B. J. Music Ed.

2003 20:3, 229241 Copyright

C 2003 Cambridge University Press
DOI: 10.1017/S0265051703005412

Young peoples music in and out of school

A l e x a n d r a L a m o n t , D a v i d J . H a r g r e a v e s , N i g e l A . M a r s h a l l a n d M a r k Ta r r a n t

A.M.Lamont@psy.keele.ac.uk

This article examines the perceived and documented problems of school music, particularly
at secondary level, through a study of young peoples music in and out of school. Four
issues are explored: teachers approaches to music in school; pupils levels of engagement
in musical activities in and out of school; pupils attitudes to music in and out of school;
and pupils aspirations in music. A Pupils Music Questionnaire was administered to 1,479
pupils in Years 4, 6, 7 and 9 (aged 814 years) from 21 schools in England; Teacher
Interviews were conducted with 42 head teachers and teachers responsible for music in
all these schools; and follow-up Music Focus Groups were conducted with 134 pupils
from the original sample. In contrast to earlier research, both teachers and pupils across
the sample demonstrated very positive attitudes towards music, whilst also acknowledging
constraints on good practice. Music listening formed an important part of pupils lives, but
music making was more prominent than suggested by previous research. Commitment to
musical activity seemed more robust out of school than in school, and it is suggested that
involvement in musical activity may be transitory for some children and adolescents.

Introduction

The problem of school music

At the start of the twenty-first century in England there is a widespread perception

of a problem with school music, particularly at secondary level, which is shared by
pupils, teachers, inspectors and policy makers. Official evidence for this comes from two
sources: participation rates in GCSE music (General Certificate of Secondary Education,
an examination course qualification taken by pupils aged between 14 and 16) and school
inspection evidence. The proportion of secondary pupils opting for GCSE music at age 14
is only around 7 per cent of the total number of entrants (QCA, 2002), and many of these
pupils are also likely to take part in instrumental tuition and extra-curricular school musical
activities (Bray, 2000). Pupils who take music only as part of the statutory curriculum tend
to drop it as soon as they can (Harland et al ., 2000; Ross & Kamba, 1998). The Office for
Standards in Educations (OFSTEDs) annual inspection evidence paints a similarly gloomy
picture for music, particularly at Key Stage 3 (ages 1114, the first three years of secondary
school, when music is still part of the statutory National Curriculum). A good deal of
lower secondary school music seems to be unsuccessful, unimaginatively taught, and out
of touch with pupils interests. Although the situation appears to have improved recently,
in 2001/2 pupil achievement at Key Stage 3 remained unsatisfactory in one school in six
(OFSTED, 2002a). This contrasts sharply with music in the primary school, which has been

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consistently rated as one of the best taught subjects (Mills, 1998) and where achievement
is unsatisfactory in one school in ten (OFSTED, 2002b).
Two important research studies have supported the existence of a problem with
secondary school music. The first was carried out for the National Foundation for
Educational Research (NFER) and the Arts Council of England (Harland et al ., 2000). This
large-scale project drew on four different sources of qualitative and quantitative evidence
about art, drama and music in secondary schools, including five school case studies,
some of NFERs existing self-evaluation data from 152 schools, a survey of 2,269 Year 11
pupils (aged 1516 years), and interviews with employers on the perceived values of the
arts, although the data on music that is presented in the main report draws largely on
quotations from the case studies. The report concludes that music is the most problematic
and vulnerable art form at GCSE level, and that the vast majority of GCSE pupils display an
absence of enjoyment, relevance, skill development, creativity and expressive dimensions
in music (Harland et al ., 2000: 568).
The second study is a longitudinal investigation of 684 school-aged childrens
participation in music (ONeill et al ., 2002; Sloboda, 2001). Pupils were investigated
before and after the transition from primary to secondary school in 1999 and 2000. One of
the main findings was that the proportion of these pupils who reported that they played a
musical instrument dropped from 61 to 33 per cent of the sample as a whole from primary
to secondary school. 45 per cent of those who played in primary school had stopped
playing over this short space of time. This suggests that the move to secondary school
is accompanied by a decline in interest in musical activities. The period of Key Stage 3,
from age 11 to 14, thus seems to be the most problematic stage of music education in
England.

