Additional Mathematics

Project 2015

Prepared by;
Muhamad Amirul Rasyid bin Norzairy
5 Bestari

Guided by;
Pn. Kartini Jamal
Contents
 A Word of Gratitude
I would like to say thank you to Allah for guiding me and giving me
strength, ideas and patience to complete this additional mathematics project.
Without His blessings and guidance, this project could not be completed.

Firstly, I would like to thank my Additional Mathematics teacher, Pn Siti

Kartini Jamal for guiding me in completing this project. She has given me
many advices and guidance throughout this project.

Next, I would like to thank the principal, for

letting me to do some research to complete this project. Doing this project at
the school gave me some chances to do discussion among us.

Besides, I want to say thank you to my beloved parents as they

provided me with everything I need to complete this project such as money,
energy, books and others. They also shared their ideas and experience in
order to make this project successful.

Lastly, I would like to thank all the teachers and friends for helping me in
completing this project. Thank you to those who involved directly or indirectly
in making this project.
 Objective
Every form 5 student taking additional mathematics is required to carry out a
project work. Upon completion of the project, it is hoped that students will gain
some valuable experiences and able to:

Apply and adapt a variety of problem solving strategies to solve routine

and non-routine problems.
Experience classroom environments which are challenging, interesting
and meaningful hence improve their thinking skills.
Experience classroom environments where knowledge and skills are
applied in meaningful ways in solving real-life problems.
Experience classroom environments where expressing ones
mathematical thinking, reasoning and communication are highly
encouraged and expected.
Experience classroom environments that stimulate and enhance
effective learning.
Acquire effective mathematical communication through oral and writing,
and to use the language of mathematics to express mathematical ideas
correctly and precisely.
Enhance acquisition of mathematical knowledge and skills through
problem-solving in ways that increases interest and confidence.
Prepare students for the demands of their future undertakings and in
workplace.
Realise that mathematics is an important and powerful tool in solving
real life problems and hence develop positive attitude towards
mathematics.
Train themselves not only to be independent learners but also to
collaborate, to cooperate, and to share knowledge in engaging and
healthy environment.
 Use technology especially the ICT appropriately and effectively.
Train themselves to appreciate the intrinsic values of mathematics and
to become more creative and innovative.
Realise the importance and the beauty of mathematics.

What is FUNCTION?

In mathematics, a function is a relation between a set of inputs and a set of

permissible outputs with the property that each input is related to exactly one
output. An example is the function that relates each real number x to its
square x2. The output of a function f corresponding to an input x is denoted
by f(x) (read "f of x"). In this example, if the input is 3, then the output is 9,
and we may write f(3) = 9. Likewise, if the input is 3, then the output is also 9,
and we may write f(3) = 9. (The same output may be produced by more than
one input, but each input gives only one output.) The input variable(s) are
sometimes referred to as the argument(s) of the function.
Functions of various kinds are "the central objects of investigation" in most
fields of modern mathematics. There are many ways to describe or represent
a function. Some functions may be defined by a formula or algorithm that tells
how to compute the output for a given input. Others are given by a picture,
called the graph of the function. In science, functions are sometimes defined
by a table that gives the outputs for selected inputs. A function could be
described implicitly, for example as the inverse to another function or as a
solution of a differential equation.
The input and output of a function can be expressed as an ordered pair,
ordered so that the first element is the input (or tuple of inputs, if the function
takes more than one input), and the second is the output. In the example
above, f(x) = x2, we have the ordered pair (3, 9). If both input and output
are real numbers, this ordered pair can be viewed as the Cartesian
coordinates of a point on the graph of the function.
 What is FUNCTION?

In modern mathematics, a function is defined by its set of inputs, called

the domain; a set containing the set of outputs, and possibly additional
elements, as members, called its codomain; and the set of all input-output
pairs, called its graph. Sometimes the codomain is called the function's
"range", but more commonly the word "range" is used to mean, instead,
specifically the set of outputs (this is also called the image of the function). For
example, we could define a function using the rule f(x) = x2 by saying that the
domain and codomain are the real numbers, and that the graph consists of all
pairs of real numbers (x, x2). The image of this function is the set of non-
negative real numbers. Collections of functions with the same domain and the
same codomain are called function spaces, the properties of which are
studied in such mathematical disciplines as real analysis, complex analysis,
and functional analysis.
In analogy with arithmetic, it is possible to define addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division of functions, in those cases where the output is a
number. Another important operation defined on functions is function
composition, where the output from one function becomes the input to another
function.
 What is FUNCTION?

