THE C / v B B A T H

IN SCRIPTURE
AND
HISTORY

-------------------O M I l N M I M f e -------------------
 T H E S A B B A T H

I N S C R I P T U R E

A N D

H I S T O R Y

Editor
K EN N E T H A. STRA N D

CONTRIBUTORS
In clu ding those to the appendixes:

Daniel A u g sburger, Sam uele Bacchiocchi. Roy B ranson, R aym ond F. C ottrell,
Raoul D ederen, W alter B. Douglas, Law rence T . G eraty, Roy G raham , G e rh ard
F. Hasel, R obert Jo h n sto n . Sakae k u b o . H ans K. LaR ondelle, C. M ervyn Maxwell,
\V. G. C'.. M urdoch, W alter F. Specht. K enneth A. S trand, W ern er V vhm eister, S.
Douglas W aterhouse. K enneth H. W ood.

REVIEW A N D HERALD P U B L ISH IN G A S S O C IA T IO N

W a s h i n g t o n , D.C. 2 0 0 1 2
i/j/0 1
C opyright 1982 bv the
Review a n d H erald Publishing Association
P rinted in U.S.A.

Bible texts credited to A.S.V. are from the A m erican S ta n d ard V ersion,
copyright 1901 by T h o m as Nelson & Sons.
Bible texts credited to G oodspeed are from Smith an d G oodspeed. The
Complete Bible: An American Translation. C opyright 1939 by the University o f
Chicago.
S cripture q uotes credited to N.A.B. are from The S n r American Bible an d are
used b \ perm ission o f Lhe C o n fratern ity ol C hristian D octrine, copy right ow ner.
S cripture quotations m arked N.A.S.B. are from th e Seu' American Standard
Bible, T h e Lockm an F oundation, 1960. 1962. 1963. 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973,
1975, an d are used by perm ission.
Bible texts credited to N.E.B. are from The Xew English Bible. C T h e Delegates
o f th e O x fo rd U niversity Press an d the Syndics o f th e C am bridge University Press
1961, 1970. R eprinted bv perm ission.
Texts credited to N .I.V . are from The Holy Bible: Xew International Version.
C opyright 1978 by the New York International Bible Society. Used by
perm ission o f Z ondervan Bible Publishers.
Bible tex tscred ited to N.J.V. a re from the New Jew ish Version. 1962 by the
Jewish Publication Society o f Am erica.
Bible texts credited to R.S.V. are from th e Revised S tandard V ersion o f the
Bible, copyrighted 1946. 1952 1971, 1973.
Bible te x tsc re d ite d to R.V. are from the Revised Version, copyright 1911 by
the O x fo rd University Press.
Bible texts credited to T.E.V . are from the Good News BibleO ld T estam ent:
C opyright A m erican Bible Society 1976; New T estam ent: C opyright
Am erican Bible Society 1966, 1971, 1976.

Library o f Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Main entry u n d e r title:
T h e Sabbath in S cripture and history.
B ibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Sabbath A ddresses, essays, lectures. 2. Seventh-day A dventists D octri
nal an d controversial works A ddresses, essays, lectures. I. S trand. K enneth
Albert, 1927- . II. A ugsburger, Daniel A ndr, 1920-
B V125.S2 263'. I 82-3724
ISBN O-aEO-OOB?-^ AACR2

LESLIE H A n rX N G E LIBRARY
 Table of Contents
LIST O F A B B R E V I A T I O N S ...................... 7
A B O U T THE A U T H O R S _____________ 9
P R E F A C E ____________________________ 15
I N T R O D U C T I O N _____________________ 17

P A R T I: S A B B A T H A N D S U N D A Y IN THE BIBLICAL PERIOD

C h ap ter (TT T h e Sabbath in the Pentateuch (G erhard F. H a se l)___ 21
C h ap ter 1. T h e Sabbath in the P rophetic a n d Historical L iterature
o f th e O ld T estam en t (G erhard F. Hasel an d W. G. C.
M u rd o c h )_______________________________________ 44
C h ap ter 3.' T h e Sabbath in the Intertestam ental Period (Sakae
K u b o )------------------------------------------------------------------ 57
C h ap ter 4. T h e Rabbinic Sabbath (Robert Johnston) _____________ 70
C h ap ter 5. T h e S a b b a th in th e N ew T e s t a m e n t (W a lte r F.
Specht) 92
C h ap ter 6. S unday in the New T estam ent (W alter F. Specht) _ 114

P A R T II: S A B B A T H A N D S U N D A Y I N C H R IS T IA N C H U R C H
H ISTO RY
C h ap ter 7. T h e Rise o f Sunday O bservance in Early C hristianity
(Sam uele B acchiocchi)____________________________ 132
C h ap ter 8. T h e Sabbath in Asia (W erner V y h m eister)___________ 151
C h ap ter 9. T h e Sabbath in Egypt and Ethiopia (W erner V yhm eis
ter) _____________________ ___ ____________________ 169
C h ap ter 10. T h e Sabbath an d L o rd s Day D uring the M iddle Ages
(Daniel A u g s b u rg e r)____________________________ ... 190
C h ap ter 11. Sabbath a n d Sunday in the R eform ation Era (K enneth
A. S tran d )............................... ......................................... ...... 215
C h ap ter 12. T h e Sabbath in Puritanism (W alter B. Douglas) 229
C h ap ter 13. T h e Sabbath in the New W orld (R aym ond F. Cottrell)
244

P A R T III: S A B B A T H T H E O L O G Y
C h ap ter 14. T h e Sabbath in M odern Jew ish Theology' (Roy B ran
son) 266
C h ap ter 15. C o n tem p o rary T heologies o f the Sabbath (H ans K.
L aR o n d elle)_____________________________________ 278
C h ap ter 16. Reflections on a T heology o f the Sabbath (Raoul
D e d e re n )________________ ________________________ 295

APPENDIXES
A ppendix A. T h e P lanetary W eek in the Rom an West (S. Douglas
W a te rh o u s e )_____________________________________ 308
 A p pendix B. T h e Sabbath and S unday From the Second T h ro u g h
Fifth C enturies (K enneth A. S tr a n d ) ______________ 323
A p pendix C. O n Esteem ing O ne Day as B etter T h an A nother
Rom ans 14:5, 6 (Raoul D e d e re n )_________________ 333
A ppendix D. T h e Sabbath Days o f Colossians 2:16, 17 (K enneth H.
338
A ppendix E. A Note on H ebrew s 4:4-9 (Roy G raham ) 343
A ppendix F. T h e L ord's Day in the Second C entury (K enneth A.
S tr a n d ) __________________________________________ 346
A ppendix G. J o s e p h B ates an d S ev e n th -d a y A d v e n tist S abbath
Theology (C. M ervyn M axw ell)_______________ - 352 ^
A ppendix H. T h e Sabbath on a R ound W orld (R aw nond F. C ottrell
and Law rence T . G e ra tv )____________________ 364
G L O S S A R Y _________ 371
SCR IPTU R E INDEX 375
GENERAL INDEX 379
 List of Abbreviations
A N E T J. B. P ritchard, ed.. Ancient Near Eastern Texts
ANF The Ante-Nicene Fathers
A P O T Apocrypha and Pseudopigrapha of the Old Testament, R. H. C harles, ed.
AUSSAndrews University Seminary Studies
BDB F. Brow n, S. R. Driver, an d C. A. Briggs, Hebrew and English Lexicon of the
Old Testament
BHK R. Kittel, Biblia hebraica
BHS Biblia hebraica stuttgartensia
CD C airo (Genizah text o f the) Damascus (Docum ent)
C H A L Concise Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon
CJ Codex Justinianus
CSEL Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum
C T Codex Theodosiamus
DACL Dictionnaire d'archologie chrtienne et de liturgie
CCS Griechische christlicke Schriftsteller
HADHebrew-Aramaic Dictionary
H A L A T W. B au m g artn er et al.. Hebrisches und aramaisches Lexikon zum Alten
Testament
IBInterpreter's Bible
ICC International Critical Commentary
IDB G. B uttrick, ed., Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible
ID B SupS u p p lem entary volum e to IDB
JB L ;Journal o f Biblical Literature
KB L. K oehler an d YV. B au m g artn er, Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti libros
LCC Library o f C hristian Classics
LCL Loeb Classical Library
LWLuther's Works (A m erican edition)
MBMshaf Birhan (Book o f Light)
M GHMonumenta Germaniae historica
Cap Capttulana regnum Francorum
C one Concilia
Ep Epistolae
Ep sei Epistolae selectae
L Leges
LL Libelli de lite
SS Scriptores
MT M asoredc T ex t
\ C E New Catholic Encyclopedia
NIC New International Commentary
N PN F.'kicene and Post-Nicene Fathers
PGJ. Migne. ed.. Patrologia graeca
P L -J \lig n e . ed.. Patrologta lattna
POPatroiofpa onentalis
PS PmtnUogta Synaca
>BL Dim SerSociety o f Biblical Literature Dissertation Series
SC Sources chretinnes
SD ABC Sex enth-day Adventist Bible Commentary
n DABSSB Seventh-day Adventist Bible Students' Source Hook
SDB Seventh Day Baptists in Europe and America
TDN TGerhard Kittel, ed., Theological Dictionary of the New Testament
T DO TG. J. Bouerweck and Hehm er Ringgren, eds., Theological Dictionary of the
Old Testament
T H A T Ernst Jenni and Claus Westermann, eds., Theologisches Handwrterbuch
zum Alien Testament
TW ATG. J. Botterweck and Hehmer Ringgren, eds.. Theologisches Wrterbuch
mm Alten Testament
VT IVfuj Testamentum
ZAW Zeitschrift f r die alttestamentlicke Wissenschaft
ZDMG Zeitschrift der deutschen
 About the Authors

Daniel Augsburger is professor o f historical theology at th e Seventh-day

A dventist T heological Sem inary, B errien Springs, M ichigan. He jo in ed the
faculty o f A ndrew s University in 1942 (at that tim e E m m anuel Missionary
College) a n d subsequently served as chairm an o f the M odern L anguages
D epartm ent fo r nineteen years. In 1976 he jo in ed the Sem inary faculty after
having served for a n u m b er o f years as a m em ber o f the college's religion
d ep a rtm en t. In 1950 he ea rn ed a D octor o f Philosophy d eg ree from the
University o f M ichigan in F rench language an d literature, and in 1976 the Doctor
o f T heology d eg ree from the University o f S trasbourg, France. For his theology
do cto rate he w rote a dissertation o n John Calvin in relationship to the Mosaic
code. He also serves as secretary for the A m erican Society for R eform ation
Research, an d for several years has coordinated its sp rin g m eetings held in
Kalamazoo, Michigan.

Samuele Bacchiocchi, a professor in the Religion D e p artm en t o f A ndrew s

University since 1974, was the first non-C atholic to obtain a doctorate from
Rom e's Pontifical G regorian University in its m o re-than-four-century history. H e
e a rn e d th e doctorate at the G regoriana in 1974, an d was aw arded two m edals for
his academ ic achievem ents there. B orn in Rome, Bacchiocchi studied at Newbold
College in England and at A ndrew s University, billowed by five years o f serv ice
for th e Seventh-day A dventist C hurch in Ethiopia, w here he was chairm an o f the
theology d ep a rtm en t o f Ethiopian Adventist College; he also ta u g h t religion and
historv in that school. His subsequent doctoral w ork at the Pontifical G regorian
U niversity dealt with Sabbath and S unday in the early ch u rch , an d eventuated in
the publication in 1977 o f his From Sabbath to Sunday. H e has also published o th er
works in th e sam e held.

Roy Branson is sen io r research scholar at the K ennedy In stitu te fo r Ethics.

G eorgetow n University, W ashington, D.C., w here he has w orked since 1973.
P rior to that, for six years he was a professor of C hristian ethics at th e S eventh-da\
A dventist Theological Sem inary at A ndrew s University. He earn ed a D octor of
Philosophy d eg ree at H arvard University in 1968 with a dissertation on T h eo ries
o f Religious Pluralism and the A m erican F ounding F athers." H e is the ed ito r of
Spectrum. A Q u arterly Jo u rn a l o f the Association o f Adventist Forum s." H e is
au th o r o f n u m ero u s articles in a wide variety o f jo u rn als, an d also o f an article on
! -.daism in th e Encyclopedia of Bioethics. In 1976 he coedited, with R obert Veatch.
t :kta and Health Policy (B allenger Press).

9
 T H E S AB BA T H IN S CR I P T U R E AND HISTORY

Raymond F. Cottrell, retired, was book ed ito r for the Review and H erald
Publishing Association. W ashington, D.C., from 1970 to 1976. P rio r to that, he
had been an associate book ed ito r and associate e d ito r o f the Review and Herald,
g eneral ch u rch p ap e r for the Seventh-day A dventist C hurch. H e served eighteen
vears as a Bible teach er in C hina and at Pacific U nion College. A ngw in, C alifornia.
He has d o n e special research in Biblical studies, an d was aw arded the D octor o f
Divinity d eg ree b\ A ndrew s University in 1972. H e is au th o r o f Beyond Tomorrow
and Rea wn and Faith, as well as n u m ero u s jo u rn a l articles; he was also a co n trib u to r
to The Seienth-day Adventist Bible Commentary.

Raoul Dederen, professor o f theology and chairm an o f the T heology

D epartm ent o f th e Seventh-day A dventist Theological Sem inary, served as a
pastor a n d ed u cato r for seventeen years in Belgium an d F rance p rio r to jo in in g
the Sem inary faculty in 1964. His service in France included chairm anship o f the
T heology D epartm ent o f the French Adventist Sem inary in Collonges-sous-
Saleve n e a r Geneva, Switzerland. In 1963 he com pleted a doctoral pro g ram at the
University o f G eneva. Dr. D ederen is active as a w riter an d is an internationally
recognized lecturer on ecum enical studies. H e is also an associate ed ito r o f
Ministry, a well-known m agazine for clergy .

Walter B. Douglas, from G renada in the W est Indies, is a p ro fesso r in the

C h u rch History and W orld Mission d ep a rtm en ts o f the Seventh-dav Adventist
T heological Sem inary; he jo in ed the Sem inary faculty in 1969. His doctoral
studies were com pleted in 1972 at Mc.Nlaster University in H am ilton, O n tario , and
cen tered on seventeenth-century Puritanism . T h e research for his dissertation
involved a new ap p ro ach to the in terp retatio n o f th e history o f the English C hurch
from 1660 onw ard. Prior to jo in in g the S em inar) faculty. Dr. Douglas was active
in ch u rch w ork lo r the Seventh-day A dvenust d enom ination in the West Indies
an d in C anada.

LawrenceT. Geraty is professor o f archeology an d history o f antiquity fo r the

Seventh-day Adventist Theological Seminary' an d is also the c u ra to r o f the
Siegfried H. H orn Archaeological M useum at A ndrew s University. H e jo in e d the
S em in an faculty in 1966; in addition to leaching in the O ld T estam ent
D ep artm en t, he has led several o f the universitys archeological expeditions to
H eshbon. Jo rd a n . G eraty e a rn e d his D octor o f Philosophy d eg ree at H arvard
U niversit) in 1972, with a concentration in Syro-Palestinian archeology. H e has
received n u m ero u s honors, aw ards, grants, a n d fellowships from universities,
archeological organizations, and governm ent offices, an d is in w ide d em an d as a
lectu rer in the field o f Biblical archeology.

Roy E. Graham, provost o f A ndrew s U niversity, B errien Springs, M ichigan,

since M arch, 1979. is also a professor in ihe T heology D ep artm en t o f the
Seventh-dav A dventist Theological Sem inary, whose faculty h e jo in e d in 1976.
His earlier service includes pastoral work and educational su p erin ten d en cy for
the Seventh-day Adventist C hurch in G reat B ritain, as well as the presidency if
the South England C onference ofS eventh-day A dventists, w ith offices in W atford
(n ear L ondon). From 1971 to 1976 he was the president o f Newbold College in

10
Oll ABOUT T H E AUTHORS

B racknell, B erkshire, E ngland. His D octor o f Philosophy d eg ree in theology was

ea rn ed at the University o f B irm ingham , E ngland, in 1978, his dissertation being
T h e Role and Influence o f Ellen G. W hite in the Seventh-dav A dventist C hurch.
With P articular R eference to Ecum enism and Race Relations."

Gerhard F. H asel, from G erm any, is d ean o f the Seventh-day Adventist

T heological Seminary and professor o f Old T estam en t an d Biblical theology.
Prior to jo in in g the Sem inary faculty in 1967, he had served as a pastor in New
England and as a teacher in the religion d e p a rtm e n t o f S o u th ern Missionary
College, C ollegedale, T ennessee. His Ph.D. d eg ree was ea rn ed in 1970 at
V anderbilt University in Nashville, T ennessee. H e is a u th o r o f n u m ero u s
scholarly articles and books, including the p o p u lar Old Testament Theology: Basic
Issues in the Current Debate (1972, 1975). His doctoral dissertation has been
published by the A ndrew s University Press u n d e r the title The Remnant: The
History and Theology of the Remnant Idea From Genesis to Isaiah.

Robert M. Johnston is a professor in the T heology D epartm ent o f the

Seventh-day A dventist Theological Sem inary, whose faculty he jo in ed in 1972. He
e arn ed the Ph.D. d eg ree from the H a rtfo rd Sem inary F oundation in 1977, his
dissertation being entitled Parabolic In terp retatio n s A ttributed to T an n aiin "; he
is a specialist in ancient Judaism an d early Christianity. Prior to his ap p o in tm en t to
th e Sem inary faculty, Dr. Jo h n sto n served as a m issionary in the Far East for
twelve years. H e was chairm an o f the theology d e p a rtm e n t o f K orean U nion
College in Seoul, Korea, and acting dean o f the G rad u ate School o f Religion at
Philippine U nion College in M anila, the Philippines.

Sakae Kubo is p resident o f Newbold College in B racknell, B erkshire, E ngland,

taking u p service there in 1980, after having been the d ean o f the school o f
theology at Walla Walla College, College Place, W ashington, d u rin g the two
previous years. Early in his career, Kubo spent a n u m b er o f years in pastoral
service in Hawaii and C alifornia. From 1955 to 1978 he was connected with
A ndrew s U niversity, B errien Springs, M ichigan, in its Religion D epartm ent, and
in th e Seventh-day Adventist Theological Sem inary as a professor in the New
T estam en t D ep artm ent an d as Sem inary librarian. His doctorate was ea rn e d at
th e University o f Chicago in 1964. H e is au th o r o f nu m ero u s articles an d books:
his Reader's Greek-Engluh Lexicon o f the New Testament is a widely used reference
tool, an d he co au th o red with W alter F. Specht th e p o p u lar and widely acclaim ed
So Many Versions? (1975).

Hans K. LaRondelle is a professor in the Theology D ep artm en t o f the

Seventh-day A dventist Theological Sem inary, whose faculty he jo in e d in 1967. He
had earlier been engaged in m inisterial service for the Seventh-day Adventist
C h u rch in th e N etherlands, his hom eland, for som e fo u rteen years. H e earn ed
th e D octor o f T heology d eg ree in systematic theology at the Free U niversity o f
A m sterdam in 1971, an d his dissertation on Perfection and Perfectionism has been
published by th e A ndrew s University Press. His recent Christ Our Salvation (1980)
a m ore p o p u lar book on the sam e general topic. C urren tly he is actively engaged
s i writing in th e field o f eschatology.

II

LESLIE
 T H E S A B BA T H I N S CR IP T UR E AND HIS TORY

C. Mervyn M axwell is professor o f church historv an d chairm an o f the

C h u rch Historv D epartm ent o f the Seventh-day Adventist Theological S em in ary .
whose faculty he joined in 1968. His doctorate was e a rn e d at the U niversity o f
C hicago in 1966. his dissertation being entitled C hrysostom 's Hom ilies Against
th e Jews: An English T ran slatio n With In tro d u ctio n a n d Notes." P rio r to jo in in g
th e Sem inary faculty. Dr. Maxwell served as a pastor a n d then as a religion teach er
an d as d ep a rtm en tal chairm an at U nion College. Lincoln, N ebraska. H e has
w ritten n u m ero u s articles a n d five books, including a Seventh-dav A dventist
history textbook. Tell It to the World (1976). Presently h e is w riting com m entaries
on the Bible books o f Daniel and Revelation.

W. G. C. M urdoch is d ean em eritus o f the Seventh-dav Adv entist T heological

Sem inary, and has served in various educational posts, including the presidency
o f Newbold College in England and the presidency o f Avondale College in
A ustralia. H e has also served as a theology professor at the Sem inary since 953.
D oing g rad u ate study in both the U.S.A. an d G reat B ritain, he e a rn e d the Ph.D.
d eg ree in 1946 from the University of B irm ingham , E ngland, his dissertation
being entitled T ertu llian a sa M ontanist. T h e M edallion o f M erit A w ard, highest
educational aw ard in the Seventh-day Adventist C h u rch , was p re sen ted to Dr.
M urdoch in 1972 fo r his contribution to the education ol the Adventist m inistry.

Walter F. Specht is clean em eritus o f the School o f Theology at Loma L inda

University. His earlier service included pastoral work for th e Seventh-dav
A dventist C h u rch in M ontana. O regon, and O klahom a. H e also was ch airm an of
th e religion d ep a rtm en t at La S ierra College in Riverside. C alifornia, for a
n u m b e r o f years, followed by chairm anship o f the New T estam en t D epartm ent ol
th e Seventh-day A dventist Theological Sem inary from 1966 to 1976. His
d o cto rate was ea rn ed at the University o f C hicago in 1955 in the field o f New
T estam en t an d early C hristian literature: his w ritings include contributions to
The Seienth-day Adventist Bible Commentary an d co authorship with Sakae Kubo o f
th e widely acclaim ed So Many Versions? (1975).

Kenneth A. Strand is a professor in the C h u rch Historv an d New T estam en t

d ep a rtm en ts o f the Seventh-day A dventist T heological Sem inary, A ndrew s
U niversity. Receiv ing his early education in his hom e State o f W ashington, an d
with a n u m b er o f years o f m inisterial service in the M ichigan C onference o f
Seventh-dav Adventists, he joined th e faculty o f the Sem inary in 1959. H e is also
ed ito r o f the scholarly journal Andrews University Seminary Studies. His do cto rate
was com pleted at the University o f Michigan in 1958. H e is a u th o r o r e d ito r o f
som e twenty-five books in the fields ol Biblical studies a n d ch u rch history, as well
as a u th o r o f n u m ero u s articles in scholarly jo u rn a ls an d religious periodicals. T w o
o f his publications are stan d ard reference works on early G erm an Bibles, an d he
has w ritten several books an d articles treatin g the New T estam en t book o f
Revelation.

Werner K. Vyhm eister is a professor in the D epartm ent o f W orld Mission ol

th e Seventh-day Adventist Theological Sem inary. B orn in Chile, he received his
early education in his hom eland, a fte r which he did g ra d u ate study in the U nited

12
 ABOUT T H E AUTHORS

States. H e th en re tu rn e d to Chile, ea rn in g a doctorate in history from the

University o f Chile in Santiago in 1968, with a dissertation treating church-state
relationships in Elizabethan E ngland. P rior to jo in in g the Sem inary faculty in
1975, Dr. V yhm eister had served as academ ic vice-president for Chile College,
C hilian, Chile, and subsequently as academ ic vice-president for River Plate
College in A rgentina. H e also taught church history a n d Biblical studies in both
schools.

S. D ouglas W aterhouse is a professor in the Religion D epartm ent at A ndrew s

U niversity, having jo in ed its faculty in 1963. A fter sp en d in g his early years in
Hawaii and doing college study in C alifornia, he did g ra d u a te work at A ndrew s
U niversity, th e University o f C hicago, an d the U niversity o f M ichigan. His Doctor
o f Philosophy d eg ree was ea rn e d at the University o f M ichigan in 1965, his
dissertation being entitled Syria in the A m arna Age: A B orderland Between
C onflicting Em pires." H e has also d o n e extensive research into the historical
back g ro u n d s for Bible symbolism, especially symbols in the apocalyptic books o f
Daniel an d Revelation.

K enneth H. W ood is e d ito r o f Adventist Review, general organ o f the

Seventh-day A dventist C hurch. H e jo in ed the staff o f that p ap e r as an associate
ed ito r in 1955, when it was know n as the Review and Herald, and becam e ed ito r in
1966. Prior to that, he served as a pastor, evangelist, a n d ch u rch d ep a rtm en tal
lead er fo r seventeen years. In 1979 he was aw arded the D octor o f Letters degree
by A ndrew s University. In addition to innum erable jo u rn a l articles, he is au th o r
o f Meditations for Modems and Relei'ant Religion, an d co a u th o r with M iriam W ood
o f His Initials Were F.D.N. H e is also chairm an o f the board o f the Ellen G. W hite
Estate.

13
 Preface

ANY years have elapsed since publication o f th e m onum ental fo u rth edition
M o f History of the Sabbath and First Day of the Week by J. N. A ndrew s an d L. R.
C o n rad i (published in 1912 by the Review and H erald Publishing Association).
T h is im p o rtan t work has long been out o f print, and used copies ap p e a r fo r sale
only rarely.
A need has been felt, th erefo re, to p ro d u ce a new book dealing
com prehensively with the two m ain days o f C hristian w orship. T his need has been
au g m en ted by th e fact that since 1912 a considerable am ount o f new inform ation
has com e to light an d deserves attention.
T h e present work differs from that o f A ndrew s a n d C onradi in at least two
significant respects. First, it rep resen ts a com m unity effo rt o f nearly tw enty
specialists, each d eah n g with a lim ited portion o f th e total subject. T h is fact alone
carries obvious im plications with reg ard to the authoritativeness a n d reliability o f
this new publication.
Second, th e p resen t book treats certain im portant areas not dealt with, o r
covered only very cursorily, by A ndrew s an d C onradi. For instance, in the present
volum e an en tire c h a p te r (chapter 4) is devoted to the kind o f Jew ish Sabbath
observance that was co n tem p o rary with the rise o f the C hristian ch u rch , a n d th ree
ch ap ters (chapters 14-16) present theological perspectives. In ad d iu o n , various
appendixes both b ro ad en an d d e e p e n the coverage, as does also the considerable
am o u n t o f newly researched d ata trea ted within a nu m b er o f the chapters.
In a very real sense this publication is a pioneer work, fo r the au th o rs have
en d eavored to p ro b e the frontiers o f know ledge. As is inevitably the case w hen
un ex p lored territo ries are e n te re d , the u n ch arted terrain leaves som e gaps in
know ledge. T h e se have to be filled in by the historian with as plausible a
reconstruction as th e d ata will allow. It is in such instances that slight differences o f
opinion may at tim es a p p e ar, but such differences a re not central o r crucial to the
significance o f th e bro ad picture that is presen ted .
It should be fu rth e r noted that a m ultiau ih o red work o f this n a tu re inevitably
results in som e duplication o r overlap o f m aterial. T h e ed ito r an d publishers have
end eav ored to m inim ize such duplication, inserting cross-references at a p p ro p ri
ate places in th e text. W here duplicated m aterial has been essential to the
particu lar au th o r's line o f arg u m e n t, it has been retained, albeit at tim es in
substantially red u ced form .
It may a p p e a r to the re a d e r that this volum e is exceptionally large which
adm ittedly it is! N evertheless, the wealth o f m aterial on the subject is even g re ater,
and th e au th o rs have been constricted by the page lim itations given them .

15
 T H E S AB BA TH IN S C R I P T U R E AND HI STOR Y

N evertheless, ih eir effort has been to (ouch all essenhal points. Also, thev have
w ritten in such a way as to secure a balance betw een bread th an d d ep th o f
coverage. For the re a d e r w ho is interested in fu rth e r inform ation, the ra th e r
e x te n sn e mites at the en d o f each ch a p te r provide reference to a wealth o f sou rces
to explore.
For convenience, the m ain text has been divided into th ree sections (see
In tro d u ctio n , page 17). Also, for the general read er w ho may not be fam iliar with
some o f the technical term s, a glossary is included in the appendix section.
I wish to express my d e e p appreciation to each o f the au th o rs and to th e m any
others who. as read ers, participants in the p roduction process, o r in o th e r ways,
have had a vital part in m aking this volum e possible.
A m ong these "many o th ers, several deserve special m ention. T h e genius
and inspiration for this m ultiauthored volum e cam e from R a\m o n d F. C ottrell
when he was book ed ito r o f the Review an d H erald Publishing Association. He
launched the project and saw it th ro u g h its initial stages. A lthough Dr. C ottrell
retired long before th e project's completiin, he has in his retirem ent co n tin u ed to
co n trib u te to it by helpful counsel an d by p re p arin g , on short notice, o n e o f the
chapters an d o n e o f the appendixes.
The long a n d tedious process o f verification has been in the capable hands of
Shirley W elch, who has also given assistance in various o th er aspects o f the
editorial process. Miss Welch is responsible, too, for sim plifying the m ethod o f
source citation a n d for the list o f abbreviations that ap p ears at th e beginning o f the
volume.
I'h e h elp fu l glossary has been provided by my secretary, J e a n n e J a m e s , who
also gave th e e n tire m anuscript a critical reading an d especially checked the need
for cross-referencing. In addition, Mrs. Ja rn e s has spent many ho u rs t\ ping an d
retyping m anuscript copy.
Last, but not least, m ention m ust be m ade o f Raym ond H. Woolsev, who
succeeded Dr. C ottrell as book ed ito r o f the Review and H erald; he has
enthusiastically taken on the responsibility o f this project a n d su p p o rted it
generously with his tim e an d expertise. In d eed , d u rin g the past several years
Woolsev has given his capable, careful, an d constant attention to a m ultitude o f
details, both great an d small, necessary to the satisfactory com pletion of this
volum e, an d his continuous helpfulness and encouragem ent to the volum e's
ed ito r an d au th o rs are m ost deeply appreciated.
T o all th e foregoing an d to all others w ho have in anv way had part in m aking
this volum e possible, I express herew ith my d eep g ratitu d e an d thanks.

K enneth A. S trand
Editor

16
 Introduction

WEEKLY day for special w orship services has been a significant p art o f the
H ebrew -C hristian religious tradition since antiquity. In Old T estam ent
times this day, designated as th e S abbath, was the seventh day o f th e week, now
called Saturday. It was a day o f rest from norm al secular pursuits a day for giving
atten tio n m ore exclusively to spiritual concerns, including atten d an ce in religious
assembly. It also served as a m em orial o f C reation, as it com m em orated G od's rest
on th e seventh day o f C reation week (Gen. 2:1-3).
In earliest C hristianity a sim ilar Sabbath attitu d e was in evidence, as early
C hristians, too, observed this seventh-day Sabbath as a m em orial o f C reation. As
one C hristian source o f the fo u rth cen tu ry a . d . has put it. O h L ord A lm ighty,
T h o u hast created th e w orld by C hrist, an d hast ap p o in ted the Sabbath in m em ory
thereof, because on th at day T h o u hast m ade us rest from o u r works, fo r the
m editation u p o n T h y laws. 1
It has been aptly stated by som e m o d ern researchers, J. N. A ndrew s an d L. R.
C o nradi, th at had this weekly day o f rest and worship been faithfully observed by
all h u m an beings as God o rd ain ed it. th ere never would have been, th e re never

Historical reco rd s reveal that d u rin g the early C hristian centuries a n o th er

day, Sunday, the first day o f th e week, also cam e to have im portance in C hristian
w orship. It was looked upon as a m em orial o f C hrist's resu rrectio n . T h o u g h at
first it was co n sid ered by C hristians as a w orkday with a joyous m em orial service,
this new C hristian Sunday eventually took on the aspect o f rest, sim ilar to the rest
accorded the seventh-day Sabbath. A lthough sources from the fifth C hristian
century reveal th at th ere w ere at that tim e special religious services on both
S aturday an d Sunday, the new Sabbath" type o f em phasis on S unday finally led
to S undays substitution fo r S aturday quite widely th ro u g h o u t Europe. T his
substitution was mainly a developm ent o f the sixth century and onw ard. In
Ethiopia, interestingly enough, both Saturday an d Sunday were observed as
"Sabbaths.
W'ith the P rotestant R eform ation o f the sixteenth century th ere arose in
E urope a diversity o f views tow ard this S unday Sabbath. T h e m ore p ro m in en t
R eform ers desabbatized" S unday and even concluded that any day o f the week
would be satisfactory fo r w orship services. N evertheless, they retained S unday for
such religious services on purely practical g ro u n d sas being the day traditionally
and com m only observed.
However, certain o f the early C ontinental R eform ers, an d especially the
English P uritans in the seventeenth century, reinforced the concept o f a Sunday
TS1SAH-2
17
 T H E S AB BA T H IN S CR I P T U R E AND H IS TOR Y

S abbath." In ad d ition, th ere was increased observance o f the S aturday Sabbath,

both on th e co n tinent o f E u ro p e and in E ngland. A nd at the present tim e and
widely th ro u g h o u t the world th ere are. o f course, varying types o f S unday keep
ing. as well as a significant n u m b e r o f observers o f the S aturday Sabbath.
T h e account o f the historical developm ents, from the earliest Biblical records
to the presen t day, is given in fair detail in the present volum e. Also, several
ch ap ters are devoted to c u rre n t theological perspectives on the Sabbath an d
Sunday.
For convenience, the m ain text is divided into th ree parts: P art I, Sabbath
and Sunday in th e Biblical Period": Part II, Sabbath and S unday in C hristian
C h u rch History"; and Part III, Sabbath Theology." In a sense, each part is a
m ajor unit in itself, th o u g h the sequence o f ch ap ters has been arran g e d so that the
volum e can with profit be read from beginning to end. (F u rth e r inform ation on
the p u rp o se, scope, an d contents o f this publication is given in the Preface.)
It should be m entioned th at although this volum e is one that deals with the
day o f w orship mainly from the C hristian perspective an d in C hristian history, two
ch ap ters have been devoted to Jew ish Sabbath attitudes: ch a p te r 4. which treats
Jew ish Sabbath observance at the tim e o f the rise o f the C hristian ch u rch , and
ch a p te r 14, which gives theological perspectives o f m ajor present-day Jew ish
authorities. With re g ard to the latter, it should be noted that som e o f these Jew ish
authorities, especially A braham Jo sh u a Heschel, have influenced considerably the
th in k in g o f various C hristian w riters who treat the theology o f the Sabbath.
It is ho p ed that this publication will serve not onlv as a general reference tool
but also as a source o f pleasurable an d inform ative reading for all who are
co ncerned with the vital topic o f the weekly C hristian dav o f w orship.

K enneth A. S trand
E ditor
NOTES
'.Apostolic Constitutions. 7 .3 6 ( A S F 7 :4 7 4 ). S cr th e fu rth er treatm en t a n d q u o ta u o m in a p p e n d ix B
2\. N A n d rew s an d L. R. C o n r a d i, H istory o f the Sabboth and F m t Day o f the Week. 4 th ed . (W a sh in g to n . D ( . 1912).
 CHAPTER 1

The Sabbath in the Pentateuch

Gerhard F. Hasel

O o th e r p art o f the Bible has the b read th , d e p th , an d height o f ideas, them es.
an d m otifs p erta in in g to the Sabbath as does th e P entateuch. It rem ains the
m ajor source fo r in form ation on the origin, institution, purpose, an d m eaning o f
th e seventh-day Sabbath. T h e Sabbath is g ro u n d e d in C reation an d linked with
red em ption. It is an agent o f rest from work an d confronts m an's religious and
social relationship. It is a perp etu al sign a n d everlasting covenant. It relates to the
m eaning o f time. Its n a tu re is universal an d it serves all m ankind. It is concerned
with w orship as well as with jo y an d satisfaction. T h e them es o f C reation, Sabbath,
red em p tio n , a n d sanctification are inseparably linked together, an d with the
S abbath's covenant aspect they reach into th e eschatological future.
It will be th e p u rp o se o f this ch a p te r first to survey the quest for Sabbath
origins an d th en to investigate the C reation Sabbath and the Sahbaih before Sinai.
at Sinai, an d a fte r Sinai. Finally, the topics o f th e Sabbath as sign an d covenant will
conclude this study o f the Sabbath in the P entateuch.
The Q uest for Sabbath O rigins
A cen tu ry ago the quest for the origin o f the S abbath1was stim ulated by the
discover)' o f alleged Babylonian parallels and becam e p a rt o f the Bible-Babel
controversy. Since 1883 th ere have been m any attem pts to find the origin o f the
Sabbath outside o f Israel.5
T h e oldest astrological hypothesis suggested that the Sabbath o riginated in
Babylon in connection with astrological observations. Som e Babylonian m enolo-
gies revealed regularly re cu rrin g evil (taboo) days (ume lemnuti) that were
associated with lu n a r phases and fell on days 7, 14, 19,21, a n d 28 o f th e m onth. It
was hypothesized th at the Sabbath derived from these evil days.4 O th e r scholars,
following Babylonian texts that identify the A kkadian term Sablpaltu5 with the
m onthly full m oon day, suggested that the Sabbath was originally a m onthly full
m oon clay. O nly at a later period did it develop into a weekly day o f rest.'1T hese
hvpotheses are beset with such grave dif ficulties that m any scholars have rejected
them .
A n o th er astrological hypothesis claims that the Sabbath is o f Kenite origin

21
 T H E S AB BA TH IN S CR IP T UR E AND HISTORY

and governed by th e planet S atu rn an d th ere fo re unsuited for w ork.7 T h e

Israelites are said to have ad o p ted the Sabbath from Kenite sm iths at the tim e o f
Moses. T h e evidence for a K enite S aturn day is too slender to recom m end this
hypothesis." T h e theory o f Kenite origin is m erely an attem pt to explain one
u nknow n by m eans o f a n o th e r. 9
An ag ricultural hypothesis for the origin o f the Sabbath was developed on the
basis o f th e hamuitum unit in Babylon, i.e., a supposed fifty-day period m ade u p o f
seven weeks plus o n e day from which a p entecontad calendar was re co n stru cted .10
But th e re is no generally accepted evidence for a supposed early Semitic
penteco n tad calendar, an d th ere is not even any clear evidence in su p p o rt o f the
position th at hamidtum was a fiftv-day p erio d ."
T h e most p ro m in en t o f the sociological hypotheses holds that the Sabbath
o riginated th ro u g h an adaptation o f m arket days, which re c u rre d at intervals o f
three, fo u r, five, six, eight, o r ten days.12T h e re is, however, no evidence that such
m arket-day cycles existed in Israel o r am ong its ancient N ear E astern neighbors. It
is also curious th at in the later societies w here such m arket-day cycles are know n,
th ere is no evidence for a re c u rrin g seven-day cycle o f m arket days.
Som e recent studies have attem p ted to explain the origin o f the Sabbath in
connection with the n u m b er seven in M esopotam ia an d /o r U garitic texts.14T h e re
is, how ever, no evidence that the periodic sequence o f seven years o r seven days
leads to the origin o f the re c u rrin g week an d /o r S abbath.11 T h e re is likewise no
indication that th e re is a link betw een a seven stru ctu re an d the Biblical S abbath.16
T h e quest fo r the origin o f the Sabbath that began about a century ago has
been unsuccessful. No single hy pothesis o r attem p ted com bination o f hypotheses
has succeeded in providing a conclusive solution to the quest o f Sabbath origins.17
It may be concluded that from the point o f view o f religiohistorical investigation
the Sabbath is un ique to Biblical religion.
Recent research reveals a twofold shift. A n u m b er o f scholars have tu rn e d
th eir atten tio n to the Biblical texts for the origin an d developm ent o f the
S abbath,1* an d m any o th ers have tu rn e d to look for the theological, sociological,
and anthropological significance o f the Sabbath and its relevance for m o d ern
m an .19 It will be o u r attem p t to investigate the pentateuchal passages*0 re g ard in g
th eir ow n witness to the origin, m eaning, and relevance o f the Sabbath.
Sabbath and Creation
T h e C reation Sabbath a p p e ars in Genesis 2:1-3. Exodus 20:8-11. and E xodus
31:12-17.*' T h ese texts provide the basic Biblical m otivation fo r observing the
Sabbath an d p oint to the Biblical view o f the origin o f the Sabbath. In Exodus
31:12-17, th e co m m and to observe the Sabbath finds its ultim ate reason in the
statem ent For in six days the L o r d m ade heaven an d earth , but on the seventh
day he rested, an d was refresh ed " (verse 17b).* In E xodus 20:8-11 the
co m m an d m en t to re frain from work on the seventh-day Sabbath is also m otivated
by an explicit referen ce to C reation an d the divine exam ple: F or in six days the
L o r d m ade th e heavens, an d the earth , the sea, an d all that is in them , an d rested
on th e seventh day; th e re fo re the L o r d blessed the sabbath day a n d m ade it holy"
(verse 11). T h ese texts point to the origin o f the Sabbath at C reation, a n d the

* A ll B ib le q u o ta tio n s in th is c h a p ter a re tran slation s b \ th e a u th o r , u n less o th erw ise in d ica ted .

22
 T H E S A B B A T H IN T H E P E N T A T E U C H

language for the m otivation rem inds us o f the C reation account, especially
Genesis 2:1-3.
Creation Sabbath and G enesis 2:1-3. Genesis 2:1-3 form s the conclusion o f
the Biblical C reation account. T h ese verses are not an "etiological m yth 25 bu t a
carefully stru ctu re d literary u n it. V erse 1 affirm s what was finished: the
heavens an d th e earth " (cf. G en. 1:1; 2:4; Ex. 2 0 :11; 3 1: 17).* i.e., the totality o f the
world in its bipartite division, to g eth er with all the host o f th em , nam ely the
fullness o f th e host o f creatu res contained in the b ipartite world.*6 Verse 2 is linked
to verse 1 th ro u g h th e com m on verb finished (klh).'11G od had finished his work
which he h ad d o n e on "the seventh day. 2 T h e expression the seventh day"
ap p ears two m o re times in this unit (verses 2b a n d 3a), so that four ideas are
associated with "th e seventh d ay : ( 1) God "had finished His creative work on that
dav; (2) G od rested" from all His creative w ork on that day: (3) G od blessed" that
day; a n d (4) G od "m ade it holy."
Creation Sabbath and Weekly Sabbath.T h e unique threefold em phasis on
the seventh day with its fo u r d ifferen t aspects at the conclusion o f the Genesis
creation story indicates th at ju s t as m an is the crown o f C reation so the seventh
day, th e Sabbath,-' is the final goal of C reatio n ." If this is the case, then the
C reatio n Sabbath is not m erely directed tow ard C reation an d C re a to r,11 but has
equally significant aspects fo r the fu tu re o f m an, his life and w orship.5* T his
twofold p u rp o se fo r the past a n d the fu tu re m akes the C reation Sabbath the
arch ety p e o f th e weekly Sabbath. G. H. W aterm an provides the following
sum m ary: It seem s clear, th ere fo re , that the divine origin an d institution o f the
sabbath took place at the beginning o f hum an history. At that tim e G od not only
provided a divine exam ple for keeping the seventh day as a day o f rest, but also
blessed an d set ap a rt the seventh day fo r die use an d benefit o f m a n ." 55
W hat does it m ean that G od h ad finished" His creation on the Sabbath? T h e
exact idea o f th e H ebrew verb (klh) is difficult to ascertain. Basically klh m eans "to
stop, com e to an e n d . 54 T h e Piel form as used in Genesis 2:2 m eans n eith er
d eclared finished 55 n o r necessarily "brought to a (gratifying) close,"56 but
exp resses th e positive idea o f an achievem ent o f a desired goal. T h e task o f
creating is co m p leted an d th u s finished: on the seventh day God had His task
com pleted an d was finished with His creative w ork.7 G od looked back to His
com pleted creation a n d finished work with joy, pleasure, an d satisfaction and
p ro n o u n ced it very good (chap. 1:31). G od set h ere the pattern for His creation.
As H e created th e world in six days, so that it was com pleted and finished on the
seventh day, so m an is to accom plish his work an d pu rp o se in this creation d u rin g
the six w orking days o f the week an d is to follow his C rea to rs exam ple o f rest on
th e seventh day, th e Sabbath. Following the p attern o f the C reator, he too may
look back u p o n his finished w ork with joy, pleasure, a n d satisfaction. In this way
m an may rejoice5* not only in G o d s creation but also in his responsible rulership,
not exploitation, over creation (chap. 1:28).
Creation Sabbath and Sabbath Rest.T h e idea that G od rested on the
seventh day ap p e ars in G enesis 2 :2 ,3, E xodus 31:17, an d E xodus 20:11. T h e latter
text uses the H ebrew verb nwh, to rest, take a re st," 5'1while the fo rm er passages
em ploy the verb Sbt^ to cease (working), stop (work), re st." 40 T h e relationship
betw een these term s has been frequently discussed,41 but one should be cautious
lest o n e presses th e differences so m uch that one denies any relationship between

23
 T H E S A B B A T H IN S C R I P T U R E AND HIS TORY

Genesis 2:1-3 an d Exodus 2 0 :8 -1 1.4! N ot only is the m otif o f divine rest com m on to
the th re e texts re fe rrin g to the C reation Sabbath but the expressions the seventh
dav (Gen. 2:1-3; Ex. 20:10), bless" (Gen. 2:3; Ex. 2 0 :1 1), m ake holv" (Gen. 2:3;
Ex. 20:11; cf. Ex. 3 1:14). m ake (Gen. 2 :2 ,3 ; Ex. 20:9, 10; 31:14, 15; cf. Ex. 35:2;
Deut. 5:13, 14), an d w ork (Gen. 2:2-4; Ex. 20:9, 10; 31:14, 15) connect these
texts most closely. Genesis 2:2, 3 is filled with language th at belongs to
pentateuchal Sabbath texts,45so that it has been concluded that th e seventh day o f
the C reation Sabbath is "at the sam e tim e instituted as m ans day o f re st." 44 T h e
fact th at the n o u n S abbath" is not present in Genesis 2:1-3 an d th at no explicit
co m m an d m en t to keep the Sabbath is provided may find its reason in one o f the
purposes o f Genesis 2:1-3, nam ely to p resen t the divine E xem plar whose exam ple
m an is to follow (cf. Ex. 20:11; 31:17).
T h e question o f the origin o f the verb Sdbat, "to cease (working), stop (work),
rest, a n d the n o u n Sabbat, "Sabbath," is widely d eb ated .41 It has been suggested
that these w ords d eriv ed from the Arabic sabata, to cut off, in te rru p t; re s t," 4f' o r
the Arabic root Sbb, to grow, increase, be g re a t," 47o r the A kkadian Sablpattu," the
exact m eaning o f which is itself d isp u ted ,49 o r the word Sb, seven," via the
A kkadian. T h ese attem p ts proved fruitless and rem ain unconvincing because
they are not su p p o rted by philological considerations o f com parative Semitics an d
lack the su p p o rt o f the usage o f form s o f the H ebrew root Sbt in the O ld
T estam ent.
At the presen t th ere is no evidence fo r the root Sbt outside o f H ebrew except
for Punic.41 T h e verb Sbt, to cease (working), stop (work), rest," an d the noun
Sabbat, S abbath, seem to sh are a com m on Hebrew root. Som e scholars derive the
noun from the verb,* while o th ers derive the verb from the n o u n ." T h e re seems
to be no conclusive p ro o f for e ith e r suggestion. T h e issue o f the exact relationship
o f th e n o u n to the verb and vice versa is not settled. N evertheless, it is linguistically
possible that both w ords derive from a com m on ro o t.' O n the basis o f Old
T estam en t contexts it may be suggested that the verb Sdbat an d the n o u n Sabbat are
related to each o th e r from the beginning (Ex. 16:29, 30)."
T h e idea o f th e verb Sdbat, to cease (working), stop (work), re st, as applied to
God w hen H e h ad finished His creation (Gen. 2:3; cf. Ex. 31:17) expresses the
notion that H e ceased from His creative activity and thus rested. T h is cessation
and resting on the p a rt o f God can hardly be explained as an etiology5 o r a divine
retirem en t (otiositas) from heavy activity, as is the case in pagan m ythologies, but
as som ething th at is related to m an. C reation takes place w ith referen ce to tim e, to
which belongs th e duality o f days o f work a n d day o f rest. T h e latter is the seventh
day, the Sabbath. G ods cessation from work. His resting, on the seventh day is
not necessitated because H e grew tired o r weary (cf. Isa. 40:28) but because o f His
function as E x em plar for m an. Man is the im age o f G od (Gen. 1:26-28) an d is
tau g h t bv his M odels exam ple how to function in the usage o f th e sequence o f tim e
(cf. Ex. 31:17; 16:23-26; 20:8-11).
T h e Sabbath com m andm ent in Exodus 20 also affirm s G ods rest on the
seventh day, but chooses the H ebrew nuah (vej se 11; cf. Deut. 5:14), while E xodus
31:17 an d G enesis 2:3 em ploy the verbiafca/. I n the Sabbath texts the H ebrew verb
nuah m eans to rest, take a rest and, along with the th o u g h t that God was
refresh ed " (npS)w in Exodus 31:17, is p art o f th e Sabbath vocabulary that
expresses G od's m ost intim ate self-identification with m an. God rests on the

24
 T H E S AB BA T H IN T H E P E N T A T E U C H

seventh day o f C reation week in o rd e r to provide a day o f m eeting in rest with the
crown o f C reation, m an, m ade in His im age. T h e th ree texts (Gen. 2:1-3; Ex.
2 0 :11:31:17) d ealing with the C reation Sabbath assert that the world is no longer
being created , because G od rests from the work o f C reation on the seventh day; a
day o f rest as con trasted with the days o f C reation. T h ese texts connect G ods rest
with th e institution o f the Sabbath. T h e weekly Sabbath has "its legitim ation in the
prim al Sabbath (U rsabbat) o f c reatio n ."' In resting on the Sabbath, m an
p articipates in G o d s rest, m eeting with his C reator.
Creation Sabbath and Sabbath B lessing.Genesis 2:3 affirm s that the
C rea to r blessed (brk)6' the seventh day ju st as H e had blessed anim als an d m an
on th e day before (Gen. 1:22, 28). T h e blessing o f the Sabbath re fe rre d to in
Exodus 20:11 links the C reation Sabbath with the weekly Sabbath.
W hat does it m ean that the seventh-day Sabbath is blessed? W hen God is the
subject, blessing" m eans generally that m an an d things are im bued with the
pow er o f fruitfulness and prosperity, he gives life, happiness an d success. In
term s o f the seventh day, it m eans that this day is a gift o f the C reato r for m a n ," 65
im bued with a blessing that no o th e r day possesses. T h e blessing" provides this
d ay o f rest with a g ift that m akes it full o f pow er. T his pow er m akes this day
fru itfu l a n d vital fo r m an s life.64 T h e seventh day receives th ro u g h its blessing a
beneficial and vitalizing pow er th ro u g h which hu m an existence is en rich ed and
com es to fulfillm ent. As such, the Sabbath is m ans source o f unequalecl benefit in
the weekly cycle.
Creation Sabbath and Sabbath H olin ess.Genesis 2:3 also affirm s that the
C reato r hallow ed" (R.V., R.S.V.) the seventh day, m ade it holy" (N.E.B.,
N.A.B.), declared it holy (N.J. V.), o r sanctified it" (N.A.S.B.). Both h ere and in
th e Sabbath co m m an d m en t (Ex. 2 0 :11) the H ebrew text uses the verb qidaS (piel)65
from th e root qdi, "holy."66 Most basically, the idea is that God m ade the seventh
day "holy" by p u ttin g it into a state o f holiness. Since the m ore elem ental m eaning
o f th e H ebrew idea o f holy a n d holiness is separation, 7 the m eaning o f the
holiness o f th e seventh day as affirm ed in Genesis 2:3 an d Exodus 20:11 expresses
that th e seventh-day Sabbath is that very day that G od has separated from the rest
o f the days. T h e separation o f the seventh day from the six w orking days is a gift o f
the C rea to r for all m ankind. It should be em phasized that G od, not m an, has
sep arated this seventh day. T h e seventh day is G ods day for m ankind as a whole
and not m erely His day fo r Israel.
It is because o f G ods separation of the seventh day from the six days an d His
assigning holiness to it"* th at the Sabbath is designated a "holy Sabbath" (Ex.
16:23; 31:14, 15; 35:2; cf. Isa. 58:13). T h e holiness o f the Sabbath does not stem
from m an s keeping it, but from an act o f God.
M an is co m m anded to keep the Sabbath holy" (Ex. 20:8; D eut. 5:12)'" by
refrain in g from work (Ex. 20:10; Deut. 5 : 14).7" T h e injunction not to profane"
(h i, h i I ) 7' the Sabbath (Ex. 31:14, et cetera)7* is the co u n te rp a rt to the
co m m an d m en t to keep it holy.
T h e P entateuch has a n u m b er o f specific instructions re g ard in g activities
p rohibited on th e Sabbath. E xodus 16:23 prohibits baking and cooking o n the
Sabbath, indicating rest also from the daily chores o f wom en. Exodus 34:21
enjoins th e Sabbath rest also in the seasons oi plowing an d harvesting, indicating
th at the Sabbath is not kept holy only d u rin g times o f norm al activity. E xodus 35:3

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 I H E S A B B A TH IN S C R I P T U R E AND HIS TORY

directs th at no fire is to be kindled, an d N um bers 15:32 th at no wood is to be

gathered. T h ese specific prohibitions illustrate the broad aspects o f keeping the
Sabbath holy. Yet, priests d o not p ro fan e the Sabbath w hen they put the
shew bread in o rd e r (Lev. 24:8) an d bring additional sacrifices (N um . 28:9).
In short, th e C rea to r has m ade the seventh day holy by separating it from the
six workdays and has thus provided a gift for the whole of m ankind for all time.
T h e p erson who keeps the seventh-day Sabbath holy follows the E xem plars
archetypal p attern (Gen. 2:3) an d m eets with Him on that day o f rest. H e
acknowledges his G od as C reator, accepts His gift, and has a part in G ods rest.
T h e Sabbath is a steady re m in d e r o f the C reator, [and] o f the origin an d goal o f
c re a tio n .. . . Every Sabbath g ran ts anew to those who stand u n d e r [G ods] royal
dom inion the freedom [from the struggle fo r existence] that belongs to G ods
children; alth o u g h at first in a limited m easure, it is given with the renew ed
prom ise o f com plete fulfillm ent.
Sabbath and Manna
T h e gift o f th e m an n a is the occasion fo r renew ing the g re ater gift, the
Sabbath. T h e n o u n "Sabbath" (Sabbat) ap p ears u n an n o u n ced in the Bible for the
first time in Exodus 16:25 w ithin the narrative o f the m anna m iracle.74 It has been
pointed out correctly that th e Sabbath ap p ears already before Israels arrival at
M ount Sinai,5 i.e., the Sabbath was kept before it was form ally com m anded to be
kept holy in th e Decalogue.7''
T h e setting o f the ap p earan ce o f the Sabbath d u rin g Israel's w ilderness
sojourn is the m u rm u rin g o f the whole Israelite congregation (Ex. 16:1-3).77 God
revealed to Moses that bread would rain from heaven; on each o f th e first five days
a portion had to be gath ered in, but on th e sixth day it shall be twice as m uch as
they g ath er daily" (verse 5).
Following this instruction, on the sixth day they g athered twice as m uch
b re ad (verse 22 this a n d the following discussion quote from the R.S.V.),
Moses explained to the people, T h is is what the Lord has com m anded:
'T o m o rro w is a day o f solem n rest [Sabbdt6n],n a holy sabbath [Sabbat-qodeS] to the
L o r d ; bake w hat you will bake an d boil what you will boil, an d all that is left over
lay by to be kept till the m o rn in g (verse 23). O n the following m orning, the
Sabbath, "Moses said, Eat it today, for today is a sabbath [Sabbat] to the L o r d ; today
you will not find it in the field. Six days you shall g ath er it; but on the seventh day,
which is a sabbath [Sabbat], th ere will be n o n e ' (verses 25, 26).
Some d o u b ters went out in disbelief to g a th e r the m anna on the Sabbath
(verse 27). T hey found nothing. G od rebuked them , saying to Moses, How long
d o you refu se to keep my com m andm ents and my laws?" (verse 28). T h e n com es
the revelation th at they have received the Sabbath from Y ahw eh (verse 29a), and
the injunction follows: Rem ain every person in his hom e, let no o ne go o u t o f his
place on th e seventh day" (verse 29b). T h e narrative concludes, So the people
rested [Sabat] on the seventh day" (verse 30).
T h e didactic ch aracter o f this narrative is obvious th ro u g h o u t. T h e
wilderness g en eration was to learn to rest on the seventh day (verse 30). T h ey were
taught to be o b ed ient to their L ord, to keep His com m andm ents (miswat) an d His
laws" (tordt). Does this imply th at Israel had known "laws an d co m m andm ents
even before Sinai? W as th ere a Sabbath co m m andm ent known before Sinai? T h e

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 T H E S AB BA TH IN T H E P E N T A T E U C H

present form o f Exodus 16 ap p ears to hint in that direction. I f this be the case,
n o th in g is revealed about the origin o f such a divine law o r instruction. It is
assum ed to exist.1' It may be concluded that the Sabbath "is not in tro d u ced fo r the
first tim e even in th e wilderness o f Sin. w here the m anna is found. H ere, too, it is
proclaim ed as som ething which is already in existence." "
T h e m an n a narrative is filled with Sabbath term inology an d Sabbath
theology. It has already been n o ted that for the first tim e the nouns Sabbat,
"Sabbath," an d iabbaton, Sabbath feast (Ex. 16:23) appear."* T h e w ord Sabbath"
is qualified by th e adjective qbdel, "holy" (verse 23). In verse 26 th ere is the first
identification o f th e seventh day" as th e Sabbath. All o f this is p art o f the Sabbath
teaching." T h e th re e usages o f "sixth day" (verses 5, 22, 29) and the fo u r usages
each o f "seventh day" (verses 26, 27, 29. 30) and sabbath" (verses 23, 25. 26. 29)
reveal an additional aspect o f the preoccupation with Sabbath ideology .
T h e m ajor ideas re g ard in g the Sabbath in Exodus 16 may be sum m arized as
follows: 1. The sixth day" p re p are s for the Sabbath (verses 5, 22, 29). O n it a
double p o rtio n o f food is collected (verses 5, 22) so that no o n e needs to go o u t o f
his house on the seventh day (verse 29). 2. T h e Sabbath is the day following the
sixth day. O n th e sixth day they gath ered twice as m uch." T o m o rro w is a
sabbath feast, a holy sabbath to th e L o r d ' " (verses 22. 23. R.S.Y'.). T h e seventh
day is th e Sabbath (verse 26). 3. A divine com m andm ent enjoined the keeping o f
the Sabbath (verse 28). 4. T h e Sabbath is "holy" (verse 23; cf. G en. 2:2, 3; Ex.
20:11). 5. T h e Sabbath is a day o f rest" (verses 23. 29. 30). Rest m eans refraining
from work. In this instance it m eans refrain in g from g ath erin g food, from
engaging in th e p ursuit o f a livelihood. God had m ade am ple provisions for
sustenance. T h e prohibition to stay in o n es house on the Sabbath in verse 29 has
contextually n o th in g to d o with lu n ar phases*1 but is designed to keep the
w ilderness g en eration from g ath erin g m anna (verses 27-29). Both a religious
(holy) and h u m an itarian (re st) interest com e to expression. 6. T h e Sabbath is a
"sabbath feast (iabbaton)*' an d not a day o f taboos, fasting, an d m ourning. It has a
festive rin g , a day on which o ne is not to go hungry. Israel is to eat, for today is
a sabbath to the L o r d " (verse 25). T h e Sabbath is G ods special day and is designed
to bring joy, happiness, and satisfaction upon the keeper. 7. T h e Sabbath is a
testing g ro u n d o f m ans relationship with God. Som e Israelites went out "either
th ro u g h u n b elief o r th ro u g h cu rio sity "'7 to collect m anna (verses 25-27). In this
connection G o d s rebuke is h eard , How long d o you refuse my com m andm ents
an d my laws?" (verse 28). A refusal to keep the seventh-day Sabbath m eans a
refusal to obey G ods will as expressed in His com m andm ents and laws. T h e
Sabbath has th e ch aracter o f a lest o f obedience an d faith.** G od dem an d s o f His
faithful a p articu lar life style."9
Exodus 16 contains key notions reg ard in g the origin, purpose, function, and
m eaning o f th e Sabbath. It reveals that the Sabbath institution was known before
th e giving o f th e law on M ount Sinai an d before its appearan ce in the w ilderness o f
Sin, as indicated by both the incidental m atter in which it is in tro d u ced in Exodus
16 a n d the divine rem onstrance o f the people's disobedience.
Sabbath and Decalogue
We now tu rn to the Sabbath co m m andm ent o f the D ecalogue in E xodus 20
an d D euteronom y 5. A discussion o f the Sabbath com m andm ent in the Decalogue

