used to make up temporary circuits for testing or to try out an idea. No
soldering is required so it is easy to change connections and replace components. Parts
will not be damaged so they will be available to re-use afterwards. Almost all the
Electronics Club projects started life on a breadboard to check that the circuit worked as
intended. The photograph shows a typical small breadboard which is suitable for
beginners building simple circuits with one or two ICs (chips). Larger sizes are available
and you may wish to buy one of these to start with.
Connections on Breadboard
Breadboards have many tiny sockets (called 'holes') arranged on a 0.1" grid. The leads of
most components can be pushed straight into the holes. ICs are inserted across the central
gap with their notch or dot to the left. Wire links can be made with single-core plastic-
coated wire of 0.6mm diameter (the standard size). Stranded wire is not suitable because
it will crumple when pushed into a hole and it may damage the board if strands break off.
The diagram shows how the breadboard holes are connected:
The top and bottom rows are linked horizontally all the way across as shown by the red
and black lines on the diagram. The power supply is connected to these rows, + at the top
and 0V (zero volts) at the bottom. I suggest using the upper row of the bottom pair for
0V, then you can use the lower row for the negative supply with circuits requiring a dual
supply (e.g. +9V, 0V, -9V). The other holes are linked vertically in blocks of 5 with no
link across the centre as shown by the blue lines on the diagram. Notice how there is
separate blocks of connections to each pin of ICs. Large Breaboards
On larger breadboards there may be a break halfway along the top and bottom power
supply rows. It is a good idea to link across the gap before you start to build a circuit,
otherwise you may forget and part of your circuit will have no power !
Building a Circuit on Breadboard
Converting a circuit diagram to a breadboard layout is not straightforward because the

arrangement of components on breadboard will look quite different from the circuit
diagram. When putting parts on breadboard you must concentrate on their connections,
not their positions on the circuit diagram. The IC (chip) is a good starting point so place it
in the centre of the breadboard and work round it pin by pin, putting in all the
connections and components for each pin in turn.
The best way to explain this is by example, so the process of building this 555 timer
circuit on breadboard is listed step-by-step below. The
circuit is a monostable which means it will turn on the Monostable Circuit Diagram
LED for about 5 seconds when the 'trigger' button is
pressed. The time period is determined by R1 and C1 and you may wish to try changing
their values. R1 should be in the range 1k to 1M .
Time Period, T = 1.1 R1 C1
For further information please see 555 monostable.
IC pin numbers
IC pins are numbered anti-clockwise around the IC starting near the notch or dot. The
diagram shows the numbering for 8-pin and 14-pin ICs, but the principle is the same for
all sizes.
Components without suitable leads

Some components such as switches and variable resistors do not have suitable leads of
their own so you must solder some on yourself. Use single-core plastic-coated wire of
0.6mm diameter (the standard size). Stranded wire is not suitable because it will crumple
when pushed into a hole and it may damage the board if strands break off.
Building the example circuit

Begin by carefully insert the 555 IC in the
centre of the breadboard with its notch or dot to Monostable
the left. Then deal with each pin of the 555: Circuit on
1. Connect a wire (black) to 0V. Breadboard
2. Connect the 10k resistor to +9V.
Connect a push switch to 0V (you will need to solder leads onto the switch)
3. Connect the 470 resistor to an used block of 5 holes, then...
Connect an LED (any colour) from that block to 0V (short lead to 0V).
4. Connect a wire (red) to +9V.
5. Connect the 0.01F capacitor to 0V.
You will probably find that its leads are too short to connect directly, so put in a
wire link to an unused block of holes and connect to that.
6. Connect the 100F capacitor to 0V (+ lead to pin 6).
Connect a wire (blue) to pin 7.
7. Connect 47k resistor to +9V.
Check: there should be a wire already connected to pin 6.
8. Connect a wire (red) to +9V.
Finally:-
1. Check all the connections carefully.
2. Check that parts are the correct way round (LED and 100F capacitor).
3. Check that no leads are touching (unless they connect to the same block).
4. Connect the breadboard to a 9V supply and press the push switch to test the circuit.
Bus and terminal strips If your circuit does not work disconnect (or switch off) the power
supply and very carefully re-check every connection against the circuit diagram.A
breadboard (protoboard) is a construction base for a one-of-a-kind electronic circuit, a
prototype. In modern times the term is commonly used to refer to a particular type of
breadboard, the solderless breadboard (plugboard).
Because the solderless breadboard does not require soldering, it is reusable, and thus can
be used for temporary prototypes and experimenting with circuit design more easily.
Other, often historic, breadboard types don't have this property. This is also in contrast to
stripboard (veroboard) and similar prototyping printed circuit boards, which are used to
build more permanent soldered prototypes or one-offs, and cannot easily be reused. A
variety of electronic systems may be prototyped by using breadboards, from small analog
and digital circuits to complete central processing units (CPUs).In the early days of radio,
amateurs would nail bare copper wires or terminal strips to a wooden board (often
literally a board for cutting bread) and solder electronic components to them. Sometimes
a paper schematic diagram was first glued to the board as a guide to placing terminals,
then components and wires were installed over their symbols on the schematic. Using
thumbtacks or small nails as mounting posts was also common.
Typical specifications
A modern solderless breadboard consists of a perforated block of plastic with numerous