The GRAPH of the function f(x) = x3 9x2 + 23x 15. The interval A =
[3.5, 4.25] is a subset of the domain, thus it is shown as part of the x-axis
(green). The image of A is (approximately) the interval [3.08, 1.88]. It is
obtained by projecting to the y-axis (along the blue arrows) the intersection of
the graph with the light green area consisting of all points whose x-coordinate
is between 3.5 and 4.25. The part of the (vertical) y-axis shown in blue. The
preimage of B = [1, 2.5] consists of three intervals. They are obtained by
projecting the intersection of the light red area with the graph to the x-axis.
Type of FUNCTION
 Extrema of FUNCTION
In mathematical analysis, the maxima and minima (the plural of maximum
and minimum) of a function, known collectively as EXTREMA (the plural of
extremum), are the largest and smallest value of the function, either within a
given range (the local or relative extrema) or on the entire domain of a
function (the global or absolute extrema). Pierre de Fermat was one of the
first mathematicians to propose a general technique, ADEQUALITY, for
finding the maxima and minima of functions As defined in set theory, the
maximum and minimum of a set the greatest and least elements in the set.
Unbounded infinite sets, such as the set of real numbers, have no minimum or
maximum.
 Extrema of FUNCTION

The function x2 has a unique global minimum at x = 0.

The function x3 has no global minima or maxima. Although the first derivative
(3x2) is 0 at x = 0, this is an ininflection point.

The function x-x has a unique global maximum over the positive real
numbers at x = 1/e.

The function x3/3 x has first derivative x2 1 and second derivative 2x.
Setting the rst derivative to 0 and solving for x gives stationary points at 1
and +1. From the sign of the second derivative we can see that 1 is a local
maximum and +1 is a local minimum. Note that this function has no global
maximum or minimum.

The function |x| has a global minimum at x = 0 that cannot be found by taking
derivatives, because the derivative does not exist at x = 0.

The function cos(x) has infinitely many global maxima at 0, 2, 4, ,

and infinitely many global minima at , 3, . The function 2 cos(x) x has
infinitely many local maxima and minima, but no global maximum or minimum.

The function cos(3x)/x with 0.1 x 1.1 has a global maximum at x = 0.1
(a boundary), a global minimum near x = 0.3, a local maximum near x = 0.6,
and a local minimum near x = 1.0.

The function x3 + 3x2 2x + 1 defined over the closed interval (segment)

[4,2] has a local maximum at x = 1153, a local minimum at x = 1+153,
a global maximum at x = 2 and a global minimum at x = 4. FERMAT'S
THEOREM.
 Pierre De Fermat

PIERRE DE FERMAT ; 17 August 1601 12 January 1665) was a French

lawyer at the Parlement of Toulouse, France, and a mathematician who is
given credit for early developments that led to innitesimal calculus, including
his technique of adequality. In particular, he is recognized for his discovery of
an original method of nding the greatest and the smallest ordinates of curved
lines, which is analogous to that of the dierential calculus, then unknown, and
his research into number theory. He made notable contributions to analytic
geometry, probability, and optics. He is best known for Fermat's Last
Theorem, which he described in a note at the margin of a copy of Diophantus'
Arithmetica
 Fermats Theorem
PIERRE DE FERMAT developed the technique of adequality (adaequalitas) to
calculate maxima and minima of functions, tangents to curves, area, center of
mass, least action, and other problems in mathematical analysis. According to
Andr Weil, Fermat "introduces the technical term adaequalitas, adaequare,
etc., which he says he has borrowed from Diophantus. As Diophantus V.11
shows, it means an approximate equality, and this is indeed how Fermat
explains the word in one of his later writings." (Weil 1973). Diophantus coined
the word (parisots) to refer to an approximate equality. Claude
Gaspard Bachet de Mziriac translated Diophantus's Greek word into Latin as
adaequalitas.[citation needed] Paul Tannery's French translation of Fermats
Latin treatises on maxima and minima used the words adquation and
adgaler.

