ENERGY FLOW AND NUTRIENT CYLCING IN ECOSYSTEM

The two major functions within an ecosystem are the transfer of energy
through, and the recycling of nutrients within the ecosystem.
ENERGY FLOWS IN ECOSYSTEMS PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis (or phototrophism) is the process by which light energy from the
sun(insolation), is absorbed by plants, blue-green algae and certain bacteria. It is then usedto produce
new plant cell material, which forms the food source for plant eating animals(herbivores).Plants which
are able, through the process of photosynthesis, to convert lightenergy and inorganic
substances (carbon dioxide, water and various mineral
nutrients)i n t o o r g a n i c ( c a r b o n b a s e d ) m o l e c u l e s , a r e c a l l e d p h o t o t r o p h s o r a u t o t r
o p h s ( s e l f - feeders).In a plant, most photosynthesis is carried out by the leaves, and in
order for the p r o c e s s t o o c c u r t h e y m u s t c o n t a i n c h l o r p h yl l , w h i c h i s a b l e t o
a b s o r b e n e r f y f r o m sunlight. The plant also requires carbon dioxide, from the
atmosphere, and water fromthe soil. As a result of the process, and carbohydrates are produced.6CO
2
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OC
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12
O
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+ 6O
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Oc a r b o n d i o x i d e w a t e r g
l u c o s e o x y g e n w a t e r

Primary producers (usually plants and other photosynthesizers) are the

gateway for energy to enter food webs.

Productivity is the rate at which energy is added to the bodies of a group of

organisms (such as primary producers) in the form of biomass.

Gross productivity is the overall rate of energy capture. Net

productivity is lower, adjusted for energy used by organisms in
respiration/metabolism.

Energy transfer between trophic levels is inefficient. Only 10% of the net
productivity of one level ends up as net productivity at the next level.

Ecological pyramids are visual representations of energy flow, biomass

accumulation, and number of individuals at different trophic levels.
Ecosystems maintain themselves by cycling energy and nutrients obtained from external
sources. At the first trophic level, primary producers (plants, algae, and some bacteria) use solar
energy to produce organic plant material through photosynthesis.

Herbivoresanimals that feed solely on plantsmake up the second trophic level. Predators
that eat herbivores comprise the third trophic level; if larger predators are present, they
represent still higher trophic levels. Organisms that feed at several trophic levels (for example,
grizzly bears that eat berries and salmon) are classified at the highest of the trophic levels at
which they feed. Decomposers, which include bacteria, fungi, molds, worms, and insects, break
down wastes and dead organisms and return nutrients to the soil.

On average about 10 percent of net energy production at one trophic level is passed on to the
next level. Processes that reduce the energy transferred between trophic levels include
respiration, growth and reproduction, defecation, and nonpredatory death (organisms
that die but are not eaten by consumers). The nutritional quality of material that is consumed
also influences how efficiently energy is transferred, because consumers can convert high-
quality food sources into new living tissue more efficiently than low-quality food sources.

The low rate of energy transfer between trophic levels makes decomposers generally more
important than producers in terms of energy flow. Decomposers process large amounts of
organic material and return nutrients to the ecosystem in inorganic form, which are then taken
up again by primary producers. Energy is not recycled during decomposition, but rather is
released, mostly as heat (this is what makes compost piles and fresh garden mulch warm).
Figure 6 shows the flow of energy (dark arrows) and nutrients (light arrows) through
ecosystems.
Figure 6. Energy and nutrient transfer through ecosystems
See larger image

Source: Ohio Environmental Protection Agency. Nature Connections.

An ecosystem's gross primary productivity (GPP) is the total amount of organic matter that it
produces through photosynthesis.

Net primary productivity (NPP) describes the amount of energy that remains available for
plant growth after subtracting the fraction that plants use for respiration. Productivity in land
ecosystems generally rises with temperature up to about 30C, after which it declines, and is
positively correlated with moisture. On land primary productivity thus is highest in warm, wet
zones in the tropics where tropical forest biomes are located. In contrast, desert scrub
ecosystems have the lowest productivity because their climates are extremely hot and dry (Fig.
7).