Music in and out of school: teacher and pupil agendas

One obvious factor influencing the popularity and effectiveness of music in school is the
role and importance of music in the lives of teenagers outside school. Popular forms of
music play a central role in the lifestyle of most teenagers, and indeed constitute a badge of
identity for many of them (e.g. Tarrant, North & Hargreaves, 2001). Furthermore, positive
attitudes to pop music may also be accompanied by lack of interest in traditional forms
of music such as classical music. North, Hargreaves & ONeills (2000) study of 2,465
1314-year-olds found that the teenagers listened to music for about 2.5 hours a day, and
that they preferred musical styles such as dance, pop, soul and rap to opera, folk or classical
music.
The authenticity of secondary school musical experience, and its relation to music
outside school, is an important issue for teachers as well as pupils. Although teachers have
recently shown more positive attitudes towards popular music and other forms of music
in the classroom, their teaching strategies often remain traditional (Green, 2002). Many
secondary music specialist teachers have themselves been trained within the Western
classical tradition, in which music-making is dominated by the professional career
model based largely in conservatoires and university music departments (e.g. Hargreaves,
Marshall, Purves & Welch, 2003). This model may be inappropriate for the demands of the

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secondary school classroom, and teachers from a classical background may be relatively
inexperienced with other genres, as Yorks (2001) recent survey suggested.
The paradox is that although music is an increasingly important part of the lives of
many people, exerts an immense influence on many aspects of their behaviour, and seems
to be central to the identities of many school pupils, the problem of school music remains.
The distinction between music at school and music at home is particularly marked for
pupils, especially in the secondary school. For example, Boal-Palheiros & Hargreaves (2001)
found that pupils associated home listening with enjoyment and positive emotional moods
and school listening with learning and information, and this difference was most clear in
secondary pupils. This study highlights the importance of the contexts of music-making,
which are expanding and changing very rapidly in our increasingly digital, networked
and globalised world. Involvement in music listening and activity can take place easily in
informal as well as formal contexts, and the relationship between music-making in and out
of school is becoming increasingly complex.
These issues have recently been explored further by Hargreaves, Marshall & North
(2003), who propose a conceptual model of the wide range of opportunities now presented
by music education in its broadest sense. This model gives informal music-making outside
school as much potential status as formal music-making at school. The research studies
mentioned above have considered parts of this wider picture of musical activities in young
peoples lives, in particular focusing on issues relating to GCSE and to instrumental learning,
but none so far has taken a broader perspective. The present article is the first of a series
of publications resulting from a research project which was undertaken as part of the
Qualification and Curriculum Authoritys (QCA) Curriculum Development Project in the
Arts and Music Monitoring Programme. Here we present a broad outline of the project and
its findings as a whole; subsequent publications will analyse the findings in more detail
(see also Hargreaves, Lamont, Marshall & Tarrant, 2003).

Method

The aim of the current study was to provide an up-to-date and representative view of pupils
experiences of music, and of school head teachers and teachers views of the music in
terms of its success, perceived specific and general benefits, and challenges faced. We
focused on four main issues:

(1) teachers approaches to music in school (class and extra-curricular);

(2) pupils levels of engagement in a variety of musical activities in and out of school;
(3) pupils attitudes to music in school (class and extra-curricular) and out of school;
(4) pupils aspirations in music.

Design

The research was designed in two phases. Phase 1 comprised two parallel strands. The
Pupils Music Questionnaire was developed to cover aspects of pupils musical experiences
and attitudes both in and out of school, including both closed and open-ended questions.
Semi-structured Interviews with Head Teachers/Heads of Music were planned to investigate

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their aims, objectives and achievements in relation to music, and data was also collected on
the practical details of how music was provided for pupils at school, both in the curriculum
and in terms of extra-curricular activities. In Phase 2, a smaller group of pupils (a focus
group) was selected for in-depth follow-up investigation of their musical experiences and
attitudes.