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 T H E S AB BA TH IN S C R I P T U R E AND HIS TORY

involves first a b rie f look at m ajor tren d s in the recent study o f the D ecalogue
itself,* inasm uch as these tren d s have influenced th e debate on the in terp re tatio n
an d m ean in g o f th e Sabbath com m andm ent.
A Survey o f T rends. Recent critical studies on the D ecalogue have been
d o m in ated by form -critical approaches pioneered for O ld T estam ent laws by A.
Alt,*1 w ho arg u ed that casuistic law grew o u t o f secular justice an d apodictic law
from a cultic setting. His views dom inated the field for two decades until they w ere
su p p lem en ted , b ro ad en ed , an d m odified by G. M endenhalls thesis that th ere is a
sim ilarity betw een the form o f the D ecalogue an d H ittite state treaties.'5 T h is was
refined by a flood o f studies.95O pposition to these alleged parallels continues to be
strong, with incisive argum ents.' T h e last decade o f critical study has attem p ted to
modify the sh a rp distinction betw een apodictic an d casuistic law a n d suggested
that clan wisdom is the source o f prohibitive law.1
A unifying elem ent o f form -critical and religiohistorical studies is the
traditiohistorical claim th at the present form o f the Decalogue is th e p ro d u ct o f a
long evolutionary developm ent. Its present shape is rooted in the institutional life
o f Israel. A recen t observation by a th o ro u g h g o in g form -critic is notew orthy:
T h e d a n g e r o f exegesis being built on ill-founded hypothetical projections has
increased dram atically d u rin g the last half-century. As a result, few passages have
su ffered such d iv ergent in terp retatio n s as has th e Decalogue.'"* G reat caution is
d em an d ed because it is evident that m odern D ecalogue research has led to
irreconcilable conclusions. T his is tru e for the D ecalogue as a whole a n d the
Sabbath co m m an dm ent in particular.97 It m ust be ad m itted that present m ethods
o f research are in adequate an d that th eir conclusions d o not allow even a fair
d eg ree o f certainty.
Som e scholars have suggested that an alleged form o f the Sabbath
co m m an d m en t was originally form ulated negatively,9" while o th e r scholars have
m aintained that it was positive.99 T h e re is no agreem ent re g ard in g the w ording o f
the hypothetical form , although it is often believed to go back to Mosaic times
along with the re m a in d er o f the so-called prim itive decalogue" (Urdekalog).""'
For exam pie, H. H. Rowley suggests th at th e original Sabbath co m m an d m en t was:
Six days shalt thou labor an d do all thy work: but the seventh day is a sabbath u n to
the L ord thy G od. 10' G. F o h re rs proposal is "R em em ber the day o f the
Sabbath. H. Gese argues for "R em em ber the Sabbath day, to keep it holy;"15
but K. Rabast believes it was negatively form ulated: "You shall not d o any w ork on
the sabbath." "* In view o f such insu rm o u n tab le m ethodological problem s an d
subjective ju d g m e n ts, it is safe to proceed on the basis o f the context o f the
D ecalogue (and th e Sabbath com m andm ent) in the book o f Exodus itself. T h is
context views th e D ecalogue in its present form to be G od's revelation in Mosaic
tim es.105
T he Sabbath in Exodus 20. The Sabbath com m andm ent (Ex. 20:8-11)
consists o f fifty-five H ebrew w ords and is the longest o f the T en C om m andm ents.
T h is length has given rise to th e assum ption that it was originally short, but ancient
N ear Eastern law codes disprove that laws developed from short to long a n d from
sim ple to com plex ones.""1 Long and short laws can stand side by side from the
beginning, as pre-M osaic law codes from the ancient N ear East d em o n strate .107
H ittite laws, which are m ore o r less contem porary with Moses, reveal that a later
version o f th e sam e law can be s h o rte r108 o r longer"19(cf. D eut. 5:12-15). an d that

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 T H E S A B B A TH IN T H E P E N T A T E U C H

both sh o rt an d long laws are found next to each o th e r.11" Accordingly, ancient
N ear E astern laws do not su p p o rt th e assum ption o f a short original law.
C om parative evidence o f ancient N ear Eastern law codes militates against the view
th at the Sabbath co m m andm ent in Exodus 20 is necessarily th e result o f slow
grow th over a long period o f time.
T h e Sabbath co m m an d m en t is a carefully stru ctu re d unit. T h e following
stru ctu re seem s to be present:
A In tro d u ctio n R em em ber the sabbath day to keep it holy. (V erse 8,
R.S.V.)
B1 C om m and Six days you shall labor and do all y o u r work; (verse 9)
C M otivation but th e seventh day is a sabbath to the L o r d your
God; (verse 10a)
B2 C om m and in it you shall not d o any work, you, o r your son, o r
. . . (verse I Ob)
C2 M otivation for in six days th e L o r d m ade heaven and earth,
the sea, . . . and rested . . . (verse 1 la)
D C onclusion th e re fo re the L o r d blessed the sabbath day an d m ade it
holy. (Verse I lb)
T his s tru c tu re " 1 reveals the following: A contains, in the form o f an in tro d u cto ry
op en in g statem ent, the key principle o f the Sabbath co m m andm ent as a w hole. B1
expresses the positive com m and to engage in work on six days, w hereas B2 gives
th e o th e r side in th e prohibitive com m and o f refrain in g from any work on the
Sabbath day. B2 m akes clear th at this prohibition has broad application for the
en tire family an d dom estic anim als, as well as for the stran g e r o r resident alien
(ger)."3 C' an d C2 provide the m otivation for th e com m ands. C m otivates the
sequence o f tim e in the six-days-seventh-day duality by em phasizing that the
seventh day is a sabbath to the L ord your G od." T h e identification o f th e seventh
day with the Sabbath has already taken place in the earlier m anna experience in
th e w ilderness o f Sin (Ex. 16:23, 25, 26). It should be noted that the seventh-day
Sabbath is for [to] the L o r d " (see verses 23, 25; chap. 31:15; 35:2; Lev. 23:3),115
indicating th at G od is the ow ner o f this day that com es as a gift to His people (cf.
Ex. 16:29) and is filled with His special blessing. C *contains the form al m otivation
clause with the in tro d u cto ry "for" (ki). It provides the detailed m otivation in term s
o f th e L o r d s six days o f work an d His resting on the seventh day. T h is m otivation
has its roots in th e C reation Sabbath. T h e links betw een Exodus 20:11 an d Genesis
2:2, 3 have already been discussed. D is an in d ep en d e n t clause, jo in e d by a
connective-result particle th ere fo re " ('al-ken). It form s the conclusion. T h e last
w ords o f the co m m an d m en t, and m ade it holy," have a co rrespondence to the
ex h o rtatio n o f the introductory principle A, to keep it holy."
T h e key w ords th at fram e the Sabbath co m m andm ent are (1) "the sabbath
day" (et-yom haSSabbat) in verses 8 a n d 11, and (2) the expressions to keep it holy"
(1qadd'Sd) in verse 8 and he m ade it holy" (yqadd'Sehu) in verse 11. I'his o u ter
fram e o f the in tro d u ctio n A an d conclusion D brackets the en tire com m andm ent,
while both A an d D keep th eir own identity. T h e reason for m an's keeping the
Sabbath is th at God had m ade it holy at C reation. Accordingly, a m ajor th ru st o f
the Sabbath co m m an d m en t falls on its holiness, which has already been the subject
o f discussion in connection with the C reauon Sabbath. Sabbath holiness and

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 I HE S A B B A TH IN S CR I PT UR E AND HI STORY

Sabbath blessing stem from acts o f G od. T h e com m andm ent to keep the Sabbath
holy m eans (1) to accept G ods gift for m an, (2) to follow the divine E xem plar's
p attern , (3) to acknow ledge Him as C reator, an d (4) to participate in G od's rest. It
also m eans a cessation from activity o f the work that m an is engaged in d u rin g the
six days ap p o in ted fo r such work. T h e tie betw een the Sabbath com m andm ent
an d C rea tio n "4 is so close that G ods six-day creation, followed by His rest on the
seventh day, serves as the theological m otivation for th e seventh-day Sabbath o f
th e fo u rth co m m andm ent.
T h e in tro d u ctory w ord rem em ber" (uihor)" 5 carries great weight fo r the
total m eaning o f the Sabbath com m andm ent. T h e H ebrew root zkr has
retrospective an d prospective aspects."" Both retrospection an d prospection are
p art o f th e m eaning o f the first w ord o f the Sabbath com m andm ent in Exodus 20.
T h e retrospective aspect o f rem em bering focuses on the past. It wishes to
brin g som ething to rem em brance. T h u s it indicates that the Sabbath "is not
in tro d u ced for the first tim e on Sinai, it is already there. . . . However, it is not
in tro d u ced fo r the first tim e even in the wilderness o f Sin, w here the m anna is
found. H ere, too, it is proclaim ed as som ething which is already in ex isten ce."117 A
pre-M osaic Sabbath"" or early pre-Israelite S abbath"9 is pointed to by several
scholars. W. W. C annon suggested a n u m b er o f decades ago that the ancestors o f
th e Hebrew s who m igrated to C anaan b ro u g h t with them som e m em ory o f the
Sabbath institution, its nam e, weekly recu rren ce, a n d cessation from w ork.1
M ore recently a sim ilar viewr has been put forth by M. H. Segal, who believes "that
A braham beq u eathed to his descendants the conception o f the seventh day as a
divine rest day an d that this conception was known am ong the Israelites in Egy pt
an d had received am ong them the nam e o f Sabbath. . . O n account o f the
su d d en ap p earan ce o f the Sabbath in fairly full-Hedged form in Exodus 16, its
bro ad g ro u n d in g in the fo u rth com m andm ent (Exodus 20), an d the u n iq u e
choice o f the word rem em ber" (verse 8), one is led to assum e a know ledge o f the
Sabbath before the tim e o f Moses. U nfortunately, o u r present extra-Biblical
sources do not allow us to trace the Sabbath. T h e O ld T estam en t answ er to th e
origin o f the Sabbath is indicated in the link o f the seventh day with C reation.
Exodus 20:11 a n d 31:17 connect G ods rest on the C reation Sabbath with the
institution o f the weekly Sabbath, w hich appears to be legitim ized in the C reation
Sabbath (Gen. 2:2, 3).IW
T h e w ord "rem em ber" in Exodus 20:8 also contains a prospective aspect.
aside from the psychological one that looks to the p ast.14T h e prospective aspect o f
rem em b er" relates to the fu tu re . T h e im m ediate pu rp o se o f rem em bering is
directed tow ard definite action in the present.'*1 T h is com es to expression in the
w ording "R em em ber [iakor] . . . to keep holy [l'qadd'so]'' '* T his is also the case in
the searching question o f Exodus 16:28: "How long do you refuse to keep the
divine com m andm ents an d laws?" T o refrain from refusing to keep the laws o f
G od is th e sam e as to "rem em ber," o r to observe, o r to keep them (chap. 31:13-17).
T o " rem em b er m eans to keep o r to observe (cf. Deut. 5 : 12). T h e m em ory o f the
past (retrospective aspect) is to lead to rig h t action in the present an d to faithful
obedience in the fu tu re (prospective aspect). Past, present, and fu tu re are united
in the p reg n an t op en in g w ord o f Exodus 20:8. T h e im perative rem em ber" calls
for an aw areness that m akes the seventh day special th ro u g h separation from the
ord in ary w orking days o f th e week. The rem em brance m otif points m an back to

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th e past, even back to C reation, an d provides a m eaningful pu rp o se for the

observance o f th e Sabbath in the present and points forw ard to a prom ising
fu tu re.
T he Sabbath in Deuteronomy 5.T h e Sabbath com m andm ent o f D euteron
omy 5:12-15 has sixty-four H ebrew words. This difference in length, an d new
aspects o f co n ten t as com pared with Exodus 2 0 :8 -11. have exercised scholars for
generations.'*1 No consensus is em erging, because the issues are extrem ely
com plex and overshadow ed by conflicting m ethodological problem s.1*" It should,
how ever, be reem phasized that short an d long laws are found next to each o th e r in
H ittite legal trad itio n , an d short later versions o f the sam e laws may be ex p an d ed
o r contracted. T h u s great caution is d em an d e d in draw ing radical conclusions
from th e d ifferences between the Sabbath com m andm ent in Exodus 20 an d the
oral reaffirm ation o f the sam e com m andm ent in D euteronom y 5.
T h e version o f the D ecalogue in D euteronom y 5 has its own contextual life
setting in an oral serm on to Israel on the eve o f th eir en tran ce into the Prom ised
L and. T h e book o f D euteronom y attributes it to be orally delivered by Moses to
the Israelites (Deut. 5:1). A ccordingly, the present text o f the D ecalogue in
D euteronom y 5 p resents it to be a later oral version than the one w ritten in Exodus
20.
T h e stru ctu re , based on content, o f D euteronom y 5:12-15 seems to be as
follows:
A In tro d u ctio n O bserve the sabbath day, to keep it holy, as the L o r d
your God com m anded you. (V erse 12)
B C om m and Six days you shall labor, an d d o all your work; (verse
C 1 M otivation 13) but the seventh day is a sabbath to the L o r d
your G od; (verse 14a)
B; C om m and in it you shall not do any work, you, o r your son, or
your d au g h ter, o r your m anservant, o r your m aid
servant. o r your ox, o r your ass, o r any o f your cattle,
o r the so jo u rn er who is within your gates, (verse 14b)
C* Motivation that y o u r m anservant and your m aidservant may
rest as well as you and you shall rem em b er that you
were a servant in the land o f Egypt, and the L o r d
your God b rought you out thence with a mighty
hand and an outstretched arm ; (verses 14c-15a)
D Conclusion th ere fo re the L ord your God com m anded you to keep
the sabbath day. (V erse 15b)
This s tru c tu re ' has m any sim ilarities and few significant differences
co m pared with th at o f the fo u rth com m andm ent in Exodus 20. T h e opening
section (A) contains (again in the form o f an introductory statem ent) the key
principle o f th e co m m andm ent as a whole. It should be noted that its concluding
clause, "as the L o r d your God has com m anded you" (verse 12c), contains the
reason o r m otivation for the com m andm ent as a whole. T h e question o f the why"
o f the Sabbath co m m an d m en t is answ ered with the statem ent that G od had
co m m an d ed it to be th u s.1*T h e conclusion comes back to this m otivation as being
ro o ted in G o d s co m m andm ent. T his theological m otivation151 in parts A an d I)
bracket the co m m andm ent as a whole. D euteronom y 5 does not reject the
m otivation o f th e Sabbath in Exodus 20 but affirm s that it is rooted in a

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co m m an d m en t an d elaborates o n e aspect of the Sabbath. The recognition o f the

theological m otivation o f th e g ro u n d in g o f the Sabbath in a com m andm ent o f
G od can n o t be em phasized en o u g h , because it introduces an elem ent that seem s
implicitly affirm ed in E xodus 20:10a (C ) an d re p eated in D euteronom y 5:14a
(again O ). B ut in D euteronom y 5 som ething is m ade explicit in the co m m an d
m ent itself for th e first time: the Sabbath is to be kept because G od has o rd a in e d
it nay, co m m anded itto be so.
D euteronom y 5:13 (B 1) a n d verse 14b (B2) contain once m ore the positive
com m and to do all w ork in six days an d the prohibitive com m and to refrain from
any work on th e Sabbath day, just as in Exodus 20 (B1an d B2). T h e short expansion
o r y o u r ox, o r your ass is new. T h is elaborates what is already im plicit in o r your
cattle" in E xodus 20:10.
D euteronom y 5:14c (C2), which opens with the preposition I'ma'an, that,"
provides the m otivation fo r the prohibitive com m and "in it you shall not d o any
work," b u t not fo r the en tire Sabbath co m m an d m en t,12 as has been m aintained
too o fte n .1
T h e p u rp o se o f the cessation from work on the seventh day is "rest" (verse
14). It is significant that h e re th e sam e verbnwh, to rest, take a re s t," 154 is
em ployed as in E xodus 2 0 :11 and 31:17, w here God is the subject o f the rest."
Now the en tire household, including m anservant an d m aidservant, those o f an
in ferio r status in society, are to rest together. T his brings liberation and freedom ;
it is a p o in ter to do away with all inequalities in the social structure. Bef ore God all
m en are equal. M ans original status before G od is to be reenacted in society. T h e
Sabbath is an institution th at is designed to bring this about. T his am plification o f
th e p u rp o se of th e Sabbath with its social o r h u m an itarian aspect, its em phasis on
liberation from w ork and freedom in society, is c a p tu re d in Je su s own words:
T h e sabbath was m ade fo r m an, an d not m an for the sabbath (M ark 2:27).
A fu rth e r aspect com es into view with the rem em b ran ce clause: an d you
shall rem em b er that you w ere a servant in the land o f Egypt, an d the L o r d your
God b ro u g h t you o u t thence with a m ighty h an d an d an outstretched arm (D eut.
5:15).155 T his introduces a soteriological aspect a n d elaborates the sp h ere o f the
rest aspect o f die Sabbath com m andm ent. It brings to rem em brance the
deliverance from Egyptian slavery th ro u g h G ods saving activity in the E xodus
experience. It is definitely not aim ed to provide a m otivation for the Sabbath
co m m an d m en t as a w hole,''which is provided in G ods com m and (verses 12, 15b)
itself. C ontextually, the soteriological aspect relates to the Sabbath rest o f the
slaves.1 T h e social o r h u m an itarian em phasis1 in D euteronom y 5 : 12-15, which
is likewise p resen t in E xodus 2 0 :8 -1 1 (and Exodus 16:27-29), w here Sabbath rest
is ex ten d ed to th e whole household, is linked with the soteriological aspect, the
divine deliverance from servitude in Egypt. O n every Sabbath G ods people a re to
rem em b er that th eir G od is a Saviour who has p u t an en d to all bondage an d w ho is
the su p erio r o f all w ho wield pow er in the w orld. T h e fun d am en tal significance o f
the Sabbath is both to rem ind us o f G ods creation (Ex. 20:8-11) an d to bring to
rem em brance th e freedom from servitude o f any form , achieved by G od an d
ex ten d ed to all h u m an beings (cf. Ex. 23:13).
T here is also a variation betw een the op en in g term o f the Sabbath
co m m an d m en t in E xodus 20:8 an d the one in D euteronom y 5:12. T h e fo rm e r is
"rem em b er" (zakor) an d th e latter observe" (Samor). It has been suggested that

32
 T H E S AB BA T H IN T H E P E N T A T E U C H

th ere is little d ifference betw een these w ords.15 N evertheless, they are not
synonym s, an d th eir variations are im portant. Few hold th at observe is
o rig in al.14" T h e p resen t canonical context m akes it later141 than rem em ber." It is a
favorite w ord in D e u tero n o m y 14,1 an d sharpens one o f the sem antic aspects o f
rem em b er."
T h e term Samar has the m eaning o f to observe, keep w hen followed by an
accusative in the fo rm o f an o rd e r, com m andm ent, agreem ent, o r obligation.145
J u s t as th e L ord observes, keeps (Samar) the covenant (Deut. 7:8, 9, 12; Ex.
34:7) i.e., H e is faithful in observing His part o f the obligation so His people,
w ho are the o th e r party in the covenant, are to observe, k eep th eir p art o f the
covenant. T h e T e n C om m andm ents are known as the w ords o f the covenant
(Ex. 34:28; cf. D eut. 29:1,9) o r the tables o f the covenant" (Deut. 9:9, 11, 15), and
th e oral recitation o f the D ecalogue in D euteronom y 5 is p a rt o f a covenant
renew al. A ccordingly, the choice o f observe as the first word stresses the keeping
o f the Sabbath. T his we have seen to be a p a rt o f the m eaning o f the word
rem e m b er. T h e term observe" ap p ears to include special covenantal
o v erto n es,144 which will be discussed in a later section.
T h e goal o f observing the Sabbath is to keep it holy (Deut. 5:12; cf. Ex.
20:8). T his m eans th at it is directed tow ard definite action. O n e aspect reg ard in g
the m eaning o f th e phrase to keep it holy" (I'qadd'Sb) should now be ad ded. T h e
idea expressed by the w'ords to keep holy (qiddaS) contains also the idea to
consecrate fo r usage in b eh a lf o f G od. 145Ju st as priests116o r N azarites (N um . 6:2,
6-8; Ju d g e s 13:5, 7; 16:17) are placed in a state o f holiness an d consecration in
o rd e r th at they may p erfo rm th eir service before G od, so the Sabbath is placed in a
state o f holiness an d separation fo r service in b ehalf o f G od (Lev. 23:1-3).
T his separation o f the Sabbath with its own holiness fo r service in b eh alf o f
G od includes activity in com m unal w orship. W orship (cultic activity) is p art o f the
Sabbath institution, as Leviticus 23:1-3 indicates. T his passage contains m any
them es th at have already surfaced, such as a sabbath to the L o r d " (see Ex. 16: 23,
25; 20:10; 31:15; 35:2); six days shall work be done; but on the seventh day is a
sabbath o f solem n rest (Ex. 23:12; 31:15; 34:21; 35:2); an d "you shall do no
work" (Ex. 20:10; D eut. 5:14).147 Its significance rests in the fact that the Sabbath is
listed as belonging to the sacred festivals, th e ap p o in ted feasts o f the L o r d " (Lev.
23:2). T h e Sabbath, like the o th e r "holy convocations" o f the annual festal
ca le n d ar,148 is proclaim ed to be a holy convocation (verse 2)149 th at belongs to
G ods ap p o in ted feasts (verse 2). T h e Sabbath belonged to the festal days on
which th e congregation g ath ered for w'orship as a festal assembly. Leviticus 23:1-3
claims th at in th e early history o f Israel, the Sabbath was a day o f joyous rest from
weekly labor a n d a tim e o f solem n, festal w orship o f God.
Sabbath and Sign
A n exceptionally rich Sabbath text appears in Exodus 31:12-17.150 B efore we
discuss som e o f th e new ideas expressed fo r the first tim e in this passage, we need
to recognize its contextual setting. T h e instructions for keeping the Sabbath as
related in Exodus 3 1 : 12-17 follow the directions o f Yahweh (Ex. 27:20; 31:11) for
the sanctuary an d its service (chaps. 25:1-31:11). Both are p a rt o f the sam e oral
com m unication o f Yahweh to Moses (chaps. 25:1; 30:11, 17, 22, 34; 31:1, 12) on
M ount Sinai. T h e divine com m unication had ou tlined in detail the w ork to be
TS1SAH-3 oo
 r H E S A B B A TH IN S CR IP TUR E AND HIS TORY

do n e re g ard in g the building o f the sanctuary. T h e instructions concerning the

Sabbath, com ing at the conclusion, ( I ) connect the Sabbath an d the sanctuary (cf.
Lev. 19:30),151 (2) specify details about the Sabbath revealed for the first tim e, an d
(3) rem ind the people o f th e limits of work: Six days shall w ork be done, but the
seventh day is a sabbalh o f solem n rest, holy to the L o r d ; w hoever does any work
on th e sabbath day shall be put to d e a th (Ex. 3 1 :1 5 ).'" T h e present context
indicates that th e Sabbath, which had been included as one o f the T e n
C om m andm ents (Ex. 20:8-11), is form ally explained to Moses in its m anifold
aspects on M ount Sinai.
M any o f th e aspects associated with the Sabbath in E xodus 31:12-17 are
already known. G ods six-day creation and rest on th e seventh day in verse 17 is
know n from Genesis 2:2, 3 an d Exodus 20:11. T h e com m and to keep" (Samar)
the Sabbath o f verses 13, 1 4 ,an d 16 is en co u n tered in D euteronom y 5 : 12, 1 5 ,as is
also th e injunction to observe" (verse 16; Deut. 5:12) it. T h e holiness o f the
Sabbath o f verses 14 and 15 takes us to Genesis 2:3; Exodus 16:23; 20:8 (cf. Ex.
35:2; Deut. 5:12). T h e identity o f the seventh day as the Sabbath com es in both
Exodus 16:26 an d 29 an d 2 0 :10, and the idea o f the Sabbath as a sabbath feast"
(Sabbat6n)'iS is already known in Exodus 16:23.
T h e statem ent that the Sabbath is a sign betw een me an d you th ro u g h o u t
your generations, that you may know that I, the L o r d , sanctify you" (Ex. 3 1 : 13) is
entirely new. T h ese words a p p e a r in sim ilar fo rm 1*4 again in Ezekiel 20:12, 20.
E xodus 31:13 specifies th at the sign ('oth)'n is "betw een me and you, i.e.,
betw een G od an d His p eo p le.' T h e fact that the Sabbath functions as an external,
visible, and p erp etu al sign betw een God and His people is an essential p art o f the
total m eaning o f the Sabbath as a sign. But the sign functions o f the Sabbath go far
beyond this.
T h e very n a tu re o f a sign is that it points to som ething beyond itself. T h e
sign serves to m ediate an u n d ersta n d in g an d /o r to m otivate a kind o f
behavior.157A sign can im part know ledge about G ods activity in shaping h istorv.'5*
It may m otivate people to believe in God, to w orship Him , and thus pro d u ce and
confirm faith .15 A sign may serve as a m em orial that brings rem em brance." It can
function as a m ark o r sign o f separation."1 It can pu t attention on, confirm , o r
co rro b o rate som ething beyond itself a n d thus be a sign o f confirm ation.1 Finally,
th ere can be signs o f the covenant betw een God an d His elected p eople.165
Several o f these functions of signs are part o f the sign n atu re o f the S abbath.'64
It has been freq u endy em phasized th at the Sabbath is a sign o f o b serv atio n ,"165
which ex h o rts to fulfill a d uty,'" and brings to m ind an obligation.'*7 In Exodus
31:13 the Sabbath is a sign betw een m e an d you" an d quite naturally em phasizes
th e obligation an d d uty o f G od's covenant com m unity to keep the Sabbath holy to
th e L o r d (verse 15).
T h e Sabbath is also a sign o f separation." ' It has been pointed out that one
o f the functions o f a sign ('oth) is to m ediate know ledge and u n d e rsta n d in g .'69
T h e Sabbath as a m ark o f sep aratio n m ediates to m en o f dif feren t religions o r
faiths th e know ledge that a peculiar o r unique relationship exists between G od
and th e people that keep the Sabbath holy by which the whole world is to
recognize the existence o f this relationship. ,7 T h e Sabbath is a "sign o f
recognition" th at m arks G ods people o ff from those aro u n d th e m .'7' Ju st as the
sign placed by G od on Cain did not disgrace him (Gen. 4 : 15),175 but separated him

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 T H E SAB BA TH IN T H E P E N T A T E U C H

from th e rest o f m en and assured his fu tu re existence,175 so th e Sabbath is a sign

given to th e believer that separates him from the rest o f m en an d assures his fu tu re
existence. As such the Sabbath is a distinguishing m ark.
Aside from being a "sign o f observation an d a sign o f sep aratio n , the
Sabbath is a sign o f re m e m b ra n c e ." 1,4 T h e retrospective aspect o f re m e m
brance" has already been recognized to be part o f the Sabbath co m m an d m en t in
Exodus 20. T h e Sabbath functions as a sign o f rem em brance in th at it takes
m an's memory' back to die origin o f the Sabbath as the seventh day o f C reation
week on which God "rested, an d was re fresh e d (Ex. 31:17; cf. Gen. 2:3; Ex.
20:11). It is th u s a sign that m em orializes C rea to r and C reation. R em em brance
not only includes th e past but actualizes175 this know ledge in p resen t an d fu tu re
action: to keep th e sabbath, observing the sabbath th ro u g h o u t th eir generations"
(verse 16). G ods people rem em b er the gracious acts o f deliverance176 an d G od's
plan o f red em p tio n .
T h e Sabbath is also a sign o f know ledge."177T h is is m ade explicit in Exodus
31:13: "this is a sign . . . that you may know (lada'ath)." T h e sign serves the p u rp o se i
o f know ledge.17*T h e Sabbath is a sign that im parts to Israel the know ledge (1) that
Yahweh is h er G o d 179 an d (2) that h er G od "sanctifies" His p eo p le'1by m aking t
them a holy people,"" i.e., a people separated fo r a special covenant with H im ."2
T h e holiness o f G od's people, th erefo re, is derived from their being related to the
holy G od, and not from any intrinsic quality o f the people. T h e redem ptive
ch aracter o f th e Sabbath com es into view.
T h e discussion o f th e Sabbath as a sign o f observation, sepa ra tion,
rem em brance, an d know ledge, which stressed the Sabbath as a sign for m an,
needs to be su p p lem ented by th e Sabbath as a sign for God. T h e m eaning o f the
Sabbath as a sign for G od has com e into focus by designating the Sabbath as a sign
o L g u arantee." IMJu st as the rainbow is the perpetual sign o f g u aran tee between"
God an d th e ea rth (Gen. 9:13) th at "the w aters shall never again becom e a flood to
destroy all flesh" (verse 15), so the Sabbath is a sign o f guarantee" whereby God
assures His sanctifying purposes for His p eople.IMIt is a sign o f efficacious grace, a
pow erful sign o f salvation. T h e Giver o f the sign guarantees His pledge o f m aking
His people holy.
A n o th er phase o f the Sabbath as a sign o f G ods pledge an d g u aran tee fo r the
covenant com m unity has been o ffered recendy by M. G. Kline on the basis that the
Sabbath is part o f G ods covenant and thus carries its seal.5 H e states
em phatically, T h e C reato r has stam ped on world history the sign o f the Sabbath
as His seal o f ow nership an d au th o rity . ,6 T his in terp retatio n is based on the
parallelism o f external ap p earan ce betw een international treaty docum ents, in
some o f which th e suzerain's dynastic seal com es in the midst o f the treaty
docum ent. W h eth er o r not this parallelism can be sustained is beside the point.
T h e Sabbath regulation ap p ears as a sign o r seal o f ow nership an d authority. God
is identified as th e C reato r (Ex. 20:11; 31:17), distinguishing Him from the o th er
gods;1*7 and the sp h ere o f ow nership and authority is identified as heaven and
earth " (chaps. 31:17; 20:1 1; G en. 2:1-3).'" T h ese are ancient constituents o f the
seal, nam ely th e identity o f the ow ner an d the sp h ere o f ow nership and authority.
T h ey are present in the written""' and o ra l1'"' Sabbath com m andm ents revealed on
M ount Sinai a n d thus m ake the Sabbath a unique sign o r seal with m om entous
m eaning for th e believer. Any person who im itates the C rea to rs exam ple by

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 T H E S AB BA T H IN S CR I P T U R E AND HISTORY

k eeping th e Sabbath holy as did his Lord acknow ledges Him both as C rea to r and
R e -c re a to r (R e d e e m e r) . H e a c c e p ts th e S a b b a th as G o d s g ra c io u s a n d
life-renew ing gift an d acknow ledges G od's ow nership and authority o v er him self
an d all creation. T h is sets the believer o ff from the rest o f m ankind and m akes him
p a rt o f th e covenant com m unity o f tru e w orshipers o f God. T h e celebration and
keeping o f the Sabbath is the outw ard sign" a n d external seal. G od's election,
covenant, an d sanctifying activity are the inw ard grace" an d internal
sanctification that give it present reality.
Sabbath and Covenant
T h e Sabbath is directly connected with the covenant" (brith) in Exodus
31:12-17: " T h e re fo re th e people o f Israel shall keep the sabbath, observing the
sabbath th ro u g h o u t their g enerations as a p erp etu al covenant [(frith 'oldm\" (verse
16). It is tru e th at the Sabbath, in contrast to the rainbow as a "sign o f the covenant"
(Gen. 9:13, 17) in the Noachic covenant and to circum cision as a sign o f the
covenant" (chap. 17:11) in the A braham ic covenant, is not explicitly called a "sign
o f th e c o v e n a n t."'*' N evertheless, the Sabbath doubtlessly functions as a covenant
sign o f th e Sinai (H oreb) covenant, because it is called a sign betw een me a n d you"
(Ex. 31:13; cf. Eze. 20:20) o r a sign betw een m e an d the people o f Israel" (Ex.
31:17).'n T h e expression "a sign betw een m e an d you" brings to m ind the phrases
a sign o f th e covenant betw een me an d the e a rth (Gen. 9:1 3)' an d "a sign o f the
covenant betw een me an d you (chap. 17:11) in the covenants o f N oah and
A braham , respectively.ltMT h e language o f the e n tire passage o f Exodus 31:12-17
is filled with covenant term inology. T h e verbs "keep" (&dmur)m in verses 13, 14,
and 16 an d "know " (yadaVs6 in verse 13 are filled with covenant overtones. T h e
term p ro fan e" ( h i l) ,'9 which is used not infrequently with the S abbath,'* is a
term for the breaking o f o r doing away with the covenant.Im In short, ju st as the
Noachic covenant has an eternal sign in the rainbow (Gen. 9:13, 17) an d the
A braham ic covenant has an eternal sign in circum cision (chap. 17:11), so the Sinai
(H oreb) covenant has an etern al sign in the Sabbath.
T h e Sabbath is a sign o f confession on the basis o f which the validity o f
G ods etern al covenant" is m aintained th ro u g h o u t the generations o f the
covenant com m unity (Ex. 31:16). T h e perp etu al celebration o f the Sabbath
re m in d s G o d 's c o v e n a n t p e o p le th a t th e in tim a te c o v e n a n t re la tio n s h ip
established by h e r God betw een Him an d them was rooted in His gracious election
and etern al covenant that was form ally established on M ount Sinai. T h e ongoing
celebration (keeping, observing) o f the Sabbath does not so m uch secure G od's
relationship with His p eople501 as it serves as an indicator that the "eternal
covenant" relationship is still in existence.
Retrospectively, the Sabbath looks back. As a sign o f rem em b ran ce the
Sabbath m em orializes G od as C rea to r and His creation as u n d istu rb ed by sin
(Gen. 2:2, 3; Ex. 20:8, 11; 3 1 :I7 ).OT- Prospectivelv, the Sabbath, as a sign o f an
everlasting covenant" (Ex. 31:16) in which G od b o u n d H im selP05to His covenant
people an d they accepted the obligation o f celebrating the Sabbath, contains an
em phatic p ro m ise " 5"4 for all generations. As covenant sign an d rooted in
C reation, th e Sabbath m akes possible redem p tive history', i.e., covenant history5"5
th at moves forw ard to its ultim ate goal.
T h e Sabbath has a key part in reaching into the fu tu re tow ard the ultim ate

36
 I H E S A B B A T H IN I HE P E N T A T E U C H

goal o f redem ptive, covenant history. First, the Sabbath is a sign o f m an's basic
p o sture in the presence o f C od. It is a day that provides freedom and liberation
from th e work an d anxiety in present existence. It brings com m union with God
an d thus physical, m ental, an d spiritual regeneration and renew al. As such, it is a
proleptic token o f an eschatological reality in the future."'"' It is a covenant sign in
the h ere and now about an ultim ate fu tu re 101 with its h o p ed -fo r redem ption.
Second, th e Sabbath stands as a sign o f an "everlasting covenant betw een
C reation (Gen. 2 :2 .3 ; Ex. 2 0 :11; H I: 17)and redem ption (I)eut. 5:15; Isa. 56:1-4),
p ointing to th e great consum m ation.- ' I n this sense the Sabbath's com m em orative
retrospection to C rea to r an d C reation shows itself as a pow erful token o f divine
obligation20* th at m akes m an look forw ard to com plete redem ption a n d total
freedom , aw aited by the en tire sin-ridden creation.
T h e ex tra o rd in ary red eem in g qualities in h ere n t in the Sabbath are a sign o f
g u aran tee on th e basis o f which the hope in ultim ate redem ption with its new
heaven and new e a rth has a secure anchor. T h u s the Sabbath directs us to the past
from which this day receives its deepest m eaning for the present an d points
constantly anew to a m ost glorious fu tu re o f total freedom an d everlasting joy.
Finally th e in terru p tio n o f u n h in d e re d com m union betw een G od an d His people
com es to an end. T h e Sabbath is a prom ise and g u aran tee that this will take place.
T h e Sabbath is a covenant sign th ro u g h which God has pledged that the present
proleptic exp erien ce o f freed o m , liberation, joy, an d com m union on the weekly
Sabbath is but a foretaste o f the ultim ate reality in the glorious future.

NOTES
1 See Ihe informative survevs b\ T J Meek. " Hie Sabbath in the Old Testament.'//!/. 33(1914):20|*212; fc-1
kraeling. "The Present Status of the Sabbath Question.' Am eruan J o u rn a l of Srm ilit Languages a m i Literature 49
1932-33):2l8-228; R. North. The Derivation of Sabbath. B iblua 1*6 ( 1935) 182*201. R. tie Vaux. Ann m l Israel Its
Life anti Institutions (London. 1961). pp. 476-479.) H. Meesters. O p znek naar de mrrspmng i-an de sabbat (Awn, 1966),
pp 4-83; C. W. Kiker. The Sabbath in the O ld fextam m t Cult (Tb D dissertation. Southern Baptist ThenUwK.il
Seminars. 1968). pp 5*39; W Rordorf. Sunda\ (Philadelphia 1968). pp. 19*24; N.-fc. A. Anureasen, The O ld
Testament Sabbath. SBL Diss. Ser. 7 (Missoula. Mont.. 1972). pp. 1-16; V Neyretti./ / Settimo jpgrw(Rome. 1973), pp.
31-108; Ci. Robinson. Thr O n gn t an d D eielofm en l of the O ld Testamrnt Sabbath (Hamburg. 1975). pp 6*24.
1 Drikiach, Babel an d B M * (( hicago. 1903). pp 17.
Ci. Lot/. (urstiones de hiMona Sabbati libri dun (Leipzig. 1883). pp. 57. 58. 106. is at times credited to lie the lirst
to seek the origin of the Sabbath from BabsIonian sources.
4 C. Smitn.A n n m tD tu o i'm n (London. 1876). p. 12; C.. H. W. Johns..iinnun Drnii am//)oruMrtiti// (London.
1901). pp 40. 41; idem. "The Balnlonun Sabbath." Expositors rimes 17 (l905-06):566. 567; ci. \\ Koinleld. "Der
Sahbatn im Alien Testament."l)rr Tawdry H e rm . ed b\ H PckHI (Wien. 1958), pp. 11-21. esp. 18.21. M. Noih. The
H u to n o f Israel (New York. 1958). p 296; (.'#. von Rad. O ld T esiam m t Theology (New York. 1962). 1:16. n. 3; P R
Arkrovd. Israel I n d r t Bah\lon an d Pet mo (London. 1970). p. 155
' CL a p p e n d ix A. p p . 3 0 8 -3 2 2
6 H Zimmem. "Sabbath.' ZD M G 58 (1904): 199-202; idem. Nochmals Sabbat. D M G 58 (1904) 458-460; T
C. Pinches, "Sapattu. the Batnlonian Sabbath." P roceedm p of the Soeieti of B ibliral A rrh arolaru b 26 (l904):51-53. 162.
163. | Meinhold. Sabbat und Hin he im Allen Testament ((Ottmgen. 1905). p. 5; idem. "Die r'nisiehuug des Sabluts."
1909):8I 112; id tm V.m Sabbailiam /A W <6 (1916): 108-110 idem 7ut SabhathltaK' / Hi I*
1930): 121*138; K. Marti. Genrhuhte der u raen tu rh m Religion, 4th ed. (Strassburtt. 1903). pp 43. 44. C Beer,
v habbath Der M tuhruttraelat "Sabbat" (Tubingen. 1908). pp. 11-21. uiem. Sabbat." P a u h W tsso w a R ealm rstloptuiie 2
Muttgart. 1920). cols. 1551-1557; K. Mahler. "Dei Sanoat Seine emnolojfische und chronologisch-histonsthe
Bedeutunu." 7 .I )\tG 62 (I908):33*79, esp. 47*56; Meek, lot ti t . ( llolschet. (euhuhte drr nraelitiuhen u n d ju d iu h m
Religion ((lessen, 1922), p. MO; S. Mowiiu kel. I.e D ia lo g u e (Pans. 1927). p. 91. A. Lods. Israel (New York. 1932). pp
437-440; S. H Hooke. Tne Origins of L.uily Semitu R itu al (Lnndon. 1938. pp. 58. 59; C) Pn*kwh. Theologte des Alien
Testaments ((uterslnh, 1950), p. 544; N Hi. Tur-Sinai. "Sabbat und Worhe." Hiblua et o rtm ialia 8 (1951) 14-24.esp. 21
note the critique >1 the latter by M (ruber. " Hie Source 1 the Biblual Sal>bath." Journ alof the Aruient S ea r t astern
v irwf o f Columbia V n ive n ity I (19691:14*20), ) Moraenttern. "Sabbath.** M B (New York. 1962). 4 135. 136. uUm.
The Festival of lerobeam I ," J B l 83 (1964): 111: | M Baumgarten. " The ( ounting of the Sabbath in Ancient
Sources." V T 16 (l966):27/-286; A. Ixmaire. "Le SaMut a IVpouue r os ale Israelite. R e iue btblujue 80
19731:161-185: Robinson, op. a t., pp 145, 146. 171-185
In m o d ern sch o la rsh ip it w as first p r o p o e d b \ A K u en en . The Religion of Israel (L o n d o n . 1874). I 2 7 6 . * h ile
ih e K em te aspect was a d d e d by B I). K erdm ans. "D ei S a h tu ih .' l ow Alien Textammt (F e sisc h n lt fur K Marti)
(le ss e n . 192:). p p. 79*83, an d su p p o rted In K B u ild e. " T h e SaM iath a n d ih e Week.** J o u rn a l of Theologual Studies 30
<1928-29): 1-15; idem, "A nt wort au l J o h a n n e s M em h old s *Zur SabbathfraKe,* ZAH 4 8 ( 1930): 1 3 8 -1 4 5 ; L. K ohler.

37
 T H F. S AB BA T H IN S CR IP T UR E AND HISTORY

D er D cU Io b ." T W o ^ u A / Kun<A<iu N e u e F olgr I (1 9 2 9 ): 16 3 - 16 5 ; W. W. C a n n o n . T h e W eekly Sabbath,** Z A to 4 9

(1 9 3 1 ):3 2 5 -3 2 7 ; H . H Row lev. M oses an d th e Decalogue,** H ull/tin . Jo h n Ry lands l ibrary 3 4 (1 9 5 1 * 5 2 ):8 1 -1 1 8 ; dem.
W orship in A ncient Israel (P h ila d elp h ia . 1967), p p . 4 5 . 4 6 . 9 0 . 9 1 ; W H. S ch m id t. Alttestamenthcher (.tlaube u n d seine
i'm u e it ( N e u k ir c h e n -V lu y n , 1968). p. 84
MS ee th e critiq u es by M e eitcr s, op. a t., p p . 53-5 7 ; K iker, op. a t., p p . 5-14; I)e V a u x , /or. a t. O n th e lu n a r-p h a sc
h y p o th esis, se e D. N ie lse n , D ie altarabische M orulrrligton u n d die mosaische berlieferung (S trassb u rg. 1 904), p p. 5 2 -5 8 ; |
H e h n . Siebenzahl u n d Sabbat beiden Babyloniern und im A lten Testam ent ( I x ip z ig . 190 7 ). p p. 5 8 -6 2 , 1 1 2 -1 I 4 ; c f . N eg rettl,
op. a t.. p p. 7 1 -8 1 .
4 H R in g g ren . Israelite Religion (P h ila d elp h ia . 1966). d. 202
10 D e v e lo p e d bv H . L ew y a n a l . L ew s. T h e O r ig in o f tn e W eek a n d th e O ld est W est Asiatic C a len d a r. H ebrew
U nion College A n n u a l 17 ( 1942 -1 9 4 3 ): 1- 15, an d s u p p o rted b \ J M o rg en stern , op a t., p p . 1 3 5 -1 4 1 . N o te th e critical
reaction by I'ur-Sinai, op. a t., p . 16; K. B alk an , " T h e O ld A ssyrian W eek," Studies in H onor o f B en n o Landsberger. e d bv
H. C . G Q terbock an d T h J a co b sen (C h icago. 1965). p p . 139-174 .
11 A m o n g th e n eg a tiv e reaction s to th e astrological an d agru ultural h y p o th eses are th e fo llow ing: M eesters, op
a t., p p . 16-57; D e V au x. loe. a t., K iker .o p a t., p p. 31 -3 5 ; R ord orf, op. a t., pp. 2 3 . 24; R o b in so n , op a t . p p. 16. 17. B
E. S n a fe r. Sabbath.**ID B S up (N ash ville. 1976). p 760; I B S egal. In terca la tio n a n d th e H eb rew (.a len d a r." VT 7
( 19 5 7 ).2 5 0 -3 0 7 . J. A B rin k m an . N o te o n O ld A ssyrian jam uffuA ." Jo u rn a l o f S e a r Eastern Studies 24 ( I 9 6 5 ) : l 1 8 -1 2 0 ;
B. Z W ach old er, S abbatical V ear, I D B S up (N a sh v ille. 1976). p 762.
11 W ith so m e variation , H W eb ster, n e st Days (N ew Y ork, 1916). p p . 1 01-123; M P. N ilsso n . P rim itive Time
Reckoning (l.u n d , 1920). np. 3 2 3 -3 3 4 ; M. W eb er, A n c ien tJu d m sm (G len co e. III., 1952). p 1 5 1 ; E .J e n n i, Die theologische
B e g rndung des Sabbatgeootes im A lten T estam ent (Z urich, 1956), p p . 12, 13.
15 R ord orf. op a t., o. 22; F. M athys. "Sabbatruhe u n d S ab b a tfest, Theologische Z eitschrift 2 8 (1 9 7 2 ):2 5 7 ; H )
K raus. W orship in Israel (R ich m o n d . V a.. 1966). p. 82; R ob in son , itp cit.. p. 12; F Stolz. T\2VJ sht a u fh r e n , r u h e n .
T H A T . 2 :8 6 9 .
First p r o p o se d bv W. A. H e id e l. The Day of Y ahueh. .4 Study o f Sacred Days a n d R itu a l Forms in the A n cient S e a r
E a st (N ew Y ork . 1 9 2 9 ). o p 4 3 8 . 4 3 9 , a n d e x p a n d e d b \ K raus, op a t., p p. 8 1 -8 7 . K o rn feld , loe. a t., K iker. op a t . o p
5 0 . 5 1 , 6 7 -1 3 1 ; J. G u illen . N e u vas a p o rta cio n e s al e s tu d io d e l sbado." Estudios bblicos 2 6 ( 1 9 6 7 ):7 7 -8 9 ; idem,
M otivacin d e u te r o n m ic a d e l p r e c e p to d el S ab at," Estudios btbhcos 2 9 (I9 7 0 ):7 3 9 9 ; idem, M otivacin deuteronmica
del descanso saltatico (M ad rid , 1971), p p . 121-144; F Stolz, S abb ath , S c h p fu n g s w m h e u n d H erb stfest," W o rt u n d
Dienst 1 1 (1971); 159-175; N eg rettl. op. a t., p p. 31 -9 1 ; L em aire, loc. cit., esp . p p . 167 -1 7 0 .
15 S ch m id t, loc. a t.
16 W ith R in g g ren . loe. a t . an d R ob in son , op a t., p. 10. again st N eg rettl. op. a t . p p . 3 3 . 4 1-43. a n d K raus, op a t.,
p p . 8 5 -8 7 Im p ortan t critiq u es are also p ro v id ed b \ I)e V a u x . op. a t., p 4 7 8 ; M eesters. p p . 6 6 -8 0 , A n d re a se n , op. a t..
pp. 1 1 3 -1 2 1 , a n d G .J . B otterw eck . D er Sabbat in A lten T esta m e n te (II).** Theologische Q u a rta lsch n ft 134 ( 1 9 5 4 ):4 5 4 .
17 S ee M eesters, op. a t., p p . 1-83; K iker. op. a t., p p . 1-66; A n d re a se n . oft a t., p p. 1-16; R o b in so n , op. a t., p p.
6 -2 4 ; S h a fe r, op. a t., p p. 7 6 0 , /6 1 .
,H M eesters, op. a t., p . 201; K iker. <tp. a t., pp. 6 7 -1 8 7 ; R ob in so n , op. a t., p p. 2 9 -3 1 3 .
19 R I) C o n g d o n . "Sabbatic T h e o lo g y " (T h .U . d isserta tio n . D allas fh e o lo g ic al S e m in a r s . 1949); A. L H e s c h e l.
The Sabbtith (N ew Y o rk . 1951); J e n m . op. a t . pp. 3-40; A R o se n fe ld . T h e Sabbath in th e S p a ce A g e . Tradition 7
(l9 6 4 -6 5 ):2 7 -3 3 ; J W . L eitch . "L ord A lso o f th e S abb ath . Scitttish J o u r n a l of Theology 19 ( 19 6 6 ):4 2 6 -4 3 3 . W D ig n a th .
D er b ib lisch e R u h etag U r m o d e 11 h u m an er D asem ssiru k tu r.' Stim ne 2 3 ( l9 / l) : 3 5 7 - 3 6 0 ; M aths s. op. a t., p p .
2 4 1 -2 5 5 ; H . W W o lff. A n th n tp o lo n o f the O ld Testam ent (L o n d o n . 1974). p p. 1 34-142; N .-E . A A n d re a se n . Festival
a n d F reed om : A S tud s o f an O ld T e sta m e n t T h e m e ." Interpretation 2 8 ( 1 9 /4 ) : 2 8 l- 2 9 7 . C. R B ig g s. E x p o sitio n a n d
A d ap tation o f th e Sabbath C o m m a n d m en t in th e O T ," Australian Biblical R eview 2 3 (1 9 7 5 ): 13-23.
w In view o f th e c o n fu sio n a n d co n tra d ictio n in m o re recen t p en ta teu ch a l criticism , w hich th ro w s in to total
disarray th e trad itional d ivision a n d d a tin g o f th e strara assig n ed to J E D P (see, lo r e x a m p le . R R e n d to r fl.
T rad itio-H istorical M eth od a n d th e Doc u m en ta rs H yp oth esis." Proceedings of the Fifth W orld Congress of Jew ish Studie\
(Jeru salem . 1969], p p . 5 -1 1 . idem. T h e 'Y a h w ist'a s T h e o lo g ia n ' T h e D ilem m a o f P en ta teu ch a l Critic ism ." J o u r n a l fo r
the Study of O T 3 11 9 /7 1 :2 -1 0 ; idem. Das berlieferungsge\chicntliche Problem des Pentateuch (B erlin . I977J; J. \ an S eters,
Abraham in History a n d Tradition (N ew H aven an d l.o n d o n . 1975); idem. T h e Y ahw ist' as T h eo lo g ia n !' A R e sp o n se ,
J o u rn a l fo r the Study o f O T 3 (1977): 15-19; H H . S ch m id . D er sogenan n te/ A u w /(Z urich, 1976); idem, In S ea rch o f N ew
A pproac lies in P en tateu ch al R e se a rc h , J o u r n a l fo r the Study of O T 3 1 1 9 7 7 ):3 3 -4 2 ), it .ip p ea rs m c lh o d o lo g u ally so u n d
to a ttem p t to treat th e p en ta teu ch a l Sabbath p assages in th e seq u e n c e in w hich they are textu allv p ro v id ed an d to
b rin g to g e th e r th o se p assages that e m p h a siz e certain top ics, settin g s, or m otifs.
Literars critical q u e stio n s or m od ern istic sch o la rsh ip n eed not d eta in us. Sec* p rev io u s n o tr
n H W W olff. T h e Dav o f Rest in th e O ld T esta m en t. *Concordia Theological M onthly 4 3 (1 9 7 2 ): 5 0 1; M eesters.
op. n L . p p 9 1 -9 9 .
** A gain st H G u n k el, Genesis, 8th e d ((w ittin gen . 1969), p. 1 15. a n d M G r een b erg . S a b b a th ," Encyclopaedia
Ju d a ica (Jeru salem an d New Y ork. 19 7 1 -7 2 ), 14:558. w ith A n d re a se n . O T Sabbath, p. 6 5 . n 1..a n d J e n m . op. a t., p. 21
24 C. W esterm a n n , Genesis (N cu k irch en -V lu y n , 1974). p p . 2 3 1 -2 3 3 ; A n d re a se n . "R ecent S tu d ies o f th e O ld
T esta m en t Sabbath: S o m e O b servations." /.A W 8 6 ( 1974):4o5; an d n o w esp ccia lh N eg rettl. op a t . p p 150, 151
** B H a rtm a n n . H im m el u n d E rd e m i A T ." Schweizer Theologische Umschau HO ( i9 6 0 ) : 2 2 1-224. M O tto sso n .
n e ts ." T O O T ( 1974), I 394*397
16 C f G u n k el, op. a t., p. 1 14; E. A . S p e iser. Genesis. Anchor Bible (G arden Cats, N .Y .. 196 4 ), p 7.
17 H A L A T , p. 4> 4; G G e rlem a n . "klh zu E n d e s e in . T H A T . 1 :8 3 1 -8 3 3 .
w The N e w English Bible reads sixth d a \ an d fo llo w s th e S ep tu a g in t. S y ria c. and S am aritan . N ev erth eless, th e
H ebrew text is w ell p reserv e d .
29 A lth o u g h th e n o u n "Sabbath" d o e s n ot a p p e a r in G e n e sis, it is th e com m unis opinio that th is is w hat is m ea n t.
M J e n n i, ob a t., p. 25; W. Z im m erli. I M ase I I I : Die Urgeschichte, 3d ed . (Z urich. 1967). p. 103; N F u glister.
Ciottesdienst am M enschen: Z u m Kultverstandnis des A lten Testaments (S alzb u rg. 197 3 ). p. 9 . O L oretz. Sch p fu n g u n d
Mythos (S tuttgart. 19 6 8 ). p. 7 0 . fo rm u la tes sh arp ls T h e goal o f th e w h o le crea tio n a n d o f m an is God*s Sabbath. T h e
creation o f tn e w orld re a ch ed its c o m p le tio n o n l\ th r o u g h th e Sabbath, th e sev en th day.**
51 A n d re a se n . O T Sabbath, p 194, a ffirm s w ith o th e r s (G. v o n R ad. M. N o th . W H. S ch m id t) that G en esis 2 : 1 -3
is n ot co n c e r n e d w ith th e Sahliath in stitu tion al all. but o n ly w ith (kk!*s r e s t .. It (th e C rea tio n Sabbath] ex p la in s th e
d iv in e otiasitas as th e s ev en th day o f C reation ." This |u d g m en t is noi su sta in ed in th e text itself. It is n o tew o rth y that
this o n e -s id e d em p h a sis is som ew h at co r recte d in h is m o re recen t essay "R ecent S tu d ies o f th e O ld T esta m en t

38
 I'HE S AB BA TH IN T H E P E N T A T E U C H

Sabtiaih S o m e O b serv a tio n s, Z A W 86 ( I 9 7 4 ):4 6 6 . 467

w K. E iliger. S in n u n d U rsp r u n g d er p r ic stc r liih c n G c s c h ic h isc r z a h lu n g , Ziifcf/in /// r Theologie u n d Kirche 4 9
(1 9 5 2 ) 122; W cstcrm an n . op. a t., p 2.%. H . R icscn fcld . The Gospel Tradition (P h ila d elp h ia . 1 9 7 0 ),p p . 112, 113;
Fu glister. ot> a t.. p p. 9 -1 1 ; M. F. Lnjicr. T h e S ig n ifu a n te o f ih r Sabbath." Bibhotheca Sacra 123 ( 1 9 6 6 ):5 3 -5 5 ; e l al.
55 G H W aterm an . S abbath. The Z onderran Pictorial Encyclopedia o f the Bible ((rand R apids. M ich .. 1975).
5:1 8 3 .
M H A L A T . p 4 5 4 ; C H A L . p. 158; K B . p 4 3 7
55 S ee E. K n ig. Die Genesis. 3d cd . (G terslo h . 1925). p. 163; A. H c id c l. The Babylonian Genesis, 2 d ed . (C h ica g o .
1963). p 127. n. 118.
* S p eiser, op. a i.. p . 8.
57 (crlem an . ob a t., col. 83 2 .
M R icscn fcld . toe. a t.; A n d re a se n , "R ecent Stud ies," p. 46 6 .
,9 C H A L , p. 2 3 1 , K B , p. 6 0 1 . H A D . p. 172.
40 C H M .. p. 3 6 0 . K B . p. 9 4 6 . H A D . p 2 7 7
41 B u d d e . Die biblische Urgeschichte ((lessen . 1883). p p. 4 9 4 . 4 9 5 ; J cn n t. op. a t., p p. 19-21; W . H . S ch m id t. Die
Schpfungsgeschichte der P nesterschnfl (N e u k irch en -V lu y n . 1964). p. 72.
42 ( .. vo n R ad, D ie P n e sten ch rift im Hexateuch literarisch untersucht u n d theologisch g eu rrtel (S tuttgart. 1 934). pp.
168. 169; M. N o th , Cberlieferungsgrschichte des Pentateuih (S tuttgart. 1948). p p. 2 6 1 . 2 6 2 ; S ch m id t. Schpfungsgeschichte.
p. 157; E. N ie lse n . D ie u h n Gebote (K o p e n h a g e n . 1965). p p 3 7 . 38; N c g r c m . op a t., pp. 155 -1 6 2 .
43 This is esp ecially e m p h a siz e d by S ch m id t. .Sihitfdutigsgeuhtchle. p. 157.
44 W. Bienen, Die Arbeit nach der Lehre der Bibel. 2 d e d . (S tuttgart. 1 956). p. 2 5 ; cf. W aterm an , loc. a t.. W
Z im m erli. G rundriss der alttestam entlichen Theologie (S tuttgart. 1972). p. 26: . .. hut in th is restin g o f C o d th e S abbath is
ob v io u sly estab lish ed ."
45 A m o n g le a d in g stu d ie s are: H . H ir sc h fe ld , R em ark s o n th e E tw n o lo g s o l Sabbdth. ' J o u r n a l of the R tn a l Asiatic
Society 2 8 (1 8 9 6 ):3 5 3 -3 5 9 ; 1*. J e n s e n . "A ssyrio-hebraic a." ZeiLschnfl fu r A s n n o lo g v 4 ( 18 8 9 ) .2 7 4 -2 7 8 . M ein h o ld . Sabbai
u n d Woche, p p. 12, 13; D. N ielse n , op. a t., p p . 5 1 -6 9 , H c h n .o p . a t . p p . 91*106; B e e i. Sthabbath. p p. 11-21; M a h ler, loc.
a t.; S. L a n g d o n . " T h e D erivation o f Sabattu and o th er notes." /.D M G 6 2 ( l9 0 8 ):2 9 -3 2 ; M eek, op a t ., p 2 0 4 ; B
L a n d sb erg e r. Der kultische Kalender der Babylonier undA ssyrer (L eip zig. 1 9 1 5 ) .p p. 132*134; N o r th , op. a t., p p . 184-193;
(. Y am asn iro. A S tu d y o f the H ebrew W o rd Sabbath in Biblical an d T a lu iu d ic la te ra tu rcs (P h .D . c n sse ru tio n .
H arvard U n iversity. 1955); D e V au x, oft. a t., p p. 4 7 5 . 4 7 6 ; M eesters. op a t., p p 6 -1 6 . Kiker, op a t . p p 4 0 -5 3 .
A n d re a se n . O T Sabbath, p p . 100-106; N c g r c m . ftp. a t . p p .*4-97. larm aire. op a t . p p 172-174
46 S ee D. N ielse n , op. a t., p p. 5 1 ,6 7 , 6 9 ; cf. H W eh r. Arabisches Wrterbuch Ith cd ( W iesb a d en . 1968). p. 3 6 5 . For
critical reaction s, *ee M eesters. op. a t., p p . 6 -8 ; A n d re a se n . O T Sabbath, p p. 1 00, 101; N cg rctti. p a t., p p 9 4 . 9 5 .
R o b in so n , op. a t., p. J8 4 .
4< H. G azelles. Etudes sur le Code de L Alltance (Parts. 1946). p. 93; I x m a ir e , op. a l , p p 173. 174.
4M le n s e n . loc. a t., l.a n g d o n . op a t., p. 30; cf. L an d sb erger. op. a t . p p 132, 133, a n d m any o th ers.
49 S ee Z im m ern , S abb ath . p. 2 0 2 ; N o rth , op. a t., p p. 1 8 9 -1 9 3 . The A m n a n Dictionary o f the O riental Institu te of the
University o f Chicago. 5 :25.
50 S ec H trscn feld . op. a t., p p. 3 5 5 -3 5 9 ; H e h n . Zur Sabbatfragc." Biblische Zeitschrift 14 ( 1 9 1 7>:21 0 -2 13; idem.
Siebenzahl, p. 30; L a n d sb ere er. op. a t., p. 134
sl S ec J. Friedrich a n a W K llig. P hanizisch-P unuche ( ,ram m atik. 2 d ed . (R o m e. 197 0 ). p 6 8 , set 146.
52 H ir s c h le I d .o p .fi/.. p p. 3 5 3 -3 5 9 ;J . B a r t h . \o m in a lb tld u n g in den semitischen Sprachen ( I c io / iu . 1 894). p p. 24.
145; F B o h n . Der Sabbat im A T und im altjudischen rel^posen Aberglauben (G terslo h . 1 903). p o 2. 3; A. B e n t/c n . Den
israelitske Sabbats O pnndelse og H istone indtilJerusalem s E ro b n n g aar 7 0 E Kr. (K o p e n h a g e n . 192.3),pp. 10. I I; N o rth .o f)
a l . p p. 185* 187, E. K u tsch . Sabbat "D ie Religion in Geschichte und ( egenwart, 3 d cd . (S tuttgart: k n h lh a m m c r . 195h),
V o l V ., col. 1259; D e V a u x , itp. a t., p p . 4 7 5 . 4 7 6 . B. S. C hild s. The Book of Exttdus (P h ila d elp h ia . 197 4 ). p. 4 1 3
53 R ccen d y m ost vigorously b y N o r th , ob. a t., p p 1 8 2-201. a n d at so m e le n g th by K iker. op a t., p p . 4 2 . 4 3
M K ikcr. op. a t., p p 4 4 -5 3 . put forth th e n \p o th c s is o f a co m m o n H ebrew b iliteral root <b fro m w h itn th e n o u n
an d verb d eriv ed an d also th e w ord l b , seven ." so that cessa tio n from w ork, rest o n th e sev en th day . a n d S abbath are
clo scls related . W h eth er th e h y p o th esis o f a b iliteral root is sup erior to th e su g g e stio n o f a triliteral ro o t <bl w ith the
w ord il f, seven ." d eriv in g from a sep arate root is an o p e n issue. T h e h y p o th esis o f a c o m m o n triliteral root has
seem m g K m ore in its favor.
w N'oth. Exodus (P h ila d elp h ia . 1962). p. 136.
* S ec n o te 23.
57 S th m id t. Schobfungsgeschuhte, p p . 158. 159. ex p la in s that this m yth ical n otion" is taken o v er in G e n e sis 2:2
but a p p lied to the Sabbath. S ec also W estcrm a n n . op. a t . . p . 125. and W . G . L am bert. "A N ew lunik at th e Baby lon ian
B a tk g ro u n d of ( cn csis." yo u m a l o f Theological Studies lb ( I 9 6 5 ):2 9 7 . A n d re a se n . O T Sabbath, p. 186. fo llo w s th ese
su g g e stio n s, cla im in g that (cn csis 2 :1 -3 " u n d ersto o d th e otiositas sim ply as a Sabbath, th e first Sabbath."
w F. Stolz. T T D nu*h r u h e n . T H A T . 2 :4 3 . 4 4 . S ec J e n n i. op. a t., p 2 0 . a n d A . R. H u lst. " B em erk u n g en zu m
Sabbatgebot." Studia Biblica etSem itica Theodoro C hnstiano V nezen (\V a g en in g cn . 1966). p p . 162, 163, w h o resp ectiv ely
*eek to d e te r m in e w h e th e r G e n e sis 2 :2 -3 is p rior to E x o d u s 20:1 l . o r E x o d u s 20:1 1 is prior to D e u tero n o m y 5 : 1 1 . O n
th e th e m e o l rest, sec G . vo n R ad. T h e r e R em ain s Still a Rest for th e P e o p le o f G od: A n In v estig a tio n o f a B iblical
C o n cep tion ." The Problem of the H exateuch a n d O ther Essays (N ew Y ork. 19o6). p p . 9 4 -1 0 2 , esp . 100 -1 0 2 .
** T h e verb np<. ' exh ale." o r "catch o n e's b reath , re fr esh o n e s e lf ( C H M .. p. 2 4 2 ), is u sed o n ly in th e O ld
1 esta m cn t in E xod u s 2 3 :1 2 ; 31 17; 2 S am u el 16:14. O n npS, s e e J c n n i. op. a t., p p. 2 0 . 21. W olff . "Day o f Rest," p . 501;
d e m . Anthropology of the O T , p. 138. has su g g e ste d that G od m ust rest b eca u se H e nad b eco m e ex h a u ste d fro m H is work
o f crea tion . T h is ru n s co u n ter to th e c o n tex t o f E xod u s 3 1 :1 7 an d th e th em e o f (od's rest in th e O ld T esta m en t.
60 J c n n i. op a t., p. 23.
61 S ec G W ch m eicr. D er Segen im A lten Testam ent (B asel, 1970); C . A . K eller a n d G. W eh m cicr. "brk seg n en ."
T H A I 1 :3 5 3 -3 7 6 . J S th a r b c rt. "brk," TW A T (S tu ttgart. 1972). 1 :8 2 7 -8 4 !.
** Keller an d W eh m cicr. op. n t., col. 36 2 .
M W esterm an n . op. a l., p. 2 3 7
F. H orst. Gottes Recht (M u n ich . 1 9 6 1 ), p p. 198, 199; S c h a r b e n , loc. a t., W eh m eier. ob. a t., p. 134; K eller and
W eh m cicr. op a t., co l. 369; an d th e fo llo w in g c o m m en ta ries o n G enesis: G u n k el, op. a t., p. 115; S. R. D river, The Book
Genesis. 14th ed . (L o n d o n . 1 9 4 3 ) ,p 18;J. S k in n er, G enesu, 2d ed . (E d in b u r g h . 1930). p. 38; K n ig, op. c i/..p . 16 8 ;C .
A S im p son . T h e B ook o f (cncsis," T he Interpreter s Bible, vol. I . p. 4 9 0 ; O . Procksch, D ie Genesis ( I x ip z ig , 1 913). p.