Fermat used adequality first tofi nd maxima of functions, and then adapted it
to find tangent lines to curves. To find the maximum of a term p(x), Fermat
equated (or more precisely adequated) p(x) and p(x+e) and after doing
algebra he could cancel out a factor of e, and then discard any remaining
terms involving e. To illustrate the method by Fermat's own example, consider
the problem of fi nding the maximum of p(x)=bx-x^2. Fermat adequated bx-x^2
with b(x+e)-(x+e)^2=bx-x^2+be-2ex-e^2.
Part One
 Mathematical Optimization

In mathematics, computer science, operations research, mathematical

optimization (alternatively, optimization or mathematical programming) is the
selection of a best element (with regard to some criteria) from some set of
available alternatives. In the simplest case, an optimization problem consists
of maximizing or minimizing a real function by systematically choosing input
values from within an allowed set and computing the value of the function. The
generalization of optimization theory and techniques to other formulations
comprises a large area of applied mathematics. More generally, optimization
includes finding "best available" values of some objective function given a
defined domain (or a set of constraints), including a variety of different types of
objective functions and different types of domains.
 Global & Local Extrema

A real-valued function f defined on a domain X has a global maximum point

at x if f(x*) _ f(x) for all x in X. Similarly, the function has a global (absolute)
minimum point at x if f(x*) _ f(x) for all x in X. The value of the function at a
maximum point is called the maximum value of the function and the value of
the function at a minimum point is called the minimum value of the function.

If the domain X is a metric space then f is said to have a local ( relative)

maximum point at the point x if there exists some _ > 0 such that f(x*) _ f(x)
for all x in X within distance _ of x*. Similarly, the function has a local
minimum point at x if f(x*) _ f(x) for all x in X within distance _ of x*. A similar
definition can be used when X is a topological space, since the definition just
given can be rephrased in terms of neighbourhoods. Note that a global
maximum point is always a local maximum point, and similarly for minimum
points.

In both the global and local cases, the concept of a strict extremum can be
defined. For example, x is a strict global maximum point if, for all x in X with x*
_ x, we have f(x*) > f(x), and x is a strict local maximum point if there exists
some _ > 0 such that, for all x in X within distance _ of x with x* _ x, we have
f(x*) > f(x). Note that a point is a strict global maximum point if and only if it
is the unique global maximum point, and similarly for minimum points.

A continuous real-valued function with a compact domain always has a

maximum point and a minimum point. An important example is a function
whose domain is a closed (and bounded) interval of real numbers
Methods to Find Extrema

Methods to find
Extrema

1st Derivative test 2nd Derivative test

1st Derivative test

The first derivative of the function f(x), which we write as f(x) or as df/dx is the
slope of the tangent line to the function at the point x. To put this in non-
graphical terms, the first derivative tells us how whether a function is
increasing or decreasing, and by how much it is increasing or decreasing. This
information is reflected in the graph of a function by the slope of the tangent
line to a point on the graph, which is sometimes describe as the slope of the
function. Positive slope tells us that, as x increases, f(x) also increases.
Negative slope tells us that, as x increases, f(x) decreases. Zero slope does
not tell us anything in particular: the function may be increasing, decreasing,
or at a local maximum or a local minimum at that point. Writing this information
in terms of derivatives, we see that:

if df/dx (p) > 0, then f(x) is an increasing function at x = p.

if df/dx (p) < 0, then f(x) is a decreasing function at x = p.
if df/dx (p) = 0, then x = p is called a critical point of f(x), and we do not
know anything new about the behaviour of f(x) at x = p.

2nd Derivative Test

In calculus, the second derivative test is a criterion for determining whether a
given critical point of a real function of one variable is a local maximum or a
local minimum using the value of the second derivative at the point.
The test states: if the function f is twice differentiable at a critical point x (i.e.
f'(x) = 0), then:
If f (x) < 0 then \ f has a local maximum at \ x.
If f (x) > 0 then \ f has a local minimum at \ x.
If f (x) = 0 the test is inconclusive.

I-think Map
Part Two
En Shahs Sheep Pen
Rezas Box
 Part
Three
The Mall
The Mall
Based on the graph, the mall reaches its PEAK HOUR at 3.30 pm which is 6
hours after the mall opens. The number of people in the mall at that time is
3600.

At 7.30 pm which is 10 hours after the mall opens, the number of people
would be 900.

The time when the number of people reaches 2570 is at 1.20 pm

 Linear Programming

Linear programming (LP; also called linear optimization) is a method to

achieve the best outcome (such as maximum profit or lowest cost) in a
mathematical model whose requirements are represented by linear
relationships. Linear programming is a special case of mathematical
programming (mathematical optimization).