Figure 7. Terrestrial net primary productivity

See larger image

Source: National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

In the oceans, light and nutrients are important controlling factors for productivity. As noted in
Unit 3, "Oceans," light penetrates only into the uppermost level of the oceans, so
photosynthesis occurs in surface and near-surface waters. Marine primary productivity is high
near coastlines and other areas where upwelling brings nutrients to the surface, promoting
plankton blooms. Runoff from land is also a source of nutrients in estuaries and along the
continental shelves. Among aquatic ecosystems, algal beds and coral reefs have the highest net
primary production, while the lowest rates occur in the open due to a lack of nutrients in the
illuminated surface layers (Fig. 8).
Figure 8. Ocean net primary productivity, 1997-2002
See larger image

Source: National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

How many trophic levels can an ecosystem support? The answer depends on several factors,
including the amount of energy entering the ecosystem, energy loss between trophic levels, and
the form, structure, and physiology of organisms at each level. At higher trophic levels,
predators generally are physically larger and are able to utilize a fraction of the energy that was
produced at the level beneath them, so they have to forage over increasingly large areas to
meet their caloric needs.

Because of these energy losses, most terrestrial ecosystems have no more than five trophic
levels, and marine ecosystems generally have no more than seven. This difference between
terrestrial and marine ecosystems is likely due to differences in the fundamental characteristics
of land and marine primary organisms. In marine ecosystems, microscopic phytoplankton carry
out most of the photosynthesis that occurs, while plants do most of this work on land.
Phytoplankton are small organisms with extremely simple structures, so most of their primary
production is consumed and used for energy by grazing organisms that feed on them. In
contrast, a large fraction of the biomass that land plants produce, such as roots, trunks, and
branches, cannot be used by herbivores for food, so proportionately less of the energy fixed
through primary production travels up the food chain.

Growth rates may also be a factor. Phytoplankton are extremely small but grow very rapidly, so
they support large populations of herbivores even though there may be fewer algae than
herbivores at any given moment. In contrast, land plants may take years to reach maturity, so
an average carbon atom spends a longer residence time at the primary producer level on land
than it does in a marine ecosystem. In addition, locomotion costs are generally higher for
terrestrial organisms compared to those in aquatic environments.

The simplest way to describe the flux of energy through ecosystems is as a food chain in which
energy passes from one trophic level to the next, without factoring in more complex
relationships between individual species. Some very simple ecosystems may consist of a food
chain with only a few trophic levels. For example, the ecosystem of the remote wind-swept
Taylor Valley in Antarctica consists mainly of bacteria and algae that are eaten by nematode
worms (footnote 2). More commonly, however, producers and consumers are connected in
intricate food webs with some consumers feeding at several trophic levels (Fig. 9).

Figure 9. Lake Michigan food web

See larger image

Source: Courtesy of NOAA Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory and the Great
Lakes Fishery Commission.

An important consequence of the loss of energy between trophic levels is that contaminants
collect in animal tissuesa process called bioaccumulation. As contaminants bioaccumulate up
the food web, organisms at higher trophic levels can be threatened even if the pollutant is
introduced to the environment in very small quantities.

The insecticide DDT, which was widely used in the United States from the 1940s through the
1960s, is a famous case of bioaccumulation. DDT built up in eagles and other raptors to levels
high enough to affect their reproduction, causing the birds to lay thin-shelled eggs that broke in
their nests. Fortunately, populations have rebounded over several decades since the pesticide
was banned in the United States. However, problems persist in some developing countries
where toxic bioaccumulating pesticides are still used.

Bioaccumulation can threaten humans as well as animals. For example, in the United States
many federal and state agencies currently warn consumers to avoid or limit their consumption of
large predatory fish that contain high levels of mercury, such as shark, swordfish, tilefish, and
king mackerel, to avoid risking neurological damage and birth defects.