Participants

Phase 1 included 1,479 pupils (758 girls and 721 boys) in Years 4, 6, 7 and 9 (aged between
8 and 14) from a nationally representative stratified sample of 21 schools (12 primary and
9 secondary). The schools were initially stratified according to size, geographical location
and percentage of free school meals. However, schools participated on a voluntary basis,
and secondary schools were not as willing to take part as primary schools. It is therefore
important to recognise that the final sample may have comprised schools with more positive
attitudes towards the arts, music, and to QCA itself. A total of 42 teachers from the same
schools were interviewed, following a request via head teachers to interview the head
and teachers responsible for music in each case. Head teachers were interviewed in every
school, as well as one other teacher with some degree of responsibility for music: either the
head of music, the head of arts, or a teacher with responsibility for delivering or overseeing
the delivery of music (e.g. primary school subject co-ordinators).
In Phase 2, 134 pupils from 8 of the original 21 schools (5 primary and 3 secondary),
selected to reflect a balance of socio-economic status, location and size, took part in the
Music Focus Groups. Pupils were selected on the basis of their questionnaire responses,
with a target of 5 pupils per year in each of three groups, as follows: pupils who were
currently involved in musical training outside class music lessons (training), pupils
not currently having training but expressing an interest in doing so (aspiring), and pupils not
currently having training and expressing no interest in doing so (non-aspiring). The teacher
and focus group interviews were tape-recorded, transcribed, and analysed qualitatively
using an inductive approach (Miles & Huberman, 1994) to generate themes and categories.

Results

Interviews with head teachers and teachers

The interviews were based around a series of open-ended questions about the aims and
objectives of music at school and factors preventing and enabling good practice and
success. The following summarises the main emerging themes that were raised by head
teachers and teachers.

T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f m u s i c a n d i t s d e v e l o p m e n t a l b e n e fi t s

Head teachers all expressed a very positive attitude towards music, and teachers and
co-ordinators also voiced their continuing commitment to music in spite of budgeting
problems, time pressures, and availability of skilled teachers. Curriculum music was seen
as a positive opportunity to complement the logical and cognitive aspects of literacy and

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numeracy with a more emotional, spiritual or affective side of learning, and as a means of
achieving many of the Citizenship aims such as teaching perseverance and patience, an
increased appreciation and respect for others, teamwork, and self-discipline. These social
opportunities were perceived as particularly important since independent study in core
subjects and increased computer use were both reducing the opportunities for pupils to
interact with other children. However, many teachers felt that whilst curriculum music
was often valued by those associated with the school, it lacked any real validation from
government.
Extra-curricular musical activities were also mentioned as being vital to the life
of the school, and teachers often reported having to limit numbers for such activities.
Musical events were frequently valued for providing important and popular links with the
community and generating energy and confidence, and teachers mentioned how pupils
were seen to blossom or take the initiative in relation to a school production. Secondary
teachers also often mentioned that the (extra-curricular) musical life of the school influenced
many parents initial secondary school selections.

Access and inclusivity

By access here we refer specifically to the notion of social inclusion in terms of equal access
to curriculum activities. Teachers saw new curriculum initiatives, such as the introduction
of world musics and the increased use of technology in music, as going some way to
achieving this notion of access, and the broadening of the curriculum was felt to have gone a
considerable way towards increasing the relevance of music to individual pupils. However,
some also voiced concerns for those pupils wishing to pursue a university or conservatoire
programme, since the lack of time and opportunity to teach and experience more traditional
classical musical skills such as harmony and counterpoint may disadvantage pupils hoping
to follow that route.
The related concept of inclusivity here refers to the unique ability of the arts to
validate and encompass the individuals personal response or experience. Primary and
secondary teachers frequently referred to the arts as a great equaliser or a great leveller.
Many specifically pointed to the arts as being the one arena in which pupils with special
educational needs could have their feelings, ideas and responses equally valued. However,
some secondary teachers cautioned that inclusivity could be progressively eroded at
secondary level, particularly for children with special educational needs. Teachers felt
this was due firstly to the increase in quantity of technical terms in the curriculum and its
associated schemes of work, and secondly to the use of a more technical language which
they themselves felt was required to teach some curriculum musical concepts and ideas.

