Review
i Fuzzy logic and neural
intelligent computer programs capable of state estimation a,ld
prediction into the future would be helpful as 'software
sensors' when dealing with bioprocesses characterized by un-
certainties and complexity. Fuzzy logic has been shown to be
a valuable tool in dealing with vague and incomplete infor-
mation, and in incorporating human expert knowledge into
process models. Neural network programs capable of learn-
ing from past experience are useful when no exact math-
ematical information on the process under investigation is
available. This paper discusses the state of the aft of such
novel tools of artificial intelligence, with examples demon-
strating their potential in food-related applications.
Subjective human expert knowledge in the form of
'rules of thumb' is still widely used and invaluable in
food processing applications. However, expert knowl-
edge cannot be easily dealt with by analytical and stat-
istical methods commonly employed in the description
of bioprocesses. Furthermore, such conventional methods
are ill suited to dealing with the uncertainties character-
istic of complex biological systems ~. In food process
control, typically only a few process variables are avail-
able for on-line measurement owing to the lack of suit-
able sensors. Even then the information obtained may
be noisy, incomplete, scrambled, uncertain, erroneous
or, in other words, 'fuzzy'. In such situations human
decision-making is also characterized by uncertainty
and subjectivity. Novel tools of 'artificial intelligence'
(AI; a paradigm first introduced by John McCarthy in
1956), such as chaos theory, expert (knowledge-based)
systems, fractal analysis, fuzzy logic, genetic algor-
ithms, naive (qualitative) physics, (artificial) neural net-
works, and object-oriented programming, and their use
in combinations as hybrid systems, provide entirely new
opportunities in food science and technology. Although
the food industry has much to gain from the use of these
tools it generally lags behind the chemical and forest
industries in the exploitation of modern computer appli-
cations 2. In the following discussion, only fuzzy logic
and neural networks are covered in greater detail.
Fuzzy (continuous) logic was introduced by Lofti
Zadeh 3 in 1965. The theory of fuzzy sets provides a con-
venient means of dealing with uncertainties and trans-
ferring expert knowledge into quantitative functions that
can be processed by computer. No complex mathematical
relationships are required in the construction of fuzzy
logic applications. Fuzzy models can be written in the form
of easy-to-understand linguistic rules, and a number of
commercial development tools are available 4. Of the
large number of books and papers published on fuzzy logic
and its applications only a few can be mentioned here ~-8.
T. Eerikliinen,P. Linko, S. Linko, T. Siimes and Y-H. Zhu are with the
Laboratory of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Helsinki University of
Technology, 02150 Espoo, Finland.
Trends in Food Science & Technology August 1993 IVol. 41
network applications
in food science and
technology
T. Eerik iinen, P. Linko, S. Linko,
T. Siimes and Y-H. Zhu
Although AI was born as a concept of data processing
that would mimic human problem-solving behavior,
McCuUoch and Pitts had already presented the first
simple binary model for a single brain neuron in the
early 1940s, leading Hebb to suggest in 1949 that infor-
mation in a neural network is stored in the 'weights'
(levels of importance) of the synapses 9. Neural network
programs were initially developed as models of the
brain, but it was not until the publication of the super-
vised backpropagation learning procedure in 1986 by
Rumelhart et al.~ that the great potential of neural net-
work programs in modeling dynamic, nonlinear systems
was realized 9. Neural networks, like fuzzy systems, map
inputs to outputs, but the beauty of a supervised neural
network is that it learns from examples through
iteration, without requiring a priori knowledge of the
relationships between the process variables under in-
vestigation ~I. After the foundations of neuroengineering
were established, neural networks quickly became one of
the hottest resc:arch areas within AI. Of the vast literature
on the subject only a few books are referred to here ~2-~4.
A discussion of the basic principles of fuzzy systems
is given first, with the underlying fuzzy mathematics
described in terms of hypothetical extrusion control
variables, with reference to Fig. l, as an example. Symbols
used are briefly defined in Box I. This is followed by a
(non-mathematical) description of selected, illustrative
food-related application examples. A brief account of
backpropagation multilayered neural networks applied
to recent bioprocess applications is then given; finally
reference is made to the potential of hybrid systems.
An introduction to fuzzy modeling
In the conventional theory of sets, each element x~
(e.g. a measured extruder feed rate) of a set X, called the
'universe of discourse' (e.g. the set of all possible feed
rates) definitely either belongs (e) or does not belong
(~) to a defined subset A (e.g. the subset of feed rates
greater than 60 kg/h), such that:
/IA(x~)= l if and only if xi e A (!)
la,~(xi) = 0 if and only if x, ~ A (2)
o1993, ElsevierSciencePublishersLtd,{UK) 0924.2244/93/$06.00 237
 Feed rate Feed moisture Change of watedeed