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Energy Flow in an Ecosystem (With Diagram)

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Energy has been defined as the capacity to do work. Energy exists in two forms potential and
kinetic.

Potential energy is the energy at rest {i.e., stored energy) capable of performing work. Kinetic
energy is the energy of motion (free energy).

It results in work performance at the expense of potential energy. Conversion of potential energy
into kinetic energy involves the imparting of motion.

The source of energy required by all living organisms is the chemical energy of their food. The
chemical energy is obtained by the conversion of the radiant energy of sun.

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The radiant energy is in the form of electromagnetic waves which are released from the sun
during the transmutation of hydrogen to helium. The chemical energy stored in the food of
living organisms is converted into potential energy by the arrangement of the constituent atoms
of food in a particular manner. In any ecosystem there should be unidirectional flow of energy.

This energy flow is based on two important Laws of Thermodynamics which are as
follows:
(1) The first law of Thermodynamics:
It states that the amount of energy in the universe is constant. It may change from one form to
another, but it can neither be created nor destroyed. Light energy can be neither created nor
destroyed as it passes through the atmosphere. It may, however, be transformed into another
type of energy, such as chemical energy or heat energy. These forms of energy cannot be
transformed into electromagnetic radiation.

Nearly all of the energy that drives ecosystems ultimately comes from the sun. Solar energy,
which is an abiotic factor, by the way, enters the ecosystem through the process
of photosynthesis. You can learn more than you want to know about this process in the unit on
photosynthesis. Or, you could just chat with your local botanist. Everyone has one, right? The
organisms in an ecosystem that capture the suns electromagnetic energy and convert it
into chemical energy are called producers. Not to be confused with these Producers.

The name is appropriate because producers make the carbon-based molecules, usually
carbohydrates, that the rest of the organisms in the ecosystem, including you, consume.
Producers include all of the greenplants and some bacteria and algae. Every living thing on
Earth literally owes its life to the producers. The next time you see a plant, it wouldnt be a bad
idea for you to thank it for its services...which, as you will learn in other units, go way beyond
just supplying you with food.

After a producer has captured the suns energy and used it to grow yummy plant parts, other
organisms come along and greedily gobble it up. These primary consumers, as they are
called, exclusively feed on producers. If these consumers are human, we call
them vegetarians. Otherwise, they are known as herbivores.

Primary consumers only obtain a fraction of the total solar energyabout 10%captured by
the producers they eat. The other 90% is used by the producer for growth, reproduction, and
survival, or it is lost as heat. You can probably see where this is going. Primary consumers are
eaten by secondary consumers. An example would be birds that eat bugs that eat
leaves. Secondary consumers are eaten by tertiary consumers. Cats that eat birds that eat
bugs that eat leaves, for instance.

At each level, called a trophic level, about 90% of the energy is lost. What a shame. So, if a
plant captures 1000 calories of solar energy, a bug that eats the plant will only obtain 100
calories of energy. A chicken that eats the bug will only obtain 10 calories, and a human that
eats the chicken will only obtain 1 calorie of the original 1000 calories of solar energy captured
by the plant. When you think about this way, it would take 100 1000-calorie plantsthose would
be enormo plants, by the wayto produce a single 100-calorie piece of free-range chicken. You
are now recalling all of the plants you have ever forgotten to water in your life and feeling really,
really terrible about it, aren't you?

The relationships among producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers,

and tertiary consumers is usually drawn as a pyramid, known as an energy pyramid, with
producers at the bottom and tertiary consumers at the top. You can see from the example above
why producers are at the bottom of this pyramid. It takes a lot of producers for higher-trophic-
level consumers, like humans, to obtain the energy they need to grow and reproduce.