Skill and expertise

In primary schools, head teachers noted their dependence on recruiting specialist staff and
co-ordinators to support and deliver the full range of musical activities, referring often to
the expertise and enthusiasm of their specialist co-ordinators as the single most important
factor in enabling success. Many reported difficulties in recruiting appropriately skilled staff,
and some heads had developed the initiative of employing a musician without education

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training to work alongside other staff members. Teachers in primary schools without a
music co-ordinator were just about coping with the music curriculum, although Years 5
and 6 were noted as particularly taxing. In addition, some secondary subject specialists
also mentioned problems in relation to skill and expertise. Several highlighted problems
of having to come to terms with a rapidly changing curriculum, and three teachers noted
their lack of a good working knowledge in many of the new specialist areas of world
music such as Indian raga, samba and rap. However, secondary school music was always
delivered by a subject specialist who had studied music at tertiary education level.

Liaison within and between phases

Developing the idea of music as a social activity, teachers frequently mentioned the
networks within and outside the school that helped them in their musical activities. Primary
teachers referred to within-phase networks between arts subjects within the school and
with organisations in the wider community, which varied considerably from school to
school. Teachers in larger primary schools mentioned links with other schools, music
teacher support groups and access to expertise from music service professional staff as
being very beneficial. Local music festivals and local education authorities were also cited
as providing valuable support. However, in general, smaller schools had less effective
connections outside the school in terms of the arts and were less able to subscribe to local
music services or participate in joint arts events with other schools.
The sampling procedure meant it was not possible to investigate linked primary and
secondary schools, and issues of school transition are likely to vary widely. However,
secondary school teachers often spoke of the lack of good links with primary feeder schools
as a problem, exacerbated by time restrictions and the numbers of schools involved. They
felt that better links would allow more continuity, but their absence meant they had to
ignore previous musical experience and start again from scratch.

Information and communication technology (ICT)

Primary teachers frequently reported technology-related problems, including a lack of

training opportunities and the high price of software, as obstacles to developing music
and ICT. Other frequently reported difficulties included the lack of affordable, good-quality
recording equipment and other ICT hardware, software and keyboards. At secondary level,
the inclusion of ICT was also perceived as problematic by some teachers who felt that
the sound technology and recording requirements of Key Stage 3 were beyond their own
expertise, and that sound technology could even be separated from the music curriculum
for examination purposes.

In summary, although a range of practical problems was preventing good practice in every
instance (including skill, ICT, and time constraints), many head teachers reported that they
would seek to provide musical experiences even if music were to be removed from the
statutory curriculum. Primary teachers emphasised the quality of musical experiences and
the extra-musical benefits these can bring, whilst secondary teachers were more critical of
their own achievements and the constraints placed on them. Nonetheless, both groups of

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Fig. 1 Reported enjoyment of class music lessons

teachers expressed generally positive attitudes towards music and its role in school, both
within and beyond the curriculum.

Pupils views on music in school

Beginning with the compulsory elements of school music-making, 67 per cent of our overall
sample reported enjoying their class music lessons. Enjoyment decreased between Years 4
and 9 for girls, but increased slightly for boys, who were more likely to enjoy school music
than girls in Year 9 (see Figure 1).
Exploring this finding, our focus groups highlighted the fact that the range of class
musical activities were not all equally liked, and that attitudes to musical activities could
change rapidly depending on what was provided. Playing instruments was one of the most
liked aspects, together with making up music and the opportunities to have contact with
real professional musicians. Pupils with less of an interest in active music-making (the
non-aspiring group) were more likely to mention listening as their favourite aspect of
class music lessons, whilst those with more active interests (aspiring and training groups)
cited playing instruments and making up music. Primary school pupils generally responded
positively to singing at school, whereas secondary school pupils were less enthusiastic about
singing in front of others or singing music not of their own choice. The most consistently
disliked aspect of class music was learning abstract facts about music and musicians (in
Years 7 and 9).
Pupils having training discussed many different aspects of their class music lessons,
and showed more positive attitudes to a broader range of music than the other groups.
Aspiring pupils emphasised teamwork and the social benefits of group work in class
musical activities, in particular in relation to composing, and viewed the active aspects
of music-making positively. Non-aspiring pupils still wanted to learn to play real musical
instruments in class, and recognised the skill involved in success in music. They compared