39
 T H E S A B B A T H IN S CR I P T U R E A M ) H IS TOR Y

4 M ; Westertn a n n . op. a t.. p. 2 3 7 .

K B . p. 825; C H A U p 313
C f. N . H. S naith . Tke D istm ctii* Ideas o f the O ld Testament <Ph ila d elp h ia . I W f il.p p 24*55; H -P M ullet . U n p
<jd< h eijig. T H A T . 2:58 9 * 6 0 9
#7 V\ W G raf von B au d issin . Studien zur semitischen R eligum geschuhte (G iesse n . 1878). 2 :2 0 ; S naith . op. a t.. p p.
S S 4 7 M M u ilen b u rg, H o lin e s s. ID B . 2 :6 1 7 .
'W etterm an n , op. a t ., p. 236.
m C ( J er 17:22. 2 4 . 27; E ie 2 0 :2 0 ; 4 4 :2 4 ; N eh 13:22
* C f E x 16 2 3 . Im 58 13. J e t 1 7 : 2 2 .2 4 ; N eh 13:15-22
71 F Maas. ~hll pi entw eihen.** T H A T . 1 :5 7 1 -5 7 5 . esp . 573
71 Isa 5 6 : 2 .6 : F.ze 2 0 :1 3 . 16. 2 1 . 2 4 ; 2 2 :8 ; 2 3 :3 8 ; N eh 13:1 7 -1 8 .
73 W. Vise h er. " N e h e m u , d er S o n d er b e a u ftr a g te u n d S tatth alter d e s K nigs." Problem* biblischer Theologie
G erhard itm R a d : m i 7 0 G eburtstag (M u n ich . 1971). p. 6 0 9
74 Disc u ssion s of E x o d u s 16 :2 3 * 3 0 are p ro v id ed from a variety o f p ersp ectiv es bv M eesters. op n f . p p 115*118;
A n d re a se n , O T Sabbath, p p . 6 7 -6 9 . 129. 130; N eg rettl. op. a t., p p. 173-2*4
75 le n til, op. a t., p 2 0
76 C ritical m Itolars w o rk in g w ith th e th eory o f so u r ce d iv isio n (see th e lo n e list by N e g te tti. op a t., p. 174. n 4 7 )
have n ever a cc o m p lish e d an exact d iv isio n o f th e ch a p ter in to so u r ces (C h ild s, op. a t., p. 2 7 4 ) T h e r e are recen t
attem p ts to ex p la in th e p r e s e n t fo rm o f E x o d u s 16 w ith ou t re co u rse to literary criticism (see B. J a co b . Da* /a m ir B u ck
der Tora (Jeru salem , n.ci ). p p. t>47fT.; U . G assu to. A C om m entary on the Book of F.xodus (Jeru salem . 196 7 ); E C altnati. I jx
S tr u ttu ra le Iter a n a d e li Esodo (M ilan . 1956)) that mav lie m ore fru itfu l E ven literary critics now jp n t o u t that early
elem en ts are co n ta in e d in E xod u s 16 (B J M alina. / he P alestinum M a n n a Tradition (L e id e n . 196 8 ). p p 3 -4 1 ). but
th ere is n o a g re em en t o n w hat is early.
77 T h e m m m u rin g m o tif is in vestigated bv G . W C o a ls. Rebellion in the W ilderness (N a sh v ille. 1 9 6 8 ).
71 T h e n o u n tabbdlAn m ean s "salihafh feast** (P J o u o n . G ram m atre de THtbrest btblujue. 2 d ed . (R o m e. 194 7 ). p.
84)8; C'.HAL, p 3 6 0 ; K B , p . 9 4 8 ) h ere an d in F.xodus 3 1 1 5 an d L esiticu s 2 3 :2 4 a n d 3 9 . but w ith F n a t it m ea n s
sabbatical year" (L ev. 25: d) an d in th e e x p r e ss io n labbat labbAtn it m ea n s" m ost so lem n sat>bath (E x. 3 5 :2 ; Lev. 2 3 :3 ;
2 5 :4 ). w h k h can b e th e Day o f A to n e m en t (L es 16 :3 1 . 2 3 3 2 ) A s u se d in E x o d u s 16:23 in c o n n e c tio n with
labbAt-qfidei. holy sab b ath . it seem s to in ten sify o r q ualify sabbath *in s o m e way (M ee ste rs. op a t . p. 1 16. K. E iliger.
H lJT O biftgen I'*| |*|> N i-g ie tli op >ti u p 2 7 0 -2 7 2 )
79 C h ild s, ob a t . p 290: I h c e x iste n c e of th e sabbath is a ssu m ed by th e writer."
* T h is b tn e ca se fro m th e p o in t o f view o f th e a u th or M o d e m critical th e o r ie s seek vastly d iffe r e n t
ex p la n a tio n s, see m ost recen tly N eg rettl. op. a l.. p p . 1 7 3 -2 2 4 . a n d R ob tn son . a t a t., p p 2 7 0 -2 7 5 .
** M B u b er. M a u s The fte\* la tio n a n d the L w e n a n t (N ew Y ork. 1 958). p 8 0
w S ee n o te 78.
1,5 N e g r e tu . op. a t., p p . 196. 197. sp eak s o f th e a n n o u n c e m e n t o f th e Sabbath.
M A gainst th o se w h o attem p t to link p ro h ib itio n s to astrological h y p o th eses, see n o te s 4 . 6-9.
w S ee n ote 78.
86 C h ild s, op a t . p 2 9 0
>7 N o th . Exodus, p 136
M C . E Keil an d F I)rltt/sch . The Pentateuch ((rand R apid. M ich . 1952). 2 6 9
89 W h eth er th is is to b e view ed as th e restrictive sid e o l th e day set a sid e to Clod" (C h ild s, op. a t ., p. 2 9 0 ) is
d eb atable.
90 T h e r e are n u m e r o u s critical d iscu ssio n s, th e fo llo w in g stu d ie s g iv e an o v erview o f th ese critical en d ea v o rs:
K hler, op a t., p p . 1 6 1 -1 8 4 . R ow ley. M o te s a n d th e D ccak>guc.~ p p 8 1 -IIH . J I S tam m . D reissig J a h re
D ek a lo g fo rsch u n g . Theologische R undschau N e u e F olge 2 7 (1 9 6 1 ) 189-2 3 9 . 2 8 1 -3 0 5 ; A. S K a p elru d . S o m e R ecent
Points o f V iew o n th e T im e an d O r ig in o f th e D eca lo g u e . V u4m Thetdogua I 8 ( I 9 6 4 ) : 8 I * 9 0 ; J . P. H yatt. "M oses a n d
th e Ethical D e c a lo g u e .* E ncounter 2 6 ( 1965): 199-206; A Jep sen . B eitra g e zur A u sle g u n g u n d ( csch ich tc d es
Dekalogs.** Z A W 7 9 (1 9 6 7 ):2 7 7 -3 0 4 . L J . Stam m an d M \ A n d re w . The Ten C om m andm ents rn R ecent Research
N a p ervtlir. Ill . 1 9 6 7 ). E N ie lse n . T h e t e n ( um m andm ents in .Vm- P e n b ectn * (N a p erv ille. 111.. 1 9 6 8 ). F.. /.e n g e r . "Eine
W en d e in d er D ek ak igfrvh u n gr Theologische R e n te 3 ( 1968) 199*198; H C a /e lle s . L es O n g in e s d u D e c a lo g u e .
Eretz Israel 9 (1 9 6 9 ). 14-19; A . J Ph illip s. .Ancient lira cT t ( .n m in a l l a u (O x fo r d . 1970).
91 Alt's essay o f 1934 is tran slated as T h e O r ig in s of Ista c lilc l a w in Essays on O ld Testam ent History a n d Religion
(O x fo r d . 1966). p p 7 9 -1 3 2 .
91 G M e n d en h a ll. A n cien t O r ien ta l a n d Biblical Law." Biblical Archaeology 17 ( 1 9 5 4 ):2 6 -4 6 ; idem. C o v en a n t
Form s m Israelite T r a d itio n . Biblical Archaetdogy 17 (I9ft4):50*76.
91 K B a lt/er. The Coxrm anl Form ulary (P h ila d e lp h ia . 1 9 7 1); W B ev erlm . O rigins a n d History af the O ldest Sinaitu
Traditions (O x fo r d . 1965). p p . 12-14. 49 -6 7 ; D R H illers. C m m m m t I be History of a B ib lu a lld e a ( B a ltim o re.1 9 6 9 ) . p p
4 8 - 5 6 .6 1 . 6 2 . 70; W . L. M oran . M oses u n d d e r Bundcssc h lu ss am Sinai,** Stim m en der /.etI 7 0 (1 9 6 1 * 6 2 ) 120* 133. H
B H u ffm o n . I h e E x o d u s. Sinai a n d th e C red o." C atholu B ib ln a l O uartetly 2 7 ( I 9 6 5 ) : I 0 |- 1 13; M. < K line. The
Structure o f B ib ln a l A u thonly ((.r a n d R apids. M ich . 1972). p p 1 1 3 -130; a n d o th ers.
94 D .J . M cC arthy. Treaty a n d C ovenant .A Study in Form in the Ancient O riental Documents a n d in the O ld Testament
(R o m e. Iifc3); K raus, op. a t., p p . 136-141; E. (ersten b erger. W esen u n d H e tk u n jl de\ "a fm d iktm h en " Recht*
( N e u k ir ih e n . 1965); idem, " C oven an t a n d C o m m a n d m en t." J B l. 8 4 ( I 9 6 5 ) : 3 8 - 5 I ; F N ltscher. B undevtorrnular
und A m tssch im m e l, Biblische Zeitschrift 9 ( 1965): 181-214; I). J M cC arthy. O ld testa m en t Cox<enmnt: .4 S u n n of
C urrent O pinum s (O x fo r d . 1 9 72). ut> 10-30. w ith a g o o d survey o f th e w h o le p ro b lem ; W M C lark. L w , O ld
Testament Form Criticism, ed . by J. ri H aves (San A n to n io , T e x .. 1 9 7 4 ). p p 122-124
| H ill thiv nev* ph.iM \m m ig those fo llo w in g
his line o f th o u g h t are: W R ich ter, Recht u n d Ethos (M u n ich . 19 6 6 ); H. S ch ulz. l)as Todesieihl im A lien testam ent
(B erlin . 1969). cf. R K ilian. A p o d ik tisch es u n d k asu istisch es R echt im la ch t g y p tisch er A nak igien ." Biblische
Zeitschrift 7 ( 1963): 185*202.
** C h ild s, op a t., p. 3 9 2 .
97 T h e le n g th o f th is co m m a n d m e n t is assu m ed to show m any sign s of grow th a n d ex p a n sio n as a r g u e d bs m any
sch olars u sin g critical m eth o d s. S ee recently H u lst, op. a t., p p 1 5 2 -1 6 4 . N I o h fin k . Zur D e k a lo g ta ssu n g von
m o m iu m 5 . B iM k th t / n i s t i m / i '1 1 i 17 u . M eesters, ft p p 9 0 i l l R u H M B t t i d t j o p 186*200.
m E SciU n. (beschuhtedes israehtisch-iiidischen Volkes (L eip z ig . 192 4 ). I 8 3 .8 4 ; A lt. op rat. p. l l n . K I f R a b a st.D a i

4
 I H E S A B B A TH IN T H E P E N T A T E U C H

apodiktische Recht im D euteronom ium u n d im HnligkeiLsgesetz (B erlin . 1949). p. 35; V o n R ad. O ld Testam ent Theologv.
1:191; S tam m , op. n t., p. 2 0 1 ; E. N ielse n . Ten C om m andm ents. pp. 8 8 . 89; M eesters, op n t., p. 101; N eg retti. op n l . pp.
1 42, 143.
99 R. H . C h arles. The Decalogue (E d in b u r g h . 1 9 2 3 ).p X L M I I O P r o tk sth . Theologie, p . H5; R ow ley. "M oses an d
th e D ecalogu e." p. 114: H G raf R esen tlo w . Gebot und Predigt im Dekalog (G terslo h . 1 962). pp. 12. 54*59, 6 3 ;
A n d re a se n . O T Sabbath, p p 8 4 -8 9 ; G. F oh rer. Geschichte der israelitischen Religion (B er lin . 196 9 ). p. 187.
100 A m o n g critical sch olars w h o affirm o r a lio * that (h e D eca lo g u e m as Fie Mosaic a re H. F.feald. Geschichte des
V iM b tiw m i f e O b irtM , 2 d e d . (G fliD M c n . 1 8 5 3 ). 2:22 2 3 ; I K C h e y u D i Driver's Introduction lo i h c Old
T e s ta m e n t L iteratu re." Expositor 5 ( 1892): 109; W P P aterson . "Detalogue.** A Dictionary oj the Hihle, ed . bv I. H asting*
(E d in b u rg h . 1 9 0 8 -1 9 0 9 ). (:5 8 1 ;E . K a u t/sch . "R eligion of Israel.** H astings, ex tra so l.. p 6 3 4 ; S K D river. T h eB o o h o f
Exodus (C a m b rid g e. 1 9 11). p. 415; G . A . S m ith . The Bottk of Deuteronomy (C a m b rid g e. 191 8 ). p. 85; K oh ler, op a t , p.
184; P V o lz. Mose u n d sein W erk. 2d ed . ( T u b in g e n . 1932). p p 2 0 -2 ? . Procksch. Theologie, p p 8 9 . 9 0 ; A. W eiser.
Introduction to the O ld T estam ent (la in d o n . 1 9 6 1 ) .p p . 120. 121. B olterw eck . op n t., p p 140. 141. Row lev. "M oses and
th e D eca lo g u e ." p . 83; K ap elru d , loc. n l.: M v a tt. ux n t.. B e se r lu i.o p n t . p p 4 9 -6 7 . 1 4 5 -1 5 7 ; S la m m and A n d r e w .op.
n l., p p. 2^ -27; T . C . V r ie /e n . The Religion of A ncient Israel (l.o n d o n . 1967). p p 142. 143; W E ithroclt,
Religionsgeschichte Israels (B er n . 1 9 6 9 ). p p 2 1 -2 3 . | B righ t. A History of Israel, 2d ed . (P h ila d elp h ia , 197 2 ). p 142. J. K.
K u n t/. The People o f A ncient Israel (N ew Y ork. 1974). p. 113; an d . a m o n g m a m o th ers, th o se listed bv A n d re a se n .
R ecen t Stud ies." p. 4 5 5 . n 10.
101 R ow lev. M oses an d th e D ecalogu e." p p 113. 114
102 F oh rer. loc n t
105 H . G e se . Vow S inai m a l Z u m (M u n ich . 1974). p. 6 7 . see also R Kittel. A History of the Hebrews (L o n d o n . 1895),
I 2 4 4 . 2 4 5 . M ow in ck el. op n l., p p 4 . 5; S tam m , op n l . p. 2 0 0 , H ta tt.o p n l , p 2 0 2 . tI A n d re a se n . O T Sabhath, a. 85:
"R em em ber (ob serve] th e sabbath d as (lo k e e p it h ols |" is not certain w h eth er or n o t lo in clu d e Mlo k e e p it holy."
R abast. q u o te d bv Stam m an d A n d rew , up n l.. p 2 0
104 W ith A. D illm an n . E xodus u n d I s iitic u s , 2 d e d (lx*ip/ig. 1880. p p. 2 1 9 . 2 2 0 ; E. K n ig. N e u e s ie
V e r h a n d lu n g e n b er d e n D ekalog." S e w K irthhche /.e itu h n ft 17 (1 9 0 6 ) 5 6 5 -5 8 4 . K K itiel. op n t . p p. 2 3 5 . 2 3 6 . W
Mo ller. G rundriss f r allestam enlluhe E in leitu n g ( B et Im. 1958). p p 52*54. 1 0 7 * 1 1 0 .G .C A a ld ers.A Short Introduction to
the Pentateuch (L o u d o n . 19 4 9 ). B u b er, op n l . p p. 80*82. 1 19*144. A. N e b e r . Moses a n d the Vocation of theJew ish Petrple
(N ew Y ork. 1959); A E lierh arter. D er Dekalog (M u n ster. 1930), K A. K itih en . A n cien t O n en l a n d O ld Testament
(C h u a g o . 1966), p p. 9 8 . 99; M H S egal, The Pentateuch ( Jerusalem , 196 7 ). p p. 3 9 . 4 0 ; R K. H arrison . Introduction to
the O ld Testament (l*ran d R apids. M iclt . 1969). p p 5 6 9 . 570; an d other*
106 N o te th e in cisive ob servation * o f K itch en , op n l.. p p. 130-135.
107 S ee th e *hort la u s (N o s 9 . 10. 15. 16. 33*37) n ext lo th e lo n g o n e s in th e la p it-Ish ta r L a* C o d e , n in etee n th
cen tu ry B . c . ( A S E T , p p. 160. 161); cf, lo n g law s (N o . 9 ). short o n e s (N o t. 10. 11), lo n g o n e s (N o s. 12-14). e t cete ra , in
th e Law ( a id e o f E sh n u n n a , r. 1925 i . e . ( A S E T . p p . 162. 163). T h e sa m e can be cioserved in th e fa m o u s C o d e o f
H a m m u rab i, late e ig h te e n th cen tu rv B . c . ( A S E T . p p. 166-177)
" * N o s. 3. 4, 9 . 14, 15. 16. 17. 18. 4 6 S ee A S E T , p p . 189-191
lm N os. 5 . 6 . 13. 4 5 . 47
1.0 For e x a m p le . N os. 4 3 (short). 44 (lo n g ). 4 5 (sh ort). 4 6 (lon g). 47 (lo n g ). C a refu l stu d ie s o f H ittn e law s a re by E.
N e u le ld . The H ttlite I au-s (L o n d o n . 1951); J. F ried rich , Die hethilischen Gesetze (L eid e n . 1959).
111 T h is d iffe r s from th e stru ctu re o f A n d re a se n . O T Sabbath, p. 17 0 . w ith an (a), (b). (c). (d ) se q u e n c e that seem s
to be in ten sio n w ith th e (a), (b). (b 1). (a 1) p attern (p. 198 an d his "Festival a n d F reed om ." p p. 2 8 3 . 2 8 4 ).
R Martin* A t hard . gr al F rem d lin g w eilen." T H A T . I 4 0 9 -4 1 2 .
1,5 T h e related e x p r e ssio n "m y/your Sabhalh(s)" a p p e a rs in E x o d u s 3 1 :1 3 ; L eviticus 19:3. 30; Isaiah 56:4;
8 I \ E zekiel 2 0 12 2 2 2 6 23 18; 14:24 N e b e tn ia h O 14
114 R ighllv a ffirm ed a m o n g oth er* re cen ilv again bs C h ild s, up. n t., p. 4 1 6 . but q u e stio n e d by so m e b eca u se o f th e
d a tin g p ro b lem s b ro u g h t ab ou t bv literary criticism . S ee R even tlow . op. n l.. p p. 3 8 . 6 0 ; H u lst. op a t., p p . 159 -1 6 1 .
7*his O al in fin itive ab solu te turn lio n s as a stro n g im p erative. C l. R. J . W illiam s, H ebrew S yn ta x. An O utline. 2d
e d ( T o r o n t o .1 9 7 6 ). p . 39.se 2 1 1 . J. D . W atts, " In fin itive A b so lu te as Im p era tiv e a n d th e In te rp reta tio n o f E x o d u s
20:8." /.A W 74 ( I 9 6 i ) 141 -1 4 5
,, T h e r e are im p o rta n t recen t stud ies: P. A H . d e B o er . G edenken u n d Gedchtnis in der W elt des A T (L eid e n .
1962); B S. C h ild s, M em ory a n d T radihon m Israel (N a p e rv ille. III.. 1962); W. S ch o ttro ff. "G edenken im A lten O n e n l u n d
im Allen Testam ent ( N e u k ir c h e n -V lu v n . 1964); idem. zkr g ed en k en ." T H A T . 1 :5 0 7 -5 1 8 .
,,T B u b er. op. n t., p . 8 0 .
1,11 For e x a m p le . J e n n i. op n t., p p . 8 . 9.
1,9 R ow lev. M oses an d in e D ecalogu e." p p . 1 0 9-113. p o in ts to a K en n e u sa g e. B ut se e a b o v e o n th e K enite
h y p o th esis.
1.0 C a n n o n , op a t., p. 3 2 5
1.1 M H S egal, op n l.. p 152.
,,!l G r een b erg , loc. a t.: ". . . h ere for th e firsi tim e is g iv e n a rationale, d ra w n d irectly fro m th e fo rm u la tio n o f
(Genesis 2:1*3 anti e x p r e ssly id e n tify in g th e Sabbath w ith th e sev en th d as o f C rea tio n (E x. 20:8-11).**
*** C h ild s. M emory a n d Tradition, p p . 4 9 -5 6 ; S ch o ttro ff. G edenken, p p. 153*156.
124 J. P ed e rsen . Israel: l b L ife and C ulture I . I I (L o n d o n . 1926). p p. 106. 107, 2 5 6 . 2 5 7 ; C h ild s. M em ory and
Tradition, p p 17-30.
1,4 S ch ott ro f f . ~zkr g ed en k en ." co l. 5 1 0 .
'** T h e sig m fita n te of this also c o m e s lo ex p r e ssio n in o th er in sta n ces w ith zkr fo llo w e d bs- P w ith in fin itiv e
co n stru ci: Ps 103:18; cf. Ps 109:16; 119:55.
1,7 E. A u erb ach . Moses (A m ste rd a m . 1 9 5 3 ).p p . 196-197; S iam m a n d A n d r e * , op n l.. p p. 13. 14; G . S ch ren k .
"Sabbat o d e r S onn tag?" Judaica 2 ( 1946): 176; la m n n k . loc n t.. H u lst. op n t.. p p . 1 5 2 -1 6 4 . A n d re a se n . "Festival and
F reed om ." p p. 2 8 1 -2 9 7 .
** For recen t review s of th e issu es in critical sch olarsh ip , see th e stand ard in tro d u ctio n s bv C). E issfeld t. G.
F oh rer, O . Kaiser, a n d E. W. N ic h o lso n . Deuteronomy a n d Tradition ( P h ila d elp h ia . 1967); S. L o ersch . Das
D euteronom ium u n d sa n e D eutungen (S tu ttgart. 1967). For o th er a p p r o a ch es, that d a le D eu tero n o m s lo th e seco n d
m illen n iu m , see th e in tro d u ctio n s bv E. I . Y ou n g. G . L A rch er. R. K. H a rriso n , an d G . T . M a n le s . The Book of the I a w
((rand R apids. M ich., 1957); M. . K line. Treats o f the G reat K in g The C o im a n t Structure o f D euterononry (G rand
R apids. M ich.. 1963); idem. T he Structure o f B iblical A u th o n h . K itch en , op. a t., p 128. a n d his " A n cien t O r ien t.

41
 T H E S AB BA T H IN S CR I PT UR E AND HISTORY

D eu tcro n o m ism .' a n d th e O T ." S e w Perspectives on the O T . cd . bv J B. P ayn e (W aco, T e x ., 1 970), p p . 1-24; G. J.
W en h am . 'T h e S tru ctu re a n d D ate o f D euteronom y*' (P h .D . d isserta tio n . 1971); M H . S egal. T h e B o o k o f
D e u tero n o m y ."J e w u h Quarterly ff ' n i'4 8 (1 9 5 7 -5 8 ):3 l!> * 3 5 l; idem. The Pentateuch, pp. 7 5 -1 0 2 ; P. C. C ra ig ie. T h e Book
o f Deuteronomy (G ran d R apids, M u h . 1976). p p. 2 4 -2 9 .
,w L oh tin k . D ek alogfassu n g.'" o 2 2 . p u l forth a svm m etrical-ch iastic stru ctu re built u p o n catch w ord s. R eccn tlv
A n d re a se n . Festival an d Freedom .* p. 2 8 3 . su g g e ste d a them atic stru ctu re. O u r p ro p o sa l d iffe r s fro m b o th , but th e
latter has p o in ted in th e righ t d irection .
Ii0 S o correcd v H u lst. op. a t., p. 156.
151 T h is is n ot to affirm th e kind o f "theological" m otivation a rg u ed for bv C hild s. M em ory a n d Tradition, p p. 52.
53; idem. Exodus, p. 4 1 7 ; J e n n i. op. a t., p p . 15-19; R evcn tlow . op. a t., p p 5 7 . 58; F.. N ielse n . T en C om m andm ents, p. 40;
F u glister. op. a t , p. 17; L oretz. o f a t . . p 7 1 ; an d oth ers, b ecau se the base it o n v erse 14 a n d not o n v erses 12 an d 15.
,M S e e for th is correct cm p n a sis H u lst. op. a t., p p. 155. 156. an d th e am p lifica tio n bv A n d re a se n . Festival a n d
F r eed o m . p p. 2 8 4 -2 9 4
,M R eccn tlv again G. vo n R ad. Deuteronomy (P h ila d elp h ia . 1 9 66), p 58; S ch rcn k . op. a t., p. 178; R o rd o rf. op a t .
p. 15; an d o th ers.
1S4 S e c n o te 39. an d o n its m ea n in g H u lst. op n t.. p p. 155-156; M a tin s, op a t., p p 2 4 5 -2 4 7
1)5 It sh o u ld b e n o te d that 4Q I)eu t" to n ta m s in D cu t. 5:15 th e sa m e m otivation as in Ex 2 0 : 1 1. For th e tex t, see
F. M. C ross. Scroll* from the Wilderness of the Dead Sro (San Francisco. 1969), p p. 18 (p la te 19). 30.
136 \ x c ca n n 0 ( ag re e w ith J. l.'H o u r. D u E thik der H undestradition im A lten Testament (S tuttgart. 1967). p . 52:
"Yahw ch giv es Israel th e S abbath co m m a n d m e n t b e ta u se o f th e slavcrv a n d th e liberation fro m th e land o f F.gvpt.
Slavery an d lib eration a re th e ob icc live reason for the c o m m a n d m e n t. Sim ilarly G. A S m ith , op a t . p. 8 9 . n 15; V o n
Rad. Deuteronomy, p. 58; C h ild s. Stemory and Tradition, p p. 5 2 . 53; M W cin fcld , Deuteronomy a n a the Deuteronomic School
(O x fo rd . 1972). p. 22 2 .
157 A n d re a se n , "Festival an d F r eed o m . p. 287: " T h e real p u r p o se o f th e rem em b ra n ce cla u se reca llin g the
ex o d u s d eliv era n ce h ere a g a in is to p ro v id e a reason or a m otive tor e x te n d in g th e sabbath to th o se w h o are n ot free
to o b se rv e it."
1911 It has b een em p h a sized lim e an d again that th e social or h u m a n ita ria n miHive h is in to th e total em p h a sis o f
D eu tero n o m y . S ee S. R D river, A Critical a n d E xegetual Commentary on Deuteronomy (N ew Y ork. 190 2 ), p . 85 ; W cin fc ld .
op. a t., p p. 2 2-297; M. H . S egal, Pentateuch, p. 93; A n d re a se n . Festival and f r e e d o m . p p 2 8 5 -2 8 7 . a n d o th ers
159 N o lh . Exodus, p . 164; R evcn tlow , op a t., p. 45; S ch o ttro ff. "G ed e n ken " p 155. ta ll th em " in terch a n g ea b le
term s." M eesters. op a t., p. 101. A n d re a se n . O T Sabbath, p. 83; dem. R ecen t S tu d ies. p. 4 5 7 . n 18; c f N eg r e ttl. op
a t., p. 131.
*40 K h ler, op. a t., p. 180. b ecau se it d o e s n ot p resu p p o se a length e x iste n c e for the Sabtialh in stitu tio n . H u lst.
op. a t., p p. 15 8 , 159. w h o b eliev es that idm or w as origin al b ccau sc iakirr p u is special em p h a sis o n th e Sabbath Is th is
n ot eou allv a p p licab le w ith id m d rf S e e L o h h n k . op a t., p p . 2 1 -23.
S ee also E. K n ig. Das D euteronom ium (L eip zig. 1917). p. 92; C h ild s. .W n w n a n d Tradition, p. 5 5 , L oh fin k . op
Of., p p. 2 2 . 23; M eesters. op a t., p. 101; a n d oth ers.
F orm s o f idm ar a p p ea r a total o f sixtv-six tim es in D e u te r o n o m s . but u ikar m co m p a riso n o n ly fo u rteen
tim es.
145 C H A U P 37 7 .
144 T h e y a re ex p licit in E x o d u s 3 1 :1 2 -1 7 .
,4> J e p s e n . op. a t., p. 2 9 2 ; M aihvs. op. a t., p . 244.
146 E x. 2 8 :3 . 4 1 . 2 9 :1 . 3 3 . 4 4 . 30 :3 0 ; 4 0 l i Le 8:30; 2 1 :1 5 ; 1 Sam . 7:1
147 T h e p assages in th e D eca lo g u e a re id en tical in fo rm but w ith rev ersed w ord o rd er .
148 S ee th e d iscu ssion in K iker. op a t., p p. 1 0 1 -1 12.
149 T h is p h rase a p p e a rs e ig h t tim es in Leviticus 2 3 a n d is traditionally u n d er sto o d to m ea n festal assem bly '
S o m e sch olars h ave p ro p o se d th e m ea n in g "festal tunc"; se e J. M org en stern . T w o C o m p o u n d T ec h n ic a l T e r m s m
Biblical H e b r ew . / m . 43 (1 9 2 4 ) 3 1 4 -3 2 0 . E. K utsch. l O f f a . Z A W 6 5 ( I9 5 3 ):2 4 7 -2 5 .V P Katz. J7D in d er
griech isch en u n d late in isch en B ib el. 7.A W 6 5 ( 1 9 5 3 ):2 5 3 -2 5 5 .
IW O n th e w h ole p e n c o p e . see M eesters. op. a t., p p 1 2 4 -1 2 5 . N eg rettl. op a t., p p 2 9 1 -2 9 5 . T h e w id ely disc u ssed
o u estio n o f critical sc h o la rsh ip w h eth er th e idea o f th e Sabbath as a s ig n is earlier (see C. A. K eller. Da. W ort O T H aLs
O fjenbaruneszetchen ( fottes"[ B asel. 1946). p p 140. 158. n 6 9 ) o r later (sec W. E ichrodt. D er Sabbat bei lle s e k ie l: Ein
B eitrag zur N a c h t e * hic h tc d es P r o p h e ie n te x te s. Lex tua V enias Festschrift f r H ubert Ju n k er, e d . bv H . (ross a n d F.
M ussner [T rier. 1961). p p . 6 5 -7 4 ) th an E zekiel 2 0 a n s w e r e d m o re recently o n th e basis o f tra d itio h isto n ca l analysis:
Ezekiel 2 0 reflects an cien t tra d itio n s (see J e n n i. op. a t., p p. 3 0 . 3 1 ; G. F oh rer. Die Hauptproblem e des Buches Ezechiel
(B erlin . 1 9 5 2 ).p p 151. 152; W /im rn erh . E zsrAisf (N'cukirc h c n -Y lu s n . 1 9 6 9 ) .part l , p . 4 4 7 ; A n d re a se n , O T Sabbath.
p p 4 2 . 43; M atnvs. op a t . p p 2 5 3 . 2 5 4).
,%l C h ik ls. Elxodus. p . 54 r
'** T h e subject o f sa b b a th an d d ea th penalty for sio la io r s c a n n o i be treated in d eta il (Ex. 3 1 :1 4 . 15; 3 5 :2 . 3;
N u m 15 :3 2 -3 6 ) S ee A n d re a se n . O T Sabbath, p p. 1 5 0 -1 5 7 . M eesters. op cit.. p. 125; N eg rettl. op. a t., pp. 2 8 3 -2 8 5 ;
S ch ulz, op. a t . pj>. 42*46. 55*63.
S ee n o te 1 8 .
I>4 A n d re a se n . O T 'S abbath, p. 4 2 . n . 1 (p 2 1 0 ) a rg u es again st d irect literary d ep en d e n c y o f E zekiel o n Ex. 3 1 :1 3 ,
b eca u se th e m aterial is u sed d iffer en tly hi th e tw o places.
,w R ecent key stu d ie s o n th e O ld T esta m en t u sa g e o f th e weird '6th. "sign." see F. Stolz, M'/ Z eich en . T H A T .
1:91*95; F. J. H e lfm ey er . iTtK th." 7 * 0 0 7 . 1:167-188.
114 S o correctly J e n n i. op a t., p. 31; A n d re a se n . O T Sabbath, p. 2 1 0 ; W o lff. Anthropctloiry. p. 142; idem. D as o f
R est. p p . 5 0 4 . 50; M athvs. op a t., p p . 2 5 2 . 2 5 5 .
H e lfm e y e r . op. ctt., p. i 7 l
E x 7 : 3 .5 ; 8 :1 8 . 19, 2 2 . 23; 10:2; 13:8. 14. D eu l. 6 :2 0 . ler. 4 4 :2 9 ; E ze 14:8
,w N u m 1 4 :1 1 .2 2 .2 3 ; D cut 1:22-46; 4 :3 4 ; 11:3; 13:1-3; 26:8; 2 9 :2 . 3; J o sh u a 24 17; Ps. 6 5 :8 (9); 7 8 :4 3 ; 8 6 :1 7 ;
Isa 7 :11.
180 Ex 13:9. 16. N u m . 17:25; D cu t. 6:8; 2 8 :4 6 . |o s h u a 4:6; Isa. 5 5 :1 3 ; Eze 14:8.
,ttl G en . 4 15. Ex. 8 :1 9 ; 12:13; N u m . 2:2; Joshua 2:12; lo b 2 1 :2 9 .
,M Ex. 3 :1 2 . J u d g e s 6 :1 7 ; I Sam . 2:34; 1 0 :7 .9 ; 2 K ings 19:29. 2 0 :8 ; Isa. 7 :1 1 . 14
,M G en . 9 :1 2 . 13. 17; 17:11.

42
 T H E S AB BA TH IN T H E P E N T A T E U C H

,M Ex. 31:13. 17; Ec. 20:12, 20

145 S e e L. K ohler in K B . p. 2 3 . T h is is taken o v er in H A L A T . p. 2 5 . J e n n i. op a t.. p. 31; E ich ro d t. "D er Sabbat bei
H esekiel," p. 65; N e g r e iti. op a t., p. 93; F u glister, op. n t.. p . 11.
166 K B . p . 2 3 .
' 7 C H A L . p. 7
J e n n i. op. n t.. p. 31.
,M H e lfm e y c r , op n t ., p. 171.
170 N o th . Exodus, p . 2 4 1 .
Und
171 G . von R ad. Genesis (P h ilad elp h ia, 1961), p. 103.
175 T h u co m p a riso n d oe n oi w u h to o v er lo o k th e d istin ctio n s b etw een th e sub jects in v o lv e d , n o r to
u n d er estim a te o th e r d iffe r e n c e s. C f. W esterm a n n . op n t., p p. 4 2 3 -4 2 7 .
174 T h is is e v id e n t fro m the p resen t c o n tex t a n d falls in to line w iih ih e pentateuchaJ th eo lo g * o f rem em b ra n ce
C f. C . ) B o lterw eck . "G ott erkennen" im Sprachgebrauch des A itm T estam ent (B o n n . 1 951). p p n7, 88.
l7 5 H e lfm e y e r , op. n t., p p. 186-188.
176 S tolz. " At Z eich en ." col. 9 2 .
177 O n th e fu n c tio n o f "sign o f k n ow led ge," se e H e lfm ev er , op a t., p p 171 -1 7 5 .
,7# Jhcnni, op. a t., p. 31.
179 T h e storv o f th e p la g u es w ith th e clim ax in ih e d ea th of th e E gyp tian firstborn so n s a re "signs'* (E x. 7 :3 , 5;
8 :1 8 -2 3 ; 10:2; 18:22) bv w hich Israel can know th e p ow er an d h e lp o f h er ( io d .
'" C f. Lev 20:8; 21:8; 2 2 :3 2 ; Eze. 3 7 :2 8
Ex 19:6; Lev. 19:2. 3; D eu t. 7:6.
,M Lev. 18:1-5; 19:2, 3; 2 0 :2 6 ; 2 2 :3 1 -3 3 .
,#s S ee K eller, op. a t., p. 145; J e n n i. op. a t., p p. 3 1 .3 2 ; E ichrodt. D er Sabbat bei H esek iel." p. 6 5 ; M athyt. op a L .
p. 2 5 4 ; EUglister. op. a t., p. 12.
K eller. op. a t . p . 145.
185 K line, Treaty o f the G reat K ing
,w Idem , The Structure o f B ib lic a lA u th o n h , p. 120
,B7 J o b 31:1 5 ; Isa. 4 4 :2 4 ; Mai. 2 :1 0 O n ih e id ea o f o n e C reator." see N L o h h n k . "TnK. echdh." T O O T . 1 :197.
,,w I h e seal o f th e fa m o u s treaty b etw een th e H ittite H attusili an d th e E gyptian R am ie* 11 in 12 8 0 m.c. id en tifies
th e m aker(s) o f th e treaty by n am e an d th e in h e r e o f o w n e rsh ip an d a u thoritv. S ee A S E T . p 2 0 2 . For M itanm an
practice, se e D. J . W isem an . The A lalakk Tablets (L o n d o n . 1953). Plates V II a n d V II I , T e x ts 13, 14.
189 Ex. 2 0 : t T ll.
190 C hap . 3 1 :1 2 -1 7 .
191 K eller, op. a t., p p. 140, 141.
197 H e lfm e v e r . oto. a t., p p 182, 183.
195 T h e p h rase *T)etwoen m e a n d you* a p p e a rs in verse 12.
194 T h is c o r r e s p o n d e n c e is p o in te d to b* K eller, op a t., p 140. W Z im m erli. **S in a ib u n d u n d A braham b u n d:
Ein B eitrag zu m X erstan d n ts d er P r iestersch n fl," in Gottes O ffenbarung Gesammelte Aufstze :um A lten Testament
(M u n ich . 1963), p p. 2 1 0 , 2 1 1; A n d re a se n . O T Sabbath, p 2 1 1 ; H e lf m e \e r . op. n t., p p. 182. 183
194 S e e th e co v en a n t co n tex t in (ie n e s is 17:9, 10; E x o d u s 19:5. D eu tero n o m y 5:12; 7:9; 1 K ings 11:11; P*alm
7 8 :1 0 ; 103:18; E zekiel 17:14
196 T h e peculiar!* flex ib le H eb rew v erb to k n o w i\ d a >is co n n e c te d w ith th e co v en a n t in so -ca lled co v e n a n t
law su it pa**agc* o f A m os 3 :1 , 2; H o sea 4 :1 , 2; 13:4, 5; Isa 1:2, 3; Jer. 2 4 :7 , in w hich it carries th e m ea n in g "to
reco g n ize." It is also u sed in a sim ilar wav in in tern ation al treaties o f th e a n cien t N ear East. S ee H . B. H u ffm o n . Ih e
T reaty B a ck g ro u n d o f H ebrew Ydda ." B ulletin o f the Am erican Schools of O riental Research 181 ( 19 6 6 ):3 1 -37; H . H
H u ffm o n an d S. B Parker. A F u rth er N o te o n th e Treaty B a ck g ro u n d o f H ebrew Y dda,~ B ulletin o f the Am erican
Schools o f O n en ta l Research 184 ( l9 6 6 ):3 6 -3 8 ; H iller*, op. a t., pp. 120-1 2 5 .
197 Maas*, op. a t., cols. 5 7 0 -5 7 5 .
,9g S ee Ex 3 1 :1 4 ; Isa 5 6 2 . 6 ; Eze 2 0 :1 3 . 16, 2 1 . 24: cf. c h a p 2 2 :8 ; 2 3 :3 8 ; N e h . 13:17, 18
199 S ee P*. 5 5 :2 1 . Mai 2 :1 0 ; c f. E K utsch. V r it V erp flich tu n g , T H A T . 1:345.
100 Z im m erli. Ezechiel. p a n I. p. 4 4 7 ; H e lfm e v e r . op a t., p . 183.
101 E ich rod t. D er Sabbat b ei H e se k ie l. p. 65.
m U n g e r , op a t . p. 58.
105 E K utsch. S e h e n u n d B e*tim m en: D ie E ty m o lo g ie von n n j . Archologie u n d Altes Testam ent Festschrift f r
K u rt (ailing (T b in g e n . 1970), p. 170; idem. V erh eissu n g u n d G esetz (B erlin . 1 9 7 3 ), p 76.
104 W o lff, Da* o f Rest." p. 50 5 .
* * le n n i. op. a t., p . 27.
WoHT. T>ay of Rest." p. 505: T h e sabbath b eco m es an e sc h a to lo g k a l ev en t in th e m id st o f m an s p rovision al
e x iste n c e
107 K B arth , Church Dogmatics (E d in b u rgh . 19 5 8 ), IIIM , 98; idem. I l l 4 , 5 1-59; J B ro w n , "Karl B a rth s D ex trin e
o f th e Sabbath," Scottish J o u r n a l o f Theology 19 ( l9 6 6 ):4 0 9 -4 2 5 .
w U n g e r , o t. a t., p. 59.
K utsch. Verheissung u n d Gesetz, p. 7 6 .

43
 CHAPTER 2

The Sabbath in the Prophetic and

Historical Literature of the
Old Testament

Gerhard F. Hasel
and
W. G. C. Murdoch

HE em phasis on the Sabbath voiced by the w riting p rophets an d the inspired

T w riters o f the historical literatu re is rooted in a deep-seated covenant
conception in which Yahweh is the covenant L ord an d Israel His covenant people.
T h e ir teaching on th e Sabbath is also rooted in th eir know ledge o f God as C rea to r
o f th e heavens a n d the ea rth and His resting on the C reation Sabbath to
com m em orate a finished w ork.1 T h e them es o f C reation, covenant, sign,
sanctification, acknow ledgm ent o f G od as L ord, deliverance from bondage, an d
re-creation, which are well known from the P entateuch,1 re a p p e a r with
application to th e Israelite com m unity in its checkered history. Israels fu tu re is
d e p e n d e n t u p o n obedience o r disobedience to the divine law an d particularly to
th e Sabbath. T h u s the keeping o f th e Sabbath relates ultim ately to the m atter o f
life an d d eath fo r th e com m unity and the individual; it addresses itself with force
to the very essence o f m an's existence, w hether it is relational, liberated, joyful,
an d redem ptive, o r the opposite.
T he Sabbath in Prophetic Literature
O u r p u rp o se is to investigate the Sabbath first in the prophetic writings. Aside
from th e ap p earan ce o f this subject in the th ree m ajor prophets, it is p resen t also
in th e m in o r p ro p h e ts A m os and Hosea.
The Sabbath in the Eighth-Century Prophets.Amos. A saying o f the
p ro p h e t Amos against the wicked m erchants and the sins o f th e m arketplace
contains one explicit referen ce to the Sabbath. H e quotes those who tram p le upon

44
 T H E S AB BA TH IN T H E L I T E R A T U R E O F T H E OLD T E S T A M E N T

the needy an d b rin g the poor o f the land to an end:

"W hen will th e new m oon be over,
that we may sell grain?
A nd th e sabbath,
th at we may o ffe r w heal for sale,
th at we may m ake the ep h a h small
an d th e shekel great,
an d deal deceitfully with false balances (chap. 8:5).*
It is evident from this referen ce that at the time o f Amos (and Hosea), legislation
was known in the n o rth e rn kingdom that prohibited business dealings on the
S abbath. T h is application assum es that the Sabbath was conceived o f as a day o f
rest from w ork. Rest from w ork was p art o f the Sabbath law o f the D ecalogue (Ex.
20:8-11; Deut. 5:12-15) a n d o th e r legal passages (Ex. 23:12; 34:21).
Amos is known as a cham pion o f the underprivileged, the poor, a n d the
o p p ressed. In th e passage u n d e r discussion the p ro p h e t cham pions the Sabbath
because it was a day o f liberation from work and thus safeguarded the rights o f
w orking persons: com plete rest from everyday activity on the Sabbath. T h is right
included rest from business en terp rises o f any form an d kind, even those that
included th e trad in g o f food item s ("w heat), a task o f w om en an d slaves (cf. Ex.
23:12; Deut. 5:14, 15). W hile th e re is h ere an em phasis on the social-hum anitarian
aspect o f th e Sabbath as a day o f rest for all m en, w om en, an d ch ild ren ,5 th e re is
also an em phasis on the m oral aspect o f the Sabbath as a day on which avarice,
greed, and selfishness need to be overcom e by refrain in g from engaging in
business en terp rises o f any kind.6
A detailed investigation o f the ideas put forth on the relationship o f Sabbath
and new m oon would take us too fa r afield.7T h e re a re b ut six passages in the Old
T estam en t in which Sabbath a n d new m oon are jo in ed to g eth er in virtually the
sam e way (Amos 8:5; Hosea 2:11; Isa. 1:13; Eze. 45:17; 46:3; 2 Kings 4:23). T h e re
is no su p p o rt fo r the claim th at Sabbath and new m oon occurred at equal
intervals." * Amos 8:5 m akes no such claim. T h e re is no evidence in the en tire Old
T estam en t th at th e new m oon day was a weekly day o r that the Sabbath was a
m onthly recu rren ce. F u rth erm o re , H osea 2:11, which m entions new m oon and
Sabbath, as well as feasts an d "ap p o in ted feasts, militates against equating these
term s as indicating equal intervals. But in sequences that indicate increasing
frequency the Sabbath is given as the m ost frequently (namely, weekly) celebrated
festival.
In the p ro p h etic w ritings the n a tu re o f observances on both Sabbath, the
weekly day o f rest, and new m oon, the m onthly festival (Ps. 81:3; 1 Sam. 20:24,
29), rem ains vague, except th at Amos suggests com plete rest from norm al
business en terp rises, which ap p ears to be part o f the proscription o f rest from
work in general (Isa. 58:13, 14). Ezekiel 46:3 prescribes "w orship" before Yahweh
at th e gate o f th e fu tu re tem ple (cf. Isa. 66:23).
Hosea. T h e p ro p h e t H osea refers to the Sabbath (chap. 2:11 [Heb. 2:13])
within a unit o f an indictm ent o f the faithless wife Israel. ' In this speech the Lord
an n o u n ced , I will p u t an en d to all h er m irth, h e r feasts, h er new m oons, h er
sabbaths, and all h er ap p o in ted fe a sts.. . . A nd I will punish h er for th e feast days

A ll B ib le q u o ta tio n s in this ch a p ter a rc tran slation s by th e a u th o rs, u n less o th e r w ise in d ica ted .

45
 T H E S AB BA T H IN S CR I PT UR E AND HI STOR Y

o f th e Baals" (verses 11, 13).1,1 T h e leasts (hag) possibly designate the great
au tu m n harvest festivals," o r m ore likely the th ree m ajor annual festivals o f
u nleavened b read , o f weeks, an d o f booths (cf. Deut. 16:16; 2 C h ro n . 8:13). T h e
new m oons (hdel) are presum ably m onthly days o f festivity." T h e sabbaths"
(iabbt) a re th e weekly days o f w orship an d rest." T h e sequence o f "feasts, new
m oons, a n d sabbaths is not a descending o rd e r15 n o r an ascending o r d e r 16 o f
festivals, but a sequence o f festivals o f increasing frequency o f celebration: yearly
(feasts), m onthly (new m oons), weekly (sabbaths). T h e concluding phrase and all
h er ap p o in ted feasts" (urkol m&'dh) may re fe r collectively to the days and seasons
o f festivity included o r not included in the fo rm er sequence. There is here
indisputable evidence along with Amos 8:5 fo r the celebration o f the Sabbath in
n o rth e rn Israel in the eighth century B .C . T h e re is, how ever, no evidence that the
Sabbath at that lim e was a new m oon" day celebrated only once a m o n th ," o r a

In Hosea, as also in Amos, the m entioning o f the Sabbath is not within the
context o f a positive exhortation. Both p ro p h ets condem n the m isuse o r neglect o f
the Sabbath, respectively. In the m essage o f Hosea the Sabbaths had apparently
d eterio rated into days o f h er pleasures" (verse 1 la), which were with the o th er
feasts b u t feast days o f Baal" (verse 13). Yahweh, the lover o f Israel, designed the
various occasions o f religious festivals, including the Sabbath, to be reflective o f
the covenant relation betw een H im an d His people. If this relation is b roken, then
H e m ust divorce His people (verse 2) and H e will bring to an e n d " 10 these festal
days, including th e Sabbath, which is th e covenant sign.
Isaiah. T h e gospel p ro p h e t Isaiah has an exceptionally rich Sabbath teaching.
T h e Sabbath is en c o u n tered for the first tim e in Isaiah 1:13: B ring your
worthless offerings no longer, th eir incense is an abom ination to Me. New m oon
and sabbath, th e calling o f assemblies I cannot e n d u re iniquity an d the solem n
assembly ' (N.A.S.B.). T h e usage o f the expressions "new m oon" an d "sabbath
has been discussed already. T h e th ird expression the calling o f assem blies 11 is
u n usu al, but is probably best u n d erstood as an expression sim ilar to all h er
ap p o in ted feasts" in Hosea 2:11, i.e., as a reference to festal assemblies inclusive o f
but far beyond new m oon an d sabbath" as is evident from Leviticus 23. T his
implies th at "new m oon an d sabbath" are not identical with the "assembly." T h e
latter term stands in opposition to the fo rm er expressions. If this is recognized,
th en o n e can n o t speak o f an "ascending o rd e r new m oon (m onthly), sabbath (?),
calling o f assemblies (a n n u al)."15 Instead one m ust take the new m oon and
sabbath" to g eth er as a sequence o f festivals within the year o f increasing
frequency o f celebration: new m oon (m onthly) an d sabbath (weekly). T h e
expression th e calling o f assem blies, which is inclusive o f the weekly Sabbath
(Lev. 23:1-3), th e passover (verses 4-15), the feast o f weeks (verses 15-22; N um .
28:26; Deut. 16:10), the first day o f the seventh m onth (Lev. 23:23-25), the Day o f
A tonem ent (verses 26-32) an d the feast o f booths (verses 33-43), includes weekly,
m onthly, a n d yearly feast days, the yearly exten d in g from one to a n u m b er o f

T h e ap p earan ce o f the Sabbath in Isaiah 1:13 is evidence for the fact that the
weekly Sabbath was celebrated in the kingdom o f Ju d a h in the eighth century B .C .
as a seventh-day institution o f rest an d w orship. W e have no reason to suppose
that th e Sabbath was in Isaiah's tim e a day d iffe ren t from the seventh day o f the
 T H E S AB BA T H IN T H E L I T E R A T U R E OF T H E OLD T E S T A M E N T

week an d th at it was connected with lu n ar phases."*4 In favor o f the weekly

Sabbath stands the fact that the Sabbath is indisputably a weekly celebration in the
fam iliar D ecalogue o f Exodus 20 an d D euteronom y 5 and in the law o f E xodus 34,
which go back to th e lim e o f Moses, an d in all o th e r legislation.
T h e polem ic against new m oon an d sabbath" is part o f Isaiah's m essage
against sacrifices, religious assemblies, an d prayers (chap. 1:10-20). T h is can
hardly be co n stru ed as an o u trig h t rejection o f Israel's cull an d w orship, l i is
ra th e r a rep u d iatio n o f the em ptiness o f form al ritual w ithout tru e h ea rt religion.
Even a keeping o f th e re g u lar weekly Sabbath cannot be pleasing to G od when the
covenant relationship is broken an d w hen em pty ritual takes the place o f genuine
heart religion. Isaiah's m essage indicates th at the keeping o f the Sabbath by itself
o r to g eth er with o th e r feast days, o r any o th e r ritual act, does not assure m an's
good standing with God aside from a tru e relationship with Him based on His
covenant.
Several ch ap ters in the latter part o f the book o f Isaiah (chaps. 56:1 -8; 5 8 :13,
14; 66:23)* contain very im p o rtan t references to the Sabbath. T h e Sabbath is
m entioned repeatedly in Isaiah 56:1-8. We find here an identification o f the
Sabbath as Y ahw ehs Sabbath (my sabbaths, verse 4),*' a them e that is known
elsew here in the O ld T estam e n t. Blessedness is p ro nounced over the person
w ho keeps from p ro fan in g the sabbath" (verse 2). T h e opposite o f this beatitude
is the p ro fan atio n o f the Sabbath. T o "keep my sabbaths" (verse 4) m eans to hold
fast "my covenant" (verse 6). S abbathkeeping is identified with covenant keeping.
W hoever keeps th e covenant keeps the sabbath, and w hoever profanes the
sabbath breaks th e covenant" (Lev. 26:42, 45). T h e reason for singling out the
Sabbath as th e particular occasion for m aintaining the covenant betw een G od and
His com m unity is th e fact that the Sabbath is understood as the covenant sign (Ex.
31:13, 17; Eze. 2 0:12,20). T h e universalistic tendency o f Isaiah 56:1 -8 that grants
adm ission into th e messianic kingdom even to eunuchs (cf. Deut. 23:1) reaches
back to th e universal quality o f th e Sabbath as en co u n tered in the C reation
Sabbath o f Genesis 2:1-3."
T h e high point o f the Sabbath in Isaiah 58:13, 14, m ust be seen as p art o f the
ch a p te r as a whole and not as an isolated frag m en t. I f it is taken as a p art o f a
larger whole, th e n a harm onious association betw een social interests and religious
action, th e keeping o f the Sabbath, may be recognized. T h e com bination o f both
o f these concerns is also attested in the Sabbath com m andm ent (Ex. 20:8-11;
D eut. 5:12-15). N evertheless, it has been claim edand in m any ways quite
correctly that the ideal o f Sabbath observance proposed h ere is found in no
o th er passage in th e O ld T e s ta m e n t." 5' Isaiah 58:13, 14, has certainly played an
im p o rtan t role in Pharisaic Ju d aism , the T alm u d , an d in m o d ern Jew ish society.
A som ew hat detailed look at translations o f Isaiah 58:13, 14, reveals their
divergencies. W e will th ere fo re attem p t a literal translation based on the H ebrew
text:
IP you tu rn your foot away
from th e sabbath, fro m doing your business on my holy day,
a n d 17 call the sabbath a delight,
th e holy (day) o f the L o r d honorable,
an d you h o n o r it by not d o in g '1' your ways,
by n o t40 seeking after*1 your business or*' speaking words,

47
 T H E S A B BA T H IN S C R I P T U R E AND HI STOR Y

t h e n y o u s h a ll d e l i g h t in t h e L o r d ,
a n d I will cause you to ride on the heights o f th e earth,
a n d I w ill f e e d y o u w ith t h e h e r i t a g e o f J a c o b , y o u r f a t h e r ,
f o r t h e m o u t h o f t h e Lo r d h a s s p o k e n .
T he keeping o f the foot on the Sabbath m eans to pro fan e an d d ish o n o r it (chap.
56:1-8). T o tu rn the foot away from th e Sabbath m eans to tu rn away from doing
o n e s business on th e Sabbath, G ods holy day. T h e Sabbath is. as it w ere, holy
g ro u n d 4*o r actually holy lim e. T h e faithful one is to keep him self on such g ro u n d ,
o r in such tim e, not by tram pling it with his foot but by heeding the following
injunctions:
1. R efusing to engage in one's own business (affairs) on the Sabbath. T h e
H ebrew term hepes is traditionally translated "pleasure (K.J.V., R.S.V., N.A.S.B.,
et cetera), a terni that m eans in English "gratification," diversion," "enjoym ent o f
the senses o r the m ind," in short, som ething that gives delight an d satisfaction an d
to which o ne devotes tim e to gain it.46 R ecent lexicographers have suggested that
the best re n d e rin g o f the term hepes in o u r text is "business, a ffa ir," 47 which has
fo u n d su p p o rt in word studies.4" Man is not to engage in his own pleasure in the
sense that he seeks his own business o r affairs on th e Sabbath (chap. 5 8 :13b. 14b).
2. Not do ing o n es ow n ways. T h e term for ways is derek, a w ord that has
rich connotations and that can m ean "u n d erstan d in g " o r "enterprise." W ithout
do u b t em phasis is placed on the p ro n o u n y o u r in connection with ways." T h ese
are th e ways" o f hu m an endeavor, u n d ertak in g , an d en terp rise. T h e keeping o f
the Sabbath involves a p erio d o f rest from such ways o f hu m an activity, so that one
can reflect on the ways o f God.
3. Ref rain ing from speaking w ords on the Sabbath. T h is counsel, in verse
13d, is not aim ed at m aintaining total silence on the S abbath.4'' T h e vexing phrase
dabber dabar, which is variously re n d e re d with talking idly" (R.S.V., T.E.V .),
"speaking idle w ords (N .I.V .), o r in closer affinity to the original text with
"'sp eak in g your own w o rd ' (N.A.S.B.),*" if kept in the spirit o f the im m ediate
context, ap p ears to re fer to any oral com m unication involved in the pursuit o f
m an s secular affairs, en terprises, and undertakings.
T h ese th re e prohibitive injunctions are counterbalanced by several affirm a
tive precepts. If the Sabbath is em ptied o f m an's own affairs, his own enterprises,
his own ways, an d all the talk related th ereto , then it is not only a day o f freedom
and lib era tio n '1 from all everyday pursuits, but also a dav providing tim e * for
th e d eep en in g o f the relationship betw een God and m an. T h e Sabbath tu rn s out
to be a day o f highly positive im port: Sabbath observance is not a b u rd e n ; it
liberates m an for m eeting G od.M
A m ong th e most significant precepts related to the Sabbath in the Bible is the
one that enjoins the calling o f the Sabbath a delight. T h e n o u n '(meg ap p e ars in
connection with the Sabbath only h ere an d m eans "delight, enjoym ent,*4 as it
does in its only o th e r appearan ce in the O ld T estam en t (chap. 13:22). T h e
Sabbath is no day o f gloom o r sadness, but a day o f jo y and delight. T h e person
who calls th e Sabbath a delight is also the one who is to delight in the L ord (chap.
58:14). T h e sam e verbal form** for delighting in the L ord ap p ears in o th er
passages parallel to the lifting up o f the face to the L ord (Job 22:26) an d the calling
up o n God (chap. 27:10), i.e., acts o f w orship by the godly person who stands in
hum ility before G od(P s. 37:4.11). It ap p ears also in connection with the joy found

48
 I H E S A B B A T H IN T H E L I T E R A T U R E OF THE OLD T ES I AMEN I

in being satisfied with food (Isa. 55:2; 66:11).54 T h u s the idea o f delight with
reg ard to th e Sabbath com bines both w orship o f the Lord an d finding enjoym ent
th ro u g h an d in H im and w hat H e provides both spiritual an d physical.
T h e S ab b ath k eeper is prom ised (1) to delight in Yahweh, (2) to ride on the
heights o f th e ea rth , an d (3) to be fed with the heritage o f Jacob. T h e
S ab b ath k eep er will delight in G od, because tru e S abbathkeeping cannot be
sep arated from a g en u in e faith relationship with the L ord o f the Sabbath. T h e
Sabbath is not a b u rd ensom e, ritualistic, an d legalistic institution." It is the sign o f
G ods lo rdship o v er the S abbathkeeper. T h e Lord o f the Sabbath will m ake him
ride on th e heights o f the ea rth . T h is picture com m unicates in m etaphoric
language associated with theo p h an ic descriptions'* that God grants triu m p h and
victory to th e S abb athkeeper. T h e S abbathkeeper is also prom ised to be fed with
the h eritage o f Jacob," i.e., the gifts o f produce o f the land (D eut. 32:13),
prom ised to th e fo refath e r Jacob (Gen. 28:12-17). T h e Sabbath is G od's "holy
day. In h o n o rin g His day the loyal w orshiper acknow ledges G od to be his
covenant L ord who fulfills His covenant prom ises. T h e S abbathkeeper also enters
each Sabbath on his L o rd s "holy day" (cf. Gen. 2:3).
Finally we m ust tu rn to the last ch a p te r in the book o f Isaiah for a
consideration o f th e Sabbath in the new heavens an d the new earth. Ju st as we find
new m oon an d Sabbath in the first c h a p te r o f the book, so we find new m oon an d
Sabbath in th e last one. Isaiah 66 carries the re a d e r into the realm o f the fu tu re
ju d g m e n t and salvation o f apocalyptic eschatology.'9 It is within the setting o f the
creation o f th e new heavens an d the new ea rth th at the following saying appears:
' A nd it shall be, from new m oon to new m oon,
and from sabbath to sabbath,"
all flesh will com e to w orship before m e,
says th e L o r d " (verse 23).'
In the realm o f th e new creation beyond history th ere will be total restoration o f
the b reak b ro u g h t about by sin. "All flesh in the sense o f all m ankind, the
red eem ed re m n a n t o f all times, will w orship before the L ord Sabbath after
Sabbath. As th e Sabbath was th e climax o f the first creation an d destined fo r all
m ankind (Gen. 2:1-3), so the Sabbath will again be the climax o f the new creation
and destined again for all m ankind in the new heaven and the new earth . T h e
Sabbath will th u s be the only institution designed by the C reato r that will link the
first heaven a n d ea rth with the new heaven an d earth. As such, the Sabbath is a
pow erful catalyst o f apocalyptic eschatology and its fu tu re hope.
T he Sabbath in the Seventh- to Sixth-Century Prophets.-Jeremiah. Ihe
book o f Jerem ia h contains a key prose serm on on the observance o f the Sabbath
(chap. 17:19-27). Jerem ia h reveals th at he was to preach publicly a serm on that
dem o n strates th e conditional n a tu re o f the prophecies o f doom . D estruction
could be avoided if sinful Israel w ould evidence tru e repentance. T h e referen ce to
th e Sabbath co m m an d m en t com es in connection with the phrase as I
com m anded y o u r fathers" (verse 27; cf. chap. 7:1-8, 30), a n d it is explicit in the
expression "sabbath day" (yom hasfabbat, chap. 27:21, 22, 24; cf. Ex. 20:8, 10, 11;
Deut. 5:12, 14, 15) a n d in the precepts keep holv the sabbath" (Jer. 17:22, 24; cf.
Ex. 20:8; D eut. 5:12) and d o no work" (Jer. 17:22,24; Ex. 2 0:9 .1 0 ; Deut. 5:14). If
Israel w ould be o b edient to G od's law (Jer. 7:8-10; cf. chaps. 5:30, 31; 6:13-15;
14:14) by tu rn in g from its apostasy (chaps. 6:20; 7:21, 22, 30, 31; 19:5) and from
TSISAH-4 ...
 T H E S AB BA TH IN S CR IP T UR E AND HI STORY

desecrating th e Sabbath th ro u g h refraining from the carrying o f b u rd en s (chap.