More formally, linear programming is a technique for the optimization of a

linear objective function, subject to linear equality and linear inequality
constraints. Its feasible region is a convex polytope, which is a set defined as
the intersection of infinitely many half spaces, each of which is defined by a
linear inequality. Its objective function is a real-valued affine function defined
on this polyhedron. A linear programming algorithm finds a point in the
polyhedron where this function has the smallest (or largest) value if such a
point exists.
 Application in real life
Crew Scheduling

An airline has to assign crews to its flights.

Make
sure that each flight is covered.
Meet regulations, eg: each pilot can only fly a certain amount each day.
Minimize costs, eg: accommodation for crews staying overnight out of
town, crews deadheading.
Would like a robust schedule. The airlines run on small profit margins,
so saving a few percent through good scheduling can make an
enormous difference in terms of profitability. They also use linear
programming for yield management.

Portfolio Optimization
Many investment companies are now using optimization and linear
programming extensively to decide how to allocate assets. The increase in the
speed of computers has enabled the solution of far larger problems, taking
some of the guesswork out of the allocation of assets.
 How it started?

LEONID KANTOROVICH

The problem of solving a system of linear inequalities dates back at least as far as
Fourier, who in 1827 published a method for solving them, and after whom the
method of FourierMotzkin elimination is named. The first linear programming
formulation of a problem that is equivalent to the general linear programming
problem was given by Leonid Kantorovich in 1939, who also proposed a method for
solving it. He developed it during World War II as a way to plan expenditures and
returns so as to reduce costs to the army and increase losses incurred by the
enemy. About the same time as Kantorovich, the Dutch-American economist T. C.
Koopmans formulated classical economic problems as linear programs. Kantorovich
and Koopmans later shared the 1975 Nobel prize in economics. In 1941, Frank
Lauren Hitchcock also formulated transportation problems as linear programs and
gave a solution very similar to the later Simplex method; Hitchcock had died in
1957 and the Nobel prize is not awarded posthumously. During 1946-1947, George
B. Dantzig independently developed general linear programming formulation to use
for planning problems in US Air Force. In 1947, Dantzig also invented the simplex
method that for the first time efficiently tackled the linear programming problem in
most cases. When Dantzig arranged meeting with John von Neumann to discuss his
Simplex method, Neumann immediately conjectured the theory of duality by realizing
that the problem he had been working in game theory was equivalent. Dantzig
provided formal proof in an unpublished report "A Theorem on Linear Inequalities" on
January 5, 1948. Postwar, many industries found its use in their daily planning.
Dantzig's original example was to find the best assignment of 70 people to 70 jobs.
The computing power required to test all the permutations to select the best
assignment is vast; the number of possible configurations exceeds the number of
particles in the observable universe. However, it takes only a moment to find the
optimum solution by posing the problem as a linear program and applying the
simplex algorithm. The theory behind linear programming drastically reduces the
number of possible solutions that must be checked. The linear-programming problem
was first shown to be solvable in polynomial time by Leonid Khachiyan in 1979, but a
larger theoretical and practical breakthrough in the field came in 1984 when
Narendra Karmarkar introduced a new interior-point method for solving linear-
programming problems.

Further Exploration
 Reflection
Ive found a lot of information while conducting this Additional
Mathematics project. Ive learnt the uses of function in our daily life.

Apart from that, Ive learnt some moral values that can be applied
in our daily life. This project has taught me to be responsible and punctual as I
need to complete this project in a week. This project has also helped in
building my confidence level. We should not give up easily when we cannot
find the solution for the question.

Then, this project encourages students to work together and share their
knowledge. This project also encourages students to gather information from
the internet, improve their thinking skills and promote effective mathematical
communication.

Lastly, I think this project teaches a lot of moral values, and also tests
the students understanding in Additional Mathematics. Let me end this project
with a poem;

In math you can learn everything,

 Like maybe youll like comparing,
You have to know subtraction,
a.k.a brother of addition,
You might say I already simplified,
so now your work aint jankedified,
So now dont think negative,
Its better to think positive,
Dont stab yourself with a fork,
But its better to show your work,
My math grades are fat,
But not as fat as my cat,
Lets get typical,
And use a pencil,
Add Math is fun!