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themselves to the other groups in terms of their own lack of skill or ability. Composing was
particularly difficult for this group, and the lack of right and wrong caused them problems.
When asked to nominate two or three school subjects to drop, very few pupils selected
music, and many mentioned that school music was a welcome diversion from more
academic school subjects. However, very few pupils expressed an interest in taking GCSE
music. The reasons for this were also varied: music was seen as a highly specialist subject
at this level, open only to those with considerable instrumental skill, and not relevant or
necessary for careers in other kinds of music-related businesses.
In terms of music-making outside the curriculum, schools varied in the levels of
provision and opportunities open to pupils. However, every school provided some extra-
curricular musical activities. Our questionnaire results indicated that most primary school
pupils participated in musical performances, which tended to be compulsory (such as
Christmas carol concerts); when these became voluntary in secondary school participation
dropped to 35 per cent. Relatively few pupils participated in more regular school musical
activities: school choir was the most common, with nearly a quarter of pupils in Year
4 participating and only 10 per cent in Year 9. Other types of extra-curricular musical
activities included recorder group and band, with less than 10 per cent in each year group
participating.
Every school also provided opportunities for pupils to take formal instrumental music
training at school, and about a quarter of our sample overall reported that they were having
lessons at school. This also declined with age, from 30 per cent in Year 4 to 12 per cent
in Year 9. More girls were having lessons than boys in primary school, but girls level
of participation dropped off more dramatically than boys in secondary school. The most
common instrument was the recorder (particularly in primary school), followed by piano
or keyboard (in secondary school) and guitar. Furthermore, 41 per cent of the pupils not
having instrumental lessons said they would like to do so. This interest also decreases with
age, but only for girls; boys maintain a high level of interest in taking instrumental lessons,
at around 40 per cent across the age range.
Interest in taking instrumental lessons at school is also maintained over the year
groups, with the exception of a peak in the levels of aspiring pupils in Year 6. The focus
groups revealed that pupils saw the move to secondary school as opening up a range of
opportunities and possibilities, including a wider range of music-making opportunities and
the chance to play different and more grown-up musical instruments. This information
often appeared to be based on preliminary visits to secondary schools, and further research
would be required to discover whether these particular pupils were disappointed after
making the transition to secondary school. The generally high levels of interest in music
shown by the secondary school pupils here suggest that this may not be the case.
Our focus groups also revealed that many pupils had taken instrumental lessons at some
stage in their school careers, especially those in the aspiring group who had subsequently
given up. Their reasons for stopping were diverse, ranging from practical and financial
considerations to perceived ability. One important practical limitation in relation to school
was the timetabling of instrumental lessons: many pupils were reluctant to miss other
lessons or other school activities to take part in music lessons. Availability of the right
instrument was also mentioned as a reason for not taking up lessons or not persevering.
More positively, some pupils were not daunted by a bad experience with instrumental

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lessons and were keen to have another try at some point in the future. Family support
emerged as significant in the decision to start and stop instrumental lessons at school,
which leads on to the next section relating to music outside school.

Pupils views on music out of school

Music listening

Almost all our respondents reported that they listened to CDs or cassette tapes, and high
figures were also observed for patterns of radio listening. From their own estimates, pupils
spent more time listening to music with age, with Year 9 pupils reporting listening to CDs or
tapes for 13 hours per week. Listening was confined largely to popular styles of music (pop,
dance, rock, R&B): only around 10 per cent of the sample as a whole reported listening to
classical or jazz music, and this figure decreased across the year groups. Girls were more
likely than boys to report listening to pop and R&B music, whilst boys were more likely to
report listening to rock music. We explored their motivations for listening to music in the
focus groups, finding that many pupils of all ages felt that listening to music allowed them
to explore or even change their own emotions.
As well as listening to music at home, many pupils also went to venues where recorded
music was present; for most this included the school disco (primary and secondary) and
dance clubs (secondary only). More of the older pupils went to venues to hear live music,
most commonly music concerts. This may be due to the increased levels of autonomy
typically enjoyed by adolescents, who may have been more able to afford to attend concerts
and other musical events and so chose to do so.