17:21, 22, 24, 27) an d from w orking (verses 22, 24), an d would keep the Sabbath
holy (verses 22-24) an d obey the L ord w holeheartedly (verses 24, 27), then the
Lord could m aintain His covenant relationship with them a n d save them from
fiery d estruction (verse 27). S abbathkeeping is a condition o f salvation, bu t not the
only o n e /1 because w holehearted obedience, though inclusive o f the Sabbath,
goes beyond the keeping o f the covenant sign. It includes right living in all areas o f
life m oral, social, and religious (chap. 22:1-9).
Lamentations. T h e book o f L am entations, which is often ascribed to Jerem ia h
and d ated in th e sixth century afte r the fall o f Jeru salem in 586 B . C . , contains one
clear referen ce to the Sabbath (chap. 2:6) an d one disputed one (chap. 1:7).
T h e King Jam es V ersion translation o f L am entations 1:7 re n d ers the last line
T h e adversaries saw her, an d did mock at h er sabbaths." T h e expression at h er
sabbaths" is a translation o f the H ebrew w ord al-miSbateha in d ep en d en ce upon
the Latin V ulgates reading, h er sabbaths." D ifferent ancient versions had
difficulties with th e H ebrew text. T his fact led to em endations and
reconstructions. T h e re are some scholars w ho follow the V ulgate an d the
consonantal G reek readings, suggesting that the original H ebrew was Sablrtoteha,
"h er sabbaths. 61 T h e m ajority o f scholars believe that the original w ord is miSbat,
cessation, ru in ." If the fo rm er position is correct, then this text lam ents the
m ocking and lau g h ter o f the victorious adversary about the celebration o f the
Sabbath, i.e., th e e n d o f public worship.
W ithout d isp u te the Sabbath is m entioned in Lam entations 2:6:
"H e has b ro ken dow n his booth like a g ard en ,
he has destroyed his feast,69
th e L o r d has caused to be forgotten in Zion
feast an d sabbath,
an d he has despised king an d priest
in the indignation o f his anger."
T h e context is th e destruction o f Israel and Zion th ro u g h the blazing w rath o f God
on th e day o f Yahweh (verses 1,21 ,2 2 ). Yahweh has caused "feast and sabbath" to
be fo rgotten. T h e holy city and its holy tem ple is destroyed. T h e re fo re the
celebrations o f the ap p o in ted feasts and the weekly Sabbath have been
term in ated . T h is passage is p art o f the description o f the fulfillm ent o f the
conditional th reats o f the p ro p h e t Jerem ia h (Jer. 17:19-27; 22:1-9). T h e fall o f
J u d a h a n d th e d estru cu o n o f Zion are d u e not to a lack o f political wisdom but to
the sin o f leaders a n d people.
Ezekiel. Several chapters in the book o f Ezekiel speak o f the Sabbath (chaps.
20:12-24; 22:8-26; 23:38; 44:24; 45:17; 46:1-4, 12). We note the freq u en t
identification m y sab b ath s,"71 i.e., Y ahweh's Sabbaths, a designation that is not
new72an d one th at indicates th at the Sabbath is the L o rd s possession, a gift o f God
to m an. T h e injunction "sanctify [hallow] my sabbaths" (chaps. 20:20; 44:24) is
rem iniscent o f the fact th at the C reato r had sanctified (hallowed) the Sabbath
H im self at C reation (Gen. 2:3)7S an d that it is so com m anded in the Sabbath
co m m an d m en t (Ex. 20:8; D eut. 5:12). It aim s tow ard definite action fo r usage in
b eh alf o f G od.7< T h e idea o f festal w orship (Eze. 46:3), including the bringing o f
sacrifices (verse 4) as envisioned fo r the fu tu re tem ple (verses 1-12), is included in
the notion o f Sabbath sanctity (cf. Lev. 23:1-3).

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T h e p ro p h e t Ezekiel em phasizes the sign" ('oth) n a tu re o f the Sabbath (Eze.

2 0 :12, 20), which is closely related to that in Exodus 31:13.7f' T h e identification o f
the Sabbath as a sign "betw een m e an d you" proves it to be a covenant sign between
Y ahweh, the covenant G od, a n d His chosen people Israel (cf. Gen. 17:11; Ex.
31:13). Intim ately related to the Sabbath as the unique covenant sign betw een God
an d His people is th e stated p u rp o se "that they/you may know th at I am Yahweh"
(Eze. 20:12, 20).77 T h e Sabbath is not only a covenant sign o f identifying G ods
people, it is also a sign o f know ledge7 that com m unicates that Yahweh is Israels
G od, keeping His covenant a n d sanctifying His people.
T h e re is a strong condem nation o f the pro fan in g o f the Sabbath in the past
(verses 13, 16,21, 24) an d p resen t (chaps. 22:8; 23:38). It is to be noted that in the
history o f sin" in Ezekiel 20, th e re is in addition to the profanation o f the Sabbath
a con d em n atio n o f idolatry a n d o th er infractions o f G ods law (verses 13, 16, 21,
24, 26). T h e sam e is tru e in Ezekiel 22 an d 23, so that it is m issing the point to
conclude th at the exile was th e result o f the profanation o f the sabbath" an d that
this is th e intention o f Ezekiel 20." T h e profanation o f the Sabbath is pointed out
by Ezekiel to be a m ajor sign o f the refusal o f Israel to acknow ledge h er G od as
L ord, Saviour, a n d p rotector. It is an external m anifestation, in addition to o th ers,
that she has b roken the covenant.
W e find, in th e regulations for the fu tu re service at the new T em ple,
instructions fo r the bringing o f sacrifices on the feasts, an d on the new m oons,
and o n the sabbaths, on all the ap pointed feasts" (chap. 45:17). T his sequence is
identical to th at o f H osea 2:11 (H eb. 2:13), and it again is best u n d ersto o d as
re fe rrin g to an o rd e r o f increasing frequency o f celebration. Feasts" are the yearly
celebration o f th e m ajor an n u al festivals (unleavened bread, weeks, and booths);
"new m oons are th e monthly celebrations; "sabbaths" are the weekly celebrations;
all th e ap p o in ted feasts" stands in apposition to the form er, including them all
and any o th e r feasts not included in them ."1
The Sabbath in Historical Literature
In th e historical lite ratu re o f the O ld T estam ent, references to the Sabbath
are relatively sparse. T h e Sabbath ap p ears only in 2 Kings an d in the work o f the
chronicler.
T he Sabbath in 1 and 2 K ings.T h e narrative o f the S hunam m ite wom an (2
Kings 4:8-37) contains a referen ce to th e Sabbath from the ninth century B .C .
W hen h er son had suddenly d ied, the S hunam m ite wom an decided to rid e to the
p ro p h e t Elisha fo r help. H e r husband said to her, Why will you go to him today?
It is n eith er new m oon n o r sabbath" (verse 23). T h e obvious im plication is that a
p ro p h e t was norm ally visited on new m oon an d sabbath." No travel restrictions
existed for visiting a m an o f G od on the Sabbath. T h e re is no suggestion h ere that
the day o f th e accident, which was a regular w orking day, was a Sabbath."5 T h u s
th ere is no tension with the Sabbath legislation o f the P entateuch (Ex. 20:8-11;
Deut. 5:12-15; Ex. 23:12; 34:21). It is held correctly that this Sabbath text gives
evidence for th e keeping o f the Sabbath as a day o f rest in preexilic times."*It was a
weekly day o f rest."7
T h e account o f the coup d'flat arran g e d by the high priest Jeh o iad a in 2 Kings
11:4-12 (2 G hron. 23:4-11) suggests that the Sabbath in the e n d o f the ninth
century was regularly observed." " T h e changing o f the g u ard o f th e T em p le was

51
 T H E S AB BA T H IN S CR I P T U R E AND HISTORY

u n d oubtedly a weekly occurrence (I C hron. 9:24, 25) that took place on each
Sabbath (verse 32)." T h e ruling m onarch visited the T em p le on the Sabbath,
presum ably for w orship purposes, an d the Tem ple court was filled with people (2
C hron. 23:1-15).
T h e Sabbath is also m entioned in connection with King Ahaz (735 [732J-715
B.C.)* a n d th e rem oval o f a structure*' used on the Sabbath (2 Kings 16:17, 18).
T he Sabbath in the Work o f the Chronicler. The chronicler1 refers to the
Sabbath in a variety o f connections.*9 It is stated that the K ehathites had charge o f
p re p arin g b read for each Sabbath (1 C hron. 9:32) an d that b u rn t offerings w ere
to be sacrificed in the T em p le on the Sabbaths, new m oons, and ap p o in ted feasts
(chap. 23:31; 2 C h ro n . 2:4; 8:13; 3 1 :3)* from the tim e o f Solom on onw ard. T h e
gatekeepers at th e T em p le who change each Sabbath are priests and Levites (2
C hron. 23:4, 8).
T h e concluding ch a p te r o f 2 C hronicles contains a unique referen ce to the
Sabbath: T o fulfill th e w ord o f the Lord by the m outh o f Jerem ia h , until the land
had enjoyed its sabbaths. All the days that it lay desolate it kept sabbath, to fulfill
seventy years (chap. 36:21). It would take us too far afield to discuss the various
opinions on the seventy years." an d related subjects,'" but it is clear that the
au th o r conceived o f the Exile as th e tim e o f paying o ff o r com pensation for the
neglect o f keeping the S abbaths.*'T here is h ere a close association o f the them es o f
land a n d Sabbath, rest and Sabbath, redem ption and Sabbath, restitution an d
Sabbath, an d covenant an d Sabbath.
The Sabbath in N ehem iah. The penitential p ray er in N ehem iah 9:6-37
m entions the "holy sabbath" (verse 14) as a gift from (.od th ro u g h Moses. T h e
so-called code o f N ehem iah (chap. 10:31-40), which put obligations on the
com m unity that w ere sealed by a covenant, forbids any trad e on the Sabbath (verse
31). It is likely that this regulation resulted from the practices noted in N ehem iah
13:15-22,*7 but u n doubtedly it is rooted in the pentateuchal laws that com m and
the keeping o f the Sabbath. Evidently w hen N ehem iah cam e to Jeru salem , he
found a lax a ttitu d e tow ard S abbathkeeping." The precept against buying o r
selling on the Sabbath is also ex ten d ed to a holy day (ydm qodfi),m which m eans
eith er th e o th e r holy days in the sense o f th e yearly festivals (N um bers 2 3 ,2 8 ,29)1
o r m o re likely any holy days, including the m onthly new m oons an d all o th er
festivals.101 T h is re fo rm was necessitated because o f the w idespread disregard for
the Sabbath in J u d a h and Jerusalem . The Sabbath was p ro fan ed " (N eh. 13:17,
18)"" by w orking a n d trad in g (verses 15-22). N ehem iah also rem in d ed the
retu rn ees that it was "this very thing for which o u r God brought u p o n us a n d upon
this city all this m isfo rtu n e."" H ere the re fo rm er N ehem iah reflects the
an n o u n cem en ts o f the p ro p h ets (Jer. 17:19-27; Eze. 20:12-24), who re fe rre d
am ong o th e r things to the violation o f the Sabbath as the cause o f fu tu re
m isfortune. H e stopped the foreign trad ers from peddling th eir wares on the
Sabbath by closing the gates o f Jerusalem from sunset on Friday to sunset on
Sabbath an d m ade the w inepress operators, farm ers, fruit grow ers, and
tran sp o rtatio n w orkers to sanctify the Sabbath.
C onclusion
O u r investigation o f the Sabbath in the prophetic and historical literatu re o f
the O ld T estam en t has indicated that the Sabbath was known and h o n o red o r

52
 T H E S AB BA TH IN T H E L I T E R A T U R E O F T H E OLD T E S T A M E N T

dish o n o red from th e tim e o f th e united m onarchy th ro u g h the divided m onarchy

to th e tim e o f N ehem iah in the post-Exilic period. T h e Sabbath has had its ups and
downs. A m ong th e most significant aspects o f p rophetic proclam ation re g ard in g
the Sabbath a re its inseparable links with covenant, sign, and faithfulness, land
and liberty, delight and hu m an fulfillm ent, and last but not least, eschatology and
new creation. T h e inevitable im pression is that the Sabbath will rem ain as G o d s
gift to m an from the first creation even to the new heavens a n d the new e a rth (Isa.
66:22, 23).

NOTES
1 T C . V rieren , A n O utline of O ld Testam ent T h eo lo p . 2 d c d . (O x fo r d . 1970). p . 6 4 . w h ere K is p o in ted o u i also
that "the facl that G o d san ctified th e sev en th day at th e C rea tio n is to b e ex p la in e d in th e sam e wav: ( o d . w h o
a p p o in ts th e days, m o n th s, an d v e a n , has in stitu ted th e Sabbath from th e b eg in n in g "
* S ee th e ch ap ter The S abbath in th e P e n ta teu ch , p p . 21*43
1 S o particular!* F. S io li. "UliW <ht a u fh o r e n . ru h en . ' T H A T . 2 :8 6 5 . 8 6 6
4 T h u is correctly em p h a sized by m a m sch olars. see. lo r e x a m p le . R S. C rip p s. .4 C n tu a l & F.xegehcal
t o m m en tan on the Book of Amen (ix n u U m , 1960), p. 2 4 3 ; W R u d o lp h . J o e l-A m o i-O b a d ra lo n a (G u ic rslo h . I 9 7 1 ) .d 2 6 2 .
n o 2 . H. W W o lff. DoaekapntpheUm 2:J o e l u n d Amos (N e u k irch en -V iu v n . 196 9 ). p. .s7d; F. M athvs. Sabbat ru n e u n d
Sabbatfest: C b e r le g u n g e n *ur K ntw icklung u n d B e d e u tu n g d es Sabbat im A lten T e s ta m e n t. theologische Z a ts c h n ft
H I972):249
i C. A S m ith w rote o n A m os 8:5: The in terests o f th e Sabbath are th e in ter ests o f ih e p o o r th e e n e m ie s o f th e
Nabbath are th e e n e m ie s o f th e p o o r. . T h e S abbath was m ad e fo r m an " T h e Book o f the Tu^ehr Prophet* C om m onh
(.ailed the M inor (N ew Y ork. 1908). p . 183.
A. VVeiser. Das B u ih der zuw y Kletnett P rophetm . 5 lh e d . (G ot u n g e n . 1 967). 1:194. 195.
7 For th e h v n o th e sis th at ih e S abbath d eriv ed fro m lunar or n ew m o o n d a y s an d its p ro b lem s, see th e ch ap ter
'The Sabbath in tn e Pentateuch,** p p . 21*43.
* T h is claim is m a d e a g a in by G, R o b in so n . The O rigin and Dex'elupment o f the O ld Testam ent Sabbath ( H a m b u rg .
1**"}). p 3 9 B efo r e him il a p p e a r e d by E .Mahler. "Der Sabbat S ein e e tsm o lo g isc h e u n d ch ro n o lo g isc h -h isto risc h r
B ed eu tu n g ," 7.D M G 6 2 (1 9 0 8 ):2 4 9 , an d A . larm aire. Le Sabbat a l'p o q u e ro y a le Isralite." Rei-ue htblnjue 8 0
1 19731:163 S ee n o te 8 2 .
" It has recen tly b een d a te d to ab out 7 5 0 b .c . S ee H. W . W o lff. H o\ea A (.o m m e n ta n on the Book of the Prophet
Ho%ea (P h ila d elp h ia . 1974), p. 3 3 . follow ed by R ob in son , op cit., p. 46.
T h e term s feasts" lltaq). "new m oon s" (f\dei\, sabbaths" ftahM l), and " a p p o in ted feasts im ff d ) are in
H eb rew co llecu v e n o u n s in sin g u la r form . T h e S cp tu a g in t re n d er ed th em as plurals.
W olff. H osea. p p . 38. Id6.
; W R u d olp h . Hosea (C u te rslo h , 1966). p. 7 1 , fo llo w e d by N .-E . A. A n d re a se n , The O ld Testam ent Sabbath .4
r ****?'HixUrrual Im e s tig a tw n . S B l. Diss. Ser. 7 (M issou la. M ont., 197 2 ), p. 61
T h e O ld T esi a m e n t reveals little d eta il ab out th e new m oon day a n d iis ce leb ra tio n (cf. 1 Sam . 2 0 5 -1 1 . 18-23;
f t 1 0 4 .1 9 . Isa 1.13). S e e H -J. K raus. W orship in Israel (R ich m o n d . V a .. 1966). p p 7 6 -7 8
14 T h e fact that th ere is a w aw b e fo r e th e term tobbt seem s to in d ica te that th e s e q u e n c e o f th ree sep a ra te
recu rrin g festivals, n a m elv feasts, new m o o n s, a n d sa b b ath s. has co m e to an en d T h is w ould stand again st th e view
that " feasts is a co llectiv e n o u n re fe r r in g to b o th "new m oon * an d sabb ath s (see R o b in so n , trp. cit., p p. 5 3 -5 5 ). S ee
also E /e . 4 5 :1 7 . w h e re th ere is also a attar c o n n e c tin g th e th ree festival celeb ra tio n s o f fea sts, an d new m o o n s, and
sabbaths b u l no w ow b e fo r e all a p p o in te d fea sts.
14 W o lff. Hosea. p. 38; R u d o lp n . Hosea. p. 71.
** R ob in son , op. cit.. p p . 53. 6 2 .
,T A n d re a se n . lot cit.. u n d er sta n d s m ff d as an all-in clu sive re fe ren ce that e n c o m p a sse s a lso feasts, new m o o n s,
an d sab b ath s. .A lthough th is is p ossib le, it is less likelv in view o f o u r ex te n s iv e listing o f yearly, m o n th ly , a n d w eek ls
feast d a vs.
D esp ite re p e a te d e ffo r ts in th at d irectio n (cf. L em aire, op a t . R o b in so n , op cit.), th e o b se rv a tio n o f R d e
V a u x re g a rd in g th e se attem p ts still stand s: " O n e th in g , h o w e v er, is certain : il is u seless to try to fin d th e o rig in o f th e
sabbath os c o n n e c tin g it in so m e wav w ith th e p h a ses o f th e m o o n . A n cien t Israel: Its L ife a n d Institutions ( L o n d o n .
196 1 ). p. 480.
19 A gain st W olff. H osea. p. 3 8 . S abbath rest h as n o th in g to d o with a tabu
* T n e r e is in H ebrew a strik in g w ord p las b o ih in H osea 2 : 1 1 an d A m o s 8 :5 b etw een th e verb <bt (in H ip h il as
u sed h ere to brin g lo a n en d " ) an d th e n o u n labbdt. Sabb ath ." T h e clo se association b etw een b oth hasl>ccn seen lim e
a n d again as in d ica tin g a relation sh ip b etw een th e v cr b ff an d the n o u n (nbbdt (cf. (en. 2:1*3; Ex. 16:30; 3 1 :1 7 ; Lev.
23 3 2 . 2 5:2; 2 6 :3 4 . 35; 2 C h r o n . 36:21 ). S e e also R N o r th . T h e D eriva tio n o f Sabbath." Bblica 3 6 ( 1955): 186; S io lt,
o f a t., cols. 8 6 4 . 8 6 5 .
21 T h is e x p r e ssio n fo llo w s th e first tw o w ith out a con ju n c tio n in th e M T. T h u s th e tran slation "and th e ta ilin g o f
assem blies" (R S V . R ob in son , op a t . p. 5 7 ) or m erely an d assem blies" (N .E .B .) is in exact a n d not su p p o r te d In the
MT
23 It has b e e n cla im ed that ih e term m tqra', a sse m b ly , is an ab b resia tio n it m w ra o o d es, holy assem bly," in th e
ten se o f a feast d ay." o n w hu h n o w ork w as l o be d o n e (see E. k u is c h . lO p D . " Z A W 6 5 [ 195 3 1 :2 4 7 -2 5 3 ). Bm this
d o es m a k e as little s e n se (see H W ild h e r g e r ./r u i/a I I 2 [ KA I X /l; N eu k irsh e n -V lu y n . 1 9 7 2 ).p 34 as th e claim that
the en tir e third p h r a se is a later in ter p o la tio n (against F. S ch w ally. M iscellen." Z A W 11 ( I 8 ( i|) : 2 5 7 ; K M arti. Das
0 urA/rjoMi (T u b in g e n . 1900], p. 12; J S fo r g e n s te r n . T w o C o m p o u n d T ec h n ic a l T e r m s in B iblical H e b r e w J B l. 4 3
(1 9 2 4 1 :3 16; w ith W ild b erg er. loe. a t.. A n d re a se n . op. a t., p. 5o).
" S ee R ob in son , op a t., p. 6 2 .

53
 T H E S AB BA T H IN S CR I PT UR E AND HIS TORY

*4 W ild b erger. o f a t.. p 4 2 . again! K M am . J. M e in h o ld . an d follow er* (T . J. M eek . G. H o lsc h e r. S.

M ow inckel. A . L o d t. N . H . S naith . O . P rock sch, A I x m a ir e . an d G . R o b in so n ), w h o have th o u g h t ih a l (h e lin k in g
to g eth er o f new m o o n an d Sabhath m ea n s that th e Sabbath vas at o n e tim e a m onthly o b serv a n ce
15 W h ereas it is w id ely cu stom ary m m od ern istic sch o la rsh ip to assign Isaiah 56*66 to o n e o r several a u th o r s, J.
H. M eesters, O p w ek naar de oorspronp ian de Sabbat (A ssen . 1966). p p 1 4 8 -1 5 1 . a rg u es that Isaiah 6 6 :2 3 is a g e n u in e
savin g fro m Isaiah an d that Isaiah 5b: I-8 an d 58: IS co n ta in g e n u in e k ern els o f m aterial fro m Isaiah. A m o n g sch olars
w ho have a rg u ed sin ce th e 1950s for th e u nitv of a u th o r sh ip of th e en tir e b ook of Isaiah a re E. J. Y o u n g . W. M o ller. R.
K H arrison , G. L A rch er. O . T . A llis, an d R. M argalioth . not to m en tio n such great c o m m en ta to rs o f th e past
cen tu rv as | A. A lex a n d er. R Stier. a n d F r a n / D elit/sch
76 S o m e h ave se e n in th e p lural a r e fe r e n c e to all festivals (cl I x m a ir e , op <u . p p 1 8 0 .1 8 1 ; E. 1 No u n g . The Book
o f h a ta h [G rand R apids. M ich . 1972), 3 :3 9 1 ). but this can h ard lv lie correct, b eca u se in E zekiel 4 5 :1 7 th e p lural
' sabbaths" ap p ears an d th e o th er festivals are m en tio n ed sep a ta tely .
27 S o also in Ex 3 1 :1 3 ; Lev. 19:3; 2 6 :2 . asid e from Eze. 2 0 :1 2 . 13. 16. 2 0 . 2 1 . 2 4 ; 2 2 :8 . 2 6 ; 2 3 :3 8 ; 4 4 :2 4
** R ob in son , up. a t., p. 3 0 2 .
w S ee th e p rev io u s ch a p ter. T h e S abh ath in th e P en tateu ch . p p 21*43, a n d N .-E .A . A n d re a se n . R ecent
S tu d ies o f th e O ld T esta m en t Sabbath: S o m e < Nisei vat ions." Z A W H6 (1 9 7 4 ):4 6 7
50 N o te th e p ersu a siv e a rg u m en ts o f J. M u ilen b u rg, " T h e B ook o f Isaiah: C h a p ters 4 0 -6 6 . The Interpreter's Bible
(N ew Y ork. 1956), 5 :6 7 7
51 J L. M cK en zie. Second iu u n h . Anchor Bible (G ard en C ity. 1968), p. 165.
M A m o n g th e P h arisees, s e e J .Z . Lauterhac h. " 1'he P h arisees an d T h eir T e a c h in g s . Rabbinic Eiiays (C in cin n a ti.
1951), p p 8 7 -1 5 9 , esp . p. 123; in th e T a lm u d , see B T Sabhath 1 17b; in m o d ern tim es, se e I E isen stein . O n e g
Shabbat. * The I 'n i v m a l Jew ish Encyclojtedia (N ew Y ork, 1942), 8 :3 0 0 .
M T h e co n d itio n a l p article 'in (i f ) is e m p lo y e d h e te w ith th e im p erfect to in d ica te a real co n d itio n ca p a b le o f
fu lfillm en t (R. J W illiam s, H ebrew Syntax A n O utline, 2d e d . (T o r o n to , 1976], p . 7 4 . sec. 4 5 3 ).
M T h e verb tub fo llo w e d by th e p r e p o s itio n nun m ea n s to tu rn awav fro m . T h is is su p p o rted bs su ch p assages
as N u m b er s 14:43, tu rn aw ay f io m fo llo w in g th e L ord , an d I K ings 8 : 3 5 . tu rn awav fro m th eir sin.*" w h e re w e find
also <ub m m . C f. J. A . S o g g in . '21U/ tub z u n ic k k e h r e n , T H A T . 2 :8 8 8
55 T h e p ro p o se d e m e n d a tio n o f th e m tn to a b 'iH H K . B H S f is u n n ecessa ry . S ee p rev io u s n o te. T h u s th e M T d o e s
not su p p o rt su ch tran slation s as "If you cease to tread th e sabliath u n d erfo o t" (N .E .B .), i f b eca u se o f th e sabbath,
vou tu rn vou r foot*" (N .A .S .B .). an d "If you h old back you r foot o n th e sabbath" (N .A .B .).
* A lth o u g h th e M T lacks th e p rep o sitio n w hile IQ Isa* p ro v id es it, it is k n ow n that it is u n d e r s o l d , b eca u se in
p o etic p arallelism nun serv es to g o v er n c o o r d in a te cla u ses (cf. E. K autzsch a n d A . E. C o w le s . G exentus H ebrew
r iiM iiT U id . [Oxford 1910), p 184, m IlM i)
T h e u<aw m as h e r e lie c o n sid e r e d to h ave an a d versative fo rce, i.e .. but."
M T h e d ifficu lt e x p r e ssio n lufdM Y H W H (also attested in IQ Isa 1* a n d lQ ls a b) m ea n s literally "the h o ls o f
Y a h w eh w h ere th e p ro p h e t em p lo y s th e ad jective " holy in p arallelism to "sabbath." so that th e in ten tio n is "hols
day.**
99 T h e in fin itive asAt c o n stru ed w ith th e privative m ea n in g o f m tn (W illiam s, op. a t., p. 5 6 . sec. 3 2 1 ) literally
m ean s w ith ou t d o in g . .**
40 H e re w e find again a p rivative un S ee n o te 39.
41 A lth o u g h th e verb mi* m ean s norm ally to h u d . m eet, rea ch . it a lso carries th e m ea n in g o f to seek , to seek
o u t. seek a fter ( H A I~ \T . p 586; G. (erlem an . KY73 nu* h n d e n . T H A T . 1:924)
42 T h e uiu- m as be tak en w ith th e altern ative force.
45 IQ Isa* has th e th ird p e r s o n m ascu lin e sin gu lar form whrkybkh iu'htrkibkA h), an d h e will ca u se vou to ride."
B U S states in correctly that tn c form in lQ Isa* b is klbkd
44 IQ Isa 4 has for M T bom! / th e rea d in g bum ts. w hich m as be v ocalized as bdmet/ T h e tran slation "heights" is to
be p re fe r r e d over "high places." b eca u se th ere is n o ex p licit associa tio n w ith th e cu ltk h ig h p laces o f id o la tro u s
w o rsh ip (M icah 1:5, H o sea 10:8; A m os 7 :9 . et cetera).
4* Y o u n g . op a t . p . 4 2 6 .
46 Webtter 'i N e w T u en tu th -C en tu ry Dictionary o f the English Langua g e I nabndgetl. 2d ed . (C lev ela n d . 1 976), 2 :1 3 7 8 .
' HAl I I p 127; ( HAL \> l i t ; HAD |. B9
in G. G e tle m a n . ^ Q n hp\ (befallen h a b e n . T H A T . 1:625. an d litera tu re cited .
4,4 S o correctls 1). N . F reed m an in M cK en zie, loc a t.
40 T h e tran slation s a tten d in g to s o u r o w n a ffairs (N .E .B .) or sp e a k in g w ith m alice" (N A B ) a re o f f the
m ark.
51 A m o n g m a n s, see A . J . H e sc h e l. The Sabbath (N ew Y ork. 1951). pp. 13-32; S H D resn er. The Sabbath (N ew
York. 1970), p p 3 6 -6 4 ; H . W W o lff. T h e D as o f R est in th e O ld T esta m en t." I .extngton Theological Q uarter hi 7
(1 9 7 2 ):7 2 ; M u ilen b u rg. op. a t., p. 41 4 .
** A n d re a se n . "R ecent Stud ies." p. 4 6 7
53 M cK en zie, loc. a t
M K B . p 718; c f C H A L . p 277
H H ith p a el is attested in th e O ld T esta m en t in D eu tero n o m s 2 8 :5 6 ; J o b 2 2 :2 6 . 2 7 :1 0 ; Psalm 37 4 . 1 1 . Isaiah
55:2: 5 7 :4 ; 5 8 :1 4 . 6 6 :1 1 .
56 T h e em p h a sis o n w o rsh ip o n th e S abbath as th e ex c lu siv e m ea n in g o f d elig h t in Isaiah 5 8 : l4 b v R o b in so n , op
a t . p p. 3 0 7 -3 0 4 . m isses th e oth er asp ects o f u sa g e o f th e sam e H ith p a el form s
* J . D. Sm art. H istory a n d T h eo lo p in Second h a ia h (P h ilad elp h ia, 1965). p. 2 5 2 , m isses th e p oin t by a ssig n in g this
p assage to a late o r th o d o x co m m u n ity .
w S ee M icah 1:3; A m o s 4:13; D eu t 3 2 :1 3 .
w S o correctly M u ilen b u rg . op a t., p. 7 7 2 .
60 A literal tran slation is "from th e a b u n d a n ce o f new m o o n in its new m o o n a n d fro m th e a b u n d a n ce o f sabbath
in its sab b ath . O s e n i u s ex p la in s th e w h o le to m ean as o fte n as th e new m o o n co m es in its new m o o n . i.e . its
a p p o in ted tim e (as cited bv I A A le x a n d e r . Commentary on the Prophecies o f Isaiah (rep rin t e d . (ran d R apids. M k h .
I953J, 2 :4 8 0 ). A ccord in gly th e p h rases in d icate th e m ea n in g w h en ev er n en m o o n a m i Sabbath a p pear in th e new
creation" (cf. C. von O relli. The P ntpheaey oj Isaiah I E d in b u rgh , 1895]. p. 3 4 6 . Y o u n g , op a t., p. 536 ).
61 T h e claim that Isaiah 6 6 :2 3 is seco n d a ry (see B I'iu h m . D a\ Buch je sa ia . 5th e d (G o ttin g e n . 1968). p. 4 8 9 . w h o

54
 T H E S A B BA T H IN T H E L I T E R A T U R E O F T H E OLD T E S T A M E N T

is fo llo w e d by a great n u m b er o f e x e g e te s ) is c o u n te r e d bv M eesters. op a t . p . 150, b eca u se o l th e link b etw een new

m o o n an d Sabbath. C f. E. A . L eslie, Isaiah (N ew Y ork. 1963). p p. 2 4 4 . 2 4$.
6* T h e au th en ticity o f th is se r m o n has b e e n q u e stio n e d sin ce A K u en en (see th e co m m en ta ries a n d stu d ie s bv B.
D u h m [1 9 0 3 ], C. H . C o m ill [1 9 0 5 ], S. M ow in ck el [ 1914]. P. V olz ( 1920). A . C . W elch ( 19 2 8 ], J . S tein m a n n [ 195 2 ], J.
tf m il.. i o u . ..... r m c o i . n v . 1...1___ m m i __ i i-l: .i i u r ' i i . i__ . l _

C o n d a m in . L e Iwre de J t r h n u (P an s. 1936). p 150; J. B righ t. T h e D ate o f th e Prose S erm o n s o f Jerem iah ." J B L 70
( 1951 ):23. 24; H. F r eed m a n . Jerem iah (L o n d o n . 1949). p. 122; R K. H a m s o n . Jerem iah a n d L am entations: A n
Introduction a n d Commentary (D o w n er s G r o v e. III.. 1973). p p 107, 108 T h e c o m p r e h e n siv e stud y o n th e prose
sp e ech es in J er em ia h (ex ce p t ch ap . 17 :1 9 -2 7 ) by H W eip p ert. D u Prosareden des Jeremiabuches (B erlin . 197 3 ). has led
to th e co n clu sio n that th e p rose s p e ech es do not d e n i r from th e h an d o f a redactor " P age 2 3 4 . Italics h ers.
65 R ob in son , op. a t., p. 2 2 6 , m isses th e p oin t by cla im in g this.
64 W ith ou t th e initial m. i.e .. fabtotehd (cf. B H K ).
65 S everal m an u scrip ts (MSS* an d ,,M S S (*) read m ifbat/hd. i.e .. th e p lural (see H . B au er a n d P. L ea n d er.
Historische G ram m atik der hr brtschen Sprache des A lien Testaments (H alle. 1922), sec. 2 5 2 r).
w[ B H K su g g e sts m 'Sbtih, her a p o sta sie s, from m 'lbdh
67 S ee H.-J. K raus, Klagelieder (T hreni), 3d e d . (N e u k irch en -V lu y n , 1968). p p. 2 1 . 2 2 . in brackets w ith q u estio n
m ark; R obinson , op a t., p. 229.
B D B . p. 9 8 2 ; K B . p. 5 7 2 .H A L A T .p . 6 0 7 ; C H A L . p. 2 1 8 ; H A D . p. 163. It is a hapax le g o m e n o n d e r iv e d fro m Ibt
i B au er a n d L ea n d er, up. a t., sec. 4 9 0 z , 558c; S tolz, op. a t., col. 864).
69 T h e H ebrew m a i d can m ean [a p p o in te d ] p la ce ( N .A .B . "dw elling." N .A .S .B . " ap p oin ted m e e tin g p la ce)o r
(a p p o in te d ] leasts" (see R .S.V ., K .] V .. et cetera). S ee H A L A T . p p . 5 2 8 . 5 2 9 ; C H A L . p 186; G S a u er. y*d
b estim m en ." T H A T , 1:742.
M any m o d ern ist e x e g e te s assign all (or m ost) o f th ese p assages to later h and s. S ee also W. E ich ro d t. Der
Sabbat bei H esek iel: Ein B eitrag zu r N a ch g esch ich te d es P ron h eten tex tes." Lex T u a Ventas: Festschrift f r H u b en
Ju n ker, ed . by H . G r o ts an d F. M u ssn er (T rier, 1961), p p . 6 5 -7 4 . For a p en etra tin g critiq u e o f th ese h y p o th e se s, see
A n d re a se n . O T Sabbath, p p. 4 0 -48.
71 E ze. 2 0 :1 2 . 13, 2 0 . 2 1 , 24; 2 2 :2 6 ; 2 3 :3 8 ; 4 4 :2 4 .
7J Ex. 3 1 1 3 ; Lev. 19:3, 30; 26:2; Isa. 56:4; 5 8 :1 3 , "my holy day."
75 S ee th e clia p ter " T h e Sabbath in th e P e n ta teu ch . pp. 2 1 -4 3 .
74 A. J e p s e n . B eitra g e zur A u sle g u n g u n d G e sc h ich te d es D ek alogs," Z.4VV 7 9 ( 1 9 6 7 ):2 9 3 ; M athvs. op. a t., p.
2 44.
75 Key stu d ies a re F. S tolz. THK '6t Z eich en ," T H A T . 1:91-95; F. ] H e lfm ey er , "JVIK th," T D O T . 1 :1 6 7 -1 8 8
76 T h e ev id e n t rela tio n sh ip b etw een E x o d u s 3 1 :1 3 an d E zekiel 0 :1 2 , 2 0 . a sig n b etw een m e a n d you" and
'that y o u m ay know ." et ce te ra , sh o u ld n ot be ex p la in e d as a d irect literary d e p e n d e n c e o f o n e o n the o th er (w ith A.
B erth o let a n d K. ( a ilin g .H esekiel[T b in g e n . 1936], p. 70; W Z im m erli, z*<7uW 2 d e d . [N e u k irch en -V lu y n , 1977] p.
4 4 7 . A n d re a se n . O T Sabbath, p. 42 n. 1. again st N . N eg retti. II Setttm o G io m o [R o m e, 197 3 ], p . 2 5 6 , and R o b in so n , op.
a t . p. 2 3 8 , w h o claim s that E x o d u s 3 1 .1 7 is d e p e n d e n t o n Ezekiel 2 0 :1 2 o r a n o th e r early post-E xilic sou rce).
77 T h e in fin itive fo rm o f yd! is id en tical in E zekiel 2 0 : 12 . 2 0 , an d E x o d u s 3 1 :1 3 , but u n u su a l in o th e r fo r m u la e o f
re co g n itio n . C f. Z im m erli. op a t., p. 6 0
'* W Z im m erli. O ld Testam ent Theology in O utline (A tlan ta. 1978), p p. 125. 126.
y E. J e n n i. D ie theologische B eg r n d u n g des Sabbatgebotes im Alten Testam ent (Z urich. 1 956). p. 31.
90 C orrectly e m p h a siz e d bv F. M aass, " 7 7 n h ll pi. en tw eih en ." T H A T , 1:573.
*' R ob in son , op a t., p. 23 $ .
82 T h e arg u m en t that "sabbath co u ld n ot h ave tak en p lace at an in terval sh o rter than that o f n ew m oon" (with
r e fe ren ce to th e se q u e n c e in H o sea 2 : 1 1 as m ain tain ed by R ob in son , op. a t., p . 6 2 . a n d eq u ally ap p lica b le to E zekiel
4 5 :1 7 ) stan d s w ith out su p p o rt fro m th e O ld T esta m en t. O n c e the o rd er o f in crea sin g freo u en cy o f celeb ra tio n is
reco g n ized , i.e ., yearly (leasts), m on th ly (new m o o n s), w eek ly (sabbaths), as in H o sea 2:11 a n d E zekiel 4 5 :1 7 . or
m on th ly (n ew m o o n s), w eekly (sabbaths), as in Isaiah 1:13; 6 6 :2 3 ; A m o s 8:5; a n d 2 K ings 4 :2 3 , e ith e r w ith o r w ithout
th e a p p o sitio n a l p h rase all th e a p p o in ted feasts" (H o sea 2 :1 1 ; Eze. 4 5 :1 7 ). th en a co n sisten t a n d h a rm o n io u s
u n d er sta n d in g e m e r g e s for all tex ts in w hich Sabbath a p p e a rs in rela tio n sh ip to new m o o n a n d o th er festivals. See
n o te 94.
u S ee R ob in son , op. a t., p. 30. A n d r e a se n . O T Sabbath, p. 4 8 . su g g e sts th e first part o f th e eig h th ce n tu ry B . c . . or
p erh a p s earlier.
C ontrary to th e R abbinic restriction o f 1.0 0 0 step s (Sotah 5. 3; C D X. 2 0 . 2 1 ). S h u n em a n d C a rm el w ere
sep a ra ted b> 2 5 km . (1 6 m i.). C f. A S an d a. D u Bucher der K nige (M u n ster, 1912). 2 :3 1 .
** S o m e sch olars su g g e st o n th e basis o f 2 K ings 4 :2 2 . 2 3 . that servan ts an d cattle w ere e m p lo y e d o n th e Sabbath
a n d that it w as n ot a rest dav (A P h illip s. A ncient IsraeT s C rim in a l I a w : A \ e w Ajrjnoach to the Decalogue (O x fo r d . 1970],
p. 6 8 ; R o b in son , op. a t., p. 3 3 ). T h e h u sb an d 's q u e stio n w ou ld m ak e n o sen se it it had b een a Sabbath T h e con trast is
b etw een today" ihayycm ) an d th e n ew m o o n o r Sabbath. C f. S. |. D eV ries. Yesterday. Today, a n d Tomorrow ((rand
R apids. M ich.. 1975). p. 23 5 .
86 F. B o h n . D er Sabbat im A lten T estam ent u n d im Altjdischen religisen Aberglauben (G terslo h . 190 3 ). p. I I; K.
B u d d e . A n tw ort a u f j o h a n n e s M e in h o ld s 'Zur S ab b ath frage. " 7.AW 4 8 (1 9 3 0 ): 140; W W C a n n o n , T h e W eekly
Sabbath," Z A W 4 9 (1 9 3 1 ):3 2 6 ; G . J . B otterw eck . D er Sabbat in A lten T esta m en te," Theologische (uarialschnft 134
(1 9 5 4 ): 137, 138; L em aire. ot>. a t., p p . 163, 164; Stolz, "113^ <bt a u ftio re n . ru h en ." co l. 8 6 6 .
87 It is g o in g far b ey o n d th e e v id e n c e to su g g e st that th e Sabbath was at this sta g e a f u ll-m o o n day (R o b in so n , op
a t., p. 33). T h e se q u e n c e new m o o n "sabbath" gives n o su p p o rt to this, b ecau se it fo llo w s th e n atu ral o rd er o f
in crea sin g freq u en cy o f ce leb ra tio n (see n o te 82).
8,4 J. G ray. I & I I K ings: A Com mentary (P h ila d elp h ia . 1963). p. 5 1 6 .
Kil T h e m o n th ly c h a n g e o f th e co m m a n d e r s o f th e arm v (1 C h r o n . 2 7 :1 ) as in stitu ted at th e b e g in n in g o f
k in g sh ip is n ot related to th e Sabbath (see R ob in son , op. a t., p. 9 0 ). b eca u se th e g a tek eep er s o f th e sanctuarv^T em ple
w ere n ot id en tical w ith th e fo rm er an d ch a n g e d ea ch w eek o n Sabbath (ch a p . 9 : 17-32). O n ly L evites a n d p riests w ere
to e n te r th e T e m p le (2 C h r o n . 2 3 :4 , 6).
90 For d ates, see E. R. T h ie le , A Chronology of the H ebrew Kings (G rand R apids. M ich ., 1977), p. 75.

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 THE S AB BA TH IN S CR I PT UR E AND HI STOR Y

91 For a d eta iled d iscu ssio n o f ih e o b scu re w ord s, se e M c csiers, op. cit., p. 146; A n d re a se n . O T Sabbath, p. 5 2 n n .
2. 3; R ob in son . oj> n t.. p p 9 9 -1 0 8 .
91 W e co n c e iv e o f m m as th e a u th o r o f I and 2 C hronicle. Ezra, a n d N ch cm ia h .
91 1 C h r o n . 9 :3 2 ; 2 3 :3 1 ; 2 C h r o n 2:4; 8:13; 2 3 :4 . 8; 31:3; 3 6 :2 1 ; N e h . 9 :1 3 , 14; 1 0 :3 2 -3 4 ; 1 3 :1 5 -2 2 .
94 T h e o rd er is o n e o f d e c r e a sin g freq u en cy in 1 C h r o n icle s 2 3 :3 1 , i.e .. w eek ly (sabbaths), m o n th lv (n ew m o o n s),
a n d p ossibly yearly (a p p o in te d leasts) (cf. 2 C h ron . 8 :13). 2 C h r o n icle s 2 :4 p ro v es th is o r d e r o f d e c r e a sin g freq u en cy
o f sacrifices in its s e o u e n c e o f d aily (m o r n in g an d e v e n in g ), w eek ly (sabb aih s), m o n th ly (new m o o n s), a n d vearlv
(a p p o in te d feasts). T n e ch ro n ic ler alw ays has m e se q u e n c e from m ost to lea si. w h erea s o th er O ld T esta m en t w ritings
p r efer th e o r d e r fro m least to m ost. S ee n o te 82.
95 R ep resen ta tiv e view s arc A. O rr. " T h e S even ty Y ears o f Babvlon." V T 6 (1 9 5 6 ):3 0 4 -3 0 6 ; C . F. W h itley. T h e
T e r m S ev en ty Y ears C aptivity," V T 4 ( l9 5 4 ):6 0 -7 2 ; idem, " T h e S ev en ty Y ears D eso la tio n A R ejoin d er," I T 7
(1 9 5 7 ):4 I 6 -4 1 8 ; O . PlOger, "Sieb/.ig Jahre," F eslsthnfl F Baum gilrtel urn 70. (ieburistag. e d . by L. R osi (E rla n g en
1959), p p . 124-130; B 7.. W ach old er, "Sabbatical Year." ID B S u p . (N a sh v ille. 1976). p p 7 6 2 . 7 6 3 .
96 J . M. M vers, II Chronicles (C a rd en C ily, 19 6 5 ). p p . 2 2 2 , 2 2 3 ; P R. A ck rovd . Exile andR esto ra tio n (P h ila d elp h ia .
1968), p p. 2 4 0 -2 4 3 .
97 J. M. M vers, E ira-S'ehem uih (C a rd en C ily, 1965). p . 178.
98 B. E S h afer, "Sabbath," ID B S u p . (N a sh v ille. 1976). o 7 6 1 .
99 T h e E x p ressio n ydm aode< ap pear* o n ly h ere in ih e O ld T esta m en t A lth o u g h th e Sabbath is several tim e s
ca lled "holy" (E x. 16:23; 3 1 :1 4 . 15; Lev. 27 :2 3 ; Isa 5 8 :1 3 ). h ere il d o e s n ot refer lo ih e Sabbath.
100 C . F. Keil, T he Books o f E zra. Sehem iah, a n d E ilhrr (rep rin t e d .. C ra n d RapKls. M ich . 195 2 ). p. 2 5 2
101 M yers, E ira -S e h em u ih , p. 178.
103 T h e p h rase " p r o fa n in g th e sabbath" is fam iliar Irom E /e k iel 2 0 :1 6 . 2 1 . 2 4 . 2 2 :8 ; 2 3 :3 8 Its id ea is p resen t in
E x o d u s 31:1 4 ; Isaiah 5 6 :2 . 6.
103 T ra n sla tio n o f M yers. E zra-Sehrm uxh. p. 2 1 0 .
 C H APTER 3

The Sabbath in the

Intertestamental Period

Sakae Kubo

H E intertestam ental period brings to view several new facets re g ard in g the
T history o f th e Sabbath. First, aside from the Sabbath com m andm ent itself (Ex.
20:8-11; D eut. 5 : 12-14; Lev. 23:3), the O ld T estam ent provides surprisingly few
specific statem ents re g ard in g the m an n er o f observing the day.* T h e intertesta
m ental sources carry us beyond these and serve as a transition betw een the Old
T estam en t an d the Rabbinic period. F u rth erm o re , these sources give inform ation
on Sabbath observance in w artim e an d in situations w here the Jew s w ere subjects
o f foreign powers. W hile such situations were present in the O ld T estam en t, we
have no sim ilar inform ation th e re re g ard in g Sabbath observance in conjunction
with them . A still fu rth e r aspect o f the Sabbath that first appears d u rin g this
period is th e setting fo rth , especially by Philo, o f a kind o f theology o f the Sabbath
necessitated by Jew ish contacts with Hellenistic society. O th e r facets include the
contents o f th e Sabbath service and the Jew ish sectarian views on the Sabbath.
T he O bservance o f the Sabbath
O straca fo u n d at E lep h an tin e in Egypt (fifth century B . C . ) m ention the
Sabbath fo u r tim es.' O ne o f these m erely m entions the Sabbath, and noth in g can
be in ferred from this except th at th ere was an aw areness o f the Sabbath. A second
ostracon is ad d ressed to the w om an Islah, who, according to Rosenthal.- is told to
"m eet the boat tom orrow on Sabbath lest they [the vegetables] get lost/spoiled <rqy
Ip' mhr bSbh Imh hn y bd). By the life o f Y H H , if not, I shall take your lii|e] {np3k[y]
Ikh)! T h e th ird ostracon refers to som ething, p erh ap s the dispatching o f fish,
being d o n e b efo re the Sabbath. T h e fo u rth has the sentence, 1 am going and will
not com e until the eve (of the Sabbath) (rubh)."
P o rten also discusses the nam e Shabbethai, which is found fo u r tim es in the
A ram aic papyri o f Elephantine-Syene an d once on a sarcophagus. A ccording to
T e x ts such as Exoclus 16:29. J e r e m ia h 17:22. Isaiah 5 8 :1 3 , a n d N ch c m ia h 1 3 :1 5 -2 2 arc n o ted in ch a p ters 1
an d 2. S ee p p . 2 5 -2 7 . 4 7 -4 9

57
 T H E S AB BA TH IN S C R I P T U R E AND HI STOR Y

T cherikover, this nam e was given especially in Egypt only to Jew ish children born
on th e Sabbath d u rin g the Hellenistic period, bu t later on to o th ers w ithout this
connotation. Still later, d u rin g the Rom an period, the nam e was changed to
Sam bathion an d was given to Egyptians, as well. His explanation for this is that the
Sabbath m ade a d ee p im pression on non-Jews, so that m any o f them ad o p ted its
observance w ithout becom ing Jews.* P orten feels thai th ree occurrences o f this
nam e belong to non-Jews who w ere attracted by Sabbath observance.* If this is so,
it would be highly significant, since T cherikover finds this p h en o m en o n only in
the Rom an period. I f Porten is right, then we have non-Jews already keeping the
Sabbath in th e fifth century B . C ., an d this practice probably con tin u ed on th ro u g h
the Hellenistic period.
R egarding the m ention o f Sabbath in the ostraca, he concludes: At first
glance, the person who w rote to Islah to m eet the boat on the Sabbath lest the
vegetables which he was sending that dav get lost/spoiled is rem iniscent o f the
co n tem p o rary m en o f J u d a h who b ro u g h t grain, wine, and figs into Jeru salem on
the Sabbath (Neh. 13:15). O n the o th e r hand, concern for th e preservation o f the
vegetables an d th e threat to take Islah's life unless she m et the boat on the Sabbath
may imply som e ex trao rd in ary situation an d indirecdy attest the regular
observance o f th e Sabbath. The possible dispatch o f fish an d the individuals
arrival befo re the day o f the Sabbath may indicate a deliberate unw illingness to
p ro fan e the Sabbath by traveling o r dispatching an object on that day. 5
In this sam e article, P orten seeks to show' that the Jew s w ere not as svncretistic
in ih eir w orship as has been held form erly. T h e only clear case o f this he finds in
th e w orship o f A nathY H W , which he attributes to the w orship o f heavenly bodies
intro d u ced d u rin g th e days o f M anasseh (2 Kings 21:5; 2 C hron. 33:3,5). T h e cult
o f B ethel, he feels, belongs to the A ram aeans w ho had a garrison at Syene in close
proxim ity to the Jew's."
A practice th at is clearly in evidence in the Rabbinic period but not m entioned
in th e O ld T estam en t com es into view for the first tim e in the book o f J u d ith , which
is d ated by most scholars betw een 150 and 125 b . c . T h e heroine fasted all th e days
o f h er w idow hood, except the day before the sabbath and the sabbath itself, the
day befo re th e new m oon an d th e new m oon itself, and the feasts an d days o f
rejoicing o f th e house o f Israel" (chap. 8:6). Even in h er m ourning, since the
Sabbath and th e feasts w ere considered days o f rejoicing, she refrain ed from
fasting on those days. She also set u p a tent on the ro o f of h er house w here she
wore g arm ents o f h e r w idow hood, but the Sabbath and feast days she spent in h er
hom e w earing d iffe ren t g arm ents (verse 5). W hile the story is considered fictional
an d takes place in the days o f Assyria, nevertheless it ref lects custom s and practices
o f the perio d in which it was w ritten.
T h e Book o f Jubilees, w ritten in the form o f a revelation given to Moses on
Sinai, is d ated about the sam e tim e as Ju d ith . H ere for the first tim e we have a
series o f prohibitions re g ard in g the Sabbath, and a fo re ru n n e r o f th e later
Rabbinic laws re g ard in g the Sabbath. F ragm ents o f this book have also been
found at Q u m ran an d are believed to be a p a rt o f the literature o f the sect that
lived th ere. A ccording to F rank Cross, " T h e concrete contacts in theology,
term inology, calendrical peculiarities, and priestly interests, betw een the editions
o f Enoch, Jubilees, a n d the T estam ents o f Levi a n d N aphtali found at Q u m ra n on
th e one han d , and the dem onstrably sectarian works o f Q u m ran on the o th e r, are

58
 T H E S AB BA T H IN S C RI P TU R E AND H IS TOR Y

him d rin k w here he stands, but let him not draw water into any [vessel]" (11:2). He
m ust not strike a beast; if it is stubborn, he m ust not take it out o f his house (11:6,
7).
A dditional prohibitions not found in Jubilees are:
1. "L et no m an speak a lewd o r villainous w ord" (10:18).
2. Let him not lend anything to his n eig h b o u r (or: press his n eig h b o u r for
repaym ent o f anything) (10:18).
3. "Let them not shed blood for (or: d isp u te about) p ro p erty a n d gain
(10:18).
4. Let no m an walk about in the field on Sabbath in o rd e r to do the work he
requires after* the Sabbath ends" (11:20, 21).
5. Let him not walk about outside his town above o n e th ousand cubits
( 10:2 1 ).
6. A nd o f th at which is lying about (lit.:lost) in the field [let him not] eat
(10:23).
7. Let him no t send a proselyte (or: gentile) to d o what he req u ires on the
Sabbath day" (11:2).
8. Let no m an put upon him self (on th e Sabbath) dirty clothes o r such as
have been put into store, unless they have [been washed] in w ater o r a re rubbed
with frankincense (11:4).
9. "L et no m an go a fte r a beast (on the Sabbath) to pasture it outside his tow n
fo r m o re th an two th ousand cubits'" (11:5, 6).
10. [Let him not open] a pitch-sealed vessel on the Sabbath" (11:9).
11. Let no m an carry upon him self m edicam ents to go o u t a n d [to go in] on
the S abbath (11:10).
12. Let no m an pick u p in his dw elling-house a stone o r dust" (11:11).
13. Let 'th e p ed a g o g u e14 n o tc a rrv the y oung child' to go out and to go in on
the S abbath (11:11).
14. "Let no m an u rg e on his (Jewish) slave o r m aidservant o r [hired laborer]
on th e S abbath (11:12).
15. Let no m an assist a beast in birth on the Sabbath day. Even if she d rops
her new-born young into a cistern o r a pit, let him not keep it (the young) alive on the
Sabbath" (11:13, 14).
16. Let no m an [spend the Sabbath] in a place n ear gentiles on the S abbath
(11:15).
17. Let no m an p ro fan e the Sabbath fo r the sake o f p ro p erty and gain on the
Sabbath. But every living (lit.:soul of) m an who falls into a place fu ll o f w ater o r
into a place [from w hich one cannot com e up], let any m an [bring him up] with a
lad d er o r a ro p e o r any in stru m en t" (11:15-17).'*
18. Let no m an o ffe r o n the altar on the Sabbath except the b u rn t-o fferin g
o f th e Sabbath; fo r thus it is w ritten: ap a rt from your S abbath-offerings (11:17,
18).
T h e re is ag reem en t that the Q u m ran sect generally had a stricter view o f
Sabbath observance than the rest o f the Jews. Jo sep h u s bears this out w hen he
writes: T h ey . . . a re stricter th a n all Jew s in abstaining from w ork on th e seventh
day; fo r not only do they p re p a re th eir food on the day before, to avoid kindling a
fire on that o ne, but they do not ven tu re to rem ove any vessel o r even to go to
stool. 16 K im brough disagrees with this ju d g m e n t and puts forth his own thesis

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 T H E S A B BA T H IN T H E I N T E R T E S T A M E N T A L PERIOD

that w hat th e Z adokite D ocum ent gives us is precise evidence as to the n a tu re o f

n orm ative Jew ish tradition at a very early stage." He accepts G. F. M oores
evaluation th at th e strictness o f the laws was not particularly sectarian" but was
the ch aracter o f th e o ld er H alakah in general. 17
O n e o f th e m ost striking differences betw een the Zadokite D ocum ent and
J ubilees is the fact th at the d ea th penally for Sabbath desecration is not m entioned
at all. Instead, th e fo rm e r reads: "B ut everyone who goes astray so as to profane
the Sabbath an d th e ap pointed tim es shall not be p u t to death, for it falls to m en to
g u ard him ; a n d if he is healed from it, they shall g u ard him for a period o f seven
years, an d afterw ard s h e shall com e into the assembly" (12:4-6). In this it seems to
be m o re liberal even th an Rabbinic Ju d aism , which kept the d eath penally but
em phasized th at th e transgression m ust be a com plete act o f work o r do n e
presum ptuously in spite o f the w arning o f witnesses.*
O th e r d ifferences betw een the two docu m ents are: (1) T h e Zadokite
D ocum ent does not m ention lighting a fire on the Sabbath, although this is
probably assum ed on th e basis o f E xodus 35:3 a n d N um bers 15:32-35 an d the
com m and to eat only th at which has been p re p a re d on the previous day; (2)
Jubilees prohibits traveling on sea, which is not m entioned in the Zadokite
D ocum ent, as well as rid in g on an anim al, slaughtering a beast o r bird, catching an
anim al, b ird , o r fish, an d m aking war.
A ccording to B ieten h ard t, the Zadokite D ocum ent is stricter than the
Rabbinic praxis in the following: the tim e o f beginning the Sabbath; speaking a
foolish o r idle w ord; the length o f a Sabbath day's jo u rn e y ; the o p en in g o f a
pitch-sealed vessel; the carry in g o f m edicam ents; the picking u p o f stone o r dust
in the house; th e carrying o f a young child in an d ou t o f the house; the helping o f
a m an who has fallen in w ater.1
Philo, a fte r m entioning that the Sabbath rest is to include o n es family,
neighbors, freem en , an d slaves, as well as his beasts, goes fu rth e r th an anything
m entioned th u s far. T h e Zadokite D ocum ent forbids a m an to eat what is lying
about in th e field (10:23), but Philo says that the Sabbath "extends also to every
kind o f trees an d plants; fo r it is not p erm itted to cut any shoot o r branch, o r even
a leaf, o r to pluck any fruit w hatsoever. 19
Sabbath Observance in Situations o f Conflict
A lthough it really falls u n d e r the previous section, we are treatin g this aspect
o f Sabbath observance separately because o f its prom inence d u rin g this period.
T h e re are surprisingly no such cases m entioned in the O ld T estam en t, even
th o u g h th ere w ere situations o f conflict d u rin g which the people o f God had to live
u n d e r foreign rulers, as in Egypt, Assyria, an d Babylon. T h e Israelites also
engaged in wars d u rin g this period, but n oth in g is said about this aspect, although
the rabbis discussed J o s h u a s m arch aro u n d Jerich o , and A lger F. Jo h n s seems to
think th at N eb u ch adrezzar attacked Jeru salem specifically on the Sabbaths
because presum ably he knew that they would not resist him th en .1'
We h e a r n o th ing about Sabbath problem s d u rin g the Egyptian oppression
before th e Exodus. Presum ably m ost o f the Israelites forgot the laws o f th eir
fathers. How ever, the Sabbath seems to have great im portance fo r the D iaspora

S ee p p 8 2 . 8 3 .