'Low' 'High' 'Negative low'

Rule 1: ~ 1
'Answer'

0 i
t
i

: 'Normal' 'High' 'Negative medium'

o
Rule 2: ,u ..I y
t
Defuzzified change
Y of wateffeed

Xr Xm

/JRI (Xr, Xm, Y) = min [/JIow(X~), JUhigh(Xm),/Jneglow()/)]

Rule 1: If feed rate (x,) is 'low' and feed
moisture (xm) is 'high' then the change in
the waterfeed (y) is 'negative low'
or P~n~w~,(Y)= maxl#Rl(X.Xm, y), PR2(X.Xm,y)]
Rule 2: If feed rate (x,) is 'normal' and
feed moisture (xm) is 'high' then the change
in the watedeed (y) is 'negative medium'
/JR2(Xr'Xm' Y) ----"minl/Jn*rm,~l(Xr),/Jhigh(Xm), /JnegrnedlY)]

Fig. 1
Graphical illustrationof membershipfunctions,and the use of defuzzification by taking the center of gravity of the fuzzy answer, to obtain a
crisp answer(y) for control action in the fuzzy control of flatbreadextrusion usingtwo fuzzy rules. See text for details.

In other words, the 'char~cteristic function'/J~(.~-,) is A,. A measured feed rate that 'rules o1" thumb' would
defined as I if .~'~ is a member ot'A (is greater than term 'a bit too high' for sorne operational control reason
60 kgth) and is defined as 0 ifxi is not a member ol'A (is might have a degree of membership o1", say, 0.6 in A I
less than 60 kg/h); Using conventional set theory to, (the set of high Iced rates), 0 in A.~ (the set of low feed
say, control extruder settings, only precise rules could rates) and 0.4 in a third set, A~ (the set of 'normal' feed
be applied, such as 'if P,~(.~'i) = I then turn the t'eed rate rates).
to 50 kg/h'.
Zadeh 3 generalized the characteristic function ,u..~(.~~)
Fuzzification
to a 'membership function': An important feature in fuzzy modeling is the 'fuzzifi-
p,~(.~,) e I0, ! I V.r, e A (3) cation' or mapping of numerical, crisp input data (e.g.
measured feed rate) into degrees of membership in sym-
describing the degree, within the closed interval 10,11, bolic, linguistic fuzzy sets such as 'high', 'low' and
to which each element .~-i in the universe of discourse 'normal'. The generalization of basic set theory allows
belongs to a 'fuzzy' subset, A. The degree of member- the mathematical expression and manipulation of im-
ship 0 means that the element definitely does not belong precise or 'fuzzy" rules tbr dealing with such input data,
to A, while the degree of membership I indicates that allowing the mathematical application of the 'rules of
the element, definitely does belong to A. In all other thumb" (e.g. 'if the feed moisture is too high then turn
cases the value of the membership function is a real the waterfeed down a bit') that constitute much human
number between 0 and I. For example, the set X of all expertise.
possible feed rates may be divided into several fuzzy The relationship between possible values .~i of a par-
subsets: fuzzy subset A~ might be the subset of 'high' ameter such as X and their degrees of membership in
feed rates and fuzzy subset A~ might be the subset of given subsets such as 'low' and 'normal' is usually
'low' feed rates. The maximum feed rate definitely represented by simple triangular or trapezoidal graphs
belongs to subset A~ and thus has a 'degree of member- (although more complicated nonlinear membership
ship' ! in AI; similarly it definitely does not belong to functions are sometimes employed): for example, see
subset At and thus has a degree of membership 0 in the leftmost pair of graphs in Fig. I. The degree of