This is the answer to the great mystery as to why there are so many plants on Earth. We will
even spell it out for you because it is so important to understand: there are so many plants on
Earth because energy flowthrough ecosystems is inefficient. Only 10% of the energy in one
trophic level is ever passed to the next. So, there you have it. We hope you feel fulfilled.
In addition to energy pyramid diagrams, ecosystem ecologists sometimes depict the relationship
between trophic groups in a linear way, with arrows pointing from one organism to another. If
there is only one producer, one primary consumer, one secondary consumer, and one tertiary
consumer, this linear diagram is called a food chain. Food chains help ecologists and students
visualize the interactions between organisms in an ecosystem. As always seems to be the case,
it isnt ever that simple. In fact, trophic interactions among organisms in an ecosystem are often
really complex. Its rare that an ecosystem only has one species at each trophic level. Usually,
there are multiple producers that are eaten by multiple primary consumers. Some consumers
eat different kinds of producers. Likewise, secondary consumers sometimes eat producers as
well as primary consumers. These are known as omnivores.

These complex relationships are often depictedif they can be figured out, that isin a
diagram called a food web. These diagrams can become messy indeed, depending on the size
of the ecosystem and the number of interactions among trophic groups. If you like puzzles and
biology, though, ecosystem ecology is the field for you.
Ecologists use food webs to better understand the intricate workings of the ecosystems they
study. Understanding exactly who is eating whom can provide valuable information for
conservation biologists as well. Such knowledge can aid in restoration efforts, species recovery
projects, and preservation efforts, just to name a few instances. In any case, uncovering food
webs goes a long way to understanding the first half of an ecosystem, the community.

Brain Snack

Most of our energy comes from domesticated animals and plants, but we are not the only
organisms on the planet that farm. Insects, such as the fungal ants, feeding leaf clippings to a
special symbiotic fungus and protect it from invasive pathogens. The ants tendto their fungus
just as humans tend to their gardens. You can watch an ant colony tend to their fungus in real
time here.

Explain the role played by decomposers in an ecosystem.

Decomposers are an essential component of any ecosystem. Their main

role is to recycle nutrients in dead organisms and their wastes. Most
decomposers are bacteria and fungi. Without the decomposers, there
could be no life since plants would run out of nutrients.
Differentiate between scavengers and predators as two types of
carnivores.

A carnivor is a type of heterotroph that feeds only on other animals.

There are two different ways to classify carnivors. The first group are
known as predators. Predators hunt and kill other animals for food.
Animals like lions, wolves, snakes, and sharks are all classified as
predators. Another group of animals that are considered carnivors are
scavengers. Scavengers are animals that feed on the dead bodies of other
organisums. Animals such as vultures, hyenas, and griffins and all
classified as scavengers. Scavengers eat the food that has been killed
and left behind by predators. Scavengers are a very important group
because they dispose of the carcus's of animals that have been left to
decompose.

Recognize that the routes by which the flow of energy and the
recycling of matter through the ecosystem occur are called food
chains.

The ultimate source of energy for life on Earth is the sun. Solar energy is
trapped during the process of photosynthesis and converted into a
chemical form that we normally call food. Food contains both materials
(the elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and the other essential
elements) as well as stored energy. The materials within the food are
recycled. They pass from the producers to the consumers and finally are
recycled back to the producers by the action of the decomposers. Energy,
unlike the materials, is not recycled. As the food is passed through the
food web, energy is lost. In general terms, only 10% of the energy stored
in one trophic level (such as producers) is actually transferred t the next
trophic level (for example the herbivores). This is known as the pyramid
of energy. Eventually there is so liitle energy remaining in the top trophic
level that no highr trophic level can be supported. This is why there are
few if any fourth order consumers in any ecosystem.

Explain how autotrophs are the basis of energy flow in all food chains
(and food webs) by capturing solar energy and making it available to
consumers.