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 T H E S ABBATH IN S CR I PT UR E AND HI STOR Y

Jew s in Egypt d u rin g the Ptolem aic period. T h e th ree m ost p o p u lar Hebrew
nam es d u rin g this period w ere Sabbathai, Sim on, and Jo sep h .21T h e first was given
to a child b o rn on th e Sabbath. M ention has also been m ade o f the fact th at m any
non-Jews also took this nam e a n d that Gentiles bearing the nam e Sam bathion (a
co rru p tio n o f the nam e) w ere keeping the Sabbath w ithout becom ing Jews.
N evertheless, in a total pagan environm ent it was not easy for a Jew to rem ain
faithful. T h e re is one instance o f a m an on the estate o f A pollonios in
Philadelphia, probably a m an ag er o f building works, who did not w ork on the
Sabbath. We should recall the vast am ount o f work carried ou t by the new setders
in Philadelphia, th e tem po o f the work, and the severity o f such taskm asters as
Apollonios o r Zenon, to appreciate the steadfastness o f a Jew observing the
Sabbath u n d e r such conditions."
Life for a Jew could be very difficult w orking u n d e r foreign taskm asters but
well-nigh im possible in a foreign arm y. Jo sep h u s lists a letter o f Dolabella,
g o v ern o r o f Syria, who w rote to E phesus about 44 B . C . , giving instruction
concerning the Jew s' insistence that they cannot u n d ertak e m ilitary service
because they may not bear arm s o r m arch on the days o f the Sabbath." In this case
he g ra n te d them exem ption from military service and allowed them to follow th eir
native custom s. T h e papyri have shown clearly that Jew s served as soldiers in
Egy pt in the Ptolemaic period an d even before that in the Persian period, as the
Jewish garrison at E lephantine indicates. T h is continued to the Rom an period,
when th e Ptolemaic arm y was abolished.24 But th ere are no indications o f Sabbath
problem s. P erhaps in a peacetim e situation, accom m odation could be m ade o r the
Jew s acquiesced. T h e re is one account w here they w ere forced into the arm y and
com pelled to fight on the Sabbath against th eir own countrym en. N icanor w anted
to attack Ju d a s an d felt he could do so with com plete safety on the day o f rest.
T h e Jew s who w ere forced into his arm y tried to dissuade him , beseeching him to
show respect fo r the day which he who sees all things has h o n o red an d hallowed
above o th e r days." W hen N icanor asked who com m anded this, they replied, It
is th e living L ord him self, the Sovereign in heaven." N icanor then replied, ' And
1 am a sovereign also, on ea rth , an d I com m and you to take u p arm s and finish the
king's business." 2' A pparently they were forced to attack but did not succeed.
But how did they relate to the Sabbath when they were fighting for
them selves, w hen they could control what they did on the Sabbath (at least o n their
part)? T h e first such situation we have recorded took place w hen Ptolem y Soter
e n te re d Jeru salem on a Sabbath u nopposed and becam e m aster o f the city
w ithout difficulty an d ru led it harshly. *
L ater, about 168 B .C . , A ntiochus sent A pollonios to Jerusalem , w here he
rem ained peaceably until the Sabbath, w hen he o rd e re d his m en to p a ra d e in arm s
since the Jew s w ere idle. W hen the people cam e to see them , they w ere slain. He
also destroyed the city walls an d built the Acra, a fortified citadel occupied by
tro o p s.27
In the next such occasion u n d e r A ntiochus E piphanes, when a d eterm in ed
plan o f H ellenization was ad ded to conquest, th e re was a d iffe ren t reaction. Many
jew s subm itted by sacrificing to idols an d p ro fan in g the Sabbath.2* B ut som e
refu sed an d fled into the wilderness. T h e enem y p ursued them an d intentionally
attacked them on th e Sabbath. M attathias a n d his followers refused to d efen d
them selves, saying, Let us all die in o u r innocence." T h e result was disaster.

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 T H E S AB BA TH IN T H E I N T E R T E S 1 A M E N T A L PERI OD

Faced with ihe dilem m a o f fighting on the Sabbath o r suffering annihilation, the
survivors chose th e form er. ' Let us.'" they d eterm in ed , fight against every m an
who com es to attack us on th e sabbath day; let us not die as o u r b re th re n died in
th eir hiding p la c e s."'" Jo sep h u s adds. W e contin ue the practice o f fighting even
on th e Sabbath w henever it becom es necessary. T h e Book o f Jubilees, w ritten a
little later th an this event, prohibits w ar on the Sabbath. P erhaps it rep resen ts a
g ro u p th at rigidly m aintained th e strict observance o f the Sabbath even if it m eant
annihilation. At any rate, it m ust have been m ade with conscious aw areness o f the
problem o f th e observance o f Sabbath in w artim e.
D uring th e M accabean period, this practice o f d efen d in g them selves when
attacked but not lighting offensively on th e Sabbath seems to have been followed.
Ju d as fought against N icanor w hen the latter attacked him on the S abbath," and
Jo n a th a n did likewise when Bacchides attacked him on the Jew s' sacred day.
Jo sep h u s, also, d u rin g the G reat W ar, followed this practice w hen he was in
com m and o f a tro o p at T aric h aea e." A pparendy, the enem y generals w ere not
fully aw are o f th e Jew s' decision to d e fe n d them selves on the Sabbath. Howev er,
even w hen th e Jew s could take advantage, they did not attack th e enem y on the
Sabbath. Even th o u g h Ju d a s an d his forces had ro u ted N icanor an d had p u rsu ed
him for som e distance, they w ere obliged to re tu rn because the h o u r was late. For
it was th e day b efo re the sabbath, an d for that reason they did not continue their
p u rsu it. T hey kept the Sabbath, an d on die next day they d istributed the spoils.1*
O n a n o th er occasion ) udas had G orgias in flight, but since the Sabbath was com ing
o n, he stopped so his forces could observe the day.
Even th o u g h they fought to d efen d them selves on the Sabbath, the Sabbath
rem ained very im p o rtan t for the Jew s, an d their enem ies w ere well aw are o f this.
T h u s when D em etrius sought the alliance o f Jo n a th a n , one o f his proposals was
th at on the Sabbaths a n d all festivals an d the th ree days preceding a festival the
Jews shall be ex em pt from la b o u r."* and J o h n H yrcanus, who was forced to
accom pany A ntiochus V II Sidetes to fight against the Parthians, even in this type
o f relationship p ersu ad ed the king to rem ain in one place not only for the Sabbath
but also for Pentecost, w hich h ap p e n ed to prccede the Sabbath that year, since on
those days th e Jew s w ere not p erm itted to m arch.
D ifferent strategies could be used against the Jews, assum ing that the enem ies
knew how they would behave on the Sabbath. Knowing that they would d efen d
them selves only if attacked an d that th ere fo re if th ere were no im m inent sign o f
attack the Jew s would relax, th eir enem ies could attack them by surprise. T h is is
exactly w hat Ptolemy L ath y ru sd id ( r . 100 B .C .) w hen he attacked Asochis, a city o f
Galilee, on the Sabbath, an d taking it by storm , cap tu red about ten thousand
persons and a great deal o f booty besides."*A n o th er type o f strategy would be for
the enem y to m ake o th er types o f m ilitary prep aratio n s short o f an attack. T his is
the tack that Pom pey followed in cap tu rin g Jerusalem . C oncerning this, Jo sep h u s
u vs:
"But if it w ere not o u r national custom to rest on the Sabbath day, the
earthw orks w ould not have been finished, because the Jews would have p revented
this; for the Law perm its us to d efen d ourselves against those who begin battle and
trike us, but it does not allow us to fight against an enem y that does anything else.
O f this fact th e R om ans w ere well aw are, an d on those days which we call the
Sabbath, they did not shoot at the |ew s o r m eet them in han d to hand com bat, but

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instead they raised earthw orks an d towers, an d b ro u g h t u p th eir siege-engines in

o rd e r th at these m ight be put to work the following day. **
U n d e r Rom an rule, the Jews w ere quite free to practice th e ir religion,
including the observance o f the Sabbath. We have already m entioned Dolabella's
letter to E phesus exem pting th e Jew s from m ilitary service so that they would not
have conflicts o v er the Sabbat h a n d problem s concerning th eir food Jo sep h u s lists
several o th e r decrees and letters g ran tin g th e Jew s perm ission to observe their
Sabbaths.'" T h e ir conflicts cen tered u p o n the question o f im ages ra th e r th an the
Sabbath.
N evertheless, th ere w ere incidents that related to the Sabbath. Philo m entions
one such case, although his interest is m ore to point out an exam ple o f vainglory.
He m entions o ne o f the ruling class" w ho w anted to do away with the Sabbath. He
co m m anded the Jew s to do things forbidden on the Sabbath, "thinking that if he
could d estroy th e ancestral rule o f the Sabbath it would lead the way to irregularity
in all o th e r m atters, an d a general backsliding." But the Jew s re fu sed , so he tried to
persu ad e them th ro u g h reason:
'S uppose,' h e said, th ere was a su d d en inroad o f the enem y o r an inundation
caused by the river rising an d breaking th ro u g h th e dam , o r a blazing
conflagration o r a th u n d erb o lt o r fam ine, o r plague o r earth q u ak e, o r any o th e r
tro u b le e ith e r o f hu m an o r divine agency, will you stav at hom e perfectly quiet? O r
will you ap p e a r in public in your usual guise, with your right hand tucked inside
an d th e left held close to the Hank u n d e r the cloak lest you should even
unconsciously d o anything that m ight help to save you? And will you sit in y o u r
conventicles an d assemble your re g u lar com pany an d read in security your holy
books, e x p o u n d in g any obscure point an d in leisurely com fort discussing at length
your ancestral philosophy? No, you will throw all these o ff and gird yourselves up
for th e assistance o f yourselves, your p aren ts a n d your children, and th e o th e r
persons who are nearest an d dearest to you, an d indeed also your chattels and
wealth to save th em too from annihilation.
"'See th en ,' he went on, 'I who stand before you am all the things I have
nam ed. I am th e whirlw ind, th e war, the deluge, the lightning, the plague o f
fam ine o r disease, the earth q u ak e which shakes a n d confounds w hat was firm an d
stable; I am co n straining destiny, not its nam e but its pow er, visible to your eyes
and standing at your side." '1
Philo does not tell us w h eth er the ru le r succeeded o r failed; bu t since he could
not force them th ro u g h pressure, it is likely that he failed th ro u g h persuasion.
N evertheless, Philo provides us h ere with a good exam ple o f th e type o f reasoning
that m ust have been presented to persu ad e the Jews in som e instances to go
fu rth e r th an they w ere accustom ed in th eir observance o f the Sabbath.
At th e beginning o f the Jew ish revolt after Vespasian landed in Syria.
A ntiochus, whose fa th e r was c h ie f m agistrate o f the Jew s in A ntioch, not only
d en o u n ced his fa th e r and o th e r Jews but did not allow them "to repose on the
seventh day," instead com pelling them to do everything exactly as on o th e r davs;
and so strictly did he enforce obedience that not only at Antioch was the weekly
day o f rest abolished, but the exam pie having been started th ere sp read fo r a short
tim e to the o th e r cities as w ell."
In th e d esp erate war that broke out betw een the R om ans an d th e Jew s, the
Rom ans could not rely on what the Jew s would do on th e Sabbath. In th e past th eir

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 I MF. S AB BA TH IN T H E IN I F . R T E S T A M E M AL PERIOD

enem ies su rp rised th em because they knew what thev would do. But in this w ar we
find th e opposite taking place. Since the R om ans expected the Jews to act in a
certain way. an d they did not, the Rom ans w ere surprised. T h e first instance o f
this was th e m assacre o f the R om an garrison on the Sabbath, "a day on which from
religious scruples Jew s abstain even from the most innocent acts."45 Josephus
expresses his disapproval o f this Sabbath m assacre when he adds fu rth e r, "T h e
sam e day a n d at th e sam e h o u r, as it w ere by the han d o f Providence, the
inhabitants o f C aesarea m assacred the Jew s who resided in their city."*4 A n o th er
instance o f this was when Jo h n tricked T itu s into postponing th e s u rre n d e r o f the
people o f Cischala from the Sabbath to th e next day so that he could escape d u rin g
the n ight.45
And as the war cam e to its clim ax and reached Jerusalem , Jo sep h u s writes:
T h e Jew s, seeing the w ar now ap p ro ach in g the capital, ab an d o n ed the feast and
ru shed to arm s; an d , with great confidence in th eir num bers, sprang in d iso rd er
and with loud cries into the fray, with no th ought fo r the seventh-day o f rest, fo r it
was th e very sabbath which they re g ard e d with special rev eren ce."4*
T h e Jew ish dilem m a cf keeping the Sabbath holy a n d dying o r lighting o n the
Sabbath and surviving is well expressed in A grippa I I s speech just before the
Jewish rebellion.
' If you observe y o u r sabbath custom s and relu se to take any action on
that day, you will u ndoubtedly be easily defeated, as were your fo refath ers by
Pompey, w ho pressed th e siege m ost vigorously o n the days w hen the besieged
rem ained inactive; if. on the contrary, you transgress the law o f your ancestors. I
fail to see w hat fu rth e r object you will have for hostilities, since your o n e aim is
to p reserve inviolate all the institutions o f your fathers. How could you invoke the
aid o f th e Deity, afte r deliberately om itting to pay Him the service which vou owe
H im ? ' 47
T h e answ er to this is given aptly by A sinaeus, who with his b ro th e r Anilaeus
h ad set u p an in d ep en d e n t enclave in M esopotam ia ab o u t the lim e of G aius death
(a .d . 4 1) and w hen the Jew s w ere being m assacred th ere. W hen Asinaeus h eard of
th e satrap o f Babylonia's plan to attack him on the Sabbath, he sent scouts ou t to
investigate. T h ey cam e back with the re p o rt that it was tru e an d that they were
caught in a tra p an d o u r hands a re tied because the com m andm ent of o u r
ancestral law o rd e rs us to do no w ork." A pparently they tho u g h t it im p ro p e r even
to d efen d them selves on the Sabbath. H owever, A sinaeus response was that it was
"better observance o f the law, instead o f gladdening the foe by a death w ithout
anvthing accom plished, to take his courage in his hands, let the straits into which
he h ad fallen excuse violation o f the law, and die, if he m ust, exacting a just
vengeance.4' His resolve stren g th en ed his forces, and they defeated the enem y.
L ater on, afte r Asinaeus had been poisoned, Anilaeus learned th at the
P arthian leader M ithridates had set up cam p with the idea o f attacking him the
next day, which was the Sabbath. H e m ade a night m arch (Friday night) and
attacked th e Parthians at 3:00 a . m . Sabbath m orning, slew a host o f soldiers,
ca p tu red M ithridates, an d put the rest to flight.4* T h u s the Jew s chose not only
self-defense on th e Sabbath but even attack to defeat their enem ies and preserve
their way o f life. For them it was "b etter observance o f the law" to fight a n d die if
need be to protect th e ir religious rights, even if it m eant at the m om ent that they
had to transgress th e very laws they sought to uphold.

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R eligious Activities on the Sabbath

Very little is m entioned o f the religious activities that were carried on on the
Sabbath. Jo sep h u s m entions th at o n e o f the priests stood n e a r the tow er o f the
southw est co rn e r o f the T em p le to give notice, by sound o f tru m p et, in the
afte rn o o n o f th e ap p ro ach , an d on the following evening o f the close, o f ever)'
seventh day, an n o u n cin g to the people the respective hours for ceasing work an d
fo r resum ing th eir labours. 50
At the T em p le the priests served daily; but on th e Sabbath, new m oons, and
feast days the high priest accom panied them . Philo discusses the Sabbath
sacrifices, the placing o f th e shew bread on the table a n d the frankincense an d salt
o n th e loaves,11 but does so on the basis o f the O ld T estam en t ra th e r th an cu rre n t
practice.
Every Sabbath the Jew s gath ered in the synagogues to listen to the Law an d
to obtain a th o ro u g h an d accurate know ledge o f it." Philo describes in som e
detail what goes on in the synagogue: A nd indeed they do always assemble an d sit
to g ether, m ost o f them in silence except w hen it is the practice to ad d som ething to
signify approval o f what is read. B ut som e priest who is present o r one o f the elders
reads th e holy laws to them and ex p o u n d s them point by point till about the late
aftern o o n , w hen they d e p a rt having gained both ex p e rt know ledge o f the holy
laws an d considerable advance in piety.
Philo m ore frequently describes these activities as studying philosophy an d
occupying them selves with the philosophy o f th eir fathers, dedicating that tim e
to th e acquiring o f know ledge an d the study o f the tru th s o f n a tu re . H e
sum m arizes the tru th s a n d principles studied u n d e r two heads: one o f du ty to
G od as shewn by piety an d holiness, one o f duty to m en as shewn by hum anity and
justice." M oreover, he calls the synagogues schools o f good sense, tem perance,
courage, justice, an d the o th e r virtues," as well as pru d en ce, piety, an d holiness.M
T h e Sabbath was to be devoted to the o ne sole object o f philosophy with a
view to the im provem ent o f character a n d subm ission to the scrutiny o f
conscience." Every Sabbath they should exam ine "w hether any offence against
purity had been com m itted in the preceding days, an d exact from them selves in
th e council-cham ber o f the soul, with the laws as th eir fellow-assessors an d
fellow -exam iners, a strict account o f what they had said o r do n e in o rd e r to correct
what had been neglected a n d to take precaution against repetition o f any sin.
A ccording to Philo, th e T h e ra p e u ta e isolated them selves for six days bu t
cam e to g eth er on the Sabbath. His description o f th e service itself is quite sim ilar
to the reg u lar synagogue w orship that he described above.
But every seventh day they m eet to g eth er as fo r a general assembly a n d sit in
o rd e r according to th eir age in the p ro p e r attitude, with th eir hands inside the
robe, th e right h an d betw een the breast an d the chin an d the left w ithdraw n along
th e flank. T h e n the senior am o n g them who also has the fullest know ledge o f the
doctrines which they profess com es forw ard an d with visage an d voice alike quiet
an d com posed gives a w ell-reasoned and wise discourse. H e does no t m ake an
exhibition o f clever rhetoric like th e orators o r sophists o f to-day but follows
careful exam ination by careful expression o f the exact m eaning o f the thoughts,
an d this does not lodgejust outside the ears o f the audience but passes th ro u g h the
h earin g into the soul an d th ere stays securely. All the others sit still an d listen
show ing th eir approval m erely by th eir looks o r nods. 5

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H e fu rth e r describes th e synagogue as having a double enclosure, with the

wom en segregated from the m en with a low wall between.
How ever, th e synagogue seems to have been used on the Sabbath for o th er
purposes th an instruction in the law. Jo sep h u s describes a m eeting held in the
synagogue o f T iberias on Sabbath w here a political discussion was carried on that
could easily have led to a riot had not the arrival o f the sixth h o u r, at which it is
o u r custom on th e Sabbath to take o u r m idday meal, broken o ff the m eeting. 5"
The T heology o f the Sabbath
H ere we deal with th e Sabbath not from the standpoint o f what can and
cannot be d o n e o r what religious activities are p erfo rm ed on it, but from the
stan dpoint o f its d e e p e r m eanings as derived from its various com ponents, such as
its being the seventh day, a day o f rest, o r a day o f spiritual em phasis. T h e o n e who
developed this aspect o f the Sabbath m ore th an anyone else, in fact alm ost
exclusively, was Philo. N aturally, som e o f his reasoning will seem fanciful to us
today, but in th e context o f his time, especially fo r those who und ersto o d the
philosophical cu rren ts that influence Philo, it w ould have been cogent.
Philo develops his theology on the Sabbath with reference to the m eaning o f
the n u m b er seven,59to th e universal significance o f the Sabbath as the birthday o f
th e w o rld ," to th e philosophical m eaning o f resting,'1,1 an d to the equality and
freedom to which it points.
M iscellaneous Elements
T he N um bering o f the Sabbaths. A ccording to the Q u m ra n calendar, every
vear a n d every q u a rte r began o n a W ednesday. Since th ere w ere 364 days in a
year, 30 days in a m onth, an d with an extra day added every th ree m onths, each
q u a rte r had exactly 13 weeks. T h u s the feast days always fell on the sam e day o f
the week every year, and none o f these fell on the Sabbath.65T h e re is also evidence
that the Sabbaths were n u m b ered th ro u g h o u t the year. B aum garten thinks that
this practice o f n u m b erin g the Sabbaths was not confined to the Q u m ran sect but
was com m on practice am ong the Jew s and Sam aritans o f th e tim e.4
Sabbath Observed Before Creation. Philo, in the context o f the falling o f
m anna, says th at th e Sabbath has held the place o f h o n o u r in n atu re , not m erely
from th e tim e w hen the world was fram ed, but even before the heaven an d all that
sense perceives cam e into being.
Samaritans Kept Sabbath, but for Different Reason.Jo sep h u s relates that
at th e tim e o f A ntiochus E piphanes the S am aritans sought to dissociate them selves
as m uch as possible from th e Jew s a n d th eir practices. T hey thus gave d ifferen t
reasons for th eir observance o f the Sabbath: "O u r forefathers because o f certain
d ro u g h ts in th e ir country, an d following a certain ancient superstition, m ade it a
custom to observe the day which is called the Sabbath by the Jew s.
Etymology o f Sabbath.A pion's explanation for the Sabbath is that on the
sixth day a fte r th e Jew s left E gypt they developed tum ors in the groin a n d so when
they reached J u d e a they rested on that seventh day and called it sabbaton,
preserving th e Egyptian term inology o f the disease o f the groin th at is called
"sabbo. Jo sep h u s attributes this to eith er gross im pudence o r shocking
ignorance; th ere is a wide difference between sabbo and sabbaton. Sabbaton in the
Jew s language d enotes cessation from all work, while sabbo am ong the Egy ptians

67
 I HE S A B B A T H IN S CR I PT UR E AND HISTORY

signifies, as he stales, disease o f the g ro in ."57

The Eighth Day. A lthough 2 Enoch 33:1, 2 connected the days o f C reation
with the history o f the world as consisting o f a world-week o f 7,000 years an d did
not re fe r to a day o f w orship, it did m ention the term eighth day," a n d this was
m ost probably the basis for B arnabas use o f this term for S unday. B arnabas had
earlier used th e C reation schem e in the sam e way as 2 Enoch.69 T h e a u th o r o f 2
Enoch considers th e eighth day as the com m encem ent o f a tim e o f not-counting,
endless, with n eith er years n o r m onths n o r weeks n o r days n o r h o u rs.70 H e does
not explicidy m ention the seventh thousand-year period as a m illennium , but
B arnabas does this. In a sense, then, according to the schem e o f the world-week,
the Sabbath serves not only as a type o f this m illennium o f the seventh
ih o u san d -y ear day but also for the age to com e, which begins with the eighth
th o u san d -y ear period. It is interesting to find that at the death o f Eve, the
archangel tells Seth: M an o f God, m o u rn not for the dead m ore than six days, for
on the seventh day is the sign o f the resurrection a n d the rest o f the age to com e;
on th e seventh day the L ord rested from all His works. 71

NOTES
1 B e/a lel Horten, T h e R eligion o f th e Jew o f E le p h a n tin e in la g h t o f th e H erm o|>olis P ap vri,*J o u rn a l of S e a r
Eastern Studies 2 8 (1 9 6 9 ): I 16-121.
*' F r a n / R osen th al, eel., .An A m m an Handbook. Porta L in g u a lu m O n en ta liu iit n.., X (W iesb a d en . 196 7 ), I I . pp.
12, IS . as tran slated by P orten . op ciL, p . 116. This is q u ite a d iffer en t tran slation fro m that g iv en by A.
D u p o n t-S o m m e r in Lo stra co n ararn^en a u S abbat. Semitun 2 (I 9 4 9 ):3 1 .
I Corpus I*apyrurum Judaic arum, ed . by Y'icior A. T th e n k o v e r in collab. A lex a n d er Fuks, 3 v o ls. ((Cam bridge.
19 5 7 - 1 9 6 4 ), |: 9 5 S ee also h is full d iscu ssion o f th e S am b ath io n s (3 :4 3 -5 6 ).
4 P orten , op. a t.. p p . 117. 121.
* I btd.. pp. 117, 118.
* / M . p p 12 0 , 1 2 1 .
7 Frank M oore C ross, Jr., The Ancient Library of (umran an d M o d em B iblical Studies, rev. ed . (G a rd en C ity , N .Y .,
1961). t) 199.
H Mans H ieten h ard t, " S a b b a iv o rsch n h en von Q u m ra n im Lit h te d es rabbin is h en Ret hts u n d d e r E van gelien ."
in (um ran-Problem e: Vortrage de\ L etp u g e r Sympasions uber Q um ran-Problrm e vom 9. bts I / Oktober 1 961 ( B erlin . 196 3 ). p.
5 4.
wIbid
10 I h e n u m e ra tio n an d tran slation fo llo w e d is that of C h a im R abin, ed . and trails.. The Zadokite Documents, 2d
r e v .e d . (O x fo r d . 1958).
II S o m e d is p u te th e m ea n in g o f th is p assage. T h e (rigin.il reads JD U /n DVD aUUT* R H
(.lia r le s tran slated th is, N o m an shall last o f his o w n w ill o n th e Sabbath" (A P O T , 2 :8 2 7 ), by p ro p o sin g th e re a d in g
r o y r P for 3 T y jV S o m e h ave e m e n d e d th e re a d in g t> 3JTUV w ith th e sa m e m ea n in g , o th ers h ave a ccep ted the
o rig in a l w ith r e fe r e n c e to therrii/ im p ly in g o p p o sitio n by th e sectaries <f th is Pharisaic e n a c tm e n t, a n d still o th ers
u n d ersta n d th e p assa g e as p ro h ib itin g co m p etitio n or m ak in g a w ager, or " poolin g p rop erty" on th e Sabbath S.
H o e n ig tran slates th e p assage. "Let n o m an socialize. o f h is o w n free w ill, o n tn e Sabbath* (see H o e n ig 's a rticle An
Interd ict A gain st S ocializin g o n th e Sabb ath ," Jewish Quarterly Rexnew 6 2 [1 9 7 1 -1 9 7 2 1 :7 7 -8 3 ).
** R abin, op. a t., p. 53.
l% A P O T . 2 :8 2 6 .
14 I h e H ebrew is en ig m a tic. C h a rles tran slates it as n u r sin g fa th er (A P O T . 2 :8 2 7 ), w h ile S. T . K im b ro u g h , Jr.
(T h e C on cep t o f S ab b ath at Q u m r a n . Rn-ue tie Qumran 5 ( 1 9 6 4 -1 9 6 6 1 :4 9 5 ) tran slates it fo ster-fa th er " S am u el
B elkin (Philo an d the O ral L aw (C am b rid ge. M ass.. 19 4 0 ], p. 2 0 3 ) su g g e sts that th e sect p erm itte d ca rry in g , but on ly by
th e p aren t.
14 C h arles tran slates th is. A n d if any pers*n falls in to a p la te o f w ater or in to a p la ce o f . . h e shall not b rin g him
u p by a la d d er or a co rd o r in stru m en t. *A P O T . 2 :8 2 8 . K im b ro u g h (op. a l t fo llo w s Rabin w ith th is e x p la n a tio n
" T h e text is ex tre m ely corru p t lat it is: But ev e ry h u m a n b ein g w n o falls in to a p la ce fu ll o f w ater, o r in to a place
. let h im not le m a d e t o clim b out.* 1 h ave a ccep ted th e p ro p o sa l tf R abin, G in z b e b c . an d D u p o n t-S o m m e x in
o rd er t> g et aro u n d th e in h u m a n ity o f th e rule as it stan d s T h is is. o f co u rse, on ly su r m ise '* Page 4 9 7 . H ow tine
a ccep ts in is will, o f c o u r se , a ffect o n e's ju d g m e n t o f th e strictn ess o l th e sect.
J o sep h u s Jewish W ar 2. 8 . 9. (A ll citation s fro m J o se p h u s a re fro m L C L )
17 K im b rou gh , op a t., p p. 4 8 4 , 4 8 6 .
IN H ieten h ard t. t p a t . pp. 56 -6 0 .
19 P hilo M ates 2. 4. (A ll cita tio n s from Philo a re from L C L )
w R egard in g|sh u a's attack o n J er ich o . M osh e D avid H err (T h e Problem of W ar o n th e Sabbath in th e S eco n d
T e m p le an d th e T a lm u d u P e r io d s.' T arbu 30 (I9 6 0 -6 1 J ix (th e o rig in a l H ebrew a rticle is o n p p. 2 4 2 -2 5 6 and
3 41-3561) says: " T h e an sw er that G o d exp licitly p erm itte d it p r e se n ts a n e v e n g rea ter d iffic u lty . T h e r e are o th e r s w h o
a d d that Jo sh u a d e s tr o y e d J e n c h o s o as n ot to b en efit fro m Sabbath d esecra tio n . A d m itted ly th e le g en d itse lf o f the
on qu est o f J er ich o o n th e Sabbath is fo u n d in a T a n n a itii Mid rash, but w e h a v e n o record o f a m T a n n a or A m o ra

68
 T H E S A B BA T H IN T H E I N T E R T E S T A M E N T A L PERI OD

ask in g why J o sh u a d ese c r a te d ih r Sabbath. O n th r o th er h an d . Pirqot b rn B aboi w h o li\r d in B ab vlon circa 8 0 0 . 1 .

explicitly states that th e w a g in g o f war is ob lig a to r s o n th e Sabbath |u st as J o sh u a an d th e k in gs o f Israel d id in th e tim e
o f th e Bible. T hese s en tim en ts w ere v o iced , as is k n o w n , to com b at KaraitK view that all war w as fo rb id d en o n the
Sabbath. . . . T h is stra n g e retreat in th r o p in io n s of th e rabbinic sages is n o ca u se lor w o n d er Mrur w e fin d a m o re
e x tr e m e e x a m p le in th e co n tro v ersy w ith tn e K araites an d their fo llo w ers in S e'a d v a 'ifm u n W Wede'ot (ten th c e n t u r s ).
w h ere h e stated , con trary to th e N lidrash. that J o sh u a n ever fo u g h t at all o n th e Sabbath in o rd er to b ru sh aw ay his
o p p o n e n ts w ith a straw - a typical attitu d e a d o p te d in polem ic
For N eb u ch ad rezzar's Sabbath attacks o n J er u sa le m , see A lger F )o h n s. 'T h e M ilitrs S trategs of Sabbath
A ttacks o n th e Jew s." V T 13 ( 1963) 4 8 2 -4 8 6
11 T c h er ik o v er. op a t.. 1:29.
0 I M . . p 44; se e also P apyrus 10 o n p p . 136. 137.
0 J o s e p h u s Jr u ts h Antiquities 14. 10. 12
,4 T c h er ik o v er. op a t . pp. I I . 12. 52.
25 2 Macc 15:1-4. (A ll re fe r e n c e s to th e A p o c ry p h a w ill be fro m th e R evised S tan d ard V ersio n )
n J exits h Antiquities 12. 1. I.
17 2 Macc 5 :2 4 -2 6 ; I Macc 1:30-33.
w I Macc 1:43.
19 C h ap . 2:3 2 -4 1 .
Jewish Antiquities 12. 6 . 2.
51 2 Macc 15:1-4.
M I Macc 9 :2 4 -4 9 ; Jeu ish Antiquities 13. 1. 3.
M U fe 32.
* 2 M acc 8 :2 5 . 2 6 .
54 C h a p 12:38
Jewish Antiquities 13. 2. 3.
s7 I M .. 13. 8 . 4.
** I M . . 13 12. 4.
59 I M . , 14. 4. 2 . 3; se e also Jfun&h W a t 1. 7. 3.
40 Jewish Antiquities 14. 10. 2 0 . 2 1 . 2 3 . 25; 16. 6 . 2 . 4
41 On Dreams 2. 18.
4* Jewish W ar 7. 3. 3.
45 I M . . 2 17 10.
44 Ibid.. 2 . 18. I.
45 I M . . 4 2. 3; also 7. 8 . 7.
4ft Ibid., 2. 19. 2 . It w as a sp ecial S abbath sin ce it fell w ith in th e w eek o l th e Feast o f 1 a b ern a cles
47 I M .. 2. 16. 4
4MJewish Antiquities 18. 9 . 2.
49 Ibid.. 18 9. 6 .
v Jeunsh W ar 4. 9 12.
51 t hr Specuil I m w s 1. 35
M Jose o h m A gainst Aptoti 2. 17.
55 Hypothetic a / . 13.
M The S p ea a l I m w s 2. 15. Moses 2. 39.
w P h ilo On the Creation 43.
46 P h ilo The Decalogue 2 0 .
57 The Contemplatix'e Life 3.
fr 54
M Moses 2. 39; The S p ea a l Laws 2. 15; Alle g o n ia l Interpretation I. 4*6, O n the Creation 3 0 , 3 1 . 3 3 -4 2 .
M Moses I 37; 2. 39; O n the Creation 30; The Sbecuil Laws 2. 15, 16.
61 On the Cherubim 2 6 ; On the Creation 33; Allegorical Interpretation 1. 2. 3 . 6 ; The Special Laws 2. 15. 18; On Flight and
F inding 3 1 ; On Abraham 5.
h* T h e S p ea a l Laws 2. 16.
65 Karl (**org K u h n , "Der g e g e n w r tig e S tand d er E rfo rsch u n g d er in Palstina n eu g e fu n d e n e n hchiais h en
Hands* h i if ten 4 3 . Z um h e u tig e n Stand d er Q u m ra n fo rsch u n g ," Theologische Literatur zeilung 8 5 (I 9 6 0 ):6 5 4
M J o s e p h M. B a u m g a rten . " T h e C o u n tin g of th e Sabbath in A n cien t S ources," VT In (1 9 6 6 ):2 7 7 -2 8 6 Mr
p ro p o se s to ex p la in L u k e 6 : 1 an d H orace's u se o f th e term thcenm a sabbatu in Sat. 1. 9 . 6 9 o n th e bases o f th is a n cient
practice.
w M a s 2. 4 8 .
^ Jewish Antiquities 12. 5. 5.
oT Against Apum 2 . 2.
w B arnabas 15:9.
^ B arnabas 15:4. 5.
70 2 F.noch 3 3 : 1. S e e l . D a n itlo u . La tv p o lo g ie m illen ariste d e la se m a in e d a n s le ( h r is tia m s m e p rin m if," I tgihae
C kn so a n , S 1948): 1-1
71 Vita Adae et Extae 5 1 . 2; see also Apocalypsis Mosls 4 3 . 3.

69
 CH APTER 4

The Rabbinic Sabbath

Robert M. Johnston

F the n u m ero u s Jew ish denom inations in existence before a . d . 70, only two
survived th e destruction of Jerusalem and the T em p le.1 O ne o f these was
C hristianity and the o th er was Pharisaism.- D eprived o f the T em p le and finding it
necessary to adjust to the devastating results o f a tragic war an d a dram atically
altered outlook, Pharisaism necessarily changed. T his post-A.o. 70 continuation o f
Pharisaism is re fe rre d to as Rabbinic Judaism , an d from it virtually all m o d ern
form s o f Ju d aism are descended. T h e present c h a p te r provides a b rie f sketch o f
th e Sabbath as it is re g ard e d an d observed in classical Rabbinic Ju d aism .5
O n e o f the distinguishing features o f Pharisaism had been its high re g ard for
oral tradition. T h e Pharisees claim ed to be heirs o f Ezra the scribe and his court
known as th e G reat Assembly, the beginning o f th e S anhedrin. In d eed , Ezra and
th e G reat Assembly w ere re g a rd e d as transm itters o f oral laws that could be traced
all the way back to Moses.4T h e oral laws usually took th e form o f an in terp retatio n
o r application o f som e p ro o f text from the O ld T estam en t S criptures, given as the
considered opinion o f a no ted rabbi an d su p p o rted by the m ajority vote o f the
o th e r rabbis in the court o r academ y.' But legal decisions by the S anhedrin o r even
individual rabbis could be authoritative even w hen they could no t be proved from
th e Bible. T h e c h a rter fo r such nonscriptural laws, known as geziroth (rabbinical
prohibitions; singular, gezerah) an d takkanoth (positive enactm ents by court o r
rabbi; singular, takkanah), was seen in D euteronom y 17:11. Rabbinic Ju d aism is
th u s th e O ld T estam en t in te rp re te d by the trad itio n .6
For a long tim e the oral law was indeed oral; th e re was an inhibition against
w riting it dow n for fear th at it m ight be treated as S cripture. Instead, it was stored
u p in th e heads o f the rabbis a n d th eir disciples. How ever, as scholars continually
ad d ed to th e body o f tradition, it grew so massive that m em ories w ere too severely
taxed. Even m ore seriously, the deaths o f large n u m b ers of leading scholars in the
g reat Jew ish wars o f the first an d second centuries ( a . d . 66-70 an d 132-135) an d
th e persecution that followed the latter war m ade it ap p a re n t that the m em ories o f
m en w ere too fragile a record. A teacher's head severed from his body is a book
th at can no m ore be read! A nd hence, the oral tradition cam e to be w ritten down.
Som etim e a fte r a . d . 135 Rabbi M eir m ade a com pilation o f laws know n to

70
 T H E RABBI NI C SABBATH

him . T o this collection m ore was ad ded, an d at the beginning of the third-century
Rabbi J u d a h the Prince m ade th e basic codification of Rabbinic law known as the
M ishnah, which rem ains the fun d am en tal guide for o rth o d o x Jew ish life to this
day. T h e M ishnah consists o f sixty-three books, o r tractates," each d ealing with a
d iffe re n t subject. T h e tractates dealing the most with the Sabbath laws are entided
Shabbath and E r u b i n O n e can as litde u n d ersta n d the Jew ish religion w ithout a
know 'legeof the M ishnah as o n e can u n d ersta n d C hristianity while ign o ran t o f the
New Testam ent."
B ut Rabbinic in terp re tatio n an d law m aking did not term inate, and the
process o f am plification continued. T his p roduced a massive elaboration o f
the M ishnaic tractates known as the G em ara. T h e basic M ishnah texts together
with th eir G em ara expansions are known as the Talmud.'* T h e re are actually
two T alm u d s: th e Palestinian (o r Jerusalem ") T alm u d , com piled about a . d . 400,
and th e m ore authoritative B abylonian T alm u d , com piled about a h u n d re d
years later. T h ese are the most im portant sources for o u r study o f the Rabbinic
Sabbath.
Roughly speaking, the works so far m entioned are topically arran g ed .
Besides these Rabbinic works th at a re topically arran g ed , th ere are o th e r works in
the form o f ru n n in g com m entary on the Biblical texts; these are called midrashim
(singular, midrash). Midrashim are o f various types: halakic (legal; these are the
oldest type), expositional a n d hom iletic. R eference will be m ade in this ch a p te r to
Mekilta o f Rabbi Ishm ael, the Midrash Rabbah, The Midrash on Psalms, an d Pesikia
Rabbati. 10
Even afte r th e T alm u d was com pleted, the rabbis continued to deliver legal
decisions about th e Sabbath, as they did about all o th er im p o rtan t questions in
Jew ish life. T h e opinions are known as respoma. A ttem pts have been m ade to
digest all o f these vast m aterials fo r easy reference. P erhaps the m ost readable
such digest was m ade by M aim onides (Moses ben M aim on) in the twelfth century,
but th e m ost authoritative digest o f Jew ish law today is the Shulchan Aruch,
p re p a re d by Jo sep h K aro in th e sixteenth century."
W e shall now see w hat these sources have to tell us about the Sabbath.
Importance o f the Sabbath
No o th er institution is m o re im p o rtan t to Ju d aism th an the Sabbath, a n d only
circum cision com es near equaling it. T h e rabbis re g ard e d the Sabbath as equaling
in im po rtan ce all th e o th e r precepts o f the T o ra h com bined.12It was said, "H e who
observes the Sabbath is kept far from s in ." 15O ne serm on has the L ord declaring,
O My people, behold, you have annulled all T e n C om m andm ents. N evertheless,
if you had kept one C o m m a n d m e n t. . . I would have forgiven you. A nd which
C o m m an d m en t is this? It is th e C om m andm ent concerning the Sabbath day. 14
Shabbath is th e longest tractate in the M ishnah, and the subject is dealt with
repeatedly in th e o th e r tractates.11
N ot only was the Sabbath an essential feature o f Jew ish identity, but it was
reg ard ed as a way o f witnessing to m en about the C re a to r16 T h e m atter was
graphically p u t this way: T h e Sabbath adds holiness to Israel. Why is the shop o f
so-and-so closed? Because he keeps the Sabbath. Why does so-and-so abstain from
work? Because he keeps the Sabbath. H e thus bears witness to H im by whose word
th e w orld cam e into being th at H e created His world in six days an d rested on the

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 I HE SABBA I H IN S C R I P T t RE AND HISTORY

seventh. A nd th u s it savs: T herefore ve are m y witnesses, saith the L o r d , and I am

God* (Isa. 43:12). 17
C ardinal gifts o f privileges, blessings, a n d deliverances were prom ised to
Israel as a rew ard fo r success in S abbathkeeping.19Above all, the final re d em p tio n
was said to hinge upon correct observance o f the Sabbath. Rabbi Jo h a n a n said in
th e nam e o f Sim eon ben Yohai: If Israel w ere to keep two Sabbaths according to
th e laws th ereo f, they w ould be redeem ed im m ediately."1' Rabbi Levi said: If
Israel kept th e Sabbath pro p erly even for o ne day. th e son o f David would com e.
Why? Because it is equivalent to all the com m andm ents." Isaiah 3 0 :15 was cited
to show that tru e re p en tan ce (re tu rn in g ) an d S abbathkeeping (rest) w ere the
conditions o f salvation, th e way to hasten the com ing o f the Messiah.
T he Sabbath in Haggadah
A sm co n tent, all Jewish teaching is divided into two categories: H alakah (law)
and H aggadah (lore). T h e latter, which includes sirictlv theological questions and
speculations as contrasted with standards o f conduct, draw s o u r attention first.
Sim eon ben Lakish m ade this com parison: "It is the way o f the w orld that even a
king who considers him self enlightened m ight say to his servants: W ork one day
for yourselves an d six days for m e.' Not so th e Holy O ne, blessed be He. T h is is
w hat th e Holy O ne, blessed be He, says to Israel: 'My children, keep six days fo r
yourselves, an d keep only one day for M e.'"*1
It is characteristic o f H aggadah that it is filled with parables, legends, and
lively im aginary dialogues such as this one, which hinges on th e fact that the
seventh day, unlike the o th e r days o f the week, is not followed by an
even -n u m b ered day, and th e fact that in late H ebrew the sam e w ord, kiddash,
m eant both to hallow and to b etro th : T h e Sabbath spoke right up to the Holy
O ne, blessed be He: Each o f the days has a m ate, but I have no m ate. T h e Holy
O ne. blessed be He, replied: T h e congregation o f Israel will be thy m ate. A nd
when Israel stood on M ount Sinai. G od said: R em em ber the special thing 1 told the
Sabbath, nam ely tluil the congregation o f Israel is to be thy m ate, as it is said:
R em em ber the Sabbath day to hallow it' (Ex. 20:8).
It becam e the custom o f m any Jew s to follow the exam ple attrib u ted to the
first-century Rabbi H anina, who d o n n e d his best robe and stood at sunset on the
beginning o f Sabbath, exclaim ing, C om e and let us go fo rth to welcome the
qu een S abbath, an d the exam ple o f Rabbi Jan n a i. who similarly attired him self
an d met the Sabbath with the words, C om e, O bride. Com e, O b rid e !" Friday
night was a tim e o f connubial consum m ation.
A ltering the m etap h o r, Israel is the bride. G od h er husband, an d the Sabbath
the tim e o f th eir union. T h ese figures im ply that the Sabbath is Israel's exclusive
privilege, for it is like the wife o f a n o th e r to the heathen. Rabbi Jo h a n a n pu t it
thus: "In m u n d an e affairs, w hen a king an d his consort are sitting an d conversing
to g eth er, should o n e com e an d in te rru p t them , does h e not thereby m ake him self
liable to pu n ish m ent o f death? So, too, the Sabbath is a reunion betw een Israel and
G od, as it is said, It is a sign betw een Me an d the children o f Israel (Ex. 31:17);
th ere fo re any non-Jew who, being uncircum cized, thrusts him self betw een them
incurs th e penalty o f d e a th .*
T h e foregoing p arable was told to explain a point m ade by both Jose ben
H anina an d Sim eon ben Lakish: "A (entile who keeps the Sabbath deserves

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d e a th . 27 It was considered th at the Lord gave the Sabbath only to Israel, not to the
h eath en .211
A corollary to this exclusivistic idea o f the Sabbath was the com m on Rabbinic
view th at th e Sabbath com m and was given first at Sinai, though th ere w ere many
deviations from that opin io n .2* A ccording to one variation, the Sabbath was
know n to A dam , who com posed Psalm 92.,(1 In d eed it was said that A dam sinned
on th e day he was created, but because the Sabbath interceded for him , he was not
driven o u t o f th e G ard en until the e n d o f the S abbath.1' T h e re a fte r, according to
this view, the Sabbath w'as forgotten until the tim e o f Moses.5*
Many o f these ideas can be traced back to intertestam ental times, as can be the
view that m any o f the patriarchs observed the Sabbath, particularly Jacob and
Jo sep h ; the case o f A braham was m ore d eb ated . T h e re was also a belief that
Moses obtained for the Israelites in Egypt the privilege o f Sabbath keeping before
his flight.'' S an h ed rin 56b reasons that the fo u rth and fifth com m andm ents were
p art o f a special revelation to th e Israelites at M arah (Ex. 15:25) p rio r to th e giving
o f the law at Sinai, o r even before the giving o f m anna (Exodus 16); the rabbis
recognized th at y o u r G od com m anded you" (Deut. 5:15, 16, R.S.V.) m ust re fer
to pre-Sinaitic co m m andm ents. But it is now here suggested that anyone before
A braham kept th e Sabbath except A dam and God, an d possibly o th e r celestial
beings.35
If these w ere th e Rabbinic views o f the S abbaths past, what o f its future? T h e
Sabbath is seen as an island o f eternity within time, a foretaste o f the world to
com e. T am id 7:4 declares that Psalm 92, the psalm sung by the Levites in the
T em p le on th e Sabbath, is a song for the tim e that is to com e, fo r the day th at shall
be all Sabbath an d rest in the life everlasting.*
Closely related to this conception was the ancient teaching about the cosmic
week, ded u ced from Psalm 90:4, according to which six thousand years o f e a rth s
history would be followed by a th ousand years o f desolation, which corresponds
also to th e sabbatical year o f release, w hen slaves were freed an d the land lay fallow
(Ex. 21:2; 2 3 :1 1; et cetera). T h is conception, which can be traced back at least to
the intertestam ental p seu d e p ig rap h a, is also connected with Psalm 92 an d the
idea o f th e eschatological Sabbath in S anhedrin 97a, b. Pirke d e Rabbi Eliezer,
ch a p te r 19, states th e d o ctrin e concisely: T h e Holy O ne, blessed be He, created
seven m illennia (olamin), an d o f them all He chose the seventh m illennium only;
the six m illennia a re for the going in an d com ing ou t for war and peace. T h e
seventh m illennium is entirely Sabbath an d rest in the life ev erlastin g ."*
Som ehow parallel to the d octrine o f the eschatological Sabbath is the notion
that lost souls are given respite from punishm ent in the n e th e r world on the
Sabbath. As soon as the Sabbath begins, an angel nam ed D um ah, who is in charge
o f th e souls, cries out, C om e o u t of G ehenna!" A nd the souls are released and not
ju d g e d on the Sabbath. YVrhen the Jew s finish the service that closes the Sabbath,
D um ah again cries aloud an d says, C om e ou t a n d com e to the house o f the
shadow o f d eath a n d o f chaos. 9
T h e rabbis w ere called upon to explain G ods own activity on the Sabbath.
T in n eu s Rufus, the Rom an g o vernor who m artyred Rabbi Akiba, stated to Akiba,
If it is as you say th at the Holy O ne, blessed be He, honours the Sabbath, then He
should not stir u p winds o r cause the rain to fall on that day.' You fool! Akiba
exclaim ed; it is like one who carries objects fo u r cu b its.'" H ere Akiba appeals to

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th e ru le o f erub, according to which a m an is p erm itted tocarry m ost objects within

his private dom ain, o r fo u r cubits in the public dom ain. But th e whole universe is
G od's private dom ain.
In a n o th er illustration, th ree o th er rabbis are depicted as silencing objections
when, while visiting Rome, they taught that God keeps His own com m andm ents:
"T h e re h ap p e n ed to be a sectarian th ere, w ho accosted them as they w ere going
out with the tau n t: 'Y our w ords are only falsehood. Did you not say that G od says a
thing and fulfils it? T h e n why does H e not observe the Sabbath? T h ey replied:
'W retch! Is not a m an p erm itted to carry on th e Sabbath in his own co u rty ard ? He
replied: 'Y'es.' W hereupon they said to him : 'B oth the h ig h er and the lower
regions are th e cou rty ard o f G od, as it says, T h e whole ea rth is full o f his glory
[Isa. 6:3], an d even if a m an carries a distance o f his own height, does he
transgress?' The o th e r agreed. 'T h e n ,' said they, 'it is w ritten. Do not I fill heaven
and earth ? (Jer. 23:24).
An alternative explanation for G od's activity on the Sabbath was that work
was perm itted to be do n e o n the Sabbath within the sanctuary, but the whole
universe is G od's T em p le: T o you it shall lie a holy day. T o G od how ever it is like
a p ro fan e day. In any case, against such a background, the statem ent o f Jesus in
John 5:17, My F ather is w orking still, an d I am w o rk in g ' (R.S.V.), is a claim to
divinity in m ore than o n e way.
The Sabbath in Halakah
W hen we tu rn from Jew ish beliefs (H aggadah) about the Sabbath to the rules
(H alakah) about keeping it, we are p ro n e to think that we are on fam iliar g ro u n d ,
for who has not heard about the bu rd en so m e legalism, so well known from the
Gospels? It may com e as a surprise, th erefo re, to learn that the Rabbinic laws were
in certain significant aspects a relaxation from far stricter H alakah held by earlier
Jew ish sects. S tricter rules about many Sabbath practices are found not only in
earlier non-R abbinic docum ents, such as the Book o f Jubilees (especially ch a p te r
50). th e Zadokite D ocum ent ( 13:1-27; 14:6)." an d the Dead Sea scrolls, but also in
th e reco rd ed practices o f the Essenes, the Sam aritans, and the Falashas.*
Rabbinic practices re p resen t an alleviation of the stricter rules, accom plished
eith er by flatly contradicting them , o r m ore characteristicallyby elaborating
m ore rules that perm it exceptional o r general circum vention o f p rio r rules. T h e re
are several striking illustrations o f this tendency. T h e so-called "o ld er H alakah
in terp re ted Jerem ia h 17:22 very literally as a prohibition against carrying
anything out o f o r into a house; but Shabbath 1: 1 circum vents this by allowing two
persons, by a carefully prescribed p ro ced u re, to pass an object betw een them from
outside to inside o r the reverse. T h e Sam aritans, Falashas, an d Karaites
in terp re ted E xodus 16:29 very strictly, never leaving th eir dwellings on the
Sabbath; but the Pharisees set u p limits within which a person could lawfully move
on th e Sabbath the S abbath day's jo u rn e y " o f 2,000 cubits m entioned in Acts
1:12. In d eed , th e M ishnah contains an en tire tractate, E rubin, describing a legal
fiction whereby these limits could be joined to g eth er to ex ten d freedom o f
m ovem ent even fu rth e r.
In som e cases th e Rabbinic rules seem deliberately to have contravened the
rules o f earlier sects, a n d th e contraventions are generally in the direction o f
g re ater convenience o r hum anitarianism . This relaxation had already begun in

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ihe tim e o f Jesus. T h e Zadokite D ocum ent lays dow n am ong its Sabbath rules: No
m an shall help an anim al in its delivery on the Sabbath day. A nd if it falls into a pit
o r ditch, he shall not raise it on the S abbath___A nd if any person falls into a place
o f w ater o r into a place o f darkness he shall not b ring him u p by a lad d er o r a cord
o r in stru m e n t." 46 T h a t such rules w ere already reversed o r re p u d ia ted by the
Pharisees in Jesu s' tim e can be seen from Luke 14:5, which is in harm ony with
Rabbinic principles, as will a p p e a r below.
Still m ore striking are two fu rth e r exam ples. T h e Book o f Jubilees 50:8
declared that w hoever lies with his wife" desecrates the Sabbath and shall die,"
which agrees with the principles o f the Sam aritans. Falashas, an d Karaites; but
m arital cohabitation on Friday night was encouraged by the rabbis, as will be seen
below.47 Finally, Exodus 35:3 was und ersto o d by Sam aritans, Essenes, Falashas.
and Karaites to forbid all fire on the Sabbath. H ence, these gro u p s passed Friday
night in darkness. But the rabbis und ersto o d the prohibition to apply only to
kindling a fire (or extinguishing one) on the Sabbath; if a lam p was lit before the
com m encem ent o f the Sabbath, it could be left burning. In fact, the lighting o f the
Sabbath lam ps was, as we shall see, a positive duty in every' hom e.4*
T h e Rabbinic m ultiplication o f rules was largely intended lo m ake the law
easier to obey, to spell out exceptions, to explain contraventions.**
A ctivities Taking Precedence Over Sabbath Rest
T h e essence o f the Rabbinic u n d ersta n d in g o f the Sabbath prohibitions was
th e avoidance o f purposive, productive labor, as will be illustrated below. But
certain circum stances w ere recognized in which the Sabbath law could be
suspended so th at activities that otherw ise would have been reg ard ed as breaking
the Sabbath w ere perm itted. For the m ost part these activities that took
precedence over th e Sabbath rest w ere connected with cerem onial duties, military
action, an d th e saving o f life.
T h e m ost notable ritual that su p erseded the Sabbath was circum cision, w hich
norm ally had to take place the eighth day afte r birth. "R. Jose the G alilean says:
G reat is circum cision, for it sets aside the Sabbath, which is very im portant an d the
p ro fan atio n o f which is punishable by ex tin ctio n ."* If the eighth day fell on the
Sabbath, even th e necessary p rep aratio n s for the operation were lawful, though
Rabbi Akiba laid dow n the rule. "Any act o f work that can be d o n e on the eve o f the
Sabbath does not o v errid e the Sabbath, but what cannot be d o n e on the eve o f the
Sabbath [for cerem onial purposes] overrides the S ab b ath ."41 But this was done
only if th e birth had clearly taken place the previous Sabbath, m aking the eighth
day also a Sabbath. If the case was dou b tfu l, as when the boy was born at twilight
Friday, th e circum cision was p u t o ff until what m ight be considered the ten th day,
S unday.
As Jesu s p o in ted out on one occasion (M att. 12:5), work d o n e in connection
with the T em p le ritual was lawful on Sabbath. Even a fte r the T em p le was
destroyed, th e rabbis carefully preserved and even elaborated the laws ab o u t its
services, for they still retained a w istful hope that these services w ould som e day be
restored. T h u s we find: T h e offerings o f the congregation ov errid e the Sabbath
and th e laws o f uncleanness, but the offerings o f the individual ov errid e n eith er
the Sabbath n o r th e laws o f uncleanness," exceptions being "the baken cakes o f the
high priest an d th e bullock o ffered on the Day o f A tonem ent, because they m ust

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be o ffered at a fixed lim e. 5' W hile the baken cakes o f the high priest (Lev. 6:21)
could be m ade on the Sabbath, the two loaves o f Leviticus 23:17 an d the
shew bread could not be m ade th en , following Akibas ru le." In general, if the
Mosaic Iawr fixed a calendrical day for any cerem onial act, th at date was observed
even if it fell on a Sabbath. Such acts included rem oving and b u rn in g all leavened
bread befo re Passover; slaughtering the Passover lamb, but not roasting it; and
reap in g the o m er o f barley that was o ffered on the second day o f Passover
according to Leviticus 23:10. 1 1 .
T h e m atter was carried back one step fu rth e r, for how w ere the calendrical
dates d eterm in ed ? It should be recalled that the Jewish calen d ar was lu n ar, and
d u rin g the T an n aitic period, at least, the beginning o f the lu n ar m onth was
d eterm in e d by observation, not calculation: the day after th e new crescent was
sighted was declared by the S an h ed rin to Ik*the first day o f the m onth. But for this,
th e co u rt was d e p e n d e n t on witnesses. So im portant was their testim ony
considered, since th e set feasts w ere d eterm in e d accordingly, that such a witness
was perm itted to p ro fan e the Sabbath in o rd e r to go and give testim ony to the
co u rt o f the ap p earan ce o f the new m oon, particularly o f Nisan an d T ishri. Such a
witness could transgress the Sabbath limits, take anything necessary for his
jo u rn ey , and even be carried on a litter if he could not walk.
Ever since M accabean times defensive w arfare had also been p erm itted on
the S abbath. In d eed , the rabbis noted that the wars waged by Jo sh u a an d David
m ust have o v errid d en the Sabbath.** T hey taught: G entile cities m ust not be
besieged less th an th ree days before the Sabbath, yet once thev com m ence they
need not leave off. A nd th u s d id Sham m ai say: until it fall' [Dcut. 20:20], even on
the S abbath. ** If an Israelite city was besieged by G entiles, self-defense was
perm itted on the Sabbath, but only just so long as necessarv, according to J u d a h
ben B ath y ra." Individuals also w ere perm itted to take necessary m easures for
self-protection: If a m an is p u rsu ed by gentiles o r by robbers, what is th e law as
reg ard s his b reaking the Sabbath? O u r Rabbis taught as follows: If a m an is
p u rsu ed by gentiles o r by robbers, he may desecrate the Sabbath in o rd e r to save
his life. H ow ever, a m an not u n d e r military o rd e rs may not go ou t on the
Sabbath carrying arm s."'
Self-protection com es u n d e r the third type o f circum stance that overrides the
Sabbath: m ortal d a n g e r (pikkuach nephesh). As a m atter o f principle, any
life-or-death em ergency superseded the Sabbath." T h at the dutv o f saving life
supersedes th e Sabbath laws was ded u ced by Rabbi Ishm ael from Exodus 22:2, by
Rabbi Eleazar ben A zariah from circum cision, and by Rabbi Akiba from the fact
that capital pu n ishm ent for m u rd e r supersedes the T em ple service (which in tu rn
supersedes th e Sabbath, an d saving life is surely b etter than taking it!).w Rabbi
N athan arg u ed that Exodus 31:16 implies that we should disregard one Sabbath
for th e sake o f saving the life o f a person so that that person may be able to observe
m any Sabbaths.
M ore problem atic was a decision reached by m ajority vote o f the sages at a
secret m eeting in th e u p p e r room o f a house at Lydda after the war o f a . d . 135,
w hen th e practice o f Judaism was outlaw ed a n d m any were suffering m artyrdom
for keeping th e Sabbath. It was decided: In every law o f the T o ra h , if a m an is
com m anded: T ran sg ress an d su ffe r not d e a th ' he may transgress and not suffer
d eath , excepting idolatry, incest [including adultery], an d m u rd e r. Rabbi