Active music-making

The questionnaire results indicate that approximately 80 per cent of pupils reported having
at least one instrument in the home. The main instruments were piano or keyboard and
recorder, with the guitar and violin amongst those nominated less frequently. About three-
quarters of pupils with a piano or keyboard at home actually played the instrument, while
less than half of those with a recorder at home played it. Playing an instrument at home
also declined gradually with age, although remained higher than formal music-making
at school (approximately 50 per cent of participants in Year 9 were involved in informal
individual music-making, compared to 20 per cent in formal instrumental training). Again
by their own estimates, when they did engage in informal musical activities outside school,
older pupils spent longer periods of time doing so than younger pupils.
Overall, 30 per cent of pupils were learning to play an instrument outside school. This
figure was slightly higher than the comparable figure reported for music in school, but also
declined with age. Perhaps reflecting its widespread availability in the home (as reported by
over half of our large sample), the most popular instrument studied was the piano/keyboard,
followed by the guitar. Although younger pupils were more likely than older pupils to be
engaged in musical training outside school, from Year 6 onwards pupils were more likely
to take control of their own learning. Around half of the pupils in Years 69 who were
learning an instrument reported that they taught themselves to play it, and our focus groups

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revealed the importance of other family members in facilitating and encouraging this kind
of musical activity.
Finally, in the sample overall 45 per cent of those participants who were not currently
learning an instrument outside of school said that they would like to (a similar figure to
that reported earlier for lessons at school). Very few of the pupils who expressed an interest
in learning an instrument outside school were currently having instrumental lessons at
school: these participants were those who were not currently learning an instrument at
all. Although secondary school pupils were least likely to say they wanted to learn an
instrument at home, the proportion of Year 7 and Year 9 pupils falling into this category
was nevertheless substantial, at 39 per cent. A key reason cited by focus group participants
for their interest in instrumental tuition outside school was that out-of-school learning was
perceived to be largely under the pupils own volition. This presents an interesting contrast
to their perceptions of instrumental tuition in school: as noted earlier, one of the key reasons
cited by participants for giving up formal instrumental training at school was that it detracted
from time available to study other school subjects. By engaging with music outside school
time, therefore, pupils may have believed they could achieve a better balance between
their musical aspirations and other academic commitments.
In summary, pupils attitudes to music, both in and out of school, are more positive
than previous research suggests, in particular for children of secondary school age. As with
the teachers, pupils also show an awareness of the practical constraints surrounding music
participation, and appear to be making informed choices about whether to engage with
music beyond the statutory curriculum. Music listening forms an important part of pupils
lives, but music-making is also prominent.

Discussion

In 2002, both teachers and pupils in English education appeared to demonstrate very
positive attitudes towards music. In particular, teachers and pupils in this study valued the
role of music in the curriculum for both its musical and its extra-musical effects, and did
not support its reduction or, as Sloboda (2001) has recently suggested, its removal from the
statutory curriculum. Even pupils who did not engage with musical activity other than in
the statutory curriculum recognised the benefits that music lessons provide and appreciated
the skills that can be acquired. These pupils found music more taxing than those who had
the benefit of additional musical involvement, such as formal instrumental tuition or less
formal musical activities like choirs or bands, yet teachers and pupils alike continued to
strive to meet the aims of access and inclusivity. These aims seemed to be more effective
in the primary school, where music is an important part of the culture of the entire school
(cf. Harland et al ., 2000).
The levels of declining interest with age found in earlier research (Harland et al ., 2000;
Sloboda, 2001) are not supported by the current findings. Our focus groups revealed that
the move to secondary school was seen by those in their last year of primary school as
an exciting opportunity to take up new activities including music, and our questionnaire
results showed the level of enjoyment of class music reported in Year 9 as 60 per cent. It
is particularly encouraging that boys seemed more positive about school music at this age