tin plated phosphor bronze or nickel silver alloy spring clips under the perforations. The
spacing between the clips (lead pitch) is typically 0.1" (2.54 mm). Integrated circuits
(ICs) in dual in-line packages (DIPs) can be inserted to straddle the centerline of the
block. Interconnecting wires and the leads of discrete components (such as capacitors,
resistors, inductors, etc.) can be inserted into the remaining free holes to complete the
circuit. Where ICs are not used, discrete components and connecting wires may use any
of the holes. Typically the spring clips are rated for 1 Ampere at 5 Volts and 0.333
Amperes at 15 Volts (5 Watts).
Logical 4-bits adder where sums are linked to LEDs on a typical breadboard.
Example breadboard drawing. Two bus strips and one terminal strip in one block. 25
consecutive terminals in a bus strip connected (indicated by gaps in the red and blue
lines). Four binding posts depicted at the top.
Close-up of a solderless breadboard. An IC straddling the centerline is probed with an
oscilloscope.Solderless breadboards are available from several different manufacturers,
but most share a similar layout. The layout of a typical solderless breadboard is made up
from two types of areas, called strips. Strips consist of interconnected electrical terminals.
Terminal strips The main area, to hold most of the electronic components. In the middle
of a terminal strip of a breadboard, one typically finds a notch running in parallel to the
long side. The notch is to mark the centerline of the terminal strip and provides limited
airflow (cooling) to DIP ICs straddling the centerline. The clips on the right and left of
the notch are each connected in a radial way; typically five clips (i.e., beneath five holes)
in a row on each side of the notch are electrically connected. The five clip columns on the
left of the notch are often marked as A, B, C, D, and E, while the ones on the right are
marked F, G, H, I and J. When a "skinny" Dual Inline Pin package (DIP) integrated
circuit (such as a typical DIP-14 or DIP-16, which have a 0.3 inch separation between the
pin rows) is plugged into a breadboard, the pins of one side of the chip are supposed to go
into column E while the pins of the other side go into column F on the other side of the
notch. bus strips To provide power to the electronic components. A bus strip usually
contains two columns, one for ground, one for a supply voltage. But some breadboards
only provide a single-column power distributions bus strip on each long side. Typically
the column intended for a supply voltage is marked in red, while the column for ground is
marked in blue or black. Some manufacturers connect all terminals in a column. Others
just connect groups of e.g. 25 consecutive terminals in a column. The latter design
provides a circuit designer with some more control over crosstalk (inductively coupled
noise) on the power supply bus. Often the groups in a bus strip are indicated by gaps in
the color marking. Bus strips typically run down one or both sides of a terminal strip or
between terminal strips. On large breadboards additional bus strips can often be found on
the top and bottom of terminal strips. Some manufacturers provide separate bus and
terminal strips. Others just provide breadboard blocks which contain both in one block.
Often breadboard strips or blocks of one brand can be clipped together to make a larger
breadboard. In a more robust and slightly easier to handle variant, one or more
breadboard strips are mounted on a sheet of metal. Typically, that backing sheet also
holds a number of binding posts. These posts provide a clean way to connect an external
power supply. Several images in this article show such solderless breadboards.
Diagram
A "full size" terminal breadboard strip typically consists of around 56 to 65 rows of