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Ishm ael justified this ruling on the basis o f Leviticus 18:4 Ye shall th ere fo re
keep my statutes a n d my ju d g m en ts, which if a m an do, he shall live by th em , but
not die by them.*7 1'hese rationalizations were not universally accepted, how ever,
and Rabbi Dimi hed g ed an d said: T his was taught only if th e re is no royal decree,
but if th ere is a royal decree, o n e m ust incur m artyrdom ra th e r than transgress
even a m in o r precept." Rabbi J o h a n a n hedged fu rth e r: Even w ithout a royal
decree, it was only p erm itted in private; but in public one m ust be m artyred even
for a m inor p recep t ra th e r than violate it." 68
T h e rabbis considered that the m otive o f the persecutor m ust be considered:
if he was co m m an d in g the Jew to break the Sabbath only for his personal pleasure,
the Jew m ight transgress; but if the com m and were religiously m otivated,
m artyrdom m ust be chosen: For Raba said: I f a G entile said to a Jew , C ut grass on
the Sabbath for th e cattle, an d if not I w ill slay th ee, he m ust ra th e r be killed than
cut it; C ut it an d throw it into the river,' he should ra th e r be slain than cut it. Why
so? Because his intention is to force him to violate his religion. 69
T h e d a n g e r to life need not be absolutely certain. W henever th ere is doubt
w h ether life is in d an g er, this overrides th e Sabbath." In certain cases m edication
could be taken on Sabbath. O ne may even warm w ater for a sick person: N or do
we say: Let us wait, because perchance he will get well, but we w arm the w ater for
him im m ediately."7,1 M idwifery was legitim ate on Sabbath, an d the m idwife could
transgress th e Sabbath limits if necessary to go w here she was needed. But a
chronic illness for which treatm en t could be postponed could not be treated on
Sabbath, for it did not involve the principle o f pikkuach nephesh,71
T h e shojur o f alarm could be so u n d ed on Sabbath for a city su rro u n d e d by
Gentiles o r a flood, a n d for a ship in d an g e r.72O n e could rescue a child fallen into
the sea o r locked into a room by accident, and o n e m ust rem ove debris to save a
life o n the Sabbath, an d the m ore eag er one is, the m ore praisew orthy is one; and
one need not o btain perm ission from the C ourt." w O ne could also extinguish and
isolate a fire in th e case o f conflagration, an d certain things could be rescued from
it.74
"These activities would not be p erm itted on Sabbath except to save life. It was
only th e d ire em ergency th at m ade them legitim ate.
Sabbath Prohibitions
It is p erh ap s arbitrary to distinguish sharply between circum stances that
allowed suspension o f the Sabbath laws in toto and those things that were
regularly perm itted . Was w arfare a perm itted activity o r a suspension o f the
Sabbath? N evertheless, the distinction is convenient. We tu rn now to the most
characteristic fe atu re o f the Rabbinic Sabbath: the m ultitudinous laws stipulating
what was p rohibited a n d w'hat was perm itted.
In th e O ld T estam en t, only a few prohibited Sabbath activities are specifically
m entioned: d o in g w ork, kindling a fire, trading. In addition, the rabbis
u n d ersto o d Exodus 16:29 to forbid travel beyond certain limits, and Jerem ia h
17:21,22 to forbid carrying b u rd e n s from o n es dom icile to the public dom ain, o r
vice versa.
But w hat counts as work? In the scientific sense, raising an arm is work, and
obviously th e rabbis n eed ed a d iffe ren t definition from that used by m odern
physicists. T h e Biblical w ord used in the fo u rth com m andm ent and elsew here was

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vielakah task, project, em ploym ent, an d the essential thing ab o u t it was not the
am o u n t o f effo rt involved, but the p u rp o se . Melakah was som ething do n e
intentionally to gain o r p ro d u ce a tem poral benefit, conceived in the broadest
sense o f the w ord.
But that is an abstraction, an d th e rabbis p re fe rre d to think in very concrete
term s, m aking not definitions, but lists. T hey obtained their basic list from an
exegesis o f E xodus 35, w here Moses solemnly forbids Sabbath work an d kindling
o f fire on pain o f d eath , an d then proceeds to set the tasks fo r constructing the
tabernacle. H ere, th en , was the key: all the d iffe re n t activities that m ust have
co n trib u ted to the building o f the tabernacle m ust com e u n d e r the ru b ric o f
"w ork. By a process o f deduction that need not concern us, they also d ecided on
the basis o f D euteronom y 25:3 that the n u m b er o f prohibited basic works was
thirty-nine: " T h e m ain classes o f work are forty save one: sowing, plowing,
reaping, b in d ing sheaves, threshing, winnow ing, cleansing crops, grinding,
sifting, kneading, baking, shearing wool, w ashing or beating o r dyeing it,
spinning, weaving, m aking two loops, weaving two threads, separating two
th read s, tying, loosening, sewing two stitches, tearing in o rd e r to sew two stitches,
h u n tin g a gazelle, slaughtering o r flaying o r salting it o r cu rin g its skin, scraping it
o r cutting it u p , w riting two letters, erasing in o rd e r to write two letters, building,
pulling dow n, p u ttin g ou t a fire, lighting a fire, striking with a h am m er a n d taking
o u t an y th in g from one dom ain into an o th er. T h ese are the m ain classes o f work:
forty save o n e ." 78
T h is list was taken to constitute the basic categories o f w ork, which could be
infinitely subdivided a n d extrapolated. T h e M ishnah itself contains a consider
ably detailed discussion o f m any o f them . O ut o f h u n d re d s o f exam ples, we may
h ere cite only a few. T hey may not squeeze fruits to press o u t the juice, an d even
if the ju ice com es out o f itself it is fo rb id d e n ." 77 Squeezing cam e u n d e r the
category o f th reshing. T h e rule also illustrates the principle that one m ust not
receive personal benefit from in ad v erten t o r unavoidable production that takes
place on the S abbath.7" O ne could not eat on the Sabbath, for exam ple, fruit that
lay fallen u n d e r the tree, because it may have fallen on th e Sabbath itself. T h e re
was lengthy d eb ate about w h eth er an d w hen an egg laid on the Sabbath m ight be
eaten , som e m aintaining th at it had been form ed the day before. It was finally
concluded th at such an egg m ight not be rem oved from the nest, but could be
p ro tected until a fte r the Sabbath, when it m ight at last be eaten.""
T h e category o f striking with the ham m er" was ex tended to include any act
need ed to finish a w ork o r com plete an article. By this token, h e w ho rem oves
th read s from garm ents o n the Sabbath is liable on the score o f striking with th e
ham m er; but that is only when he objects to them ."*' U n d e r the sam e ru b ric
in stru m en tal music was forbidden on the Sabbath. N or could food be
p re p a re d ." 82
Prohibition o f kindling fire on the Sabbath was explicit in Exodus 3 5 :2 ,3 , and
the M ishnaic list ad d ed the extinguishing o f fire. W hat to do in case o f a house fire
was a th o rn y issue. It was felt that this m ight be do n e to save life, as n oted above,
but not to save property.*5 T h e severity o f this rule was alleviated by certain
circum ventions. T h u s, " If a gentile cam e to p u t out the fire they may not say to
him , 'P u t it o u t, o r Do not put it out', since they are not answ erable for his keeping
the Sabbath. But if it was a Jew ish m inor that cam e to pu t it out they may not

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perm it him, since they are answ erable fo r his keeping Sabbath." All sacred books
may be saved from b u rning," as well as enough food and d rin k for the rem aining
Sabbath meals and o th er absolute essentials.
T h e rabbis saw it as th eir du ty to place a hedge aro u n d the sanctity o f the
Sabbath (in accordance with the principle found in A both 1:1) by fo rb id d in g not
only things th at clearly p ro fan ed the Sabbath but also things that m ight increase
the d a n g e r o f p ro fan in g the Sabbath. T o till a lam p in o rd e r to m ake m ore oil ru n
to th e wick an d th u s cause it to b u rn b rig h ter was like kindling a fire, a cardinal
transgression. T h e re fo re the rabbis forbade anything that m ight tem pt o n e on
this score. O n e was not allowed to search his garm ents for verm in o r read by the
light o f a lam p on th e Sabbath.*5T h e re was scholarly debate on o th e r g ro u n d s as to
w hether it was p ro p e r to kill verm in on the Sabbath, and one rabbi declared, If
one kills verm in on the Sabbath, it is as though he killed a cam el.""6 B ut a clear
distinction was m ade betw een a cardinal transgression and the breach o f m erely a
Rabbinic enactm ent.
T h e Sabbath laws w ere o f various kinds. T h e thirty-nine prohibited form s o f
labor w ere p rim ary. T h e re w ere also muklzeh laws about things that had to be set
ap art a n d not han d led on Sabbath, even th o u g h no labor was involveddirty
things, an d things such as fruit that fell o r eggs that were laid d u rin g Sabbath.
U n d e r these laws a m an, fo r the sake o f appearances, m ight not touch m oney o r
any o f the tools o f his craft, even th o u g h he did not intend to work with them .
T h e n th ere w ere the shebuth laws o f Sabbath rest, forbidding things that were
not considered labor in them selves, bu t that w ere felt to d etract from the
restfulness an d sanctity o f the Sabbath. A list o f such acts is found in B etzah
5:2clim bing a tree, swim m ing, clapping the hands, slapping the thighs, and
stam ping th e feet. F orbidden also w ere acts o f choice" such as sitting in
ju d g m en t, concluding a betrothal, p erfo rm in g halilza (Deut. 25:9), o r contracting
levirate m arriage. C apital punishm ent, burial, and w eddings could not take place
on th e S abbath.'7 Many o f these acts led to w riting ou t som e docum ent, an d w riting
was fo rb id d en on the Sabbath.
Culpability o f Sabbath activities d ep e n d ed on intention, purpose, an d
w hether benefit was received,"1as well as a p p e a r a n c e s .A distinction was m ade
betw een intentional and unintentional Sabbathbreaking.* It was even said, He
who m istakenly did a fo rb id d en act on the Sabbath whilst intending to d o a n o th e r
is free from penalty, because the T o ra h prohibited only a calculated action. 91
T h u s o n e was not to blam e if by drag g in g a chair across an e a rth en floor he m ade
a fu rro w , unless he in ten d ed to do so! T h e question was asked, W hat if one
forgot a pot on th e stove and cooked it on the Sabbath?" Rabbi Hiyya b ar Abba
replied: If o n e cooks on the Sabbath unwittingly, he may eat it; if deliberately, he
mav not eat it; a n d th ere is no differen ce. But th e rabbis soon discovered that
m any began to leave the pot on the stove intentionally and then pleaded, We
forgot; so th e sages retraced th eir steps an d penalized him who forgot." Such
are the perils o f leniency!
T h e professional, skilled task was forbidden, while the casual, am ateurish
d eed was som etim es p erm itted .
It cannot be d en ied that the rabbis often, and with considerable zest, plunged
d eep into casuistic reasoning; an d som e o f th eir rulings seem arbitrary. Against
some opposition, they decided th at it was perm issible to scrape honey from a

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beeh iv co n th e Sabbath; it was also perm itted to set a vessel to catch d rip p in g rain/*
From a conflagration one may rescue S criptures, phylacteries, an d th eir cases, but
not p ray er books.*' O bjects could not be lilted o ff a cushion o r the m outh o f a ja r,
but they could be shaken o ff o r wiped off.* While a m an m ight not directly carry a
stone, he was p erm itted to lift u p his child even if the child had a stone in his
h an d .1"
T h e rabbis w ere som ew hat m ore relaxed about what children did on the
Sabbath. W hile children could not be co m m anded to do som e task, spontaneous
acts, such as plucking an d throw ing, m ight be allowed.*"
W hile food m ight not be heated, it could be kept warm , an d th ere were
various devices for this purpose. For exam ple, a vessel containing cold w ater could
be put into hot w ater to warm it. Acts w ere perm itted if a whole act o f work was
not com pleted at o n e time."" W ork that com pletes itself (soaking, dyeing, baking,
et cetera) could not be begun unless th ere was tim e to com plete itself before
Sabbath; but w ater may be conducted into a g ard en on the eve o f th e Sabbath just
before d ark , an d it may go on being filled the whole day." ""
T re a tm e n t o f n o nm ortal ailm ents and handicaps was not perm itted; but an
eve salve may be placed on the eye [before sundow n Friday] an d a plaster on a
w ound an d th e process o f healing continues all day." O ne should not go out to
war, go o u t with a caravan, o r set out in a ship less than th ree days before the
Sabbath.'0' O n the Sabbath a corpse could be anointed and washed as long as the
limbs were not m oved.'* but it could be m oved if a loaf o f bread o r a child w ere
placed on it: these could be m oved within the dom icile, an d the body moved
th erew ith .10' W ithin certain lim itations, cattle and o th e r anim als could be fed on
th e Sabbath."*
Restrictions on Sabbath bathing w ere concerned only with heating o f the
w ater, which was not allowed: but sw im m ing was p ro h ib ited .107 In d eed , ritual
im m ersion o f the body because o f any pollution was re q u ire d .1"* T h e use o f public
bathhouses o p erated by Gentiles posed a problem , since the w ater was heated on
the Sabbath. T his m eant that o n e had to wait an interval afte r the Sabbath before
bathing, so as not to benefit from heat gen erated on the S abbath.10* B athing
presen ted o th e r problem s: " I f o n e bathes in w ater, he should first d ry him self and
then ascend, lest he com e to carry [the w ater upon him] fo u r cubits in a kannelith
[semipublic d o m ain ]; so afte r bathing o n Sabbath, one may drv him self with a
towel but not w ring it o u t the towel m ay be placed on the windowsill.""
If a d e e r w andered into a house on the Sabbath, trap p in g it would be w rong if
d o n e by o n e m an, but perm issible if do n e by tw o.1" W om en w ere forbidden to plav
with nuts o r apples on Sabbath only because it m ight level the g ro u n d ; but R.
H una said certain places w ere visited with d estruction because thev used to play a
gam e with ball on th e Sabbath." "s It was forbidden to read secular d ocum ents on
the S ab b ath ."5 Ealing utensils needed for subsequent meals on Sabbath could be
washed, but not if the nexi meal was a fte r the S abbath.114
A G entile was not held accountable for the Sabbath, but could he work fo r a
Jew on the Sabbath? T h e rule was: A G entile m ust not d o a Jew s work on the
Sabbath, but he may d o his own w o rk ."' T h e re was no objection, how ever, if work
inadvertently done by a G entile for a G entile also benefited a Jew ; but no Sabbath
work was to be d o n e purposelv for a Jew."*
T h e School o f M enasseh. in terp re tin g Isaiah 58:13. said; "Thy business is

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fo rb id d en , but th e affairs o f H eaven are p erm itted ; hence one m ay m ake

arran g em en ts on Sabbath for betrothals an d for religious instruction o f a child.1,7
Some religious duties were considered ap p ro p ria te on Sabbath, but o th ers were
in ap p ro p riate. T h e rabbis took tu rn s waiting on the scholars each Sabbath."" In
fact, certain officials o f the synagogue w ere paid for duties they p erfo rm ed on the
S abbath.1' We have already seen that while on the Sabbath day itself o n e was not
p erm itted to kindle a fire, one could on Friday kindle a fire for the Sabbath, the
exam ple p ar excellence being the Sabbath lights; but in the sanctuary o n e m ight
even kindle a fire on S abbath.1211
O n the o th e r han d, certain o th e r d uties could not be p erfo rm ed on Sabbath.
It was fo rb id d en on that day to tithe, and tithing w'as usually d o n e on the eve o f the
S abbath.1,1 U n tith ed p ro d u ce could not be eaten, carried a ro u n d , o r even touched
tn the hom e on Sabbath. H ence every Friday evening before Sabbath a m an asked
his family th ree questions: H ave you tithed? H ave you p re p a re d the erub? Have
vou kindled the lam p?" Phylacteries w ere not w orn on the Sabbath, an d Rabbi
Isaac explained it thus: Since the Sabbath is called a sign and the phylacteries are
called a sign, o ne should not ad d one sign to a n o th e r. 122
P erhaps the most ingenious casuistry was ex p en d ed u p o n defining and
circum venting th e Sabbath limits (tedium). In Rabbinic times th ere were two limits
with which to lie co ncerned: 2 ,0 0 0 cubits, and four cubits. These were based on an
in terp retatio n o f Exodus 16:29 "It was taught: 'A bide ye every m an in his place'
refers to the fo u r cubits; 'let no m an go ou t o f his place refers to the two th ousand
c u b i t s . " The figure 2,000 was obtained from N um bers 35:5. O n the Sabbath no
Jew was to move m ore th an 2,000 cubits beyond th e city limits w here he a b o d e .124
T h e place o f ab o d e was ra th e r crucial. A ccording to Rabbi H anina, if Sabbath
comes to a m an on a jo u rn ey , his abode is an im aginary circle w ith the m an at its
cen ter an d a rad iu s o f fo u r cubits. If it is in an inhabited place the w hole town plus
2,000 cubits outside it is the abode. If the m an is in a cave, the cave is his a b o d e .12'
T h e four-cubit limit also applied to a person on sh ip b o ard .' But th e main
application o f th e four-cubit figure was to the basic work o f carrying." derived
from Jerem ia h 17:21, 22. Most objects w ere not to be carried from a private
dom ain to a public o ne o r vice versa, an d no m ore than four cubits in the public
d o m ain .127 W ithin one's private dom ain one could move most objects necessary,
but th ere were even lim itations in th at a re a .128 T h e re were also special rules
concerning a karmelith, an area that was n e ith e r a public n o r a private dom ain, such
as a com m unity bath.
Obviously th e re would be times when the limits would be m ost inconvenient.
T h e re would be tim es, for exam ple, w hen a four-cubit limit would be
em barrassing to one experiencing a call o f n ature. T h e rabbis carefully discussed
all th e possibilities and attem p ted to m ake exact provision for them . T h ey even
went fu rth e r an d devised som e clever circum ventions: F or instance, If a m an was
on a jo u rn e y a n d d arkness overtook him , and he recognized a tree o r a fence and
said, 'Let my Sabbath resting-place be u n d e r it, he has said nothing; but if he said.
Let my Sabbath resting-place be at its ro o t, he may walk from w here he stands to
its root two th o u san d cubits, an d from its root to his house two th o u san d cubits.
T h u s h e can travel fo u r th ousand cubits afte r it has becom e d ark ." m
Is throw ing an object d iffe ren t from carrying it? Yes and No. T h e rabbis
d eb ated the question: W hat if one intended to throw an object two cubits, but
ISISAH-6
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threw it four? T h ey could com e to no better answ er than what am ounts to saying.
It d ep ends. T h e rabbis also said: If a m an threw anything from a private dom ain
to the public d o m a in ,. . . he is culpable; but if from a private dom ain to a n o th er
private dom ain with the public dom ain betw een . . . [he is] not culpable. 15" It
behooved one to have a good aim!
But the most im p o rtan t circum vention o f the Sabbath limits was th e erub, an
institution that probably arose in the first cen tu ry o f o u r era. but which Shabbath
14b attributes to Solom on, doubdess because o f its ingenuity. T h e re w ere many
types o f erub,1*' but the basic idea in all o f them was the fusion o r pooling o f
Sabbath limits. T o m itigate the 2,000-cubit limit, o n e need only deposit enough
food fo r two meals at 2,000 cubits distance an d declare the spot his tem porary
abode; this device gave him twice the ran g e he would otherw ise have had.
T o alleviate the limits on carrying, the residents o f dwellings fro n tin g on a
com m on co u rty ard all co ntributed th eir share to a dish that could be placed in the
co u rty ard o r in o n e o f the dwellings; by this device all the dwellings were
considered com m on to all. an d unrestricted access was had by all to all, so that
anything th at m ight be carried within one's private dom icile could now be carried
anyw here within the com m on one. T h is second type o f erub was also called a shittuf
(p artnership). N eedless to say, the rabbis laid dow n careful rules about the m atter.
For exam ple, th e en try into the courtyard could not be higher than twenty cubits
n o r w id er th an ten cubits,151but this qualification could be m et, if necessary, by the
installation o f som e tem porary beams. Also, needless to say, the erub m ust be
p re p a re d before the Sabbath b egan.155 hence the presundow n question, "H ave
you p re p a re d the erub?
Punishable Sabbathbreaking
We have seen that a n u m b e r o f the Sabbath prohibitions are listed as resting
solely on rabbinical au th o rity .154 A bout such prohibitions it was said: T h e rules
about th e Sabbath, Festal-offerings, and Sacrilege are as m ountains hanging by a
hair, fo r S crip tu re th ereo n is scanty and the rules m a n y ."155 But the rabbis felt that
w here th e S criptures w ere silent thev had pow er to bind o r loose, as it were, in
o rd e r to safeg u ard the sanctity o f the Sabbath. 'R. Sim eon says: W heresoever the
Sages have p erm itted aught to thee they have but given thee what is already thine,
fo r w hat they have perm itted thee is only that which they had w ithheld by virtue o f
the Sabbath rest. 154 If they had pow er to lay dow n a limit, they had pow er to
m odify it with exceptions an d circum ventions. So the rabbis com m anded Jew s not
only to refrain from activities re g ard e d as labor (melakah), but prohibited also even
such activities as only detract from the restfulness (shebuth) o f the Sabbath d ay.157
But while a clear distinction was m ade betw een a scriptural com m and, such as
the prohibition against kindling a fire (which was punishable by death), and a
purely Rabbinic precept, such as taking o ff the phylacteries on S abbath,14" this
does not m ean that the Rabbinic teachings w ere taken lightly by the pious. "R.
Aibu said: Rest even from the th o u g h t o f labor. A story is told, said R. B erechiah,
o f a pious m an who took a walk in his vineyard to find ou t what it required. W hen
he saw a breach in it, he resolved to rep air it at the d e p a rtu re o f the Sabbath. But
then he said: Since the thought o f rep airin g it cam e to me on th e Sabbath, I will
leave it forever u n re p aired . How did the Holy O ne, blessed be He, rew ard him? A
cap er bush which grew u p in the vineyard fenced the breach, an d on the fruit o f

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the bush he sustained himself the rest o f his life ." IW

T h e princ iple o f Sabbath restfulness (shebuth) was not always articulated into
rules, but it was respected: W hen th e m o th e r o f R. Sim eon ben Yohai used to talk
too m uch on th e Sabbath, he would say to her: 'It is Sabbath.' an d she would keep
silen t."140 W hile wom en w ere exem pted, by virtue o f their dom estic responsibili
ties, from m any o f th e Rabbinic rules, no distinction was m ade betw een m an and
wom an in reg ard to the S abbath.141
Perhaps the m ost crucial difference betw een ihe scriptural an d Rabbinic
Sabbath precepts was in the m atter o f punishm ents. T h e re w ere th ree levels o f
pu n ish m en t for S abbathbreaking: (a) death by stoning, (b) kareth. and (c) liability
for a sin offering.
Sabbath p ro fan atio n is listed am ong the offenses punishable by stoning,
which was th e second-gravest form o f capital punishm ent, a fte r b u rn in g , and
followed by b eheading an d stranglingall penalties that the S an h ed rin had
pow er to inflict.14'' Stoning was inflicted only fo r cardinal offenses against the
Sabbath, such as kindling a fire, prescribed in S cripture (Ex. 35:3). But such a
penalty was indicated only if th ere w ere two witnesses to the act, an d if the
o ffe n d e r w ere w arn ed .143 In o th e r words, th ere had to l>e deliberate and stubborn
intent.
Kareth (cutting off), often translated extirpation," is a punishm ent often
re ferred to in th e O ld T estam en t (that soul shall be cut o ff from am ong his
people"). K erithoth 1:1 lists th im -s ix transgressions for which the Bible
prescribes kareth. W hatever it may have m eant originally, the rabbis u n d ersto o d it
to m ean divine pu n ishm ent, ap p aren tly p re m a tu re d eath ; an d by the tim e o f
M aim onides, at least, it was believed that a person in cu rrin g kareth would have no
life in th e w orld to com e. Flogging o r rep en tan ce could an n u l ktireth."' D eliberate
S abbathbreaking fo r which tfiere w ere no witnesses incurred kareth."'
If th e p ro fan atio n o f th e Sabbath was unintentional, and the o ffen d er
realized his m istake, he was liable to a sin of fering. " H e that p rofanes the Sabbath'
[Num . 15:32-36] is liable, a fte r w arning, to d eath by stoning if he com m itted an act
which re n d ers him liable to E xtirpation if he acted wantonly, o r to a Sin-offering if
he acted in e r r o r ." 1441H e is, how ever, not liable unless the beginning and the end"
o f th e act w ere d o n e in e rro r. I,: Rabbi Akiba m aintained that "if a m an did many
acts o f w ork o f th e like kind on m any Sabbaths d u rin g one spell of forgetfulness,
he is liable to o n e sin-offering for all o f th e m " l4" But if the m any acts w ere o f
d ifferen t kinds, o r if the o n e act involved m any differing species o f S abbath
breaking (according to the thirty-nine categories), a sin o fferin g was re q u ired for
each k in d .14" If a m an "did an act o f work on eith er a Sabbath o r a weekday but it is
not know n on which he did the act, he m ust bring a Suspensive G uilt-offering
[Lev. 5 :1 7 -1 9 ]."'
T he Positive Side o f Rabbinic Sabbath Observance
A recital o f Rabbinic Sabbath rules such as the foregoing m ight give the
im pression that th e Sabbath was considered negative and burdensom e, an d fo r
m any it may have been so. But such an im pression in general would be one-sided
and d istorted. I he rabbis w ere co n cerned to m ake the Sabbath a delight (Isa.
5 8 :13), and it would seem that they largely succeeded. T h e Holy O ne, blessed be
He, said to Moses, I have a precious gift in My treasure house, called the Sabbath,

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a n d desire to give it to Israel; go a n d inform th em . 151 We now view the positive

side o f Rabbinic Sabbath observance.
T h e rabbis applied th e ir considerable exegetical ingenuity to the fact,
p erplexing to them , that th e fo u rth com m andm ent in Exodus begins "R em em
ber" (zekor), but in D euteronom y it begins Keep" (shemor). Several theories w ere
p u t fo rth to explain the discrepancy.' O ne o ften -rep eated explanation was that
th e two d iffe re n t words "w ere pro n o u n ced in a single utterance an u tteran ce
which the m o u th cannot u tte r, n o r the ea r h e a r ." ' T h e following exposition was
less m etaphysical but m ore practical: Remember an d observe. R em em ber it before it
com es an d observe it a fte r it has gone. H ence they said: We should always
increase w hat is holy by ad d in g to it som e o f the non-hoIy.IMT h u s it can be
com p ared to a w olf m oving backw ard and forw ard. Eleazar b. H ananiah b.
H ezekiah b. G aron says: 'R em em ber the day o f the Sabbath to keep it holy,' keep it
in m ind from th e first day o f the week on, so that if som ething good h appens to
com e your way fix it u p for th e Sabbath. R. Isaac says: You shall not count them in
th e m an n er in which o th ers count them . But you should count them with
referen ce to th e S ab b ath ."'
T h e Sabbath was th u s the climax o f the week; it was ap p ro ach ed with
increasing expectation an d left behind reluctantly. Even in tim es o f proclaim ed
fasting, it was p erm itted to open the shops all day on T h u rsd ay "because o f the
h o n o u r d u e to th e Sabbath"; the Sabbath was to be h o n o red w ith food, d rin k , an d
fresh clothing, in fulfillm ent o f Isaiah 5 8 :13.' In the spirit o f N ehem iah 8:9-12,
th e Sabbath was to be h o n o re d by indulgence in som e unusual luxury, especially
food and d rin k ; and in o rd e r to have a better ap p etite for the first Sabbath m eat,
o n e ate sparingly on F riday.'17 Even a trifle, if it is p re p are d in h o n o u r o f the
Sabbath, is called Sabbath delight, an d it was said that the less m oney a person
spen d s for Sabbaths, the less m oney will he earn.""
O n Friday the Jew ish housew ife baked the special bread called challah, from
th e d o u g h o f which she h ad separated a portion for the priests, according to
N u m b ers 15:17-21. (A fter th e disappearance o f the T em p le system, it becam e the
custom simply to throw this portion into the fire.) T h o u g h a m an m ight eat two
meals on weekdays, it was considered m eritorious to eat th ree meals on
Sabbathon Friday night, afte r the Sabbath m o rn in g services, and a light meal
following th e afte rn o o n serv ices. Rabbi Zerikah based the custom o f th re e meals
o n Sabbath on Exodus 16:25, an d it was said: H e who observes the practice o f
th re e meals on th e Sabbath is saved from th ree evils: the tim e o f trouble before the
Messiah com es, the re trib u tio n o f G ehinnom , an d the wars o f Gog and M ag o g ."ly
O f course, all food p re p ara tio n had to be d o n e before the Sabbath, an d the th ird
an d fo u rth ch ap ters o f th e M ishnah tractate Shabbath describe devices for
keeping food w arm they could not lie heated on the Sabbath, but the heat they
already had m ight be conserved.
I he Sabbath was a favorite tim e for inviting guests to d in n e r, an d if it was
know n that anyone in the com m unity o r a transient visitor was too p o o r to eat well
th at day, it was a virtuous d eed to provide for him . Also, it was strictly forbidden to
fast on Friday o r Sabbath, o r to m o u rn on Sabbath, the only exception being w hen
th e Day o f A tonem ent fell on Sabbath. N ot only was m o u rn in g forbidden, but it
was only with difficulty th at th e rabbis ag reed to allow m o u rn ers to be com forted
an d th e sick to be visited on the Sabbath. W hen a sick person is visited, th e Sabbath

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visitor should say. It is Sabbath, w hen o n e m ust not cry out. a n d recovery will soon
c o m e . " O n th e Sabbath one was not even to give voice to distress in his prayers.
O n Sabbaths one should not only consum e a special treat but he should wear
a special g a rm e n t.1*1 From R uth 3:3 Rabbi H anina in ferred that a m an should
have two sets o f g arm ents, o n e for weekdays a n d one for S abbath, but when
Rabbi Simlai e x p o u n d e d the sam e precept his h earers wept an d said: As o u r
raim ent on weekdays, so is o u r raim ent on the Sabbath. H e said to them : It is
nevertheless necessary to change," m eaning that the sam e garm ent may be worn
differently.'** Because so m any Jew s did m ake the practice o f having a special
Sabbath g arm en t, th e G entiles mockingly said to o n e an o th er: How long d o you
wish to live?" T o which the jo cu lar reply was: As long as the shirt o f a Jew which is
worn on the S ab b ath !"15
O n e fu rth e r indulgence en co u rag ed on the Sabbath by the rabbis was m arital
relations: Psalm 1:3 was said to re fer to the m an who perform s his m arital duty
every Friday n ig h t.,w Even a wife living separately from h er h usband had the right
to have relations with him on Friday nights.'*5
As th e Sabbath drew on, the hom e was supposed to be especially cheery and
b rig h t.' T h e re was m uch bustle on Friday to com plete the p rep aratio n s for this
weekly festive occasion. In ancient Jew ish com m unities, the ap p ro ach o f the
Sabbath was signaled by th e synagogue sexton (chazzan) with blasts on the shojar
(ram 's horn). A ccording to one account, six blasts w ere blown on the eve o f the
Sabbath. T h e first, for people to cease work in the fields; the second, for th e city
and shops to cease w ork; the th ird , for the lights to be kindled: that is R. N athan's
view. R. J u d a h th e Nasi said: T h e th ird is for the phylacteries to be rem oved. T h e n
th ere was an interval for as long as it lakes to bake a small fish, o r to p u t a loaf in the
oven, a n d th en a long blast, a series of short blasts, an d a long blast w ere blown, and
one com m enced th e S ab b ath ."167 W ork m ust be com pleted o r stopped at least half
an h o u r befo re sunset. A question on the in terp retatio n o f Exodus 20:9 arose:
"But is it possible fo r a hu m an being to d o all his work in six days? It simply m eans:
Rest on the Sabbath as if all your work w ere done. A n o th er in terp re tatio n : Rest
even from th e th o u g h t o f labor."'*"
T h e Sabbath began at sunset on Friday, and this tim e was anciently
d eterm in ed by observation: W hen one star is visible, it is day; when two. it is
twilight; th ree, it is n ight. ' A lthough in later custom the Sabbath was ush ered in
by a service in th e synagogue, m ore anciently the greeting o f the Sabbath was a
hom e af fair.
L ighting o f th e Sabbath lam ps just before sundow n is o n e o f the oldest
custom s for welcoming the Sabbath, apparently already an established custom in
the tim e o f Je su s.'70 W ith the perfo rm an ce o f this cerem ony assigned to the
w om an o f the household, if th ere was o n e the Sabbath was felt to have palpably
arrived.
T h e n cam e th e Kiddush (sanctification) cerem ony, w hich was believed to be a
Biblical req u irem en t: 'T o keep it holy [Ex. 20:8] T o consecrate it with a
benediction. O n the basis o f this passage the sages said: At the en tran ce o f the
Sabbath we consecrate it by reciting the sanctification o f the day over w in e."171
C om m enting on the different ways by which God hallowed the Sabbath (Ex.
20:11). Rabbi J u d a h said: G od hallowed it by prescribing a blessing for it. From
this teaching it follows that at the arrival of the Sabbath one declares it holy by

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 T H E S AB BA T H IN S C RI P TU R E AND H I S T O R 1!

reciting a blessing over a c u p o f w in e."175T h o u g h o rdinarily wom en were excused

from observing positive precepts that d e p e n d ed on set times, they were req u ired
to recite o r h ea r the recital o f the R iddush at the beginning o f S abbath.1
Following this th e first Sabbath meal p rm e e d e d . which from early times was
accom panied with singing: "W hen the Sabbath com es, we welcome it with
psalm ody an d song, as it is said, A Psalm, a song for th e Sabbath.' ,M Later, w hen
it becam e custom ary to g a th e r in th e synagogue for services before the
Friday-evening meal, the fath er, u p o n re tu rn in g hom e, would lay his hands on
each child in tu rn an d bless him , greet the Sabbath angels, and then recite to his
wife the thirtv-first c h a p te r o f Proverbs; and a fte r this cam e the K iddush an d
meal. Rabbi Jose rep o rts that it was taught: "Tw o m inistering angels accom pany
m an on the eve o f the Sabbath from the synagogue to his hom e, o n e a good angel
an d o n e an evil angel. A nd w hen he arrives hom e and finds the lam p b u rn in g , the
table laid and th e bed covered with a spread, the good angel exclaims, May it be
even th u s on an o th e r Sabbath also,' and the evil angel unwillingly responds,
am en .' But if not, the evil angel exclaims, 'May it be even thus on a n o th er Sabbath
also,' an d th e good angel unwillingly responds, 'a m e n .'" 11
O n Sabbath m o rn in g th e family would arise som ewhat later than usual and go
to the synagogue, if it were within the Sabbath limits for them . T h e re th e ritual
d iffe red from th at o f o th e r days, most notably in that the E ighteen B enedictions
w ere red u ced in n u m b er to seven, for all prayers with reference to sickness o r
o th e r trials w ere o m itted .17,1
A bout noon cam e the second Sabbath meal. Sabbath dishes w ere declared to
be m ore tasty th an on o th e r days, even though co ld .' I he following story was
o ften told: G od blessed th e Sabbath with tasty dishes. O u r T ea ch er [Judah the
Prince] m ade a meal for A ntoninus on the Sabbath. Cold dishes were set before
him ; he ate them and found them delicious. [On a n o th e r occasion] he m ade a meal
for him d u rin g the week, w hen hot dishes w ere set before him. Said he to him :
T h o se oth ers I enjoyed m ore.' T h ese lack a certain co n d im en t, h e replied. Does
th en th e royal p an try lack anything? he exclaim ed. T hey lack the Sabbath,' he
replied; do you indeed possess the S a b b a th ? '" ,7*
A fter th e noon meal th e re was a period o f relaxation. letter in the afte rn o o n
o n e went to th e Beth ha-M idrash, o r synagogue school. It was th o u g h t b etter to
atten d the S ab b ath-afternoon lectures than to read th e S criptures privately at that
h o u r. T h is tim e o f study, discussion, an d lecture was followed by the afte rn o o n
M inha services. It is not p erm itted to read the H agiographa [on Sabbath] except
from M inha tim e onw ards, but one may recite them by heart and deliver
expositions on them , and if it is req u ired for som e pu rp o se to exam ine, o n e may
take u p [a copy] an d exam ine it.
Anciently, afte r the M inha service the family w ould g ath er before sundow n
fo r th e th ird Sabbath meal, which was lighter than the others. As it grew d ark, the
sexton once again blew a blast on the shofar, and the family conducted the
cerem ony o f Habdalah (separation), m arking the boundary betw een the Sabbath
an d th e secular tim e ensuing. Lights w ere kindled, spices on b u rn in g coals w ere
b ro u g h t in an d sm elled, a n d grace afte r the meal was recited over a cu p o f wine.
T h e H abdalah was not concluded until an interval afte r sundow n, for the people
w ere loath to see the Sabbath pass; indeed, the custom o f sm elling spices was
re g ard e d as a consolation fo r its passing.

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 T H E RABBINIC; S AB BA T H

Most Jew s looked forw ard to the Sabhath with anticipation o f pleasure,
w hether rabbi o r day laborer: "R. B erechiah taught in the nam e o f R. Hiyya bar
Abba: T h e Sabbath was given solely fo r enjoym ent. R. Haggai said in the nam e o f
R. Sam uel b ar N achm an: T h e Sabbath was given solely for the study o f T o ra h .
A nd the two d o not d iffer. W hat R. B erechiah said in the nam e o f R. Hiyya bar
Abba about th e Sabbath's being given fo r enjoym ent applies to the disciples o f the
wise who weary them selves in the study o f T o ra h th ro u g h o u t the weekdays, but on
th e Sabbath com e and enjoy them selves. W hat R. Haggai said in th e nam e o f R.
Sam uel bar N achm an about the S abbaths being given for study o f T o ra h applies
to w orkingm en w ho are busy with their work th ro u g h o u t the weekdays, but on the
Sabbath com e an d occupy them selves with the T o ra h . 1
For the Jew s the Sabbath was a tem ple in time, an irrem ovable place of
m eeting with G od. the inalienable rallying point o f all Jews. T hey read Exodus
3 1: 17, "It is a sign . . . for ever." an d declared. T h is tells that the Sabbath will never
be abolished in Israel. A nd so you find that anything to which the Israelites were
devoted with th eir whole souls has been preserved am ong them ." It is w orthy o f
note th at insofar as they have preserved the Sabbath, th e Sabbath has also
preserved them .
NOTES
1 M m sta tem en t leave m il of accou n t th e S a n u n u n s . w h o had for n u n \ gen era tio n b een co n sid e r e d a not
q u ite Jew. I cs s th an a th o u sa n d o f th em rem ain todav M am grou p o f D iaspora (o v ersea s) Jew s rem a in ed isolated
from th e m ain stream o f J c w u h h istory, su ch as th e Falashas. the m ack J e n s o f E th iop ia, o f w h o m o n ls s o m e thirty
th o u sa n d are left t o d a y In later Jew ish history o th er g ro u p s a ro se that may he re g a rd ed as th row back to
pre-R abbtm c fo rm s o f Ju d a ism , m ost notablv th e K araite m o v e m e n t, w hich a ro se in th e e ig h th cen tu ry A . D . . and
R efo rm J u d a is m o f'co n te m p o r a ry A m erica
2 T h e N a /o r e a n s (Jew ish C h ristian s) survived b y fle ein g at an o p p o r tu n e m o m en t to Pella b ey o n d th e J o rd a n .
Pharisaism su rvived b ecau se o f th e d ram atic esca p e fro m JeruaJem nv Rabin |o h a n a n b en Zakkai. w h o receiv ed
p etm issio n fro m th e k .m u m t<> set Up . v h o o l at Ja b n e h ( |a m m .it. a short distanC fro m th e Palestinian <QMI I h i
S a d d u cces cou ld n ot su rvive w ith out th e T e m p le and its sacrifices, but th e Pharisees h ad rea d s at h a n d th e local
sy n a g o g u es a a ltern ative religiou s ce n ters. T h o u g h th e F ssen es had little to d o w ith th e T e m p le , a a g r o u p they
teem to h ave b een w ip ed o u t in o th e r R om an military action d u r in g th e d isa stro u s war M any o f th em m av h ave
b eco m e C hristian s o r Gnostic
* Rv classical Rabbinic Ju daism is m ean t p rim arily th e religion o f th e T a lm u d . Inn th is w* further cla lm ra ted
a n d hnallv co d ified by later rabbis, as e x p la in e d helots
4 T h e classic sta tem en t of th is th eory o f th e ch ain of trad ition is in th e M ishnah, A b o th 1:1 T h e rest o f this
tractate illu strates h o w th e ch ain w as ca rried cm from F./ras day to th e tim e w h en th e M ilm ah was co m p iled
4 It m av b e w o n d e r e d how a legal dec iion p resen ted a th e o p in io n o f a rabbi to u ld tie so m eh o w attrtou ted to
M oses. T h e an sw er is probably that th e a ccep ted Rabbinic o p in io n w ere reg a rd ed as th e n atural a n d necessary
u n fo ld in g o f w hat w as co n ta in e d in p rin cip le or im p lied bs tn c Mosaic legislation
6 Ju d aism regard th e Five Book of M oses as tn e p n m a r s revelation fro m <<*!. a n d th e fact that uhequcntl
in th e O ld T esta m en t fu rth er detail an d a p p lica tio n s o f t h e M<saK law are g iv en is c ite d as p ro o f for th e n ecessity o f
j co n tin u ally d e v e lo p in g tra d itio n . For e x a m p le , th e prophetic stricture* again! trad in g an d b ea rin g o f b u r d e n s o n
th e Sabbath (A m o s 8:5; j e r . 17:21*24) m ake m o re exp licit what i in ten d ed by th e g en er a l p ro h ib itio n s o f labor in the
D eca lo g u e a n d th e law o f M oses, an d it is felt that tin Biblical p r e c e d e n t for ex p lica tin g a n d ela b o r a tin g th e Ians
leg itim izes th e p ro ce ss th at was carried o n bs th e rabbis. H ie op in ion o f th e rabbis w ere baed o n their
in terpretation of S c n p tu r e . u p o n estab lish ed cu sto m , an d u p o n clev er casuistic d ed u c tio n s. 'P ie p o in t was reach ed
w here th e R ahhinu ru lin gs carried m o re w eigh t than th e B ib le, fro m w hich the w ere su p p o se d to h ave b een
ulum atelv d eriv ed T h e w ord s of th e Scribes a te m o re b eloved th an th o se o f th e T o ra h**( \fw h m m Rahhah. I hr Song o f
Sonfj. 1:2:S; cf. E llen C . W h ite. C hrut's OlnectLr% tom [W a sh in g to n . D .C .. 19*11). p 5 0 4 ) I h is m av not h a v e b e e n the
in theory , but it w as so in prac tice: if tn c (eac h in g of th e rabbis is a m a g n ify in g glas for re a d in g th e in stru ctio n o f
MoteSj w h o w ou ld d a r e to read th e latter w ith ou t th e form er?
R efere n c es to th e M ihnah arc cu stom arily made* In t it m g th e particular tractate in a m an ner a n a k ig o u s to
B ibbcal r e fe ren ce s, thus: S h ah liath 8 :2 . R eferen ce to th e Palctm ian T a lm u d are m a d e by p refix in g I t o the
M ishnah w h ich i b ein g ela b o ra ted u | miii. thu: J Shabbatli H:2. R eference* to th e B ab vlom an T a lm u d are
lu sto m a rilv m ad e a cc o rd in g to fo lio en u m e r a tio n , thu: SliablM th 73a (each fo lio in H ebrew had tw o sid es,
d esig n a ted a" an d b"). T h u s the reader can tell w hich w ork i b ein g cited by th e fo rm o f th e re fe ren ce , e v e n th o u g h
th e tractate ha th e sam e title in all In fo o tn o te s h e r e a fte r . Shabbatli w ill lie ab breviated Shab . and K rubin will Tie
I rub T h e n a m es of o th er tractates will not Ik *ab b reviated A far a p o ssib le, on ly th o se R abbinu work. w ill lie cited
that are available in Knglih T h e m ost co n v e n ie n t tra n sla tio n o f th e M ihnah i by H erb ert D anb v. th e stand ard
tran slation o f th e B ab ylon ian Talm ud is th e ed itio n e d ite d In lidorc F.pstcm (th e $ o n c in o ed itio n ), w hich w e h ave
usually but not alw ays follow ed
T h e rabbts w h o a re q u o te d in th e M ishnah a re called tannm m . th ey w ere co n tem p o ra ry w ith th e N ew
T etta m en t w riters a n d earliest C h u rc h Fathers

87
 I H E S AB BA T H IN S C R I P T U R E AND HISTORY

9 T h e rabbis w h o a re q u o te d in ih e (em ara o f th e I a lm u d s a re ra iled Am oraim I h e A m oraitic p erio d e n d e d

ab out a . D . 55 0 . F in ish in g to u ch es w ere p ul o n th e B ab ylon ian T a lm u d by sch olars ca lled Sabtnaim . w h o se p e n o d
en d ed about a .d . 600.
10 M ekilta is a c o m m e n ta n o n th e legal p o rtio n s o f K xodus; r e fe ren ce s to it are by tractate a n d ch a p ter, th us
M ek. B a ch o d esh 2 . M idrash Rabbah is a series of co m m en ta ries o n (h e Five B ook s o f M oses a n d th e Five M egilloth
(R u th . L am en tation s, E cclesiastes, E sther, a n d S o n g o l S o lo m o n ), th e scrolls that w ere read o n th e Jew ish festiv a ls
R efere n c es to th e M uirash Rabbah are h ere a fte r m ad e in this fashion: (ie n . R 9 7 :2 R efere n c es to the o th er midrashim
will n ot em p lo v ab b reviation s but will u se th e stand ard ch a p ter a n d v erse system s o f th o se w orks. In a d d itio n to th e
w orks m e n tio n e d , r e fe r e n c e will Ik* had to th e so-calleci M inor T ra cta tes, w hich are s o m etim es th o u g h t o f as
a p p e n d e x e s to th e T a lm u d , in th is article their titles will Ik- p refix ed bv M l "
" T h e C o d e o f M aim onidetfA fu A n/A T o m b ) d ea ls w ith th e Sabbath in B<n>k T h r e e , T h e B o o k o f S easons." T h e
tran slation (Y ale U niversity Press e d .. N ew York. I.Mil ) will Im* re fe rre d to as M a im o m d es. ( io d e A n a b rid g m en t o f
th e ShuU han A n u b has b e e n tran slated (Ckildin. N ew Y ork. 1969); this will be re fe rre d t o h ere a fte r as G a n /fr ie d .
C o d e.
** H u lim 5a; J . B era k o th 1:5, J. N ed arim 3:14; F.x. R. 25:1 2 ; D eut R. 4:4
15 Mek V avassa' 6
14 Pesikta Rabbati 2 7 :4.
C f. E u g e n e J t.ip m a n . T he M is h nah O ral Teachings of Ju d a ism (N ew York, 197 0 ), p. 79.
16 M ek. B a ch o d esh H.
17 M ek Shabbata I.
11 M ek Vavassa* 5
,f S h ab 11 Kb
20 Ex R 2 5 :1 2 ; J T a a m th 1:1.
11 Pesikta Rabbati 2 5 :2
a T h e basic m e a n in g . Mto set apart or co n set ra te, is b eh in d b o th u sages. T h e n o u n fo rm kiddush is u sed b oth for
th e p rayer o f sanctification o f th e S abbath an d for th e w ed d in g ce rem o n v .
** Pesikta Rabbati 2 3 :6.
7i Shab. 119a For o th er cu sto m s a n d le g e n d s c o n n e c te d w ith th e id ea o f th e Sabbath as Israel's b rid e, see
A braham Joshua H e sc h e l. The Sabbath (N ew Y ork , 1966), pp. 4 5 -6 2 , 124*128.
D e u t R 1:21; c f. E* R. 3 3 :7 .
* D eu t R 1:21.
17 S a n h e d n n 5 8 b (m s tran slation ). I)eu l R 1:21.
s lu M u lj I. f x R 25 I I O ilier Jet**, p a riu u l.iilv in th e D iaspora, had .i m o re u niversal viev\ <>| the
S ab tu th ob ligation . S e e R olieri M J oh n ston . Patriarc hs. R abbis, a n d S abb ath . A L S S 12 ( 1 9 7 4 ):9 4 -102. But w hile
m ost rabbis * e r e savin g, T h e Sabbath w as g iven to you" (m ea n in g Israel). J esu s was sa v in g . T h e sabbath was m a d e
for Man" (M ark 2 :2 7 )
** B esid es J o h n s to n , se e Kurt H r u b s. Le sabbat et sa clb ra tio n d 'a p rs les so u r ces ju iv es a n cien n es" (suite).
E'Onent Syrien n ( I963):72*79; an d J a co b 7.. l<auterhach. T h e Sabbath in Jew ish Ritual a n d F o lk lo re. in Rabbinic
f . i u n i (C in cin n ati, 1951), p p 4 3 9 . 4 4 0
M. T A b oth d e R abbi N ath an 1:8 (17bJ; Eccl R 1:2:1
Pesikta Rabbati 2 3 :6 ; 4 6 : 1. A n eig h th - en tu rs o r k that d raw s n ot o n lv fro m earlier Rabbinic tra d itio n s but
a ls o fr o m e a r l) apocalyptic p v u d e p ig r a p tia Pirke <ie Rabin Eltezjer. 18 [1 9 ] (F n e d la n d e r tran s.. p p 125. 126) says: 1 he
Sabbath d as a r n s e d an d b eca m e an ad v o ca te for th e first m an . an d it sp a k e b efo re H im : S o v ereig n o f all w orlds! N o
m u rd erer has b een slain in th e * o r ld d u r in g th e six days o f cr ea tio n , a n d w ilt T h o u c o m m e n c e (to a o this) w ith m e (on
th e Sal>bath)? Is th is its sanctitv. an d is th is its b le ssin g ' . . Bv th e m e n t o f th e Sabbath d as A d a m was sa v ed fro m the
ju d g m e n t C ch in w o m It *.% al*> said th at, o u t o f co n sid e r a u o n fo r A dam 's fears, o n the fir%r S ab b a th light
c o n tin u ed for th in v -six h o u r s <M idrash o n Psalm 9 2 :4 ).
v* Pirke de Rabbi EUezer. 18 (F n e d la n d e r . p. 126).
M For re fe ren ce s, se e th e th r e e articles r e fe rre d to in n o tes 2 8 a n d 2 9 . C f Pesikta R abbati 2 3 :9 .
* F.x R 1:28; 5 :1 8
w T h e r e was a Rabbi nu d o c tr in e c o n c e r n in g w hat w as k n ow n as th e N o a ch id e Law. a cc o rd in g to * h ic h the
a n ted ilu v ia n saints w ere g iv e n s u law s t o o b e s : o r o h ib iu o n s against th e w o rsh ip o f o th er g o d s, b la sp h e m in g th e n am e
o f C o d , cu rsin g ju d g e s, m u rd er, in cest, an d rob b ers : to N o a h w as gi s e n th e ad d itio n a l p ro h ib itio n o f ea tin g flesh with
th e b lood of life in it (S a n h e d n n 56 a . b; G en . R 16:6). T h e m oral d e m a n d u p o n ( en tiles d id not g o b ev o n d th ese
sev en law s, w hich d id n ot in clu d e th e Sabbath.
56 C f. M .T . S o ferim 42a.
17 S ee T h e B o o k o f th e S ecrets o f E n och 3 3 :1 -2 . whic h m as reflect (.h r ist u n redac twin o f th e sa m e m en iah tv that
p r o d u c e d B arn ab as 15:4-9; but see th e n o te in A P O T . 2 :4 5 1 . C f also l iia Adae rt E lite 5 1 :2 . h e r e the s e s e n th d a s is
th e sign o f th e resu rrection an d th e rest o f th e a g e to c o m e . w hich co u ld h ard is h ave b een vatd bs a C h ristia n (nr
w h om th e R esu rrection is associated w ith S u n d a s.
M O n this w h o le subject see T h e o d o r e F n ed m a n . T h e Sabbath A nticip a tio n o f R ed em p tio n ." Ju d a ism 16
( 1967):4 4 3 -4 52; G e o r g e W esley B u ch a n a n . Sabbatical F m h a to lo g s . C hristian Seu-s From Israel 18 (l)e c c m h c r .
l9 6 7 ):4 9 -5 5 . It is o f in terest that th e N ew T esta m en t b ook o l R evelation e n d o r s e s th e last part o f the cosm ic w eek
sch em a but is lou d lv silen t ab out th e first part (th e six ih o u x a o d sea rs), h is d ifficult to h a r m o n i/c th e co n ce p t o f an
en d less Sabbath w ith such a p assa g e as th is o n e in M idrash o n Psalm 73:4 R. S im eo n said in th e n a m e o f R S im eo n
the Pious: In th is w orld , if a m an goers ab ou t g a th erin g figs o n a Sabb ath , th e hg tree sa ss n o th in g at all. but in the
W orld to C o m e , if a m an sh o u ld g o to g lean a fig tree o n a Sabbath, th e tree * ili call alo u d to h im a n d say: It is th e
Sabbath!'
w M idrash o n th e T e n C o m m a n d m en ts. F ou rth W ord; Pesikta R abfu ti 2 3 :8 . T h e form er is in ( en tia n
tran slation in A u gu st W u n sch e. A us Israels Lehrhallen (L eip zig, 1909; rep rin ted H ild esh e im , 1967). 4:9 1 .
40 G en . R. 11:5; Pesikta Rabbati 2 3 :8 .
41 Ex R. 30:9.
42 M ek Shabbata 2. O r p erh a p s th e m ea n in g is that to G od , w h o is u n lim ited bs su n . m o o n , or re so lv in g ea rth ,
all tim e is alike. B ut su ch a co n ce p t w ou ld clash with oth er Rabbinic sta tem en ts, such as th e co m m en t in M idrash o n
P sa lm 9 2 :2 . In all th e t o r n J M O th a l t h e c h fld b tB o l Im .u i u et r m t In vuM i n w o u ld m .uin.i *> th em on

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 I HE RABBI NIC S ABBATH

ih c six days o f labor, but o n th e Sabbath th e m a n n a d id n ot tall: not tnrcause G o d had n o stren g th to sen d n d o w n , but
b et a u se it w as S abbath in H is p resen ce."
43 O n th is g en er a l u u e stio n s e e esp ecia lly G e o r g e Foot M o u re, Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era: The
Age o f the Tannaim (C a m b rid g e. Mass . 1927), 2 :2 7 -3 2 . M oore speaks o f an 'o ld e r H alakah" that was m o r e strin g en t
than that o f th e P h a n se e s a n d later tan n aim . w h o so u g h t to m ake th e laws m o re practicable. It is u n clea r, h o w ev er,
w h eth er th e d iffe r e n c e s b etw een th e ru les o f th e M ish n ah an d th o se o f ea rlier so u r ces (J u b ilees, Z ad ok ite D o cu m en t,
D ead S ea scrolls, et ce te ra ) re p r ese n t th e d iffe r e n c e b etw een n ew er an d o ld er o r sectarian d iffe r e n c e s . It is p ossib le
that a g r o u p su ch as th e E ssen es re p r ese n ts n ot on lv con servatism but a lso a ten d en cy tow ard grea ter rigor. See
Barbara T hierinj. T h e Biblical S o u r ce o f O u m ra n A sceticism . JBL 9 3 ( 1 9 7 4 ):4 3 2 .4 3 3 . H o w ev e r that m ay b e. th ere
is every probability that th e Pharisaic ru les ot S ab b a th k eep in g in J e su s tim e w ere stricter a n d m o re o n e r o u s th an they
w ere later w h en th e M ish n ah was co m p le te d
44 T h e s e first tw o w ork s are fo u n d in A P O T , 2 : 1 -8 2 . 7 8 3 -8 3 4 . T h e Z ad ok ite D o cu m en t is n ow o fte n ca lled the
C o v en a n t o f D am ascus: it is usually in clu d ed in p u b lish e d tran slatio n s o f th e D ead S ea scrolls, such as that bv
T h e o d o r H . C aster. The D ead Sea Scriptures (C a rd en C ity, N .Y .. 1936).
45 O n th is ge n e r a l u u e stio n . see esp ecially S T . K im b ro u g h . J r.. T h e C o n c e p t o f Sabbath at Q u m ra n ," R evue de
Qumran 5 ( 1 9 6 4 - 19 6 6 ):4 8 5 - 5 0 1; an d J u d a h R osen th al. T h e Sabbath Law s o f th e Q u m ra n ite s o r th e D am ascus
C o v en a n ters." Biblical Research 6 ( 1961 ): 10-17 T h e s e tw o articles u n fo r tu n a tely ten d to m in im ize th e d iffe r e n c e s
b etw een th e Rabbinic ru les and th o se o f th e oth ers; th is c o n ie s from o v e r lo o k in g so m e o f th e illu stration s g iv e n below
C f. also tw o articles by L ou is F ink eistein : T h e B ook o f J u b ilee s an d th e Rabbinic H alaka. " H a rva rd Theological Review
16 ( 1 9 2 3 ):3 9 - 6 1 ; an d " Som e E xam p les o f th e M accabean H alak a."JBL 4 9 (1 9 3 0 ) : 2 0 - 4 2 . O n th e d iffe r e n c e s in respect
to Sabbath ligh ts, see l^auterbach, op. a t .. p p. 4 5 8 -4 6 1 .
46 1 9 :2 2 , 2 3 . 2 6 . C aster, op. cit., p. 7 8 . e m e n d s th e latter rule to ch a n g e it fro m a p ro h ib itio n to a p ositive
c o m m a n d b ccau sc th is w ou ld Ik *again st th e u niversal Jew ish ru le that sabbath law s mav b e bro k en in cases o f life an d
d e a th . P age 104. But such an em e n d a tio n fails to tak e in to accou n t th e w h o le ten o r of th e S abbath ru les in th is and
c o g n a te d o c u m e n ts, in con trast to th e Rabbinic ru les. It is illegitim ate to tra n sfer Rabbinic p rin ciple to th e g r o u p that
p ro d u c ed th is w ork. T h e em e n d a tio n is ev e n m o re u n lik ely o n form al g r o u n d s, fo r th e co m m a n d stan d s in th e m idst
o f so m e tw en ty-five o th e r co m m a n d s, every o n e o f w hich is a p roh ib itio n .
47 S ee n o te in A P O T , 2 :8 1 . 82.
4* S ee l.a u ter b a c h . op. cit., p p . 4 5 4 -4 5 8 .
49 C f. W h ite, op cit., p p. 3 8 . 3 9 . 2 7 8 . 27 9 .
50 Mek A m alek 3
51 Shab. 19:1.
Shab. 19:5.
55 T e m u r a h 2 :1 .
M M en ah oth 11:2-3: c f. Shab. 19:1: Pesah im 6:2.
H Pesahim 3:6; 6:1 -6 ; M en ah oth 10:1-3, 9.
56 R osh h a-S h an ah 1:4. 5 . 9.
57 A fter a th o u sa n d p io u s J ew s a llow ed th em selv es to be m assacred rather th an d e fe n d th em selv es o n th e
Sabbath. M attathias a n d th e o th er Jew ish le a d e rs in th e stru g g le against A n tio ch u s F p ip h a u es d e c id e d that in the
fu tu r e th ey w ou ld fight in su ch a situ ation ( 1 M acc 2 : 2 9 - 4 1 ). A cco rd in g to 2 M accabees 8 :2 5 -2 8 , af ter Jew s d ef ea ted
th e arm y o f N ican or th ey cea sed p u rsu it b eca u se the Sabbath was d ra w in g on . T h e r e s e e m s to h ave b e e n less
co m p u n c tio n ab out e v e n ro u tin e m ilitary serv ice o n S abbath in O ld T esta m en t tim es; 2 K ings 11:4-11 tells o f so ld iers
d o in g g u a r d d u ty a n d e v e n p articip atin g in th e coup d'etat again st Q u e e n A thaliah.
" (en . R. 7 0 :15.
w Shab. 19a.
M M ek. Shabbata I.
61 N u m . R 23:1
Shab. 6:4.
',1 S uch cases are system atically d iscu ssed by M aim om d es (C o d e . Sabbath 2 :1 -2 5 ).
64 M ek. Shabbata I.
Ibid It will be se e n im m ed iately that tw o o f th ese a rg u m en ts a re alm ost id en tical w ith th o se u sed by Jesu s.
Rabbi E leazars a r g u m e n t as it a p p e a rs in M ekilta is virtually id en tical w ith that fo u n d in J o h n 7 :2 3 . In Y om a 8 o b it is
so m ew h at e x p a n a e d : R. Eleazar a n sw er ed an d said: It circum c ision . w hich attach es to o n l\ o n e o f th e tw o h u n d red
and fo rty-eigh t m em b ers o f th e h u m a n b od y, s u sp e n d s th e Sabbath, how m uc h m o re shall th e sa v in g o f th e w h o le
bodv s u sp en d th e Sabbath!" T h e sayin g o f S im on b en M enasiah is q u ite sim ilar to M ark 2 :2 7 . B ec a u se o f th ese
sim ilarities, so m e J ew ish sch olars h ave in sisted that J esu s w as savin g n o th in g new but m erely e c h o in g th e stand ard
h u m an itarian ism o f th e P h a n se es. T h is view ru n s a g ro u n d o n a ch ro n o lo g ica l d ifficu lty , for b oth Rabbi E leazar and
Rabbi S im on b en M enasiah ta u g h t tw o or m o r e g en er a tio n s later th an J e su s. I. A braham s. Studies in Pharisaism an d the
Gospels, First S eries (L o n d o n . 1 9 17), p. 13 0 . tries to m eet th is d ifficu lty by n o tin g that in Y o m a 8 5 b S im o n s savin g is
attribu ted to J o n a th a n b en J o se p h , an d th e variation in assign ed a u th o r sh ip su g g ests that th e savin g o rig in a ted w ith
n eith er, but w as an o ld e r tradition"; he traces th e teach in g ultim ately to th e d ecisio n o f M attathias in I M accabees
2 39. T o this 1 w ou ld reply, A b rah am s is q u ite right in savin g that th e sayin g o rig in a ted w ith n eith er rabbi, but is
o ld er th e u n k n o w n o rig in a to r o f th e tea ch in g was J esu s, w h ose strik in g savin gs m ust h ave p a ssed in to co m m o n
co in a g e e v e n a m o n g n o n fo llo w ers, w h o w ou ld h ave had n o reason to re m e m b e r th e so u r ce, a n a in d e e d ev e ry reason
not to recall it. T h e r e is n o verbal p arallel in 1 M accabees, n or any sta tem en t o f a g en er a l p rin cip le.
^ S a n h d rin 74a; Y om a 85a; a n d else w h ere .
67 S a n h d rin 74a. Rabbi Ish m ael's d ictu m is attrib u ted to Rabbi S a m u el in Y om a 8 5 b . w h ere it o ccu rs in the
sam e co n tex t as th e savin g o f Rabbi Eleazar an d th e sayin g attribu ted th ere to J o n a th a n b en J o s e p h but in M ekilta to
S im on b en M enasiah . T h e savin g that M ekilta attribu tes to Rabbi N ath a n is a ssig n ed by Y om a 8 5 b to S im o n b en
M enasiah.
^ Ibid
69 S a n h d rin 74b .
70 Y om a 8 :6 ; 8 4 a . b.
71 Shab. 18:3: 2 2 :6.
^ T a a n ith 3:7.