238
Trends in Food Science& TechnologyAugust 1993 IVol. 41

mcmbcrship for subsct 'low', lah,,~(XR), is I whcn thc
feed rate (XR) is definitely low, then slopes down, eventu-
ally to 0, for higher feed rates; the degree of member-
ship for subset "normal' is 0 for both very high and very
low feed rates, but gradually rises to ! for mid-range
values of XR. The number of such smoothly overlapping
fuzzy subsets defined to cover the full range of values
tbr each variable is always a compromise between pre-
cision and efficiency. The precise 'shapes' of the fuzzy
membership functions are defined either subjectively or
by taking advantage of experimental data, information
available in the literature, etc. After the fuzzy rules have
been applied, the result can be 'det'uzzified' to give a
precise control action (see below).
Fuzzy models
Inasmuch as the theory of fuzzy sets can be regarded
as a generalization of the classical theory of sets, basic
operations between pairs of sets, A and B, such as the
union - corresponding to the linguistic notion 'or"
(Eqn 4), intersection - corresponding to the concept
'and' (Eqn 5), complement (Eqn 6), etc., can be
described by membership functions as follows:
ya~B(.t'i)= maxl/./a(xi), ]./t~(Xi)] = l.la(Xi) V yt~(.Vi)VXi E X (4)
/L~B(x~) = min[//A(Xi),/h~(xi)] =//A(X;) A//.(X,) V.r, ~ X (5)
//,.i(x~) = ! -//A(X~) Va'~ ~ X
Furthermore, the "extension principle" allows the exten-
sion of classical equations and models to include fuzzy
variables.
Thus, if A c X and B c Y are fuzzy sets, then (alter
Eqn 5) the fuzzy relation or 'rule', R, linking set A and
set B has a membership function defined by:
/.h~(x,y) = minl/~,.dx), Pi~(Y)I
where x ~ X and 3' ~ Y. The fuzzy relation R between
the pair of sets A and B can also be expressed as a fuzzy,
linguistic conditional statement or rule, a simple but
important tool in fuzzy modeling and rule-based expert
systems:
R = if (input) A, then (output) B
Thus, a rule of the type 'if feed rate is low, then
waterfeed is low" can be expressed as a fuzzy relation
if X is the set of all extruder feed parameter data and A
the fuzzy subset of 'low' values, and Y is a set of poss-
ible control settings and B the fuzzy subset of settings
that decrease the wateffeed, then (after Eqn 7) the rule
linking the fuzzy input 'the feed rate is low' and the
appropriate fuzzy control response so that 'the water-
feed is low' has a membership function defined by:
IZR,,,~,,~ (x,y) = minllzl,,,~(x), /.h,,w(Y)l
In practice there may be several inputs (antecedents)
and outputs (consequences), forming a set of if-then
rules together with the corresponding membership func-
tions. One rule may link two or more different types of
fuzzy input data (e.g. if feed rate is low and feed moist-
ure is high) to each other and then to a particular output
Trends in Food Science & Technology August 1993 [Vol. 41
Box 1. Basic set theory symbols
E 'is an element of the set'
'is not an element of the set'
v 'for each element'
C 'is a subset of the set'
the set of elements not in subset A ('complement' of A)
U set addition ('union'/'or')
V fuzzy 'or'
max maximum value of the degrees of membership listed in I I
N set overlap ('intersection/'and')
A fuzzy 'and'
rain minimum value of the degrees of membership listed in I ]
response (e.g. decrease waterfeed slightly). At any given
time one or more of the rules may need to be applied in
combination:
Rule l" ifAu and Aj., and ... Au, then BI or
Rule 2: if A,., and A_,.,and ... A2.,, then B, or
Rule m: if A,,,, and A,,,._,and A......then B,,,
This inlbrmation can be represented as a matrix for
mathematical manipulation.