Autotrophs are organisms that are able to make their own food using
carbon dioxide. Most autotrophs carry on photosynthesis. Photosnythesis
is the process by which organic compunds are synthesized from inorganic
carbon, in the presence of light or solar energy. Autotrophs provide food
for the primary consumers, which are heterotrophs. heterotrophs such as
herbivores, omnivores, saprobes feed on autotrophs. The heterotrophs
are in turn eaten by the secondary consumers, which are carnivores.

Autotrophs are organisms that are able to make their own food using
carbon dioxide, they can also be called producers. Most autotrophs carry
on photosynthesis. Photosnythesis is the process by which organic
compunds are synthesized from inorganic carbon, in the presence of light
or solar energy. Autotrophs provide food for the primary consumers,
which are heterotrophs. heterotrophs such as herbivores, and
omnivores,feed on autotrophs. The heterotrophs are in turn eaten by the
secondary consumers, which are carnivores.

Producers are eaten by the primary consumers which are eaten by the
secondary consumers, when all of these die the saprobes break down
their reamins which then can be reused by other members in the cycle.

Summarize the roles of producers, consumers, and decomposers in

relation to a food chain and all of the food web interactions.
 Producers (photosynthetic organisms) capture solar energy and take in
materials (elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, etc.) and
make food which is then passed on to the consumers. Consumers generally
carry on a process of cellular respiration which releases the energy for
use for their own life functions. Both the producers and the consumers
die and produce waste products which are then passed on to the
decomposers (saprophytes). Decomposers are mainly bacteria and fungi
that break down the materials in the waste and dead bodies and recycle
them back to the producers. Note that materials are recycled but energy
is not. For this reason, it is important that the Earth receive solar energy
since it is the solar energy that drives the entire cycle of life, that is all
the interactions and feeding relationships that we refer to as the food
web.

Key points:
Producers, or autotrophs, make their own organic
molecules. Consumers, or heterotrophs, get organic
molecules by eating other organisms.
A food chain is a linear sequence of organisms through
which nutrients and energy pass as one organism eats
another.
In a food chain, each organism occupies a
different trophic level, defined by how many energy
transfers separate it from the basic input of the chain.
Food webs consist of many interconnected food chains
and are more realistic representation of consumption
relationships in ecosystems.
 Energy transfer between trophic levels is inefficient
with a typical efficiency around 10%. This inefficiency limits
the length of food chains.

Introduction
Organisms of different species can interact in many ways.
They can compete, or they can be symbiontslongterm
partners with a close association. Or, of course, they can do
what we so often see in nature programs: one of them can
eat the otherchomp! That is, they can form one of the links
in a food chain.

In ecology, a food chain is a series of organisms that eat one

another so that energy and nutrients flow from one to the
next. For example, if you had a hamburger for lunch, you
might be part of a food chain that looks like this:
grass \rightarrowright arrow cow \rightarrowright
arrow human. But what if you had lettuce on your
hamburger? In that case, you're also part of a food chain that
looks like this: lettuce \rightarrowright arrowhuman.

As this example illustrates, we can't always fully describe

what an organismsuch as a humaneats with one linear
pathway. For situations like the one above, we may want to
use a food web that consists of many intersecting food
chains and represents the different things an organism can
eat and be eaten by.
 In this article, we'll take a closer look at food chains and food
webs to see how they represent the flow of energy and
nutrients through ecosystems.

Autotrophs vs. heterotrophs

What basic strategies do organisms use to get food? Some
organisms, called autotrophs, also known as self-feeders, can
make their own foodthat is, their own organic compounds
out of simple molecules like carbon dioxide. There are two
basic types of autotrophs:

Photoautotrophs, such as plants, use energy from

sunlight to make organic compoundssugarsout of carbon
dioxide in photosynthesis. Other examples of
photoautotrophs include algae and cyanobacteria.
Chemoautotrophs use energy from chemicals to build
organic compounds out of carbon dioxide or similar
molecules. This is called chemosynthesis. For instance, there
are hydrogen sulfide-oxidizing chemoautotrophic bacteria
found in undersea vent communities where no light can
reach.
Autotrophs are the foundation of every ecosystem on the
planet. That may sound dramatic, but it's no exaggeration!
Autotrophs form the base of food chains and food webs, and
the energy they capture from light or chemicals sustains all
the other organisms in the community. When we're talking
 about their role in food chains, we can call
autotrophs producers.