connectors, each row containing the above mentioned two sets of connected clips (A to E
and F to J). "Small size" strips typically come with around 30 rows.
Jump wires
The jump wires for solderless breadboarding can be obtained in ready-to-use jump wire
sets or can be manually manufactured. The latter can become tedious work for larger
circuits. Ready-to-use jump wires come in different qualities, some even with tiny plugs
attached to the wire ends. Jump wire material for ready-made or home-made wires should
usually be 22 AWG (0.33 mm) solid copper, tin-plated wire - assuming no tiny plugs are
to be attached to the wire ends. The wire ends should be stripped 3/16" to 5/16" (approx.
5 mm to 8 mm). Shorter stripped wires might result in bad contact with the board's spring
clips (insulation being caught in the springs). Longer stripped wires increase the
likelihood of short-circuits on the board. Needle-nose pliers and tweezers are helpful
when inserting or removing wires, particularly on crowded boards. Differently colored
wires and color coding discipline are often adhered to for consistency. However, the
number of available colors is typically far less than the number of signal types or paths.
So typically a few wire colors get reserved for the supply voltages and ground (e.g. red,
blue, black), some more for main signals, while the rest often get random colors. There
are ready-to-use jump wire sets on the market where the color indicates the length of the
wires; however, these sets do not allow applying a meaningful color coding schema.
Advanced solderless breadboards
Some manufacturers provide high-end versions of solderless breadboards. These are

typically high-quality breadboard modules mounted on some flat casing. The casing
contains useful equipment for breadboarding, for example one or more power supplies,
signal generators, serial interfaces, LED or LCD display modules, logic probes,
etc.Solderless breadboard modules can also be found mounted on devices like
microcontroller evaluation boards. They provide an easy way to add additional periphery
circuits to the evaluation board.
Limitations
An example of a complex circuit built on a breadboard. The circuit is an Intel 8088 single
board computer. Due to large stray capacitance (from 2-25pF per contact point), high
inductance of some connections and a relatively high and not very reproducible contact
resistance, solderless breadboards are limited to operate at relatively low frequencies,
usually less than 10 MHz, depending on the nature of the circuit. The relative high
contact resistance can already be a problem for DC and very low frequency circuits.
Solderless breadboards are further limited by their voltage and current ratings.Solderless
breadboards usually cannot accommodate Surface mount technology devices (SMD) or
non 0.1" (2.54 mm) grid spaced components, like for example those with 2 mm spacing.
Further, they can not accommodate components with multiple rows of connectors, if
these connectors don't match the DIL layout (impossible to provide correct electrical
connectivity). Sometimes small PCB adapters (breakout adapters) can be used to fit the
component on. Such adapters carry one or more of the non-fitting components and 0.1"
(2.54 mm) connectors in DIL layout. The larger of the components are usually plugged
into a socket, where the socket was soldered onto such an adapter. The smaller
components (e.g. SMD resistors) are usually directly soldered onto such an adapter. The
adapter is then plugged into the breadboard via the 0.1" connectors. However, the need to
solder the component or socket onto the adapter contradicts the idea of using a solderless
breadboard for prototyping in the first place. Complex circuits can become unmanageable
on a breadboard due to the large amount of wiring necessary.
Alternatives
Alternative methods to create prototypes are point-to-point construction, reminiscent of

the original breadboards, wire wrap, wiring pencil, and boards like stripboard.
Complicated systems, such as modern computers comprising millions of transistors,
diodes and resistors, do not lend themselves to prototyping using breadboards, as
sprawling designs on breadboards can be difficult to lay out and debug. Modern circuit
designs are generally developed using a schematic capture and simulation system, and
tested in software simulation before the first prototype circuits are built on a printed
circuit board. Integrated circuit designs are a more extreme version of the same process:
since producing prototype silicon is expensive, extensive software simulations are
performed before fabricating the first prototypes. However, prototyping techniques are
still used for some applications such as RF circuits, or where software models of
components are inexact or incomplete.

Digital Manual

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Digital Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

1. Basic Logic Gates using Diode & Transistor

2. Universal Gate Using NAND & NOR Gate

3. Multiplexer4:1 / De-multiplexer 1:4

4: study of binary counter

5. Study of Ring counter

6. Study of Synchronous counter

7. Study of Asynchronous counter

9. Bread board trainer

2. Universal Gate Using NAND & NOR Gate

Aim: - To Study of synchronous counter

Synchronous in contrast to an asynchronous counter, is one whose output bits change

The Bistable Multivibrator

9. Bread board trainer

The diagram shows how the breadboard holes are connected:

Converting a circuit diagram to a breadboard layout is not straightforward because the

For further information please see 555 monostable.

Components without suitable leads

Building the example circuit

1. Check all the connections carefully.

A modern solderless breadboard consists of a perforated block of plastic with numerous

A "full size" terminal breadboard strip typically consists of around 56 to 65 rows of

Advanced solderless breadboards

Some manufacturers provide high-end versions of solderless breadboards. These are

Alternative methods to create prototypes are point-to-point construction, reminiscent of

You might also like