For example, a measured feed rate, xr, when fuzzified
may have a degree of membership I in the set of "low"
feed rates and 0.3 in the set of "normal" feed rates Rules
applying to both low and normal feed rates will need to
(6) be invoked and the results of applying the various rules
combined before inferring the appropriate control
response to take (see Fig. I). In addition, weight factors
may be assigned to the rules on the basis of the re-
liability of the inlbrmation used to develop them.
Fuzzy inferencing and defuzzification
Fuzzy models yield fuzzy responses through rule
(7) evaluation or fuzzy inferencing. A fuzzy answer can
then be defuzzified to give a crisp value as described
below. In the example shown in Fig. I, two rules of
equal weight are applied. The measured feed rate, x,,
has non-zero membership values in the subsets 'low"
and 'normal', and the measured feed moisture, x,,, has a
non-zero membership value in the subset 'high'.
(8)
According to the compositional rule of inference, the
application of Rule 1 involves computing the minimum
/.t value of the top three graphs: ,u~,,,(xr) is I and ,uh~,(x,,)
is 0.5, so that the change of wateffeed should be
'negative low' with a degree of membership of 0.5 (the
minumum of I and 0.5). Application of Rule 2 suggests
a 'negative medium' change in the wateffeed with a
membership value of 0.3, thus indicating that the water-
feed should be reduced a little bit more than "negative
low'. Finally, the set describing the fuzzy answer (i.e.
the combined maximum of the areas bounded by the
(9) two shaded regions; see graph at right) must be defuzzi-
tied for practical purposes, such as choosing a specific
waterfeed setting. A number of defuzzification methods
have been presented; one of the most commonly used is
to choose the value (y) corresponding to the 'center of
gravity' of the shaded area representing the set describ-
ing the fuzzy answer.
239
 Fulzy logic in action detail the principles of the application of fuzzy logic to
Today fuzzy logic is used in cameras, videos, washing estimation and control, using the simulation of baker's
machines, vacuum cleaners, lifts, cars, etc. Most appli- yeast fermentation as a case study. The fuzzy control of
cations relate to control, although fuzzy logic can also baker's yeast production has also been analysed by
be employed in comparisons, fault detection, sensor Sterbacek and Votruba 26 on the basis of data from an
analysis and other areas of interest to food scientists and industrial-scale process. Of a number of other recent
technologists, The principles of fuzzy control have been fuzzy fermentation control applications, control systems
described in detail by R u s s et al. ,s and Yamakawa". for sake brewing 2~ and for glutathione production by
One of the first and most successful practical appli- fed-batch yeast culture 2s serve as illustrative examples.
cations was the fuzzy control of cement kilns '7. A simi- Linko and Linko '9 first suggested the application of
lar system has been developed for paper and pulp manu- fuzzy logic in the modeling and control of extrusion
facturing, As early as 1977 King and Mamdani ~ cooking, and the applications have been described in
developed a simple fuzzy temperature-control system detail a.3'. Fuzzy logic controllers for a grain dryer 32 and
for a stirred tank that could be easily applied to batch heat exchangeP 3 have also been recently described.
bioreactor control. Another early bioprocess application Aarts et al. 34 first described a hybrid real-time fuzzy
was the fuzzy algorithm based on 29 if-then rules expert system for extrusion cooker control. The system