Heterotrophs, also known as other-feeders, can't capture

light or chemical energy to make their own food out of carbon
dioxide. Humans are heterotrophs. Instead, heterotrophs get
organic molecules by eating other organisms or their
byproducts. Animals, fungi, and many bacteria are
heterotrophs. When we talk about heterotrophs' role in food
chains, we can call them consumers. As we'll see shortly,
there are many different kinds of consumers with different
ecological roles, from plant-eating insects to meat-eating
animals to fungi that feed on debris and wastes.

Food chains
Now, we can take a look at how energy and nutrients move
through a ecological community. Let's start by considering
just a few who-eats-who relationships by looking at a food
chain.

A food chain is a linear sequence of organisms through which

nutrients and energy pass as one organism eats another.
Let's look at the parts of a typical food chain, starting from
the bottomthe producersand moving upward.

At the base of the food chain lie the primary

producers. The primary producers are autotrophs and are
 most often photosynthetic organisms such as plants, algae,
or cyanobacteria.
The organisms that eat the primary producers are
called primary consumers. Primary consumers are
usually herbivores, plant-eaters, though they may be algae
eaters or bacteria eaters.
The organisms that eat the primary consumers are
called secondary consumers. Secondary consumers are
generally meat-eaterscarnivores.
The organisms that eat the secondary consumers are
called tertiary consumers. These are carnivore-eating
carnivores, like eagles or big fish.
Some food chains have additional levels, such
as quaternary consumerscarnivores that eat tertiary
consumers. Organisms at the very top of a food chain are
called apex consumers.
We can see examples of these levels in the diagram below.
The green algae are primary producers that get eaten by
mollusksthe primary consumers. The mollusks then become
lunch for the slimy sculpin fish, a secondary consumer, which
is itself eaten by a larger fish, the Chinook salmona tertiary
consumer.
 In this illustration, the bottom trophic level is green algae,
which is the primary producer. The primary consumers are
mollusks, or snails. The secondary consumers are small fish
called slimy sculpin. The tertiary and apex consumer is
Chinook salmon.
Image credit: Ecology of ecosystems: Figure 3 by OpenStax College, Biology, CC BY 4.0

Each of the categories above is called a trophic level, and it

reflects how many transfers of energy and nutrientshow
many consumption stepsseparate an organism from the
food chain's original energy source, such as light. As well
explore further below, assigning organisms to trophic levels
isn't always clear-cut. For instance, humans
are omnivores that can eat both plants and animals.

Decomposers
One other group of consumers deserves mention, although it
does not always appear in drawings of food chains. This
group consists of decomposers, organisms that break down
dead organic material and wastes.

Decomposers are sometimes considered their own trophic

level. As a group, they eat dead matter and waste products
that come from organisms at various other trophic levels; for
instance, they would happily consume decaying plant matter,
the body of a half-eaten squirrel, or the remains of a
deceased eagle. In a sense, the decomposer level runs
parallel to the standard hierarchy of primary, secondary, and
tertiary consumers.

Fungi and bacteria are the key decomposers in many

ecosystems; they use the chemical energy in dead matter
and wastes to fuel their metabolic processes. Other
decomposers are detritivoresdetritus eaters or debris
eaters. These are usually multicellular animals such as
earthworms, crabs, slugs, or vultures. They not only feed on
dead organic matter but often fragment it as well, making it
more available for bacterial or fungal decomposers.
Examples of decomposers: left, fungi growing on a log; right,
an earthworm.
Image credit: left, Decomposers by Courtney Celley/USFWS, CC BY 2.0;
right, Earthworm by Luis Miguel Bugallo Snchez, CC BY-SA 3.0

Decomposers as a group play a critical role in keeping

ecosystems healthy. When they break down dead material
and wastes, they release nutrients that can be recycled and
used as building blocks by primary producers.