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 T H E S AB BA TH IN S CR I P T U R E AND HI S TO R Y

n Y um a M b
74 Ibid ; but see a lv i Shab. 16:1-0
n 1. C '.runfeld, T h t Sabbath A GuttU to lt% I n d m ta n d in g a m i O b t m n m r (J eru sa lem . 1 972). p 19. co n clu d e (o
d e fin e a mrhikah a "an at I ih ai how m an s m a ite rv o v er th e w o r ld ! th e c o n stru ttiv e ex e rcise of tin in tr lli|;r m r and
kill "
76 Shab. 7 :2 . C f M ek S hab b ata 2; S h ab 9 7 b
n S hab 2 2 : 1
r* For th is reason O r th o d o x Jew* w h o fin d il n ecessary (o m ilk to w o n Sabtiaih p o u r o u t th e m ilk o b ta in ed
ra th er than receiv e an v b en efit fro m it.
n P csh ah im 4:8.
*u B e t/a h 1:1 ; B e t/a h 2a-4b ; S hab 43a.
S hab 75b .
E rub 104a; M ek PUcha. 6
* M aim on id rc. C o d e . Sabbath 12:3.
M Shab . 16:6. I; 117b.
15 Shab 1:3.
S h a b 12 a
1,7 B et/a h 5:2: Mek S hab b ata 2: S h ab 2 3 :4 . 5.
Shab 12:1-6; Shah . 73b; S u k k ah 3 :1 4 ; c f M a im o m d es. C o d e. Sabbadi 1:6
" Shab 2 2 :3 -5
C f I e r u m o th 2:3.
91 S a n h d rin 62b .
* Shab . 38a.
C f. S h ab 46b .
** S h eb iith 10:7; B c t/a h 5:1.
w Shab. 1 6 : 1 .2 ; R uth R 6 :4 .
96 Shab 2 1 :2 . 3.
Shab 21:1
* Y e lu m o th 1 1 3 b -114a
w S hab 3:1 -5 ; 4 : 1 . 2; 22:4
Shab 10:2. 5; 20:5: M ek S h a b b a u I
101 S hab 1:5. 10, I I , 18a
" S h a b 2 2 :6 . 18a
lu , M .T . S em a h o th 46a.
"M S hab 2 3 :5 ; c f. R uth R 3:2
" Etc I R 5 :1 0 :2
106 Shab 2 4 :2 -4 ; R uth R 3:2
107 S h ab 39 b -4 0 b
' B e t/a h 2:2
"" Le R 34 :1 6 .
" " S h a b 141a, 147b
111 S hab 13:5-7.
" * Erub 104a; Lam R 2:2:4
111 M .T . S o ferim 4 1 a .
" S h a b 118a
1,5 M ek Pischa 9.
116 S hab 23:4
117 S hall 150a
" Shab. 7 4 a
" * M .T K allali R abbalhi 55a
1.0 Mek S h ab 2.
1.1 S hab 2:7; D en tal 4:1.
'** Mek Pischa 17.
Erub. 51a; M ek. Vavassa*. 6 .
1.4 Erub 4 :1 . 3; 5 :7 .
'* N u m R 2:9; E rub. 41b .
IWl E rub 4:1
117 H o ta \o th 1:3; S h ab 7:4-H:7; 9 :5 -7 ; 1 0 :1 5 .
' S h a b . 17:1-8; 1 8 : 1 .2 .
,N E n ib 4 :7 .
,w S h ab 7 3 a an d 1 1 1
151 H ru b y. op n i., p p . 4 4 9 -4 5 1 .
1.1 Erub. I : f
1.1 M ek V a v a u a ' 3.
1.4 B e t/a h 5:2
,, s H aiiigah 1:8.
' E n i l 10:15.
157 M ek S hab b ata 1
IM C f. M .T . A b oth d e Rabbi N ath an 2 7 a .
I,g Pesikta R abl.au 2 3 :3 .
14.1 Lev R 34 16. Pesikla R abbati 2 3 :3 .
141 M ek. B a ch o d esh 8
,4J S a n h d rin 7 :4 . 1
M ek S h alib aia I ; S a n h d rin 7:4; 7 :8 .
I4* M akkoth 13a. b.
I4' K en t b oth 1:1

90
 T H E RAB BI NI C S ABBATH

146 S a n h e d n n 7:8.
147 S h ab 11:6.
,4# K en t b o th 3:10.
149 Shah. 72b.
,5a K c r i t h o t h 4 :1 .
*** Shab. 10b.
IM M ek. B a ch o d esh 7. Pesikta Rabbati 2 3 : 1, c i cetera
115 S h c h u o th 2 0 b
,S4 G e n R 9 :1 4 ad vocates a d d in g an extra h ou r to Sabbath, tak rn fro m Fridas
115 M ek B a ch o d esh 7
,v> T a a n ilh 1:6; M idrash o n Psalm 9 2 :3 .
157 Pesikta R abbali 2 3 :6 , 7; P esh ah im 99b .
159 S h ah 1 1Mb. la-v R 3 0 :1.
,w M ek Vavassa* 5 . Shab. 1 18a
,9 G en . R lOO 7; S h ab 12b
191 S h ab 113a. Cien R 11:2; N u m R 10 1. Pesikta R abliati 2 3 I
,M R uth R 5 : 12.
143 Lam R . P roem 17.
,M N ed arim 8 6 ; 3 :1 0 . Baba K am a 82a; N id d a h 3 8 a , b; K rlh u h o th 6 2 b . P i e e x p r e ssio n eat gat In.' u se d in
*om e o f th ese re fe ren ce s, it grn rrally taken lo be an e u p h e m ism .
144 K ethu fu xh 5 :9 . in ter p r eted in K eth u b oth 65b .
S h ab 23b . 25b .
197 S h ab 35 b S in ce o n e shcnild n ot b ea i b u r d e n s o n th e Sa!>bath. a n d th e last blast o f th e %hofar m a rk ed the
b e g in n in g (h e Sabb ath , a quandarv arose: W hat d id th e c h a ix tn d o w ith h is thofar after th e six blasts* Rabbi J o se len
H a n in a said he allow ed tim e to c a m it h o m e , bhiw ing it a little earlv. bul th e rest o f (h e rabbis said h e "had a h id d en
p lace o n th e to n of his ro o f, here h e p laced h is \Kafai, Ixrcause n eith er a shitfat nor a ir u m p e i m ay Ik* h a n d led o n th e
Sabbath** (to u ch in g m u sical in stru m en ts violated tn e Sabbath m ukiieh laws). O th ers said that th e in stru m en ts m as tie
m o v ed as part o f a ce rem o n ia l d u lv (Shab. 36a).
M ek B a ch o d esh 7
Shab 35b
179 O n th e h n t o n o f t h cu sto m , see L au terb ach . op a t.. pt> 4 5 4 -4 7 0 O n F x o d u s 13:22 th ere is a Rabbinic
( o m m e n t T h is p a sv ig e su g g e sts that s o u can learn fro m th e lo r a h w hat ih e p r o p e r cu sto m o n th e e v e o f th e
Sabbath sh o u ld be T h e oillar of fire shcnild sh in e forth w h ile th e pillar o f th e cloucl is still p resen t" (M ek. B esh allai li.
I ). m ea n in g that th e S abbath ligh ts sh o u ld b e k in d led o n Fridas w h en th e r e is still d a y lig n t. (For m o re d eta ils about
Sabbath n tu a l. w ith r e fe ren ce s, see th e w ork s bv S egal. M illgram . an d S ch auss.)
171 M ek B a c h o d e th 7
,7 Pesikta R abbati 2 3 :6
177 S h e b m n h 2 t>b
174 M idrash o n Psalm 9 2 :3
175 S h ab 119b
174 M idrash o n P vd m 2 9 .2
177 Pesikta R alibau 23 8
179 G e n R 11:4; S h ab 119a
179 Lev R 15 4
199 Pesikta R abbati 2 3 9
,9 M ek ShabMta I
 CHAPTER 5

The Sabbath in the New Testament

Walter F. Specht

H R IS T IA N S accept th e New T estam ent as norm ative for belief an d life. It is

C th ere fo re o f im portance to exam ine what the New T estam ent has to say about
the Sabbath. T h is is especially im portant since the m ajority o f C hristians today
reg ard the Sabbath as Jew ish an d believe that Jesu s an d /o r His apostles changed
the day o f rest from the seventh to the first day, the dav on which C hrist arose from
the dead.
Sabbaton, th e G reek w ord for "Sabbath." is found sixty-seven tim es in the
critical text o f th e G reek New T estam ent. T h e plural o f this w ord, sabbata, may be
reg ard ed as a transliteration o f the A ram aic, shabbeta, the em phatic state o f the
singular n o u n , m eaning "the S abbath. 1 In its G reek transliteration it was
ap p a ren d y taken as a plural, an d hence the singular sabbaton was constructed from
it. A n o th er possible explanation is to re g ard the singular as a transliteration o f the
H ebrew shabbath, w hereas the plural cam e from the A ram aic.2
L exicographers recognize two clearly d ifferen tiated m eanings fo r sabbaton in
the New T estam ent: (1) Sabbath, the seventh day o f the week, a n d (2) the period o f
seven days betw een Sabbaths, i.e.. week.' T h e second m eaning is d em an d e d when
sabbaton o r sabbata is used in a genitive construction with a num eral: a clear
exam ple is fo u n d in Luke 18:12, w here the Pharisee boasts, I fast twice a week,"
du tou sabbatou. It would obviously not m ake sense to translate: I fast twice on
Sabbath." It is well know n that the Pharisees fasted on M ondays and T hursdays.
In seven passages (eight if the long e n d in g o f M ark is included),' the first day o f the
week is designated by the n u m eral "one" an d the genitive o f sabbaton. mostly in the
plural.* T h e fact that the n u m eral is fem inine indicates that the fem inine noun
day" is to be u n d ersto o d . T h e re g u la r G reek word for "week," hebdomas. which
had been used in the S eptuagint, is not found in the New T estam ent.
T h e idiom used for the days o f the week occurs in the G reek tides o f a few o f
the psalms in th e G reek version. Psalm 24 (Psalm 23, S eptuagint) is designated tes
rmas sabbaton, "fo r the first day o f the week." Psalm 48 (Psalm 47, S eptuagint) has in
its title deutera sabbatou, fo r the second day o f the week." Psalm 94 (Psalm 93.
S eptuagint) is designated as tetradi sabbaton, for the fo u rth day o f th e week"
(W ednesday). Most probably these originally m eant the first, second, a n d fo u rth

M2
 r H E S A B BA T H IN T H E NEW T E S T A M E N T

days a fte r th e Sabbath. Friday, how ever, was know n as prosabbaton, an d Psalm 92
(Psalm 91. S eptuagint) was, according to the title, used in the tem ple ritual fo r that
day.
In th e New T estam ent passages w here sabbaton m eans "Sabbath," the word
occurs forty tim es in the singular an d nineteen times in the plural. But in m ost o f
the o ccurrences o f the w ord in the plural, the context m akes it clear that a single
day is in ten d ed . As a m atter o f fact, in the Gospels a n d Acts, the only clear
instance in which sabbata is plural in m eaning is in Acts 17:2, w here the num eral
"th ree" used with it dem ands th at m ore th an o n e Sabbath is m eant. T h e Revised
S tan d ard V ersion, however, translates sabbata in this passage as "w eeks. In
passages w here sabbaton clearly m eans Sabbath, th ere is no consistency in usage
betw een th e sin g u lar an d the plural when a single day is in ten d ed . In the story o f
th e plucking o f heads o f wheat o n the Sabbath, M atthew uses the plural in c h a p te r
1 2 :1 an d th e singular in c h a p te r 12:2. Luke's usage is in reverse with th e singular
in c h a p te r 6 : 1 an d th e plural in c h a p te r 6:2. In the story o f the healing o f the m an
with th e w ithered hand, M atthew 12:10-12 an d M ark 3:2-4 use th e plural,
w hereas the parallel in Luke 6:6-9 has the singular.
Similarly in th e S eptuagint the plural is som etim es used w here the original
H ebrew has the singular, an d w here it is obvious that the reference is to a single
day.7 T h e re m ay be a parallel h e re to the custom o f using the G reek plural for
festivals such as th e Feast o f Dedication (John 10:22), the Feast o f U nleavened
B read (M ark 14:1), a m arriage feast (M alt. 22:2), o r a birthday celebration (M ark
6:21)."
T he Sabbath in the G ospels
O f the sixty-seven occurrences o f the term sabbaton in the G reek New
T estam en t, fifty-six are found in the Gospels: eleven in M atthew, twelve in M ark,
twenty in Luke, an d th irte e n in Jo h n . In six o f these references sabbaton m eans
"week. Five o f these speak o f the first day o f the week," the day on which o u r
L ord arose from th e dead. T h e rem aining fifty re fer to the Sabbath, the seventh
day o f th e week.
T he Sabbath Service in Nazareth.A ccording to the Gospel o f Luke, Jesus,
n ea r th e beginning o f His G alilean m inistry, visited His hom etow n o f N azareth.
"A nd he cam e to N azareth, w here he had been b ro u g h t up" (Luke 4:16).*
N azareth was the hom etow n o f both Jo sep h and Mary, a n d following the re tu rn
from the flight into Egypt o f th e holy family, they re tu rn e d to this insignificant
m ountain village in Galilee (M att. 2:23). It is called "th eir own city" (Luke 2:39),
an d becam e th e childhood hom e o f Jesus, w here H e lived till He was about 30
v e a rso fa g e (chap. 3:23). His re tu rn th e re a fte r H e began His public m inistry was,
consequently, a source o f curious interest on the part o f the villagers who had
know n H im so m any years.
"A nd he went to the synagogue, as his custom was, on the sabbath day" (chap.
4:16). Tw o in terp retatio n s o f the ph rase "as his custom was" are given by
com m entators." Some would restrict the reference to Jesu s' teaching m inistry in
the Jew ish synagogue (verse 15): As his custom was," as a teacher. H e e n te re d the
svnagogue in N azareth on the Sabbath day. O th ers u n d ersta n d the ph rase as a

Unleu othcrwur indicaicd. all Stnpiurr referentes in this ihapier arr (rom ihc Re\ied Standard Versin.

93
 T H E S AB BA TH IN S CR I P T U R E AND HI STORY

referen ce to th e years Jesus lived in N azareth. A lfred Plum m er, fo r exam ple, has
w ritten: It had been His custom ' d u rin g His early life at N azareth to atten d the
synagogue every sabbath.""' Ralph Earle states: As his custom was' (verse 16)
points to a lifelong habit o f atten d in g the synagogue on the sabbath d a y .""
But w hichever view is correct, it is evident th at Jesus, as a loyal Israelite, was a
Sabbath observer. Paul Jew ett boldly states: T h e re can be little doubt, th en , that
Jesus, as a devout Jew , observed the Sabbath. T o feature Him as the g ra n d
innovator, who swept it aside in the nam e o f liberty, is to rem ake Jesu s in the im age
o f the E n lig h ten m en t. '* O n the occasion re ferred to in Luke 4, H e stood u p in the
synagogue an d read from Isaiah 61. T h e n He sat dow n to in terp re t the passage as
a referen ce to H im self an d His mission. His work is to be u n d ersto o d in term s of
Isaiah's S ervant o f Yahweh." Jesus proclaim s that the prophetic scriptures find
th eir fulfillm ent in Him as the Servant o f God.
T he Sabbath Controversies. All fo u r Gospels bear witness to the fact that
the Sabbath was o n e o f the m ain areas o f conflict between Jesu s and the Jews. It
may be well to raise the questions: W hy did these controversies take place? W hat
w ere they about? Why did the Gospel w riters regard them o f sufficient
im p o rtan ce as to record them fo r the instruction o f the church?
A careful study o f these controversies shows that the point at issue was not
w hether the Sabbath should be kept o r not. Sam pey was correct w hen he asserted:
" T h e re is no reason to think that Jesu s m eant to discredit the Sabbath as an
institution."
Jesu s H im self asserted, as The New E nglish Bible translates His words: Do not
suppose th at I have com e to abolish the Law an d the prophets; I did not com e to
abolish, but to com plete (M att. 5:17).
W hat th en was the issue? Plainly it was the m an n er o f Sabbathkeeping. T h e
question was not Should the Sabbath be kept? R ather, it was How should the
Sabbath be kept? T h e Pharisees insisted that it be kept according to the oral rules
that the rabbis had developed dow n th ro u g h th e years. "Jesus did not reject the
institution o f th e Sabbath as such, but only the tradition o f the elders reg ard in g
S abbathkeeping. " H e refused to abide by th e m an-m ade rabbinical rules for
Sabbath observance, by which the Sabbath had becom e a b u rd e n instead o f a
blessing.
O n e has only to read the tractate Shabbath in the M ishnah to realize the
extent o f these rules.* It seem s that Jesus deliberately challenged these oral
traditions. H e sought to free the Sabbath from burdensom e restrictions, an d
m ake it a day o f spiritual freedom and joy.
T h e Evangelists re g ard e d these conflicts as o f sufficient im portance fo r the
chu rch to include them in th eir Gospel accounts. The church was not to observe
the Sabbath according to these rules, but ra th e r as a day o f helpful service afte r the
p attern o f the M aster. It is lawf ul to d o good o n that day. H e who observes the
Sabbath m erely as a legalistic requirem ent will never receive the blessing God
in ten d ed it to bring. T h u s the church did not reject the institution as such, but it
did reject th e m an-m ade rules for observing it.
The Conflict Over Plucking Grain on the Sabbath.T h e first Sabbath
conflict th at is recorded in all th ree of the Synoptics (Matt. 12:1-8; M ark 2:23-28;

For so m e o f (h e d eta ils, te e ch a p ter -4.

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 T H E S AB BA TH IN THF. NEW T E S T A M E N T

Luke 6:1-5) co ncerned th e legality o f the disciples' act in plucking heads o f wheat
on the sacred day. Jesus an d His disciples w ere going th ro u g h som e grain fields on
a Sabbath. T h e disciples w ere h u ngry (M att. 12:1), an d they plucked som e heads
o f wheat and, afte r rubbing them in th eir hands" (Luke 6:1), ate the grain.
T h e re u p o n th e Pharisees accused them o f an unlaw ful act. T h e legitimacy o f
plucking heads o f grain from som eones field was not in dispute. T h e Old
T estam en t law had provided: W hen you go into your neig h b o rs standing grain,
you may pluck th e ears with your han d , but you shall not pu t a sickle to your
neighbor's stan d in g grain" (D eut. 23:25). But the Pharisees b ra n d ed th eir act as
unlaw ful because they w ere engaged in work on the Sabbath.
T h e O ld T estam ent law forbade agricultural activity on the day o f rest: " Six
days you shall w ork, but on the seventh day you shall rest; in plowing lim e a n d in
harvest you shall r e s t' (Ex. 34:21). As noted in ch a p te r 4, the M ishnah specified
thirty-nine m ain categories o f w ork tfiat w ere forbidden on the S abbath.11 T hese
included reaping, th reshing, winnowing, and grinding. T h e Pharisees evidently
in terp re ted plucking as reaping, rubbing the heads in one's hands as threshing,
an d blowing away the ch a ff as winnowing. H ence, the disciples w ere w orking,
even th o u g h a very small am o u n t o f grain was involved. T h e M ishnah declares
that a p erson is guilty who takes "ears o f grain equal to a lam b's m o u th fu l.
A m ong th e scribes it was assum ed that a teacher was responsible for the
behavior o f his disciples."17 H ence the Pharisees co n fro n ted Jesus with the
challenge: 'Look, why are they doing what is not lawful on the sabbath? (M ark
2:24).
M atthew gives th e challenge in the form o f a statem ent: 'Look, your disciples
are doing what is not lawful to d o on the s a b b a t h ( M a t t . 12:2). In Luke the
challenge is given to the disciples: " Why a re you doing w hat is not lawful to d o on
the sab b ath ?'" (Luke 6:2).
Jesus, how ever, declared that they were guiltless (M att. 12:7) in satisfying
th eir h u n g er. In th eir defense H e first o f all cited the exam ple o f David: Have
you never read what David did, w hen he was in need an d was hungry, he an d . . .
those who were with him ?" (M ark 2:25). In his flight from Saul, David went to
Ahim elech the p riest,1* and upon his request was given the sacred bread o f the
Presence" to sh are with his m en (1 Sam. 2 1 : 1-6), which only the priests w ere to eat
(Lev. 24:9). The point h ere seem s to be that David was the anointed o f the L ord,
with all that this im plied. I f it was right for the anointed David an d his hungry
com panions to eat the holy bread belonging to the priests, how m uch m ore could
the h u n g ry disciples o f the Son o f David violate the scribal rules about the sacred
Sabbath.
Most likely th e bread that David received was not that which was in G o d s
p resence o n th e table in the holy place, but ra th e r that which had been rem oved to
be replaced by f reshly baked loaves ( 1 Sam. 2 1:6). The day on which the exchange
o f th e new fo r th e old was m ade was the Sabbath. In the view o f some rabbis, the
day on which David received the loaves was the S abbath.' T h e scripture does not
state th e day o f th e week, but if it was indeed the Sabbath, then the exam ple o f
David would be even m ore apropros.
A ccording to the Gospel o f M atthew, Jesus also cited the exam ple o f the
priests from th e law itself as a preced en t for the action o f the disciples: " O r have
you not read in the law how on the sabbath the priests in the tem ple p ro fan e the

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sabbath, an d are guiltless?'" (M att. 12:5). O n the Sabbath, as already noted, the
old loaves o f "the bread o f the Presence w ere rem oved an d fresh loaves put on the
table. T h e re was incense to be off ered, an d the daily b u rn t off erings w ere doubled
on the Sabbath (N um . 28:9, 10). H ence th ere w ere anim als to be slain, wood to be
p re p a re d an d placed on the altar, et cetera. T h u s, as M aim onides pu t it centuries
later, th ere was no Sabbat ism in the T em ple."10 The priests actually w orked
h a rd e r on th e Sabbath than on any o th er day o f the week. But th eir work was not
sinf ul, because it was in the service o f G od. T h e ir priestly service was justifiable
work, because it was sacred, not secular.
T h e arg u m e n t based on this exam ple rests on a fam ous principle o f
herm eneutics term e d qal wahomrr, that is, the light and weighty," applied to an
actual p recep t o f the law.*1T h e C hristological statem ent in M atthew 12:6 is indeed
significant: I tell you, som ething g re ater than the tem ple is h e re . ' It is an
assertion th at o u r L ord is su p e rio r to the Jew ish regulations o f w orship. H e is
g reater th an th e T em p le an d its cultus. It was to Him an d His w ork as both priest
and sacrifice that the T em p le services pointed forw ard. He cam e to ea rth as the
R edeem er o f th e world. His disciples w ere associated with Him in th e great work
of red eem in g m ankind, a work that was sacred, not secular. H ence it was right for
them to satisfy th eir physical h u n g e r to receive stren g th to carry on th eir work
fu rth er.
T h e real n atu re o f the Sabbath was often gravely m isunderstood. M ere
cessation o f labor was not th e essence o f the Sabbath. It was never G od's intention
that the Sabbath be m ade a day o f useless inactivity. T h e Sabbath was to be a day
when m an forsook his secular pursuits an d devoted the day to w orship an d to the
service o f God.
A ccording to M atthew , Jesu s also re fe rre d to som e well-known w ords o f the
p ro p h et Hosea: A nd if you had known what this m eans, 1 desire m ercy, an d not
sacrifice," you would not have condem ned the guiltless" (Malt. 12:7). Jesus had
com e lo establish the rule o f the kingdom o f G od. In the eyes o f a gracious God.
mercy is o f far m ore im portance than a legalistic obedience to the law. H ence on
a n o th er occasion o u r Lord accused the scribes an d Pharisees o f neglecting the
w eightier m atters such as " j ustice an d m ercy an d faith," while m eticulously
tithing m int an d dill and cu m m in '" (chap. 23:23).
In M ark's account (chap. 2:27), Jesus then raised the issue o f the p u rp o se o f
the Sabbath. T h e Sabbath was not an end in itself. "T h e sabbath was m ade for
m an. an d not m an for the sabbath." It was designed to be a blessing to m an. a day
o f physical rest, but also a day devoted to spiritual exercises. T h e Pharisees treated
the day as th o u g h m an were created to serve the Sabbath, ra th e r th an th e Sabbath
m eeting th e needs of m an. R. Shim on ben Menasya about a . u . 180 m ade a sim ilar
statem ent: " The Sabbath is given over to you but you are not su rre n d e re d to the
S ab b ath ." E. Lohse asserts: "B ut in such sayings the rabbis are not in any way
attacking th e Sabbath com m andm ent. T h ey are simply saying that in exceptional
cases the Sabbath may be infringed to save h u m an life. In M ark 2:27, how ever,
m an and his needs are said to be o f g re ater value than the c o m m an d m en t."
All th ree o f the Synoptic Gospels record the concluding statem ent, T h e Son
o f m an is L ord even o f the sabbath" (M ark 2:28; Matt. 12:8; Luke 6:5). T his
statem ent asserts C h rists sovereignty over the Sabbath. He, a fte r all, was with o u r
heavenly F ath er when the Sabbath was m ade (John 1:1-3). T h e re fo re He. ra th e r

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th an th e scribes a n d Pharisees, has the authority to state what is lawful an d not

lawful to do on the day o f rest. It was not the Sabbath law itself that Jesus' disciples
had violated, b u t th e m an-m ade pharisaical regulations re g ard in g Sabbath
observance. Jesu s on m ore than one occasion com pletely ignored the oral law so

T h e text o f C odex Bezae, the leading representative o f the so-called

w estern" type o f text, varies strikingly from that o f most New T estam en t
m anuscripts. T h e saying re g ard in g the lordship o f C hrist over the Sabbath (Luke
6:5) is placed a fte r verse 10. Between verses 4 and 6 this m anuscript reads: O n the
sam e day, seeing one w orking on the Sabbath day, he said to him , M an, if you
know' what you a re doing, you are blessed; but if you d o not know, you are
accursed and a tran sgressor o f the law ." T h u s this m anuscript adds an o th er
Sabbath incident to th e series. A lthough this verse has littleclaim to be a p art o f the
original text o f Luke, B ruce M etzger thinks that it may well em body a

H ealings on the Sabbath. M ark and Luke describe the healing o f a

dem oniac who in te rru p te d the synagogue service on a Sabbath in C ap ern au m
(M ark 1:21-28; Luke 4:31-37). Jesu s was teaching in the synagogue, a n d the
people were astonished at His teaching. W hen the m an "who had the spirit o f an
unclean d em o n " (Luke 4:33) cried out in the service, Jesus com m anded the
dem on: " Be silent, an d com e out o f h im !' (verse 35). T h e re u p o n afte r
convulsing the m an, the dem o n cam e out. T h e reaction o f the w orshipers was:
'W hat is this?"' A new teaching! W ith authority he com m ands even the unclean
spirits, an d they obey him ' (M ark 1:27). Evidently the issue o f healing on Sabbath
was not raised on this occasion. Later, ap p aren tly on the sam e Sabbath, Jesus
healed Peter's m other-in-law o f a high fever in P eters house in C ap ern au m (Matt.
8:14, 15; M ark 1:29-31; Luke 4:38, 39). T h e re is no record o f a controversy

H owever, th e Synoptic Gospels record a n o th er healing on the Sabbath th at

did give rise to controversy: the healing o f the m an with the w ithered h an d (Matt.
12:9-14; M ark 3:1-6; Luke 6:6-11). P erhaps by this tim e the scribes an d Pharisees
were fully aw are that Jesus did not allow the Sabbath to in te rru p t His healing
m inistry, an d they were ready for a confrontation.
L ater Jesu s again en tered the synagogue at C ap ern au m a n d began teaching.
A m an was p resen t whose right han d (Luke 6:6) was w ithered, indicating som e
kind o f paralysis. A ccording to the M ishnah. a sick o r injured person could be
treated on th e Sabbath only if life was actually in dan g er: W henever th ere is
do u b t w hether life is in d a n g e r this overrides the Sabbath."*5T h e case o f the m an
was obviously not covered by this provision, since the w ithered h an d presen ted no
im m ediate th rea t to life. H ence the scribes and Pharisees w ere w atching closely to
see what Jesu s would do, in o rd e r to have a case against Him . A ccording to
M atthew (12:10), they in fact asked Him . Is it lawful to heal on the sabbath?"
(Interestingly, th e apocryphal Gospel according to the H ebrew s, as stated by
Jero m e, presents th e m an as pleading: I was a m ason, seeking a living with my
hands; I beg you, Jesus, resto re my health to m e, so that I need not beg for my food

W hat should Jesu s d o in such a situation? H e first o f all had the m an stand up
so th at all could see him. M atthew relates that H e then answ ered the question o f
 T H E S AB BA TH IN S CR I P T U R E AND HI STORY

th e Pharisees by asking a counterquestion that required an affirm ative answ er:

W hat m an o f you. if he has o n e sheep and it falls into a pit on the sabbath, will not
lay hold o f it an d lift it out?' (M att. 12:11). W hile th ere w ere rabbis who w ould not
allow an anim al to be rescued on the Sabbath, they at least allowed it to be m ade
com fortable in the pit.*7 Should o n e be m ore considerate o f an anim al than a
h u m an being? " O f how m uch m ore value is a m an than a sh e e p !' (verse 12).
A ccording to the accounts in M ark and Luke. Jesus confronted the Pharisees
with th e question: 'Is it lawful on the sabbath to d o good o r to d o harm , to save life
o r to kill?"' (M ark 3:4).^ They could not, o f course, say that it was law ful to do
harm , and they would not say it was lawful to d o good. H ence they rem ained silent.
C. E. B. C ranfield is correct in asserting: T o om it to d o the good which one could
do to som eone in need is to d o evil. T o leave a m an with a w ithered h an d in his
d efo rm ed condition was to destroy him insofar as a full, com plete life was
c o n c e rn e d .. . . So simply to do nothing for the poor m an was to d o evil, to destroy
him."*0
Jesu s th en looked a ro u n d at them with anger, grieved at th eir hardness o f
h eart" (verse 5). G ustav Stahlin gives two reasons for this anger: It is first the
w rath o f th e m erciful L ord at legalists w ho will not accept the new way o f mercy
and salvation, an d who thus allow them selves to be carried away by mercilessness
and even m ortal enm ity (verse 6). It is secondly the w rath o f love, which seeks to
win even the Pharisees for the kingdom o f m ercy an d which en co u n ters only hate
because they want law, not love. T h e re is thus m ixed with holy w rath a divine pity
for th eir piety which is so far from G od. *'
Jesu s th en com m anded the m an to stretch ou t his hand. W hen he did so, it was
restored. T his led the Pharisees to conspire with the H erodians as to how to do
away with Jesus. T h u s while they w ere unwilling to see a m an with a d efo rm ed
han d resto red on the Sabbath, they felt no com punctions about plotting the death
o f o n e they h aled. T h ereb y they gave th eir answ er to the question: Is it lawful on
the sabbath to d o good o r to d o harm , to save life o r to destroy it? '" O n the o th er
han d Jesus set fo rth the principle It is lawf ul to d o good on the sabbath (Matt.
12:12). F. F. B ruce sum m arizes Je su s position:
"In stead o f following the sabbath law as ex p o u n d ed in the schools o f Hillel o r
Sham m ai, Jesu s insisted that, since the sabbath was given to m en for th eir relief
and well-being, any action w hich prom oted that end was specially ap p ro p ria te to
the sabbath day. T h e rabbis would have agreed that, in an urg en t case o f life or
d eath , medical attention m ight be given on the sabbath day, but if the patient
could w ithout d a n g e r wait until the next day, then the healing action should be
postponed. Jesu s arg u ed on the contrary that the sabbath was a pre-em inently
suitable day for the p erfo rm an ce o f such works o f mercy, w h eth er the case was
u rg en t o r not, since such works were so com pletely in keeping with C od's pu rp o se
in giving the day. O n the o th e r hand, anything that ten d ed to m ake the sabbath
law b u rd en so m e conflicted with that p u rp o se .
Sabbath H ealings Peculiar to Luke.T h e Gospel o f Luke records two o th er
Sabbath healings, which also provoked controversy. O n e o f these, given in Luke
13:10-17, was the healing o f a wom an who had had a spirit o f infirm ity for
eighteen years; she was bent over and could not fully straighten herself." T h e
statem ent that she had a spirit o f infirm ity suggests that h er illness was a result o f
the pow er o f dem ons. Jesus im m ediately healed h er by announcing to h er th at she

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was cu red a n d by laying His h ands upon her. As contrasted with the previous
controversy, in this instance the healing cam e first and the debate followed.
T h e opposition originated with the "ru ler o f th e synagogue," who was angry
with Jesu s but scolded the congregation instead: 'T b e re are six days on which
work o u g h t to be d o n e; com e on those days an d be healed, an d not on the sabbath
day (verse 14). Jesus called this m an and all who accepted his in terp retatio n
You h y p o crites!' H e proceeded to show how they had concern fo r the
well-being o f anim als on Sabbath, but no genuine concern for the w elfare o f
people. A re anim als m ore im portant than people? T h e values o f an institution
such as th e Sabbath w ere not to be placed above hum an values. T . W. M anson
in terp rets: You u n d o the bonds o f your d ra u g h t anim als to refresh them , and
you feel that this is no infringem ent o f the holy day, but you protest against the
release o f a h u m an creatu re, a d a u g h te r o f A braham , from which Satan the
source o f the evil spirit has clam ped upon h er not for a day but for eighteen
years!
T h e w om ans illness was not the will o f God. She was bound by Satan. Should
not God bring h er freedom even on Sabbath? W. F. A rndt calls attention to the
pow erful antithesis in Jesu s a fortiori arg u m en t: a d a u g h te r o f A braham an i
mals; eighteen years o f suffering thirst for one day; a bond o f Satana m ere
physical lack."5* Not only should such a wom an be allowed liberation on Sabbath,
she o u g h t to be freed. W here th ere is pow er to free such a one, th ere is the
obligation to d o so.(
O n this occasion Jesus won the controversy: All his adversaries were pu t to
sham e; and all the people rejoiced at all the glorious things that w ere d o n e by him "
(Luke 13:17).
T h e o th er Sabbath healing reco rd ed only in Luke was th at o f th e healing o f a
m an with the dropsy (chap. 14:1-4). T h e m iracle o ccurred in the hom e o f a ru ler
who belonged to th e Pharisees" w here Jesus was a Sabbath d in n e r guest. T h e
presence o f a m an suffering from dropsy presented Jesus with a challenge. He
grasped the initiative by asking, Is it lawful to heal on the sabbath, o r n o t?'"
T h ese lawyers an d Pharisees "could not answ er yes o r no w ithout ap p earin g either
lax in th eir attitu d e to the Law o r harsh an d unsym pathetic tow ards suffering."
H ence they gave no answer. Jesus th en proceeded to heal the man.
H e th en asked: W hich o f you, having an ass o r an ox that has fallen into a
well, will not im m ediately pull him ou t on a sabbath day?" T h e O ld T estam en t law
laid dow n the obligation of helping an anim al in need that belonged to a b ro th e r or
even an enem y." But noth in g is said about re n d erin g such help on the Sabbath
day, an d th e rabbis varied in th eir in terp re tatio n .57 A pparently, Jesus was on
com m on g ro u n d with His theological o p p o n en ts in approving h u m an e action to
anim als in n ee d . B ut if an anim al can be helped, why not a m an? N either th e host
n or th e guests h ad an answ er to that question.
Sabbath H ealings Peculiar to John.T w o Sabbath healings that b ro u g h t
Jesus into sh arp conflict with the Jew s are recorded exclusively in the Gospel o f
Jo h n . O n e was th e healing o f the lam e m an at the pool o f B ethesda (John 5:1-9).
While Jesu s was in Jeru salem at a feast o f the Jew s" He saw a chronic invalid o f
thirty-eight years lying in one o f the porticoes su rro u n d in g the pool, waiting for
the troubling o f th e waters. T h e pool apparently was fed by an interm itten t
spring. A p o p u lar superstition explained this natural p h en o m en o n as a

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 I' HE S AB BA T H IN S C RI P TU R E A ND HIS TORY

su p ern atu ral tro u bling o f the w ater by an angel." Jesus asked the u n fo rtu n a te
m an. Do you w ant to be h ealed ?'" T h e n H e com m anded. Rise, take u p your
pallet, an d walk.' By faith the m an set his will to obey the com m and, and in doing
so received healing a n d restoration. He d em onstrated the reality an d com plete
ness o f his cu re by walking an d carrying hom e the pallet on which he h ad been
lvin8- . . . .
It is only at th e conclusion of the account of th e m iracle that J o h n inform s us
that it o ccu rred o n the Sabbath (verse 9b). It was an open challenge to the
rabbinical rules o f Sabbalhkeeping. T h e m an who was healed was not in acute
d a n g e r o f losing his life, and could, th erefo re, have waited for healing until after
the S abbath.4
In addition th e healed m an violated one o f th e thirty-nine principal kinds o f
labor forb id d en on the Sabbath by carrying his pallet.*1T h e Jew s lost no tim e in
rem in d in g him that by carrying this m at he was doing som ething unlaw ful on the
Sabbath. T h e m an, how ever, in his new -found health, fell no com punctions o f
conscience in obeying C hrist's com m and. Since Jesus was the source o f life and
wholeness to him . why should H e not also be the source of p ro p e r laws? W hen the
Jews learn ed that th e h ealer was indeed Jesus, as they had suspected, they began to
lake hostile action against Him (verse IB). T h e G reek suggests that this was not
because o f a single violation, but because it had becom e a habit. The Sew English
Bible re n d e rin g is: "It was works o f this kind d o n e o n the Sabbath that stirred the
Jew s to p ersecute Jesus."
Jesu s' defen se o f His action rests on two basic prem ises: (1) His intim ate
relationship with G<xl the F ather; a n d (2) the fact, adm itted by the Jews, that God
continued to work on the Sabbath. " My F ather is working still, and I am
w o rk in g '" (verse 17). H e th u s claim ed the exam ple o f His F ather fo r doing these
m iracles o f m ercy. C. H. D odd apdv observes: "T his puts the controversy at once
on the highest theological level." T h e designation My F ather" significantly
points to Jesu s' consciousness o f a special relationship to G od. T h e continuous,
round-the-clock activity o f G od in the universe constitutes an exam ple for Jesus.
He works like th e F ather.
T h o u g h tfu l Jew ish exegetes had difficulty in u n d ersta n d in g G od's resting
re ferred to in G enesis 2:2. How to in te rp re t Ciod's rest was the subject o f m uch
discussion. It was generally recognized that G<d could not rest even for a m om ent
from the m oral governance o f the universe. Even on the Sabbath day God
continues to give life an d to ju d g e m en, thev concluded.
It would in d eed be tragic fo r the universe an d for m an if G od ceased even for
a m om ent to govern the universe. God is ceaselessly at work in the operations o f
the n atu ral w orld. H e is also constantly engaged in ihe work o f redem ption. From
such work th ere is no rest, no Sabbath. Sabbaths have never h in d ere d the work of
G od. N eith er m ust they, Jesu s asserted, h in d er the work o f G od's Son. He
reg ard ed His w ork as equally sacred, and o f the sam e ch aracter as the work o f the
Father.
J o h n 5 : 18 indicates that the Jew s well u n d ersto o d the high claims that J -su s
m ade fo r Him self, but they rejected these claims as unjustified. They re g ard ed
His claim to a unique relation to God as nothing less than blasphem y. Jesus,
however, replied (verse 19) that He did not work independently o f G od. H e did
onlv th e things H e saw His F ather doing. He w orked not only like the F ath er but

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with th e F ather. H e did the sam e works because H e was o f the sam e n a tu re as the
Father. T h e fact that His statem ent is in troduced with the w ords "truly, truly
implies a finality a n d authority to His saying. H e speaks in the nam e and with the
au th o rity o f God. With the question o f that authority the rest o f the ch a p te r is

T h e a rg u m e n t is resum ed in John 7 : 19-24. Ever since th e Sabbath healing o f

the im potent m an at the pool, the Jew s in Jeru salem were intent on Jesu s
d estruction (chaps. 5:18; 7:1). How could they claim to keep the Mosaic law while
they cherished h atre d an d m u rd e r in th eir hearts? How could they justify th eir
in terp retatio n th at circum cision overrides the Sabbath while they re g ard e d

T h e o n e d eed " to which reference is m ade in Jo h n 7:21 was the healing at the
pool, which caused the m ultitude to m arvel, but which also resulted in a long
discussion related in c h a p te r 5. Jesus called attention to the Pharisaic
in terp retatio n th at circum cision overrides the Sabbath. The Mosaic law req u ired
that a baby boy be circum cised on the eighth day (Lev. 12:3). Rabbi Jose had
declared: G reat is circum cision which overrides even the rig o u r o f the
Sabbath. W hatever was necessary for this rite could be done o n the Sabbath.**
Circum cision was re g ard e d as com pleting m an's perfection. A braham was not

Jesu s a rg u ed , " I f on the sabbath a m an receives circum cision, so that the law
o f Moses may not be broken, a re you angry with me because on the sabbath I m ade
a m an's whole body well?" (John 7:23). It is an arg u m en t a m nori ad maius, from

Leon M orris has stated: H ad they und ersto o d the significance o f what they
were doing they would have seen that a practice which overrode the sabbath in
o rd e r to provide fo r the cerem onial needs o f a m an justified the overriding o f the
sabbath in o rd e r to provide fo r the bodily healing o f a m an. T h is is a m ost
im p o rtan t point for an u n d ersta n d in g o f the sabbath controversy betw een Jesus
and His legalistic o p p onents. H e was not arg u in g simply that a repressive law be
liberalized. N or did He adopt an anti-sabbatarian attitude, opposing the whole
institution. He po in ted out that His action fulfilled the pu rp o se o f the original
institution. H ad they u n d ersto o d the im plications o f the Mosaic provision for
circum cision on th e sabbath they would have seen th at deeds o f m ercy such as H e
had ju st d o n e w ere not m erely perm issible but obligatory." *'
T h e o th e r Sabbath m iracle found only in J o h n is that o f the healing o f a m an
born blind (ch ap ter 9). T h e m ethod used in giving the m an sight is unusual: He
spat on the g ro u n d an d m ade clay o f the spittle an d anointed the m ans eyes with
the clay, saying to him . 'G o, wash in the pool o f S iloam '" (verses 6. 7). Perhaps
Jesus used this m eth od deliberately to challenge the rabbinical rules o f Sabbath
observance. As p o in ted out earlier, healing on Sabbath was itself forbidden unless
hum an life was in m ortal danger. By m aking the clay as H e did, Jesus violated one
o f th e thirty-nine m ain categories o f prohibited work, viz., kneading,*'' an d
probably also an o th er, mixing.*7 F u rth erm o re , a person was allowed to anoint his
eves only with what was used for the sam e pu rp o se on weekdays.
In th e view o f som e o f the Pharisees Jesus was not o f G od, fo r," they said,
he does not keep the sabbath (verse 16). A m an could be re g ard e d a
S abbathkeeper only if he obeyed the Pharisaic rules o f Sabbathkeeping. If H e
 T H E S AB BA TH IN S CR IP T UR E AND HIS TORY

violated these, they concluded that H e was not from God. O thers, how ever, were
deeply im pressed by the giving o f sight to a m an born blind, and they asked.
'H ow could such signs com e from a sinful m an? (verse 16, N.E.B.). So d iffe ren t
m en took d iffe ren t sides in relation to Jesus.
Lohse has well said: H ere, too, Jesu s' act on the Sabbath is an expression o f
His work as th e O n e whom God has sent and who is the <|><I>g t o O x o o n o u [light o f
the world], J o h n 9:5; 8:12. Face to face with H im the decision is m ade as to who is
blind and who sees, Jo h n 9:39-41. T h u s th e works o f God are m anifest in the
healings o f Jesu s on the Sabbath, J o h n 9:3. C hurch and Synagogue are separated
from o n e a n o th e r by confession o f Him on the one side and on the o th e r a
passionate rejection o f His work which sets aside the Law ."49
The M eaning o f Matthew 24:20. In His eschatological discourse to the
twelve apostles on the M ount o f Olives (Matt. 24:4-36; M ark 13:5-37; Luke
21:8-36) o u r L ord plainly foretold the destruction o f Jerusalem . W hen you see
Jeru salem s u rro u n d e d by arm ies. H e w arned, then know that its desolation
has com e near. T h e n let those w ho are in J u d e a flee to the m ountains, an d let those
who are inside th e city d e p a rt' (Luke 2 1:2 0 ,2 1). C hristians were to save th eir lives
by im m ediate flight not only from the doom ed city but fro m ju d e a , as well. In view
o f this, according to the Gospel o f M atthew, H e urg ed them , 'Pray that your
flight may not be in w inter o r on a sabbath (M att. 24:20). T h e parallel in M ark
has only, ' Pray that it may not hap p en in w inter ' (M ark 13:18). Why no t in
winter? Because the cold an d rainy w eather would m ake it m ore dif ficult to flee as
well as to find sh elter.
T h e ad d itional phrase o r on a sabbath, found only in M atthew, has been
variously in te rp re te d . Some com m entators have denied that these w ords were
u ttered by Jesu s.11 T h e re can, however, be no doubt that they w ere a part o f the
original text o f M atthew . W ere they sim ply pu t in by the au th o r of the first Gospel
in harm o n y with his Jew ish predilections, as som e have concluded? W. C. Allen
has suggested that they may well have com e from the logia o f Jesu s an d were
known by th e a u th o r o f the first Gospel from Jew ish sources.14 We can see no valid
reason fo r rejecting them as a gen u in e part o f the logion. A ccepting them as such,
what is th eir significance?
In th e in terp re tatio n o f m any com m entators the injunction Pray th at your
flight may not be . . . on a sabbath is to be u n d ersto o d as a reference to the
prohibition o f traveling beyond a "Sabbath-days jo u rn ey ," which was about th re e
fifths o f a mile. It is clear th at the Israelites, d u rin g th eir w ilderness w anderings,
were fo rb id d en to go long distances on the seventh day. T h e com m and was:
Rem ain every m an o f you in his place, let no m an go out of his place on the
seventh d a y '" (Ex. 16:29). T h is com m and had specific reference to going o u t from
the cam p on the Sabbath to g ath er m anna, which lay "on the face o f the
w ilderness ro u n d about the cam p" on six days o f the week (verses 13, 1 4 ,2 6 .27).
His place," how ever, was subject to various interpretations. Most likely, as just
suggested, it m eant the cam p o f the Israelites. T h e S eptuagint translators, on the
o th er h an d , took it as m eaning o n es house, an d this idea is reflected in several
m o d ern translations, such as The New English Bible: No one m ay stir from his
hom e on th e seventh day.' How ever, this in terp retatio n would not harm onize
with th e designation of the Sabbath as 'a holy convocation,..... a sacred assembly.
o r a religious g ath erin g (Lev. 23:2-4).

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 THF. S AB BA TH IN T H E NEW T E S T A M E N T

T h e prohibition reg ard in g traveling no m ore than a "Sabbath-days jo u rn ey "

was a post-Exilic Rabbinic regulation. Inasm uch as Jesus ignored o th e r such
m an-m ade rules o f Sabbathkeeping, it is doubtful that H e would have endorsed
this one. Some think that H e was h ere m erely recognizing the conscientious
scruples o f Jew ish C hristians about fleeing on the Sabbath. A Sabbath-days
jo u rn e y w ould not have carried them far enough to reach a place o f safety. H ence,
pray that your flight will be on a d iffe ren t day. But even the rabbis recognized that
to save one's life m ight be re g ard e d as justifying flight on the S abbath.56
Many stu dents o f the New T estam ent see in M atthew 24:20 an indication that
th e C hristian com m unity fo r which M atthew writes was still observing the
S abbath. F u rth erm o re, if this is a genuine dom inical saying, it indicates that o u r
L ord expected His followers to reg ard the Sabbath as sacred as late as the
destruction o f Jeru salem in a . d . 70. H e instructed them to pray that at that tim e of
crisis they would not find it necessary to flee on the Sabbath. B ut the im plication is
that conditions could be such as to m ake instant flight necessary even on the day o f
rest.
But the fear, bustle, an d confusion that a hasty flight on Sabbath would bring
were not in harm ony with the w orship, peace, an d joy that should characterize the
sacred day o f rest. H ence, Jesu s followers w ere u rg ed to pray that the flight would
occur on a d iffe ren t day o f the week.
T h e Sabbath in the P assion N a rrativ es. In all four Gospels the day on
which o u r L ord was crucified an d died is designated as paraskrut, "p rep aratio n ."
Paraskeui, M ark explains, is pro-sabbaton, fore-sabbath, i.e., the day before the
Sabbath (M ark 15:42). In L uke 23:54 C odex Bezae similarly reads, It was the day
before th e sabbath," instead o f It was the day o f P reparation." It is evident that
the "P re p ara tio n had becom e a technical term for the P reparation for the
sab b ath ." At th e tim e o f the giving o f the m anna, the Israelites w ere instructed to
p re p are th eir food for the Sabbath on the sixth day o f the week (Ex. 16:5, 23). By
New T estam en t limes, paraskeue had becom e the technical nam e for Friday.1This
is shown noi only by Jo sep h u s linking it with the Sabbath but also by its use
absolutely in th e Dtdacheb' and the Martyrdom o f Polycarp.w It is the nam e for Friday
in ecclesiastical Latin an d in m o d ern G reek.
In J o h n 19:31 the connection o f the day o f P reparation" with the Sabbath is
also clear. T h e D euteronom ic law forbade that the body o f a crim inal that had
been h u n g on a tree be allowed to rem ain th ere overnight (Deut. 21:22, 23).
Hence, the Jew s followed the custom o f rem oving the body o f a crucified victim
from a cross befo re evening on any day o f the week, but even m ore so w hen the
Sabbath was about to begin, especially when the Sabbath was a "high day. T h e
Sabbath evidendy was re g ard e d as a high day" w hen it fell within the Paschal
season. At such a time, desecration m ust be m ore scrupulously avoided th an on
any o th e r Sabbath.
In J o h n 19:42 the close connection o f the Jew ish day o f P rep a ratio n with
the Sabbath is also clear. Inasm uch as it was late on that day o f P reparation, and
the tom b o f Jo sep h of A rim athea was nearby in a g ard en , they quickly b u ried Jesus
there. It is obvious that the ap p ro ach in g Sabbath called for haste.
J o h n 19:14, how ever, speaks o f the day o f Jesus' d eath as the day of
P reparation o f th e Passover." T h is designation is peculiar to Jo h n . T h e Synoptic
Gospels do not associate pamskeue with the Passover. C om m entators a re divided

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on th e in terp re tatio n of the p h ra s e th e d a y of P reparation o f th e Passover." Som e

take th e genitive tou pascha as an objective genitive an d in terp re t the ph rase as
m eaning "P rep aration fo r the Passover."** A. Milligan and VV. F. M oulton,
however, poini o u t that th ere is no evidence that the day before the Passover was
ever called the p rep aratio n o f the Passover. H ence, it is perh ap s b e tte r to
in terp re t the genitive "o f the Passover" as a possessive genitive, m eaning the
p rep aratio n th at belonged to the Paschal season o r Friday o f the Passover week.
T his in terp re tatio n is given by G. B. W iner: "But in J o h n 19:14 napaoxrur} t o u
jid ax [paraskeui tou pascha] does not m ean the day o f p re p ara tio n for the
Passover, but simply an d naturally the resting-dav o f the Passover (the day o f rest
belonging to the Paschal festival)."1
T h e term "Passover," while originally used to designate the Paschal lam b o r
Paschal sacrifice, cam e to be applied to the en tire festival ex ten d in g from the
fo u rte en th to th e twenty-first day o f the m onth N isan.7' In this general sense it is
used in the New T estam ent.74 H ence, the paraskeut tou pascha may be in te rp re te d as
the p rep aratio n belonging to the Paschal week. T . Zahn points ou t that J o h n
unites th e idea o f Friday as the p rep aratio n day with the tim e o f the Passover, and
he in terp rets: It was Friday at the tim e o f the Passover, an d about the sixth
h o u r. 71
T h e Synoptic Gospels call attention to a g ro u p o f Galilean wom en who
carefully observed the death an d burial o f Jesus on that day o f p re p ara tio n .7*
T h ese wom en, along with the twelve apostles, had traveled with th eir L ord in
Galilee. T h ey had used th eir m eans to su p p o rt Him an d His band o f disciples.
T h ey had followed Him to Jeru salem and rem ained loyal to Him to the very end.
A m ong them w ere Mary M agdalene, Mary the m o th er o f Jam es the y o unger and
Jo sep h , an d th e m other o f Jam es a n d Jo h n . Now they w atched as Jo sep h o f
A rim athea. a secret disciple, rem oved the body o f the M aster from the cross,
w rap p ed it in a linen sh ro u d , an d laid it in his own tom b. By this tim e it was late in
th e afte rn o o n o f the day o f p re p ara tio n , an d the Sabbath, Luke tells us, was about
to begin.77 T h e G reek verb epephosken m eans, literally, u>as dawning. But how can
one speak o f daw ning at sunset? L ohseexplains, T h e reference is obviously to the
shining o f th e first star as th e Sabbath com es."7'1
Luke's n arrativ e continues: "T h e w om en who had com e with him from
Galilee followed, a n d saw the tom b, a n d how his body was laid; then they re tu rn e d ,
and p re p a re d spices an d ointm ents. O n th e sabbath they rested according to the
co m m andm ent. B ut on the first day o f the week, at earlv daw n, they went to the
tom b, taking th e spices which they had p re p a re d " (Luke 23:55-24:1, R.S.V.).7*
T h e recognition o f th e relation o f these wom en to Jesu s a n d His Messianic
m inistry m akes this sim ple account very significant. Next to the twelve apostles
they w ere am o n g Jesus' m ost intim ate and m ost devoted followers. T hey risked
th eir lives to follow Him to th e cross. T h e ir devotion is shown by th eir hasty
purchase o f spices an d ointm ents to anoint the body o f th eir Lord.
Even so they felt that they could not violate the Sabbath even to give h o n o r to
th eir d ead M aster. T h e spices and ointm ents w ere purchased for use w hen the
Sabbath was over. Sundow n was too n ear to think o f using them on the day o f
p rep aratio n . O n the sabbath they rested according to the com m andm ent." If we
ask, A ccording to what com m andm ent? the answ er is obvious: T hey rested
according to th e com m andm ent that has to do with the Sabbath. T hey rested in

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obedience to th e c o m m an d m en t." T h e accusative, to sabbaton, indicates that they

rested "all th ro u g h the sabbath" (G oodspeed). T h e conjunctive particle men
befo re sabbaton o f the last clause o f Luke 23:56 corresponds to the adversative
conjunction de o f ch a p te r 24:1, indicating that ch ap ters 23:56 and 24:1 are one
sentence. At the close o f c h a p te r 23 th ere should be only a com m a, for the de
carries th e story on w ithout a break."1T hey rested for the d u ratio n o f the Sabbath,
but at early daw n on the first day o f the week they w ent to the tom b to continue
th eir work.*2
T h ey were gready d istu rb ed w hen they found the tom b em pty. But an angel
in fo rm ed them : 1 know that you seek Jesu s who was crucified. H e is not here; for
he has risen, as he said. Com e, see the place w here he lav (Matt. 28:5, 6). Jesus,
too, h ad rested from His great w ork o f redem ption, bu t now H e was alive
forev erm o re.
L uke plainly refers to th re e distinct days in this Passion narrative: the day o f
p re p ara tio n , th e Sabbath, an d the first day o f the week. O n the first o f these He
was crucified, on the second H e rested in the tom b, on the th ird H e rose from the
tom b. His m ost devoted followers also rested on the Sabbath in obedience to the
co m m andm ent.
T h e N a tu re o f the G o s p e ls T h e significance o f what the Gospels record
co n cerning th e Sabbath can be b etter u n d ersto o d a n d appreciated w hen one
considers the p u rposes for which these docum ents w ere w ritten. It is generally
recognized today that they are not histories as such, th o u g h they contain historical
facts.*4 N or are they prim arily biographies o f Jesus. T hey are ra th e r church books
w ritten for the p u rp o se o f pro m o tin g the C hristian faith (Luke 1:1-4; J o h n 20:31).
T h ey w ere w ritten by com m itted C hristians to aid in sp read in g the good news o f
what G od has d o n e in Jesu s C hrist. T h ey are prim arily theological handbooks o f
the early church.*1
T h e Gospels record m uch o f what Jesus said and did. We may well ask, Why?
T h e answ er is ap p a ren t: because what Jesus said and did is norm ative for the
C hristian. H e is th e c h u rc h s Messiah an d L ord. T h eref o re w hat H e said is binding
on those who profess to follow Him . A nd what H e did is also norm ative. H e is the
stan d ard o f belief an d practice.
In the light o f this, what Jesu s said an d did with reference to the Sabbath has
great significance. H e did no t speak w ords abolishing the Sabbath. A lthough He
p erfo rm ed m iracles o f healing on that day, these acts w ere holy deeds in harm ony
with th e spirit o f th e Sabbath. H e did. however, en d eav o r to free the day from the
in terp retativ e restrictions that th e je w ish oral law had placed upon it. H e m ade it a
day o f spiritual freedom an d helpful service.
It m ust fu rth e r be recognized th at when the Gospels recorded the sayings and
doings o f Jesus, they also reflected the faith and practice o f the early church. T h e
accounts in the book o f Acts likewise give evidence o f early C hristian faith an d
practice, and to this book we now tu rn .
T h e Sabbath in the Book o f Acts
T h e G reek word fo r "Sabbath," sabbaton, occurs ten times in the G reek text o f
the book o f Acts. In the King Jam es V ersion it is translated as Sabbath" nine
times,*6 an d week" once."7 In th e Revised S tan d ard V ersion these figures become
"Sabbath" eight times and w eek twice.**

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T h e first occu rrence o f Sabbath" in the Acts o f the Apostles is in ch a p te r

1:12. T h is passage m erely asserts th at the M ount o f Olives, w here the Ascension
took place, is n ear Jeru salem , a sabbath days jo u rn e y away." T h is is the only place
in the Bible w here the phrase sabbath-daysjo u rn e y " is found. It re ferred to the
distance a Jew could travel on the Sabbath according to the regulation laid down
by th e scribes. T h e M ishnah gives th e distance as 2,000 cubits, the distance that
was to sep arate th e ark from the Israelites in th eir m arch a ro u n d Jerich o (Joshua
3:4). T h e p astu re lands for a distance o f 2,000 cubits outside th e city walls o f Levite
cities w ere also assigned to these cities. F u rth erm o re, the cam p o f Israel, the place
out o f which no Israelite was to go on the Sabbath (Ex. 16:29), was held to ex ten d
2,000 cubits beyond th e tabernacle. T h e re is no evidence that Jesus felt b o u n d by
this scribal in terp retatio n .
With the exception o f the m enuon o f the Sabbath by Jam es at the Jeru salem
C o n feren ce (Acts 15:21), the rem aining references to this day in the Acts a re all
connected with Pauls m issionary work. T h e Sabbath is associated with the
fo u nd in g o f ch u rches in Pisidian Antioch (chap. 13:13-52), Philippi (chap.
16:11-15), Thessalonica (chap. 17:1-9), C o rin th (chap. 18:1-4), an d , according to
the W estern text, E phesus (verse 19d). As a loyal Jew (chaps. 24:14; 28:17) Paul
kept the Sabbath. H e en tered the synagogues not only to teach but to w orship on
that day. N o r is th ere any hint that he reg ard ed the G entile C hristians as free to
observe som e o th e r day, such as Sunday, as the weekly day o f rest.
T h e Sabbath Services in P isid ian A ntioch. The Gospels m ake it clear that
Jesus began His public m inistry o f preaching and teaching in the Jew ish
synagogues.*1 A ccording to the book o f Acts th e apostle Paul and his associates
followed th e sam e practice in th eir m issionary work in the Gentile world.*1
Im m ediately a fte r th eir o rdination at Antioch on the O rontes River, Paul and
B arnabas sailed for C yprus. T h e re , "w hen they arrived at Salamis, they
proclaim ed the word o f G od in the synagogues o f the Jews" (Acts 13:5). It is
worthy o f note th at frequently in the book o f Acts, synagogue preaching a n d the
Sabbath a re linked to g eth er." T h e earliest specific m ention o f this connection is
the account o f Pauls an d B arnabas' mission to Pisidian Antioch in the lake district
o f southw est Asia M inor (verse 14ff.). T his city evidently had a large Jew ish
com m unity, and on th e Sabbath th at followed th eir arrival the m issionaries wenl
into the synagogue an d sat dow n.
As devout Jew s they p articipated in the synagogue w orship service. W hen the
time cam e for th e serm on, "after the read in g o f the law and the pro p h ets," the
visiting m issionaries w ere invited to speak a w ord o f e x h o rta tio n ," evidently a
synagogue term fo r a homily.
T h e ad d ress that Paul gave in response to that invitation, along with several
given by P eter, was used by C. H. D odd to reconstruct the Kerygma, o r preaching
message, o f the early ch u rch .5 W e cannot e n te r into a study o f the co n ten t o f
Pauls ad d ress h ere, but we m ust note the kind o f audience th e apostle had, and
the reaction to his message. It is evident that the w orshipers in the synagogue
consisted not only o f Jew s, eith er by birth o r conversion, but also o f devout
G entiles who w ere attracted by the m onotheistic theology an d high ethical
principles o f Ju d aism . Paul addresses his audience as " m en o f Israel, an d you that
fear G o d (verse 16). Again he refers to them as b re th re n , sons o f the family o f
A braham , an d those am ong you that fear God " (verse 26). T h ese G od-fearers,

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who are m en tio n ed a n u m b er of times in Acts, w ere Gentiles who atten d e d the
synagogue with varying degrees o f attachm ent to Judaism , but who had not been
circum cised as a m ark th at they had fully taken on the yoke o f the Jew ish law. It is
am ong these dev o ut Gentiles that P auls m issionary preach in g enjoyed the
greatest success, as the re m a in d er o f the ch a p te r suggests.
T h e presence o f these G entile w orshipers in the Jew ish synagogue on the
Sabbath is very significant. Lohse has correctly observed: B eyond the circle o f the
Jewish com m unities which everyw here in the D iaspora sanctified the Sabbath to
the God o f Israel m any g o d-fearers an d proselytes also kept the Sabbath as a day o f
re st."94 Even in O ld T estam en t tim es the G entile "so jo u rn er (ger) who dwell with
the H ebrew s was com m anded to keep the Sabbath.* T h e G od-fearers o f Pauls
day, o f course, lived in a vasdy d iffe ren t social environm ent. N evertheless they
fo u n d th eir way to the synagogue on the Sabbath.
At th e conclusion o f the Sabbath service at Pisidian Antioch the people on
th eir way o u t begged th at Paul continue his subject on the following Sabbath
(verse 42). T h e King Jam es Version, based on the Texlus Receptus, states that this
request cam e from "the G entiles." B ut the b etter G reek m anuscripts do not have
the addition o f ta ethniat this point, and we may safely assum e that th ere w ere both
|ew s an d Gentiles am ong the people who m ade this request. V erse 43, th en , tells
us th at m any Jew s a n d devout converts to Ju d aism followed Paul and B arnabas."
T h e re is som e u n certainty re g ard in g the m eaning o f the G reek phrase translated
as devout converts to Ju d aism ." Does this re fe r to "G od-fearers o r to full
proselytes to th e Jew ish faith? Probably the latter is intended. Paul an d B arnabas
urg ed those who were especially interested in C hristianity "to continue in the
grace o f G od."
T h e next Sabbath alm ost the whole city gath ered to g eth er to h ear the word
o f G od" (verse 44). Evidently the Gentiles who had atten d ed th e service on the
previous Sabbath spread the w ord to th e ir neighbors with rem arkable results. It is
doubtf ul th at th e synagogue could hold such a crow d, and p erh ap s som e Jews
were unable to get into th eir own synagogue. In any case, th e ir anim osity was
aroused and they strongly opposed the teaching o f the C hristian m issionaries.
Paul an d B arnabas told them plainly that since they were rejecting th eir necessary
o p p o rtu n ity , th e m essage w ould now be presented directly to the Gentiles (verse
46). As a result m any Gentiles becam e C hristians, "and the w ord o f the L ord
spread th ro u g h o u t all the reg io n (verse 49).
In a sh o rt tim e the aposdes w ere expelled from that area an d m ade th eir way
to Iconium . w here they again "en tered together into the Jew ish synagogue, an d so
spoke th at a great com pany believed, both o f Jew s an d o f G reeks" (chap. 1 4 :1).
T h e re is no m ention o f th e Sabbath in the record, but it may nevertheless well have
been on the day o f rest w hen this occurred.
T h e Sabbath Day in P h ilip p i.O n Pauls second m issionary to u r he h ad Silas
as his associate. T h ey w ere w orking in Asia M inor and had com e to T ro a s when
Paul had a vision o f a m an from M acedonia pleading, " C om e over to M acedonia,
and help us' (chap. 16:9). T his vision was in te rp re te d as a call from G od to leave
the n arro w confines o f Asia M inor and op en u p die continent o f E u ro p e to the
spread o f th e gospel: A nd w hen he had seen the vision, im m ediately we sought to
go on into M acedonia, concluding that G od had called us to preach the gospel to
them " (verse 10). It is to be noted that in relating the story Luke changes from the

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th ird person to the first person plural, suggesting th at he jo in ed the band of

m issionaries at T ro a s and accom panied them to Philippi.
T h e m issionaries recognized the urgency o f the call and resp o n d ed
im m ediately. T h ey set sail from T ro a s for the island o f S am othrace a n d from
th ere sailed to N eapolis, th e seaport o f Philippi in M acedonia. W hen they arrived
in Philippi, they spent som e days in this "leading city o f the district o f M acedonia,
an d a R om an colony (verse 12). W hen the Sabbath cam e, they found the place
w here a g ro u p of devout Jew s and G od-fearers m et fo r w orship and jo in ed them .
T h e King Jam es V ersion states: "A nd on the sabbath we went out o f the city by a
river side, w here p ray er was wont to be m ad e (verse 13). T h e w ord translated
"prayer" (proseuche) can m ean not only the act o f pray er but also a place o f prayer.
H ence, a n o th e r translation is possible, as in the Revised S tan d ard Version: "w here
we supposed th e re was a place o f p ra y er.
T h e re is no consensus am ong New T estam en t students re g ard in g w hat this
place o f p ray er was. Som e hold that it was a synagogue.'"' But the fact th at only
wom en are m entioned as atten d in g the service, ap a rt from the m issionaries,
m akes this in terp re tatio n extrem ely doubtful. It may have been a house, o r
perh ap s an inform al m eeting place in the o p en a ir.'1T h e re the m issionaries sat
dow n an d spoke to the w om en who had com e together" (verse 13).
Paul's first convert in E u ro p e was Lydia from T hyatira, a dealer in p u rp le
woolen cloth. She is described as a w orshiper o f G od, which suggests that she was
a G od-fearing G entile. She a n d h e r household (probably including em ployees an d
servants) were baptized, an d she insisted on en tertain in g the m issionaries in h er
hom e. It is possible that E uodia an d Svntyche, m entioned in Philippians 4:2, may
also have becom e converts at this time. It is again worthy o f note that Gentiles join
Jew s in w orshiping on the Sabbath.
T h re e Sabbaths in T hessalo n ica. From Philippi Paul an d Silas followed
the great m ilitary road, the Via Egnatia to Thessalonica, w here th e re was a syna
gogue o f the Jew s" (Acts 17:1). In his Gospel Luke m entions that w hen Jesus
arriv ed at N azareth, w here he had been brought up," he en tered the syna
gogue on th e Sabbath as his custom was" (Luke 4:16). Exactly the sam e ex p res
sion is used o f Paul, who went into the synagogue "as was his custom (Acts 17:2).
For th ree sabbata he discoursed with the T hessalonians from the scriptures, ex
plaining and proving that it was necessary fo r the C hrist to su ffe r an d to rise from
the d ead , and saying, T h is Jesus, whom 1 proclaim to you, is the C h rist'" (verses
2. 3).
Sabbata in verse 3 is translated as weeks" in the Revised S tandard Version,
with "sabbaths in a footnote. T h is is the only certain New T estam en t exam ple o f
the use o f odP fkrra [sabbata] as plural in m eaning as well as in fo rm ." 101 Most likely
it should be tran slated Sabbaths" here, though the word can indicate the period
o f tim e betw een Sabbaths, i.e., w e e k s . But it is evident th at Paul labored in
Thessalonica fo r a longer period than th ree weeks.103 F u rth erm o re , in his
Philippian letter Paul declares that this C hristian com m unity sent help to him at
T hessalonica once and again.'w H ence, the account in Acts seems to re fe r only to
his labor in th e synagogue. As the result o f th at labor som e o f the Jew s accepted
C hristianity, as did a great m any o f the devout G reeks an d not a few o f the
leading w om en (verse 4). T h e first T hessalonian letter confirm s the conclusion
th at th e C hristian com m unity in T hessalonica was largely G entile ( 1 T hess. 1:9).