developed by Tong et al. ~ for fuzzy control. In 1985 shell was programmed in object-oriented Smalltalk/V.
several papers were published on fuzzy logic appli- Most of the knowledge was implemented in the form of
cations in biotechnology. Dohnal 2 applied fuzzy logic if-then rules with weight factors, structured into the
to the modeling of a simple fermentor, Filev et al. "-~ form of a knowledge network and fuzzy membership
employed fuzzy mathematics in the simulation of batch functions of the process variables. The principle has
ethanol fermentation, Nakamura et al.:: developed fuzzy been recently applied also to glucoamylase 3s and lactic
control of glutamic acid fermentation, and Turunen et acid 36 fermentations, and to the planning of mashing
a/.-" were the first to apply fuzzy modeling to a continu- profiles in brewing 37.
ous process with an immobilized biocatalyst (yeast
invertase). Clearly the great potential of fuzzy logic in Neural network models
biotechnology had finally been recognized, almost 20 A neural network model is an abstract specification of
years after Zadeh introduced the theory of fuzzy sets. the neural network paradigm. Neural networks are com-
One of the early examples of fuzzy bioprocess simu- puter programs capable of learning from past experi-
lation was prediction of the time course of a lactic acid ences 9. While fuzzy logic applications require a p r i o r i
fermentation TM. The fuzzy model included knowledge knowledge on the system, neural networks are truly
of the bioreactor volume, temperature, pH and substrate: adaptive programs, which do not need knowledge of the
time delays of the substrate and product concentrations nature of the relationships of the process parameters.
provided history information. Figure 2 illustrates an Nevertheless, a neural network can learn to adjust the
excellent fit of the fuzzy prediction to real measured parameters of a fuzzy system, and neural network inputs
values of lactic acid. Postlethwaite :'~ has discussed in can also be fuzzy functions. A neural network estimator
can, for example, be employed in the connection of a
fuzzy expert controller, or it is possible to carry out
50 50 direct control actions by a neural controller. Neural
network programming has only recently been studied in
401 40 the context of food and bioprocess applications, and a
~6Dmm~m"*~o~m brief account of the state of the art is given here.
pp,. Only the most often-applied feedforward, multilayer
30 ,, 30 neural networks will be considered. A graphical rep-
t
resentation of a multilayer neural network and the prin-
I ciples of the backpropagation learning procedure are
20 20 described in Box 2. The architecture of a neural network
describes how the network is constructed from layers of
10 / 10 interconnected neurons as processing elements. The
number of neurons in each layer gives the network
t /, ' topology. Each neuron receives inputs from other neur-
0 P" , ...... , 0 ons or from the outside. The neurons in the input layer
0 I0 20 30 40 50 only transfer scaled input values to the appropriate neur-
Time (h) ons in the hidden layer through weighted connections.
Each neuron in the hidden and output layers calculates
Fig. 2 the weighted sum of its inputs and passes the result
Fuzzysimulation of lactic acid fermentation. Curves represent through a transfer function. Most often a nonlinear,
measuredvalues;shadedareasrepresentthe fuzzy rangesof the sigmoid transfer function is employed. The network is
simulated valuesobtained from the fuzzy model. trained by iteration - by repeated presentation of rep-
Adapted from Ref. 1. resentative exemplar input-output vector pairs (pair