Food webs
Food chains give us a clear-cut picture of who eats whom.
However, some problems come up when we try and use them
to describe whole ecological communities.

For instance, an organism can sometimes eat multiple types

of prey or be eaten by multiple predators, including ones at
different trophic levels. This is what happens when you eat a
hamburger patty! The cow is a primary consumer, and the
lettuce leaf on the patty is a primary producer.

To represent these relationships more accurately, we can use

a food web, a graph that shows all the trophiceating-related
interactions between various species in an ecosystem. The
diagram below shows an example of a food web from Lake
Ontario. Primary producers are marked in green, primary
consumers in orange, secondary consumers in blue, and
tertiary consumers in purple.
 The bottom level of the illustration shows primary producers,
which include diatoms, green algae, blue-green algae,
flagellates, and rotifers. The next level includes the primary
consumers that eat primary producers. These include
calanoids, waterfleas, cyclopoids, rotifers and amphipods. The
shrimp also eat primary producers. Primary consumers are in
turn eaten by secondary consumers, which are typically small
fish. The small fish are eaten by larger fish, the tertiary
consumers. The yellow perch, a secondary consumer, eats
small fish within its own trophic level. All fish are eaten by the
 sea lamprey. Thus, the food web is complex with interwoven
layers.
Image credit: Ecology of ecosystems: Figure 5 by OpenStax College, Biology, CC BY 4.0;
original work by NOAA, GLERL

In food webs, arrows point from an organism that is eaten to

the organism that eats it. As the food web above shows,
some species can eat organisms from more than one trophic
level. For example, opossum shrimp eat both primary
producers and primary consumers.

Bonus question: This food web contains the food chain we

saw earlier in the articlegreen algae \rightarrowright
arrow mollusks \rightarrowright arrow slimy
sculpin \rightarrowright arrow salmon. Can you find it?

Grazing vs. detrital food webs

Food webs don't usually show decomposersyou might have
noticed that the Lake Ontario food web above does not. Yet,
all ecosystems need ways to recycle dead material and
wastes. That means decomposers are indeed present, even if
they don't get much air time.

For example, in the meadow ecosystem shown below, there is

a grazing food web of plants and animals that provides
inputs for a detrital food web of bacteria, fungi, and
detritovores. The detrital web is shown in simplified form in
the brown band across the bottom of the diagram. In reality,
it would consist of various species linked by specific feeding
interactionsthat is, connected by arrows, as in the grazing
food web aboveground. Detrital food webs can contribute
energy to grazing food webs, as when a robin eats an
earthworm.
 The bottom level of the illustration shows decomposers,
which include fungi, mold, earthworms, and bacteria in the
soil. The next level above decomposers shows the producers:
plants. The level above the producers shows the primary
consumers that eat the producers. Some examples are
squirrels, mice, seed-eating birds, and beetles. Primary
consumers are in turn eaten by secondary consumers, such
as robins, centipedes, spiders, and toads. The tertiary
consumers such as foxes, owls, and snakes eat secondary
and primary consumers. All of the consumers and producers
eventually become nourishment for the decomposers.
Image credit: modified from Energy flow through ecosystems: Figure 5 by OpenStax
College, Biology, CC BY 4.0; for complete credits of original images, please see pop-up
below

[Extended image credits]

Energy transfer efficiency limits

food chain lengths
Energy is transferred between trophic levels when one
organism eats another and gets the energy-rich molecules
from its prey's body. However, these transfers are inefficient,
and this inefficiency limits the length of food chains.

When energy enters a trophic level, some of it is stored as

biomass, as part of organisms' bodies. This is the energy
that's available to the next trophic level since only energy
storied as biomass can get eaten. As a rule of thumb, only
about 10% of the energy that's stored as biomass in one
trophic levelper unit timeends up stored as biomass in
the next trophic levelper the same unit time. This 10% rule
of energy transfer is a good thing to commit to memory.