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than girls, since previous research has indicated that boys are particularly liable to become
disengaged from music (Comber, Hargreaves & Colley, 1993).
Resources were mentioned as a problem by both teachers and pupils, and teachers
at every level felt they required more support and guidance to deliver music activities
at school more effectively. In particular, the recent curriculum requirements of using ICT
and of dealing with a more diverse collection of musical styles presented problems for
teachers with more traditional training, as Green (2002) suggested. Although teachers often
mentioned the delivery of music in schools as our biggest headache, they persevere due to
the perceived and observed benefits for their pupils. If the role of the school music teacher
can be made simpler through more support and targeted training, all will benefit.
The proportion of pupils involved in extra-curricular music at school also remained
high across the age range, again contradicting earlier research. Our focus groups suggested
that this engagement with music might be transitory for many pupils, and that pupils did
not fit neatly into categories of musician and non-musician. Whilst those pupils who
were committed to music appeared to demonstrate a relatively firm commitment, many
of those not actively involved in music seemed interested in pursuing this at some later
stage, and very few pupils ruled themselves out of any musical involvement. Whether these
commitments to music are indeed firm and lasting, or whether children and young people
can rapidly change their minds about involvement in particular activities (cf. Sloboda,
2001), requires further research. It is also possible that different pupils are interested in
music at different stages, with most pupils only involved in music at school for short
periods. This would indicate that musical involvement is widespread but transitory. It is
also clear that less formal ways of learning to play a musical instrument were increasingly
popular, particularly amongst older pupils, a large number of whom are engaged in peer-
or family-supported self-teaching of the form documented by Green (2001).
The high reported levels of informal music-making outside school are also unexpected,
given previous research findings that young people were more involved in music listening
as opposed to music-making . Harland, Kinder & Hartley (1995) found that over half their
sample of Year 911 pupils never made music, with only 13 per cent making music
a great deal. The current findings may reflect the longer-term impact of the National
Curriculum emphasis on practical music-making, in motivating pupils to continue making
music outside the classroom. Further research would be required to clarify this.
In summary, the previously documented problems with secondary school music are
not supported by the current research. Although difficulties were discussed by both teachers
and pupils, such as the availability of resources and technology, the experience in general
seemed to be more positive than predicted. It is possible that the shift in teacher attitude
reported by Green (2002) may be beginning to have an effect in the classroom and that the
inclusion of active music-making across a range of musical styles and genres is promoting
a positive attitude amongst pupils, enabling them to assert a degree of ownership over their
music-making that is far less possible with classical music (cf. Spruce, 2002). Technology
and skill were both mentioned here as obstacles, yet they can in some instances help
to underpin musical activities. The role of institutional contexts in preventing engagement
with music also seemed less salient in pupils minds than might have been expected (Willis,
1990). Pupils responded positively to many different opportunities to develop and extend
their musical activities both in and out of school, particularly in situations that blurred

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A l e x a n d r a L a m o n t , D a v i d H a r g r e a v e s , N i g e l M a r s h a l l a n d M a r k Ta r r a n t

boundaries (such as music lessons where they could choose their own music to play or
listen to).
In conclusion, we find that attitudes towards music from both teachers and pupils
were positive, and our research has uncovered many examples of good practice in music
education (as broadly conceived). Previous studies indicated a sudden decline in musical
involvement at the transition to secondary school at age 11. Our results contradict this,
showing that most pupils enjoyed some if not all aspects of the statutory curriculum up
to Year 9. Although levels of enjoyment of class and school music in the early secondary
years were shown to be high, there was undoubtedly a decline in interest in academic
music at age 14, as illustrated by very low levels of interest in GCSE music. It seems only a
very small proportion of pupils were interested in pursuing the developmental pathway of a
music career by taking GCSE music. The current challenge for school music is to maximise
the experience of all pupils during the statutory period, and to help all those who show an
additional interest in music beyond the classroom to develop that, recognising the value of
their own contributions, developing their individual skills through valuable social, cultural,
and primarily musical experiences and activities, and providing the confidence to partake
in musical activities in whatever personal or social context they choose.

Acknowledgements

This research was commissioned by the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority of

England, to whom we are grateful for financial support. Our thanks in particular go to
Tony Knight at QCA for advice and assistance in carrying out the research. We also thank
the teachers and pupils who gave up their time to participate in the study, and Jane Anslow
and Naomi-Jane Martin for assistance in data collection and coding.

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