240 Trends in Food Science& Technology August 1993 IVol. 41

 Box 2. Backpropagation learning procedure for a multilayer neural network
Input Hidden Output I Target
patterns) - and the network learns II
vector
as a child does, through repeated
experiences. The backpropagation
learning procedure is based on
Input
vector ! kt.
adjusting the synaptic strengths "" li " " "~ FinalvectorOUtpUt
or weights of the neural connec-
tions by a gradient descent search
technique in order to minimize a i

cost function equal to the mean

square of the output error - the ~Weightadjuslment
difference between the target value
and the network output after a J Learningalgorithm ~
given iteration cycle. Weights are
usually randomly initialized, and Step 1: Small initial random values are assigned to all weights (w,)
are gradually adjusted towards their
minimum along the error surface Step 2: A selected input vector of scaled elements (I,) from a sample data file is presented to the input
in the weight space. A detailed layer
mathematical description is beyond Step 3: The inputs are transferred to the hidden layer, and each neuron in the hidden layer calculates the
the scope of this paper. It has been weighted sum of its inputs
shown that one hidden layer is Step 4: The output of the hidden layer (0,) is calculated as follows:
sufficient to approximate any con-
tinuous nonlinear function, al- o, = f(Y/w,,i,+a)
though more complex networks are i
employed in special applications. where 1 < j i M and
Step 5: The output of the output layer (O~') is calculated as follows:
Food-related neural network
applications Q' = f(~w,,O, +0,')
Just like fuzzy systems, neural
where 1 <_k <__N; 0, and 0,' are internal bias terms; and f is a sigmoid nonlinear transfer function of the
networks can deal with uncertainties
type f(x) = (l+e') '
and noisy data. Most food-related
work has involved estimation, pre- Step 6: The difference representing the error (e) between the actual output (O,') and the desired ('target')
diction and control. Only a few output (0,9 is then obtained and the error factors for generating the weight adjustments ('A weights') in
the output and hidden layers are calculated by the least mean squares principle
representative examples are given
here. Linko and Zhu ~a have suc- Step 7: The weight matrices are updated by the learning rule adopted
cessfully applied neumengineering Step 8: The next iteration cycle begins at Step 2, and the training is stopped either after a predetermined
to estimation and multistep pre- number of iterations or after a defined minimum error is reached
diction in the control of baker's
yeast'J and glucoamylase 3a fermen-
tations. Montague e t al. 3'J have discussed the use of gen-
etic software sensors in bioprocess applications in detail. 300 450
The possibilities and available tools have been dis- I [Learning datai
cussed by Collins4". Chtourou e t ai. 4~ applied a neural 250 400
network controller to continuous yeast fermentation in a 200 ~ ~ t e d 350
stirred tank. Simutis e t aL 42 employed both fuzzy logic
and neurocomputing in the estimation and prediction of 300
alcohol fermentation in brewing.
150 I " l< I /-~ measured
Linko e t ai. 43 first used a neural network with output 250
feedback and time delays for the dynamic control of 200
specific mechanical energy input on the basis of screw
speed in flatbread production by a twin-screw extrusion 50 150
cooker. Figure 3 demonstrates the model's excellent
performance, which has encouraged further work on
I I I I
100
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
more complex situations.
Time ( min )
The future
Although food-related industrial applications of such Fig. 3
artificial intelligence technologies as fuzzy logic and Dynamic neural control of specific mechanical energy (SME) input per
neural network applications are still in the development kilogram of product in twin-screw extrusion cooking of flatbread on the basis of
stage, clearly their potential is great. The numerous screw speed and its time delays. Time delays of screw speed were introduced
successful commercial applications 44"4"~of fuzzy logic in as feedback to the network. Adapted from Ref. 43.

Trends in Food Science & Technology August 1993 IVol. 41 241

 other fields have dcmonstratcd the power of this still
novel approach. The linguistic model approach in com-
bination with a modern, user-friendly graphics interface
is often easier to the operator to understand than the
conventional mathematical approach.
Systems based on fuzzy logic can deal with imprecise
info~atiOn ~ d subjective ~owledge, which is difficult
or impossible w i ~ conventional systems. An extensive
discussion of fuzzy food engineering has been recently
published by Dohnal e t al. 46 with detailed case studies
onmalt modification and meat chilling. Sakuraba e t al. 47
have demonstrated the su~riority of fuzzy learning vec-
tor quantization in whisky odor pattern recognition.
However, there are somewhat contradictory reports on
the relative applicability of fuzzy, neural and hybrid
systems in different cases. Lincklaen Westenberg e t aL as
have demonstrated that fuzzy food product classification
is simpler and more convenient for a sensory panel than
statistical methods, while Goodacre et al. 49 have suc-
cessfully employed a neurocomputer to detect the
adulteration of olive oil. Although most applications have
been in the process control area, these examples indicate
the variety of possibilities. Neural network systems are
particularly suitable as 'software sensors' for difficult-
to-measure parameters and in solving nonlinear control
problems. According to Willis et ai..so, bioprocess plant
trials with a neural network estimator have been encour-
aging, and a nonlinear neural predictive controller has
performed well in comparison with a 'well tuned' con-
ventional Pl (proportional-integral) algorithm. No doubt
these novel technologies will also be adopted by the
food industry in the near future.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the Academy of Finland and
to Neste Ltd Foundation (Finland) tbr financial support.
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