As an example, let's suppose the primary producers of an

ecosystem store 20,000 kcal/m^22start superscript, 2, end
superscript/year of energy as biomass. This is also the
amount of energy per year that's made available to the
primary consumers, which eat the primary producers. The
10% rule would predict that the primary consumers store only
2,000 kcal/m^22start superscript, 2, end superscript/year of
energy in their own bodies, making energy available to their
predatorssecondary consumersat a lower rate.

This pattern of fractional transfer limits the length of food

chains; after a certain number of trophic levelsgenerally
three to six, there is too little energy flow to support a
population at a higher level.
 Trophic pyramid illustrating the 10% energy transfer rule.

Light energy is captured by primary producers.

Amount of energy stored as biomass:

Primary producers20,000 kcal per meter squared per year

Primary consumers2,000 kcal per meter squared per year

Secondary consumers200 kcal per meter squared per year

Tertiary consumers20 kcal per meter squared per year

 Tertiary consumers2 kcal per meter squared per year

At each level, energy is lost directly as heat or in the form of

waste and dead matter that go to the decomposers.
Eventually, the decomposers metabolize the waste and dead
matter, releasing their energy as heat also.
Image credit: modified from Ecological pyramid by CK-12 Foundation, CC BY-NC 3.0

Why does so much energy exit the food web between one
trophic level and the next? Here are a few of the main
reasons for inefficient energy transfer^{1,2}1,2start
superscript, 1, comma, 2, end superscript:

In each trophic level, a significant amount of energy is

dissipated as heat as organisms carry out cellular respiration
and go about their daily lives.
Some of the organic molecules an organism eats cannot
be digested and leave the body as feces, poop, rather than
being used.
Not all of the individual organisms in a trophic will level
get eaten by organisms in the next level up. Some instead die
without being eaten.
The feces and uneaten, dead organisms become food for
decomposers, who metabolize them and convert their energy
to heat through cellular respiration. So, none of the energy
actually disappearsit all winds up as heat in the end.

Pyramid of Numbers
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The pyramid of numbers depicts the relationship in terms of the number of producers, herbivores and the
carnivores at their successive trophic levels. There is a decrease in the number of individuals from the
lower to the higher trophic levels. The number pyramid varies from ecosystem to ecosystem. There are
three of pyramid of numbers:

Upright pyramid of number

Partly upright pyramid of number and

Inverted pyramid of number.

Upright Pyramid of Number

This type of pyramid number is found in the aquatic and grassland ecosystem, in these ecosystems there
are numerous small autotrophs which support lesser herbivores which in turn support smaller number of
carnivores and hence this pyramid is upright.

Partly Upright pyramid of Number

It is seen in the forest ecosystem where the number of producers are lesser in number and support a
greater number of herbivores and which in turn support a fewer number of carnivores.
Inverted Pyramid of Number
This type of ecological pyramid is seen in parasitic food chain where one primary producer supports
numerous parasites which support more hyperparasites.

yramid of Biomass
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The pyramid of biomass is more fundamental, they represent the quantitative relationships of the standing
crops. In this pyramid there is a gradual decrease in the biomass from the producers to the higher trophic
levels. The biomass here the net organisms collected from each feeding level and are then dried and
weighed. This dry weight is the biomass and it represents the amount of energy available in the form of
organic matter of the organisms. In this pyramid the net dry weight is plotted to that of the producers,
herbivores, carnivores, etc.
There are two types of pyramid of biomass, they are:

Upright pyramid of biomass and

Inverted pyramid of biomass.

Upright Pyramid of Biomass

This occurs when the larger net biomass of producers support a smaller weight of consumers.
Example: Forest ecosystem.

Inverted Pyramid of Biomass

This happens when the smaller weight of producers support consumers of larger weight.
Example: Aquatic ecosystem.