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T h e first contact Haul m ade with G entiles was in th e Jew ish synagogue on the
Sabbath.
B erea. W hile the Sabbath is not m entioned in connection with Pauls work
in B erea, th e re is a referen ce to his en try into the synagogue. Many o f the Jew s in
this city accepted C hrist, with not a few G reek wom en o f high standing as well as
m en (Acts 17:12).
T h e Sabbath in C o rin th .A fter a dish earten in g experience at A thens, Paul
arrived at C o rin th , w here he sought lodging and rem unerative labor. He found
both in th e hom e o f Aquila an d Priscilla, fo r they an d he were tentm akers," o r. as
m any expositors in terp re t, leather-w orkers," o r saddlers" (Acts 18:1-3).'*
D uring th e week, th en , he toiled with these Jew ish converts. But on every Sabbadi
he preach ed in th e synagogue, an d p ersuaded Jew s and G reeks" (verse 4). T h e
W estern text o f this verse reads: A nd going to the synagogue every Sabbath he
arg u ed and in tro d u ced the nam e o f the Lord Jesus, and persu ad ed nol only Jews,
but also G reeks."
W hen Silas a n d T im othy arrived with financial su p p o rt. Paul was able to
devote his full tim e to his m issionary work. His strong em phasis on Jesu s as the
Messiah aroused opposition on the part o f the unbelieving Jews. H e th ere fo re
fo u n d it necessary to leave th e synagogue and carry on his work in th e house o f
T itius Ju stu s, next d o o r to the synagogue (verses 6, 7). A m ong the Jew s who
becam e converts to C hristianity was C rispus, the ru le r o f the synagogue (verse
8). Paul rem ain ed in C o rin th for a year an d a half (verse 11).
O n his way to Palestine he m ade a b rie f stop at Ephesus, w here he went into
th e synagogue and a rg u ed with the Jew s (verse 19). T h e W estern text includes
the words a n d on the Sabbath."
O n his th ird m issionary jo u rn e y Paul again visited Ephesus. T h e record
states: "A nd he en tered the synagogue an d for th ree m onths spoke boldly,
arg u in g a n d pleading about the kingdom o f G od (chap. 19:8). A fter th at he
withdrew from th e synagogue an d carried on his work in "th e hall o f T y ra n n u s"
for two years (verses 9, 10). T h e result was that all the residents o f [the province
o f| Asia h eard th e w ord o f the L ord, both Jew s an d G reeks" (verse 10).
A lthough Paul found it expedient to w ithdraw from the synagogue on a
n u m b er o f occasions, it is evident that the C hristians did not at first com pletely
sep arate them selves from the synagogues. B efore he becam e a C hristian, Paul
him self went to th e high priest to get letters to the synagogues o f Damascus,
au thorizing him to arrest the C hristians he foun d in those synagogues, w hether
m en o r wom en, a n d to bring them b ound to Jeru salem (chap. 9:1, 2). C hristians
did not yet constitute a separate g ro u p in d ep en d en t o f the Jew ish synagogue
congregations (com pare chaps. 22:19; 2 6 :11). O f course, th e tim e did com e when
they w ere forced to leave the Jewish synagogues.
T h e Sabbath and th e Je ru sa le m C o n feren ce. As m ore and m ore Gentiles
jo in ed th e C hristian m ovem ent, the question o f w hat should lie expected o f them
cam e to the fore. Must a G entile first becom e a Jew before he could be a bona fide
Christian? W hat was to be the basis o f fellowship between Jew ish an d G entile
Christians? Many Jew ish C hristians, particularly those with a Pharisaic point o f
view, m aintained that G entiles who w anted to be C hristians should take on the
whole yoke o f th e Jew ish law. T h e ir m essage to G entile converts was: Unless you
are circum cised according to the custom o f Moses, you cannot be saved" (chap.

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15:1). C ircum cision was em phasized because it was the mark, o f subm ission to the
whole Jew ish laworal as well as w ritten (verse 5; Gal. 5:3). Paul and B arnabas,
however, m aintained that Gentiles should not be saddled with the yoke o f the
Jewish law.106
T h e Jeru salem C onference was called to consider the m atter an d to arrive at a
decision. R epresentatives from the G entile churches went u p with B arnabas and
Paul to th e apostles an d elders in Jeru salem (Acts 15:2). A fter considerable debate
Peter set fo rth the arg u m e n t that the fundam ental principle h ad already been
settled by the Holy Spirit, who h ad com e with equal pow er on uncircum cised
Gentiles an d circum cised Jews, indicating that they were on the sam e level. God
had accepted the G entiles an d cleansed th eir hearts by the Holy Spirit as soon as
they p u t th eir faith in Jesus. Should the C hristian com m unity go beyond w hat God
req u ired (verses 7 -1 1)?107
B arnabas an d Paul then reh earsed the story o f the m iraculous signs and
w onders th at G od was p erfo rm in g am ong the Gentiles (verse 12). T h ese m iracles
were an attestation o f G ods acceptance o f the mission am ong Gentiles. Finally,
Jam es th e leader o f the Jeru salem church proposed the following decision: "M y
ju d g m e n t is th at we should not trouble those o f the Gentiles w ho tu rn to G od, but
write to them to abstain from the pollutions o f idols and from unchastity an d from
w hat is strangled a n d from b lo o d '" (verse 20). T h is solution was accepted by the
apostles an d th e elders, with the whole church" (verse 22, R.S.V.).
How should these prescriptions for G entile converts laid dow n by the
con feren ce be reg ard ed ? A re we to conclude that these w ere the only ethical o r
m oral stan d ard s re q u ired o f G entile C hristians? YV. G utbrod has aptly pointed out
that th e d ecree should not be re g ard e d as in any sense a m inim al ethics, an
abstract o f th e Law which in a kind o f com prom ise tries to m ake at least the
fu n d am en tals o f th e Law obligatory in place o f the whole Law."10* W hat the
Jeru salem C ouncil laid dow n was the term s fo r fellowship betw een Jew ish and
G entile C h ristians.ltw T h ese requirem ents did not provide the g ro u n d o f
salvation o r o f ch u rch m em bership but o f a w orking ag reem en t for G entile and
Jew ish c o n v e rts."110
Practices th at w ould scandalize Jew s were singled out. Prohibitions w ere laid
down th at th e Jew ish world held to be binding upon all m en. Gentiles w ere to
avoid th e pollution o f idols, i.e., to abstain from eating the flesh o f anim als slain for
pagan sacrifices (verse 29), which m ight im ply a sharing in pagan polytheistic
w orship.1" Second, they w ere to abstain from blood, which symbolizes life, which
belongs to God alo n e.112 T hey w ere also to abstain from the eating o f th e flesh o f
strangled anim als, inasm uch as th e blood rem ained in th e m .1 Finally, unchastity
was fo rb id d en , which included any form o f illicit sexual intercourse o r m arriage
o f closely related p erso n s."4
T h o u g h th e text underlying the Revised S tan d ard V ersion is to be p re fe rre d
to the W estern" text, the latter o f Acts 15:20, 29 is o f great interest. It om its the
w ords a n d from w hat is strangled" a n d at the en d adds a negative form o f the
golden rule: an d not to do to others what they do not wish d o n e to th em . T o
abstain from blood can be in te rp re te d as forbidding bloodshed, i.e., m u rd er.
T h u s th e decrees can be in te rp re te d as forbidding the th ree cardinal sins in Jewish
eyes: idolatry, fornication, a n d m u rd er. T h ese plus the addition o f the golden rule
(in negative form ) tran sfo rm the prohibitions into purely ethical dem ands.

1 10
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UL GQO UV12

A fter setting fo rth these principles, Jam es added: For from early
generations Moses has h ad in every city those who preach him, fo r he is read every
Sabbath in th e synagogues (verse 21). T h e significance o f this statem ent has been
variously in terp re ted . O n e explanation given is that since Jew s are in every city,
the Gentiles should respect these principles so as not to cause constant o ffen se."5
In every city th e re are synagogues w here Moses is read.
A second ex planation is that Moses would su ffer no loss by not re q u irin g the
Gentiles to observe the whole Jew ish law, for these Gentiles had never been
ad h e ren ts o f Ju d a ism ."11 A n o th er is th at th e yoke o f the Jew ish law is not to be
placed on Gentiles, for th ere are en o u g h preachers o f Moses already in the
synagogues every Sabbath. A fo u rth in terp re tatio n is that th ere is am ple
o p p o rtu n ity fo r Gentiles to know these basic principles, for Moses w ritings are
read every Sabbath.
As po in ted o u t earlier, the early G entile C hristians cam e from G od-fearers
who w ere already w orshiping in the synagogues on the Sabbath. It is evident also
th at C hristians did not im m ediately sever all connections with the synagogue.
H ence, the best explanation, in o u r view, is that the Jeru salem C ouncil is not
enjoining an y th in g new o r strange, but that with which the Gentiles would already
be fam iliar, th ro u g h the reading a n d exposition o f the Mosaic law in the
synagogues."7
It is significant that th e m atter o f S abbathkeeping is not m entioned as an issue
at this conference. H ad th ere been a m ovem ent on foot to d o away with the
Sabbath o r to chan g e the day o f w orship to Sunday, th ere would no doubt have
been considerable d ebate and bitter contention on the part o f the large n u m b er o f
Jewish C hristians who w ere 'zealous for the law (chap. 21:20). Gentiles w ere
not adm o n ish ed to respect the scruples o f their Jew ish b re th ren with referen ce to
the Sabbath. T h e silence o f the conference on this subject eloquently testifies to
the continual observance o f the Sabbath by both Jew ish and G entile C hristians.

N O TES
' A d iffe r e n t ex p la n a tio n o f th e final - a is o ilc r e d in F. B la u , A D eb ru n n er . a n d R obert W. F u n k . A Greek
Gram m ar of the S e w Testam ent a n d O ther Early Christian Literature (C h icag o , 196 1 ). par. 141 (3): 'T cix a rOtt* 6
to m ake ii p r o n o u n c e a b le in (reek
* A . I R ob ertson . A G ram m ar of the Greek S e w Testam ent in the L ig h t o f H isto n ra l Keiearck (N a sh v ille, 1 934), pp
9 3 . 105.
* S ee su ch stan d ard ( .reek lexicon * as H enry G e o r g e L id d ell an d R obert St o n . A G re ekE n g lish L exu o n . rev and
au g m . by H en rv Stuart J o n e s (O x fo r d . 194(1), p. 15 7 9 , J o sep h H enr> T h a y er. .4 Greek-Engltsh L exu o n o f the Sexr
Testament (N e w S'ork. 1889). p p 3 6 5 , 566; W alter B a u er, 4 Greek E nglish L exu o n of the S e w Testam ent a n d O ther Early
C hristian Literature, rev. a n d a u g m bs W illiam F. A rm ll a n d F. W ilb u i G in g n c h (C h ica g o . 1 9 5 7 ).p 7 4 6 ; a n d C
A bb ott-S m ith , ,4 M a n u a l Greek L exu o n o f the S e w Testam ent, 3d ed . (E d in b u r g h , 1937). p p . 3 9 9 . 400.
4 A b n e l lu m m a n o f th e ev id e n c e re g a rd in g th e p r o b le m o f th e e n d in g o f Mark is g iv e n in B ru ce M. M eU g er.
4 T extual Commentary on the Greek S e w Testam ent (L o n a o n , 1971), p p. 122 -1 2 6 .
s Matt 2 8 :1 ; Mark 16:9; L u k e 24:1: J o h n 2 0 : 1, 19, A cts 2 0 :5; I C or. 16:2
* Matt 12:1. 5 . 10. I I . 12; 2 8 :1 ; Mark 1:21; 2 :2 3 . 2 4 . 3:2. 4 , L u k e 4 :1 6 ; 6:2; 1 3:10; A cts 13:14; 1 6 :1 3
7 Ex. 16:25. 26; 2 0 :8 . 10; 3 5 :3 ; N u m . 15:32; D e u i. 5:12
* R o b ertso n , op. c i t . p 4 0 8 . la m e s H o p e M o u lto n a n d N igel T u r n e r . A G ram m ar o f S e w Testam ent Greek
E d in b u rgh . 1963). 3 :2 6 . 27.
* S ee W o lfg a n g S ch r g e. o w a y u i Y V T O S T , 7 :8 3 1 . n. 21 6 .
10 A lfred P lu m m er, .4 C n tu a l a n d E xeg etu a l Com mentary on the Ctasbrl A ffo rd in g to 5. L u kr, 5th e d .. IC C
E d in b u rgh . 1922). p. 118.
_ 11 R alph Earle. Luke.** Wesleyan Bible (.om m enlary. 4:2 3 3 .
J 12 Paul K. J ew ett. T he Lord's b a y ((rand R ap id s. 1 9 71). p o 3 4 . 35.
15 J o h n R ichard S a m p e v . Sabbath," International Standard Bible Elncydopaedia ((rand R apids. 193 9 ). 4 :2 6 3 1 .
14 Je w e tt, lot eu.
jT~ 15 M tshnah S h ab b ath 7 :2 (D anb v)
S hab b ath 7:4.
17 W illiam L. L an e. The Gospel A ffo rd in g to M ark. S I C (G rand R a p id s. 1974). p . 115.

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 T H E S A B BA T H IN S CR I P T U R E AND HISTORY

** Mark 2 :2 6 peaks o f A biathar as th e p riest, but 1 S am uel 2 1 1 . 2 n a m es th e p n e st a A h m iele ch A h iaih ar

s u c c e e d e d to th e o ffic e a fter his fath er A h im eie ch 's d e a th ( I Sam 22:20*23).
19 H e rm a n n L. St rack a n d Paul B illerb eck . Das Ei'angelium nach \latthau% Frlautert aus Talmud und Midrasch,
Kommentar zum Seuen Testament (M u n ich . 19 2 2 ). 1:619; E d u ard L o h se, " odP Patov," T D ST , 7 :2 2 . n. 170
20 M aim om d es Pesach I . q u o te d in F red erick W . Farrar. The I j f e o f Christ (P o rtla n d . O r e g .. I9 6 0 ), p 3 3 3 For
ea rlier rabbinical sta tem en ts e x p r e ssin g th e sam e p oin t o l v ie . see S ir.u k a n d B illerbeck . op r t f . p p 6 2 0 * 6 2 2
21 W . D . D avies. T he Setting o f the Serm on on the M o u n t (C am b rid g e. 1964), p p 103. 104; D avid D a u h e. T he S'eu'
Testam ent a n d Rabbinic J u d a ism (N ew Y ork. 1956). p. 68
22 M ekilta. Ex. 3 1 :1 2 -1 7 . tractate S hab b ata (L au terb ach ); c f l o h s e . op n t.. p. 14
23 Ibid . p. 22.
24 B ru ce M. M e u g e r . T he Text o f the .Yrxr Testam ent (N ew Y ork. 1968). p. 50.
25 M ish n ah Y om a 8 :6 .
26 B u rto n H . T h r o c k m o r to n . Jr.. e d .. Gospel Parallels (N ew Y ork. 1 957). p. 5 1 . n. M alt. 12:10.
27 L oh se. op. n t.. p. 2 5 . n . 1 9 ^
n In th e last cla u se L uke 6 :9 has *to save life o r to d estro v it?*
29 C . E. B. C ra n field . T he Gospel A ffo r d in g to S a in t M ark (C a m b rid g e. E n g .. 1959). p 120.
H ersch el H . H o b b s. T he Exposition of the G at p e t of L uke ((rand R apids. 1966). p 112
sl G ustav S ta h lin . 6 gvr)" (E ). T D S T . 5 :4 2 8 .
52 F. F. B ru ce. S e w T estam ent H istory ( U n d o n . 1969). p p. 173. 174
M T . W . M a n so n . The Gospel o f l.u k e (N ew Y ork. 1 9 3 J). p p. 164. 165
54 W illiam F A rn d t. T he Gospel A ffo r d in g to S t L uke (St. L o u is. 1956). p. 3 2 9
M C. B. (laird. T he Gospel o f S i L uke. Pelican Gospel (commentaries (Baltimore. 1963). p. 175.
* Ex 23:5; D eu t 2 2 :4
57 Strack an d B illerb eck . op. a t., 1:629.
M B ru ce, op. a t . p . 105. T h e Sabbath reg u la tio n s o f ih e Q u m r a n c o m m u m ts w ere ev e n stricter th a n th o se of ih e
strictest Pharisees. W ith r e fe r e n c e to h u m a n e treatm en t o f an im a ls o n Sabbath the D am ascu s R ule" specifically
states: MN o m an shall assist a beast to giv e b in h o n th e Sabbath d a y . A n d if it sh o u ld fall in to a c is te m or pH. h e shall not
lift il o u i o n th e S abb ath (C D x i.. G V erm es. The Dead Sea Scrolls in English [B a ltim o re. 1 962). p. 113)
59 M ost textu al critics a r e a g re ed that J o h n 5:3b . 4 . ab ou t ih e a n g e l tro u b lin g th e w ater, is not an o rig in a l p a n of
th e C kp el o f J o h n but w as m ost p ro b a b h a_m argin al gloss that crep t in lo th e tex t It is not fo u n d in th e ea rliest and
best G reek m an u scrip ts o f th e G o s p e ls (P *6 7* A BC * D W %upp 3 3 ). N o r d o e s it o ccu r in sev era l O ld l^itm m an usc ripts,
th e tru e text of th e \ u lg a te. o r th e C u r etim a n S triae o r th e C optic v ersio n s. M ore th an iw en iv m an u scrip ts that d o
co n ta in it m ark it w ith a ste n sk s a n d o b eli as b ein g susp ect F u rth er m o r e, it co n ta in s a n u m b er o f n o n -J o h a n n in e
w ord s an d ex p r e ssio n s, th r e e o f w h ich are fo u n d o n ly h ere in th e e n tir e N ew T esta m en t.
40 S ee Y om a 8 :6 ; Strack a n d B illerb eck . op a t.. 1:623*639; 3 :5 3 3 f f
41 Shab b ath 7:2; Strack an d B illerb eck . op a t.. 2:454*461
42 C . H D o d d . T he Interpretation o f the Fourth Gospel (C am b rid g e. 195 3 ). p. 320.
45 M ish n ah N ed a rim 3 : 1 1.
44 Shab b ath 18:3; 19:2.
45 L eon M orris. The Gospel A ffo r d in g to J o h n . S I C (G rand R apids. 1 971). p p 4 0 8 . 4 09.
* Shab b ath 7:2.
47 S hab b ath 2 4 :3 .
49 C f. Shab b ath 14:4
49 L o h se. op. a t., p . 28.
50 Floyd V . Filson. A Commentary on the Gospel A ffo r d in g to S t M atthew (I o iid o n . I9 6 0 ), p. 2 5 5
51 S ee A lex a n d er B alm ain B ru ce. T h e S ynop tic G osp els." in The Expositors Greek Testam ent, ed . W . R obertson
N icoll (G rand R apids [1 942?]). 1:293
52 T h e o n ly variants listed for th e \e r s e in th e critical a p p ara tu s o f Kuri A la n d 's Synopsis O uattuor F.i'angehorum
(S tu ttgart. 1964) are th e su b stitu tion of ih e g e n u in e sin gu lar (D L Q (H?*1). or p lu ta l (0 9 4 e) for ih e d a tiv e ca se of
"Sabbath. a n d ih e a d d itio n o f t \ (on ) lief o r e Sabbath (E FG H 5 6 5 1424).
M For e x a m p le . J. C . F e n to n . The Gospel o f S t M atthew , Pelican Gospel Com m entanes (B a ltim o re. 1963). p. 3 8 7 .
M W illo u g h b y C . .Allen. A C ritical a n d E xegetical Com mentary on the Gospel According to S M atthew. IC C ( E d in b u rg h ,
1912). p p . Iv (n. l i . 2 5 6 .
L o h se. op. a t., p . 13.
* Strack a n d B illerb eck . op a t ., 1:953.
ST S h e rm a n F.. J o h n s o n on M an. 2 4 : 19. 2 0 . IH , 7:5 4 7 ; F ilson. lot. a t.. A. W. A rg v le . The Gospel According to
M atthew (C am b rid ge. E n g.. 1963). p. 183, A lfred P lu m m er. Aw Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to S.
M atthew. 2 d ed . (L o n d o n 1 1960?]), p p . 3 3 3 , 334; L o h se . op. a t., p. 29; Strack an d B illerbeck . op a t., p p . 9 5 2 . 9 5 3
M F ilson . Inc. n t.
w Matt 2 7 :6 2 . Mark 15:42; L u k e 2 3 :5 4 ; J o h n 19:14. 3 1 . 42.
60 M orn s, trp. a t ., p. 8 1 6 .
61 J a m es H o p e M o u lto n and G e o r g e M illigan. T he Vocabulary o f the Greek Testam ent {('$rand R apids. 195 9 ). p. 4 9 0 ;
M orris, op. a t., p. 7 7 6 . n. 97.
f'2 J o s e p h u s Antiquities o f the J e n s 16. 6 . 2.
M Duiache 8 . 1 .
M M artyrdom o f Polycarp 7. 1.
55 W. . V in e. Expository Dictionary o f S e u ' Testam ent W ords (L o n d o n . 194 0 ). 3 :2 0 4 .
66 J o se p h u s War o f the Jews 4. 5. 2.
fi7 E d w in A. A b b ott.J o n a n n m e G ram m ar (L o n d o n . 1906). p p . 9 2 . 93.
68 For e x a m p le , see B ro o k e Foss W estcott. Aw Introtluctw n to the Study of the Gospels. 4 th e d . (L o n d o n . 1872). p
340; P lu m m er, The Gospel According to S. J o h n (C am b rid ge. E ng.. 1 923), p. 3 7 9 . and m an y o th ers.
69 W illiam M illigan a n d W illiam F M ou lton , The Goabel A ccording to J o h n (N ew Y ork . 1883), p. 3 8 8
70 A. T . R ob ertson . W ord Pictures in the S e u Testam ent (N a sh v ille, 1 9 3 0 -1 9 3 3 ), 5 :2 9 9 . S ee ih e illu m in a tin g article
T h e O r ig in s o f ih e Eucharist" b y A. J. B. H ig g in s in S e w Testam ent Studies, 1 (1 9 5 4 -5 5 ), esp ecia lls p p . 2 0 6 -2 0 8
71 G e o r g e B en ed ict Win er. A G ram m ar o f the Idiom of the S e w Testam ent. 7 lh e d . (A n d o v er . Mass. ( IH69]). p 189

112
 I'HF. S A B B A T H IN T H E NEW T E S T A M E N T

71 Ex. 12:11. 21; N u m . 9:2-6; 2 C h r o n . 3: 15. S ep tu agin t.

74 D c u i 16:2*4; 2 C h r o n 3 0 ;lff., S ep tu a g in t.
74 A rts 12:3. 4; L u k e 2 2 :1 ; Mark 1 4 :1 ; M all 2 6 :1 7 . J o h n 2 :1 3 . 23; 6 :4 ; 11:55; 12:1
75 T h e o d o r Zahn. Introduction to the S e w Testament (G rand Rapid, 1953), 3 :2 9 6
76 M ail 2 7 :5 5 . 56; Mark 15 4 0 . 4 1 ; L uke 2 3 :4 9 , 56
77 L u k e H: 1-3
7,1 L o h se. op a t., p. 2 0 . n. 159.
79 Epephosken. acc o rd in g to R ob ertson (G ram m ar, p. 8 8 5 ). it a r o n a u v e im p erfect.
L u i e 2 3 : 5 5 .2 4 : L
* T h e accu sative case in e x p r e ssio n s o f tim e in d icates ex ten t or d u r a tio n o f lim e. A . T . R o b ertso n a n d W.
M ersey D avis. A S e w Short G ram mar o f the Greek Testament ( S e w Y ork. 1933). par. 3 4 5 (c), R o b ertso n . Grammar, p. 4 9 5 ;
W illiam W eb ster. Syntax an d \tru * n u of the Greek Testament (n p . 1864). p. 6 3 . q u o te d in H E. D ana a n d J u liu s R.
M a n lev . A M an u al G ram mar of the Greek S e w Testament (N ew \ o r k . 1955), p. 91.
H en ry A lfo r d . The Greek Testament. 6 th e d . (B o sto n . 1872). 1:664
M Rev | : | 8 .
M S ee. e .g .. (ie o r g e E ld on l^ id d . A TheolofQ of the S e w Testament (G rand R apids. 1974). p p . 174. 175.
Ralph P Martin. S e w Testament F ou n dation ((rand Rapids. 1975), 1:10.
* A cts I 12. 13:14. 2 7 , 4 2 , 44; 15:21; 16:13; 17:2; 18:4
n C h a p 20:7
T h e ch a n g e was m a d e Irom "sabbath" to w eek" in A cts 17:2.
m M ish n ah , r.rubin 4:3*8.
90 M att. 4:23; 9 :3 5 ; 12:9; 13:54; Mark 1:21. 39; 6:2; L u k e 4 :1 5 . 16; 6 :6 ; 13 10; J o h n 6 :5 9 ; 18:20.
91 A cts 9 :2 0 ; 1 3 : 5 .6 . 14. 14:1; 17:1; 18:4. 19; 19:8. e l cetera.
w C h a p . 13:14; 16:13: 17:2; 18:4. 19d
w C . II D o d d . The Apastohc Preaching a n d Its Developments (N ew Y ork ( 1944J).
94 In a d d itio n to A cts 13, see: A cts 10:1, 2 2 ; 16:14; 17:4. 17; 18:7.
94 L o h se. op. a t., p. 18.
Ex 2 0 :1 0 ; 2 3 :1 2
97 T h e r e a d in g o f th e W estern te x t as g iv e n in C o d e x B ezae is. H a v in g a w a k e n e d , th en , h e related th e vision
t o u s. a n d w e re co g n ized th ai ih e L ord h ad ca lled u s to ev a n g elize th o se in M acedonia."
* Heinrich Greevcn. M JKQOOCVXO|iai.~ T D S T . 2:808
99 Karl H e in ric h R en g sio rf. .10104 *65 ." T D S T . 6:602.
100 B au er. A rn d t, an d G in g n c h . op a t.. p. 720.
101 F. F. B ru ce. The Acts of the Apostles (( n icago. 1952). p. 324.
C f. Lev 2 3 :1 5 ; 2 5 :8 .
,w 1 T h e s s 2 :9 . 2 T h e s s. 3 :7 -1 0 .
104 Phil 4 :16.
,n' W ilhelm M ich aelis. "oxrivonoto?.'' T D S T . 7 :3 9 3 . 394
106 T h e W estern text o f verse 2 a fter th e w ord s " no sm all d isse n sio n w ith th em ' a d d s for Paul in sisted thal ih ev
s h o u ld rem ain ju st as th ey w ere w h en th ey b eliev ed "
107 V erse 12 in th e W estern text beirins. A n d w h en th e eld e rs h ad c o n s e n te d to th e w ord s sp o k en by Petet . . ."
m W G u lb ro d . T D S T . 4 :1 0 6 7
109 J o h a n n e s W eiss, Earliest Christianity (N ew Y ork. 19 5 9 ), 1:312.
1.0 G e o r g e E ld on L ad d , The Young Church (L o n d o n an d N ew Y ork. 196 4 ). p 6 1 .
1.1 S ee Lev 17:7-9; 2 C or 8 : Iff.; 10.
G e n . 9:4; Lev. 17 :1 0 ff.; D e u i 12:23
1,5 Lev. 17:13.
1.4 L ev. 18:6-18.
1.5 B ru ce. The Acts of the Apostles, p p . 3 0 0 . 301
1.6 R ich ard B elw ard R ack nam . The Acts itf the Apostles (L o n d o n . 1951; r e p n n le d (.r a n d R apids. 196 4 ). p 2 5 4
1.7 A. C. H e rv ey , Acts of the Apostles, The P u lpit Commentary (L o n d o n ancl Nes* Y ork (1 9 1 3 ]), 2:4.

I SI&AH-S ..
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 CHAPTER 6

Sunday in the New Testament

Walter F. Specht

ANY C hristians honestly believe that Jesus a n d /o r His apostles changed the
day o f rest from the seventh-day Sabbath to th e first day o f the week, i.e.,
Sunday. H ence, afte r exam ining the passages w here the term Sabbath" occurs in
the Gospels an d Acts, fairness d em ands th at notice also be taken o f the passages in
th e New T estam en t that speak o f th e first day o f the week. Obviously the
d esignation S unday" is not used in the New T estam ent. R ather, the days are
designated by n u m b e r a fte r the m an n er o f Judaism .
T h e re are seven o r eight passages in the New T estam en t th at speak o f the first
day o f the week. T h e exact n u m b er d ep en d s on w hether one accepts the long
en d in g o f M ark ( 16:9-20), found in a large n u m b er o f m anuscripts, as a gen u in e
p a rt o f th e second Gospel. All but tw o 1 o f the passages that m ention the first day o f
the week are in the Gospels an d re fe r to the sam e first day nam ely, the day on
which o u r L ord rose from th e dead.
A ccording to the testim ony o f all fo u r Gospels, the devoted Galilean w om en
who accom panied Jesu s to je ru sa le m w ere the first to receive the good news o f the
R esurrection. C. E. B. C ranfield points out that the prom inence o f wom en in all
fo u r Gospels goes a long way tow ard authenticating the story' as a whole . . . ; for
this is a featu re which the early C h u rch would not be likely to invent."* In Jew ish
c u ltu re wom en w ere ineligible to bear a credible w itness .1
The First Day o f the Week in Mark
Inasm uch as M ark is usually re g ard e d as the earliest o f the Gospels, it seems
logical to begin with its account o f the em pty tom b (M ark 16:1-8). C oncerning this
account C ranfield rem arks: " T h e naturalness o f the first part (esp. verse 3), th e
simplicity and restraint o f verses 5-8, an d the su rp risin g feature o f the wom en's
silence all point to its authenticity. It reads like an eyewitnesss account, not a
dram atization o f a religious conviction ."4
M ark specifically nam es th ree wom en as am ong those who had followed Jesus
in Galilee an d m inistered to Him : Mary M agdalene; Mary, the m o th er o f Jam es
the Y ounger an d Joses; an d S alom e 3 (chap. 15:40, 41). T hese th ree, along with
m any o th e r w om en, witnessed th e C rucifixion, an d the two Marys also observed

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 SUNDAY IN T H E NEW T E S T A M E N T

Jesu s burial: they "saw w here he was laid" (verse 47). T his tragic day is identified
as the day o f P rep aratio n , th at is, the day before th e sabbath (verse 42). T h e fact
o f Je su s burial becam e a p art o f th e central tru th o f the gospel as Paul preached it
(1 C or. 15:4).
When th e sabbath was p ast ,"6the two M arys an d Salom e purchased arom auc
oils to an oint th e body o f Jesus. T his purchasing was evidently d o n e on S aturday
evening afte r sunset. T hey w ere unable to com plete th eir service o f love to their
beloved T ea c h e r on Friday b efo re sunset, and so had to wait until a fte r the
Sabbath. T h is was in ten d ed to be th eir final act o f love and devotion. It is evident
th at they re g ard e d Jesu s d ea th as the end. T hey did not expect Him to rise from
th e d ead. T o an o in t one w ho had lain in the tom b that long m ust have been
unusual. C ranfield explains: "Love often prom pts people to do what from a
practical point o f view is useless .7
Very early on the first day o f the week they w ent to the tom b when the sun
had risen" (M ark 16:2). T h e re is som e confusion re g ard in g the m eaning o f the
tem poral expressions used. Very early norm ally refers to the period o f the
fo u rth watch, i.e., from th re e to six oclock, but this would not agree with the
expression "w hen th e sun had risen." H. B. Swete suggests that they left their
abodes ju st before daybreak and arrived ju st a fte r sunrise ."8 At any rate, they
seem to have com e as early as possible to com plete the rites o f burial. O n th eir way
to the tom b they w ondered how they would get the stone rolled back from the
opening.* But w hen they arrived, they found it had already been rolled back.
Inside they saw a y oung m an" clothed in dazzling apparel who said to them , " Do
not be am azed: you seek Jesu s o f N azareth, who was crucified___ H e is no t here;
see th e place w here they laid him (verse 6 ). T h u s the great news o f the
R esurrection was m ade known to them , b u t they could not believe th e ir ears and
fled in te rro r a n d am azem ent from th e tom b.
T h ese m om entous historical events took place on the first day o f the week."'
But, th o u g h M arks Gospel was w ritten m ore than a q u a rte r o f a cen tu ry afte r the
events took place, th ere is no hint that the day on which they occu rred had
acquired any sacred character w hatever. It is not called a day o f rest o r a holy day.
M ark 16:9 also contains a referen ce to the first day o f the week.
U n fo rtu n ately , it is not possible today to d eterm in e how the Gospel originally
en d ed . T h e fam ous uncial codices V aticanus and Sinaiticus, an d th e Sinaitic form
o f th e O ld Syriac an d som e o th ers conclude with verse 9. T h e O ld Latin
m anuscript, C odex Bobiensis, contains a sh o rter en d in g that seems to have
o rig in ated ab out th e m iddle o f the second century o r early p a rt o f the third. Four
G reek uncials have this e n d in g followed by the longer e n d in g (verses 9-20). A
large n u m b e r o f G reek m anuscripts have this longer en d in g , but som e o f these
indicate uncertainty about it by m ark in g with asterisks, obeli, o r a critical note.
T h e F ree r Gospels o f the fo u rth an d fifth centuries contain an expansion o f the
long e n d in g by inserting a substantial addition (the F reer Logion) betw een verses
14 an d 15. T h e language, form , an d style o f all these additions is non-M arkan.
F u rth erm o re , the connection o f verses 9-20 with what precedes is not sm ooth.
T h is en d in g consists o f th re e parts: (1) th ree post-R esurrection appearances
o f Jesu s (verses 9-14); (2) th e com m ission to the apostles to preach the gospel
(verses 15-18); a n d (3) an account o f th e ascension o f Jesu s to G ods right hand
(verses 19, 20). T h e th ree ap p earances evidently took place on the first dav o f the

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 T H E S AB BA T H IN S C R I P T U R E AND HISTORY

week (verse 9)." V erse 9 in the Revised S tan d ard Version* reads: Now w hen he
rose early on th e first day o f th e week, he a p p e are d first to M ary M agdalene, from
whom he had cast o u t seven dem ons." G ram m atically the tem poral phrase on the
first day o f the week" may he construed with e ith e r rose" o r ap p e are d ," but
probably the R.S. V. is correct in taking it with rose." T h e w ord first in the clause
"he a p p e are d first" can be taken in an absolute sense, o r as first in relation to the
th ree ap p earan ces m entioned. M ary hasten ed to bear the news o f this
C hristophany to "those who had been with him [the apostles, cf. chap. 3:1-1], as
they m o u rn ed an d w ept (verse 10). But h er re p o rt that "he was alive a n d h ad
been seen by h er" was met by incredulity (verse 1 1 ).
T h e second ap p earan ce seem s to be an abbreviation o f the story o f the walk to
Em m aus by two disciples (not o f the twelve) recorded in detail by Luke (chap.
24:13-35). Jesu s ap p e are d to them in " an o th er form ." But w hen they re tu rn e d to
the eleven to tell w hat they had seen, th eir re p o rt, too, was met with unbelief (M ark
16:12, 13).
Finally, H e a p p e a re d to the eleven them selves as they sat at table; a n d he
u p b ra id e d them for th eir u nbelief and hardness o f heart" (verse 14). T his
ap p earan ce seem s to be identical with the o n e m entioned in Luke 24:36-53 an d /o r
Jo h n 20:19-29.
T h is longer en d in g o f M ark seem s to have been known by the m iddle o f the
second cen tu ry , an d verse 19 is cited by Irenaeus.'- But this passage again gives no
hint th at th ere is anything sacred about the first day o f the week o r that C hristians
were m eeting fo r w orship on that day.
T h e F irst Day o f the W eek in M atthew
A ccording to the Gospel o f M atthew m any Galilean w om en w ho had
accom panied Jesu s to Jeru salem observed His crucifixion and d eath from a fa r
on th at awful Friday (Matt. 27:55). T h e Mosaic law forbade that one w ho had
su ffered a crim inal's d eath be allowed to rem ain hanging on a tree overnight; the
body was to be b u ried the sam e day. Jo sep h u s confirm s that the Jew s in New
T estam en t times rem oved those who had been crucified an d buried them before
the going dow n o f the su n . HT h is was even m ore essential on a Friday, w hen the
Sabbath was ab o ut to begin.
Jo sep h o f A rim athea, "a rich m an" an d a respected m em ber o f the council"
(M ark 15:43), ob tained perm ission from Pilate to p erfo rm this service for Jesus.
H e followed th e first-century Jew ish custom o f burial in a white linen s h ro u d .n
Jesus was b u ried in Jo sep h 's own tom b, cut in the rock, which had not been
previously used, an d the en tran ce was secured by rolling a large stone in fro n t o f it.
T o all o f this Mary M agdalene an d the o th e r Mary were witnesses. T h e re is then
no question ab out th eir ability to identify the right tom b two days later. As a
gesture o f th eir g rie f they w ere silting "opposite the sepulchre" (Matt. 27:61).'"
T h e account o f the sealing o f the tom b an d the stationing o f a g u ard is
peculiar to M atthew (chap. 27:62-66). Perm ission for this was g ra n te d by Pilate to
the ch ief priests a n d Pharisees" on the next day, "that is, after the day o f
p rep aratio n ," i.e.. the Sabbath. T h e delegation from the S anhedrin suddenly
recalled that Jesu s had predicted that afte r H e was put to death He w ould rise

t nlcM o th erw ise n o te d , all S crip tu re re fe r e n c e s in this ch a p ter a re fro m ih c R evised S ta n d a rd V ersio n .

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 SUNDAY IN T H E NEW T E S T A M E N T

again afte r th ree days. T hey th e re fo re w anted the tom b g u ard ed until the
th ird day. T h ey expressed fear that the disciples would steal His body a n d then
claim H e rose from the dead.
Pilate replied sharply an d perem ptorily, T ak e a g u ard [i.e., o f R om an
soldiers, not m ere T em p le police ],17 an d m ake it as secure as you can. So they
sealed the tom b a n d stationed a g u ard o f Rom an soldiers. But the precautions
they em ployed only provided fu rth e r evidence o f the resurrection o f o u r Lord.
T h e ea rth q u ak e an d the descent o f an angel to roll away the stone, as
connected with th a t resu rrectio n , are described in M atthew 28. T h e tim ing o f
these events is given in verse 1. U nfortunately, how ever, all Bible students are not
ag reed on the in terp re tatio n o f the tem poral expressions given in the verse. T h e
ch ief difficulty lies in harm onizing the phrase opse sabbaton (late on the S abbath)
with the expression th at follows, "at the [hour] daw ning tow ard the first day o f the
week. T h e first m ight be taken to m ean tow ard sunset S aturday night, w hereas
the second suggests tow ard sunrise on Sunday m orning.
Opse de sabbaton is re n d e re d as now late on the Sabbath day in the Revised
Version, th e A m erican S ta n d ard V ersion, an d th e New A m erican S tan d ard Bible
(omits day). T h e Latin V ulgate translates it as vespere autem sabbati, how ever on
sabbath evening. T h o se w ho follow these re n d erin g s are forced to in te rp re t as it
began to daw n tow ard the first day o f the week as m eaning when the first day o f
th e week was ab out to begin on S aturday evening. T h e verb epiphoskein, to daw n,
m ust th en m ean to daw n o n , as in Luke 23:54. T h e re are two m ain objections to
this. First, to in te rp re t opse de sabbaton as m eaning late on the S abbath is to m ake
Matthew' co n tradict the o th e r Gospel accounts, all o f which have the w om en visit
the tom b early S unday m orning. Second, the whole course o f th e narrativ e in
M atthew 28 indicates th at the events th ere recorded occurred in the daytim e, not
in th e evening. T h e w om en hastened from the em pty tom b to tell the disciples that
they had seen an angel who in fo rm ed them that Jesus was alive (verses 5-8). W hile
this was going on (verse 11) som e o f the soldiers from the R om an g u ard w ent into
the city a n d re p o rte d to th e ch ief priests the startling news o f the R esurrection.
T h e chief priests quickly assem bled the S anhedrin, which o ffered a sum o f m oney
as a bribe to th e soldiers to tell the falsehood that Jesu s disciples had com e by night
while th e g u ard s w ere asleep an d h ad stolen th eir M asters body. T h e Jew ish
authorities o ffered p rotection to the soldiers should this word reach Pilate. T h e
clear im plication is that these things were h a p p e n in g in the daytim e.
How th en can th e two tem poral expressions in M atthew 28:1 be harm onized?
Opse is prim arily a tem poral adverb th at usually denotes late in, o r the last of, the
perio d o f tim e in question; hence, in M ark 4:35 it m eans late in die day, i.e., in
the evening ."1 B ut it can also be used as an im p ro p er preposition, signifying
a fte r a well-attested m eaning in G reek papyri. H ence, the Revised S tan d ard
V ersion an d m ost recen t translations re n d e r opse sabbaton as a fte r the S abbath .19
Lohse asserts th at opse sabbaton corresponds to the Rabbinic Motzaey Shabbath, the
term in atio n o f th e Sabbath, an d thus m eans the night from th e Sabbath to the
first day o f th e week o r the first day o f the week itself.
From th e stan d p o in t of g ra m m a r by itself, one may translate e ith er late on
the S abbath o r a fte r the S abbath. B ut the analogy with the o th e r Gospels, plus
the co n tex t a n d th e p h rase at the [hour] daw ning into the first [day] o f th e w eek,
decide th e m atter in favor o f the latter.

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 T H E S AB BA T H IN S CR IP TUR E AND HI STOR Y

T h e two M arys cam e early in the m orning to see the sepulchre." A ccord
ing to M ark a n d Luke, they cam e to com plete the w ork o f anointing Jesu s hodv
with spices an d p erfum es as a final trib u te o f love. But in M atthew's Gospel
they are depicted as com ing to see the tom b. T h e Jew s in Jesu s day observed two
periods o f m o u rn in g for a deceased loved one: th e first period was betw een
th e d eath and burial, a n d the second was the period following in term en t.
Does M atthew's account suggest that we are to connect this early-m orning visit
with th e second period o f m ourning? This is possible. At any rate, the apocryphal
Gospel o f Peter has them say, Even if we w ere not able to weep and lam ent him on
th e day in which he was crucified, yet let us now d o so at his tom b"
(chap. 12:52).
T h e Gospel o f M atthew is variously d ated from the late sixties to a ro u n d a . d .
80. T h a t Gospel was the m ost p o p u lar one in the early church. It was quoted m ore
frequently by early C hristian w riters than any o th er, and was re g ard e d as th e
teaching Gospel and as the ch u rch 's Gospel. Does it reflect even a hint that the first
day o f the week was now to be observed by C hristians ra th e r than the seventh day?
We have fo u n d no evidence o f such a change in M atthew.
It is tru e th at Jesus ap p e are d to the wom en as they d e p a rte d from the tom b
with fear and great joy" (chap 28:8). T hey took hold o f his feet an d w orshiped
him " (verse 9). H owever, this had to d o not with th e day o f the week but with the
trem en d o u s im pact o f the risen Lord upon these devoted followers. M atthew
knew n o th in g o f the observance o f Sunday as a day o f worship.
The First Day o f the Week in Luke
T h e Gospel o f Luke is usually d ated about the sam e tim e as M atthew, o r
p erh ap s a little later. William M. Ramsay considers Luke as one o f the greatest o f
historians.*' He was a m an o f culture, with a trained m ind an d literary charm . In
his prologue (Luke 1:1-4), he claims to have accurately traced the course o f the
Jesus-event" a n d to have w ritten an "orderly account "15 o f what h ap p e n ed .
H ence it is o f special interest to note how carefully he presents the sequence o f the
events o f Jesu s' d eath , burial, and resurrection.
T h e day o f Jesus' d e a th and burial was the day o f P reparation. w hen the
Sabbath was about to begin (Luke 23:54). All th ro u g h the S ab b ath the devoted
w om en w ho had p re p a re d to p erfo rm the last rites rested according to the
com m an d m en t" (verse 56). But at early daw n on the first day o f the week they
cam e with th eir spices to com plete th eir work (chap. 24:1). T h e passage from Luke
23:55 to 24:1 is in reality but one sentence in the G reek. T h e adversitive
conjunction de o f Luke 24:1 co rresp o n d s to the conjunctive particle men o f Luke
23:56. It is u n fo rtu n a te that the ch a p te r division was m ade in the m idst o f a
sentence, for th e story goes on w ithout a break: the w om en rested on the Sabbath,
but on th e first day o f th e week they did not rest.
W hen they arrived at the tom b "at early daw n," they found the stone rolled
aw ay* from th e m outh, a n d no corpse inside. T hey did. how ever, see two m en,
evidendy angels, in dazzling ap p arel," who asked, Why d o you seek the living
am o n g th e d e a d ?'*7 T h e se angels recalled to th eir m inds Jesus' own prediction,
rep eated th re e times,*' that H e would not only su ffer an d be crucified but would
rise from th e d ead on th e th ird day (chap. 24:4-8). Jesus' followers ought to
have clung to His w ords a n d expected a resurrection: " R em em ber what he told

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you" (N.E.B.). T h ese devoted w om en w ere not only led to retail His w ords but to
lay hold of th em in faith, and they h u rrie d to bring the good news to the apostles
an d o th e r followers o f Jesus. B ut the aposdes re g ard e d the re p o rt as nonsense,
and refu sed to accept it (verses 9-11).
A n exquisite story, peculiar to Luke, follows; it stresses the tru th that the
death o f Jesu s was not a m eaningless tragedy but a fulfillm ent o f the plans and
p u rposes o f G od. O n the very sam e day m entioned in verse 1, two disciples were
walking to Em m aus, a village ab o u t seven miles from Jeru salem . As they walked
and talked o f th e startling events that had tran sp ired in Jeru salem , the risen L ord,
disguised as a stran g e r,jo in ed them and asked, W hat are these w ords that you are
exchanging with o ne a n o th er as you walk ?"'9In response to His question they told
o f Jesu s the N azarene, who was recognized by His miracles an d teachings as a
p ro p h e t but who had suffered a violent d eath at the hands o f the chief priests and
rulers. His followers had been hoping that He would prove to be m ore th an a
p ro p h e t the Messiah, who w ould deliver Israel from the yoke o f Rom ebut now
th eir hopes seem ed to be doom ed to disappointm ent.
At the sam e time, these two individuals seem ed to have been aw are o f Jesu s
p rediction re g ard in g a resu rrectio n on the th ird day, fo r they ad ded, "Yes, and
besides all this, it is now the th ird day since this h ap p en ed " (verse 21 ).w M oreover,
they knew o f th e re p o rt o f the w om en that the tom b was em pty an d that angels had
d eclared th at Jesu s was alive. Som e o f th eir com pany had even checked the re p o rt
o f th e em pty tom b and found it to be accurate (verses 22-24).
T h e n th e Divine T ea ch er, still disguised as a stran g er, reproved their
spiritual dullness. T h e sufferings o f the Messiah w ere a necessary fulfillm ent
o f O ld T estam en t prophecies (verse 25ff.): A nd beginning with Moses and
all th e p ro p h ets, he in te rp re te d to them in all the scriptures the tilings
co n cerning h im s e lf (verse 27). T hey felt th eir h earts strangely w arm ed as H e ex
p o u n d e d th e S criptures. T h e n at the en d o f th eir walk, they pressed Him to stay
with them . W hen H e sat down at the table with them . H e assum ed the position
o f host; H e blessed the bread, broke it, an d offered it to them . Suddenly th eir eyes
w ere op en ed . T h ey recognized Him , but then im m ediately H e vanished from
th eir sight.
L ater th at sam e evening the apostles and o th er C hristians w ere startled
and frig h ten ed by the su d d en appearance o f the risen C hrist in th eir midst.
How H e got th e re o r w here H e cam e from , no one knew. H e had to assure them
th at H e really was th eir beloved M aster. See my hands an d my feet, that it is
I m yself," H e u rg ed . 'H a n d le m e, an d see (verses 39,40). B ut even this was in
sufficient to allay th eir d oubts an d fears. H ence H e asked fo r food an d was
given a piece o f broiled fish, which He ate before them (verses 42, 43). Jesu s
th en attem p ted to teach them th e significance o f Old T estam en t scriptures as in
te rp re te d in the light o f the cross an d resurrection. T h u s it is w ritten, H e told
th em , th at th e C hrist should suffer an d on the th ird day rise from the d e a d
(verses 46, 47).
It is a m arvelous story an d full o f d eep significance. B ut th o u g h Luke w rote
several decades afte r th e events portrayed an d wrote his Gospel specifically to
teach T h eo p h ilu s ab o u t the C hristian faith (chap. 1:4), we fail to delect even a hint
th at th e Sabbath was now to be laid aside and that C hristians w ere to observe the
first day o f th e week.

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The First Day o f the Week in John

T h e testim ony o f the Gospel o f J o h n re g ard in g the Sabbath an d the first day
o f th e week is o f special interest for two reasons: ( 1 ) its late date an d (2 ) its apostolic
authority. A lthough this Gospel cannot be d ated precisely, the m ajority o f New
T estam en t scholars o p t fo r a date a ro u n d the en d o f the first century. T h e re is no
conclusive evidence that this is the case, but such a d ate would harm onize with the
testim ony o f early C hristian w riters. If the Gospel is indeed that late, its
testim ony re g a rd in g the C hristian day o f w orship is very significant.
F u rth erm o re , although the Gospel as it stands is anonym ous, th ere are good
g ro u n d s fo r re g ard in g its testim ony as originating from Jo h n the apostle, an
eyewitness of Jesus. T h is view has the su p p o rt o f early C hristian w riters, and the
Gospel itself ap p e ars to affirm it. The next-to-last verse o f the postscript (chapter
2 1) declares: "T his is the disciple who is bearing witness to these things, a n d who
has w ritten these things: an d we know that his testim ony is tru e" (verse 24). T h e
we o f this verse is an unidentified g ro u p , consisting p erh ap s o f contem porary
ch u rch leaders capable o f certifying the au th o rsh ip an d authority o f the Gospel.
To what disciple are they referrin g ? Verse 20 identifies him as th e disciple whom
Jesu s loved, who h ad lain close to his breast at the su p p er." T h is statem ent refers
back to th e an n o u n cem en t by Jesu s o f His betrayal in J o h n 13:23ff. T h e fact that
the disciple re fe rre d to was p resen t at the Last S u p p er indicates that he was o n e o f
the twelve. His place o f h o n o r next to Jesu s suggests that he was one o f the in n er
circle (Peter, Jam es, a n d J o h n ).MT h e disciple w hom Jesu s loved was later standing
n ear the cross an d accepted from Jesus the sacred ch arg e o f caring for His m other
(chap. 19:25-27). H e witnessed the awful en d an d saw the stream s o f w ater and
blood issuing from Jesus' pierced side. "H e who saw it has b o rn e witness his
testim ony is tru e, an d he knows that he tells the tru th that you also may believe"
(verse 35).
A ccording to J o h n 18:15, 16, Peter an d a n o th er disciple followed Jesus to the
court o f the high priest. H e was sufficiently known to secure access not only for
him self but fo r P eter as well. J o h n 20:2 seems also to identify th e o th e r disciple
with th e disciple whom Jesu s loved. S upport for the conclusion that diis disciple
was J o h n is fo u n d, too, in the fact th at n eith er Jam es n o r J o h n is nam ed in the
Gospel. T h e two, how ever, are m entioned in J o h n 2 1 :2 as "the sons o f Zebedee."
We conclude th at it is J o h n s authority that lies behind the fo u rth Gospel. T h e
fact th at he was o n e o f Jesu s closest followers adds great weight to his testim ony.
J u s ta s J e s u s is in the bosom o f the F ather (John 1: l 8 ),so Jo h ti the Beloved lay close
to th e breast o f Jesu s at the Last S upper.
J o h n s Gospel pictures Mary M agdalene as com ing to the tom b "on the first
day o f th e week," early, while it was still d a rk (chap. 2 0 :1). W hen she found the
stone rem oved from the d o o r o f the tom b, she concluded that the body o f Jesus
had been rem oved, an d she ran to re p o rt this to Sim on P eter an d Jo h n .
T h ese two disciples began ru n n in g to g eth er to the tom b, but J o h n o u tran
Peter an d arriv ed first (verses 2-1 0 ). A lthough he looked into the o p en ed tom b, he
did not e n te r it until afte r P eter arrived an d had gone in. W hat Jo h n saw in the
tom b convinced him that this was no grave robbery. I h e condition o f the
graveclothes, with th e napkin carefully rolled up. had m eaning fo r him. H e saw
and believed" (verse 8).
A pparently Mary had followed P eter and J o h n back to the tom b at a slower

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pace, an d rem ain ed behind a fte r t|jey "went back to th eir hom es (verse 10). In
h er d eep g rie f she looked into the tom b, w here she saw two angels in w hite, sitting
w here th e body o f Jesu s had lain, o n e at the head an d one at the feet. T h ey said to
her, W om an, why a re you w eeping? T h e n tu rn in g aro u n d , she saw Jesus, whom
she su p p o sed to be the g a rd e n e r, an d requested, T ell me w here you have laid
h im ' (verse 15). In His fam iliar way He spoke h er nam e, M ary. She sp ran g
forw ard to em brace Him , but Jesus said to her, Do not hold m e (verse 17).
T h e n she hasten ed to the disciples with the news, I have seen the L o rd .
T h e following evening the risen C hrist ap p eared to the eleven disciples, ap art
from T h o m as. T h is h ap p e n ed on the evening o f that day, the first day o f the
week (verse 19). Evidendy the G ospel is h ere using the Rom an m eth o d o f
reckoning tim e (from m idnight to m idnight) ra th e r than the Jew ish (from sunset
to sunset). T h e referen ce is to the evening after the first day (i.e., S unday night),
not th e evening th at began it, as in Jew ish reckoning.
For w hat p u rp o se had the disciples g ath ered together? Was it to celebrate the
R esurrection? T h is could no t be, fo r they did not at this tim e believe that Jesus had
risen from th e d e a d .5Was it to w orship o r hold religious services on the first day o f
the week? J o h n gives no evidence o f any such service. H e gives no hint that the first
day has any im p o rtance to the disciples. H e asserts, ra th e r, that they had gath ered
to g eth er beh in d locked doors fo r self-protection. T h e place w here they were
gath ered was p erh ap s the sam e u p p e r room w here the Last S u p p e r had been
celebrated, an d w here they w ere ap p aren tly staving. T h e d o o rs w ere closed
and locked for fear o f the Jew s (verse 19). Jesu s stepped into th eir m idst and
gave them th e Semitic salutation 'Peace be with you. ' As evidence that H e was
indeed th e risen L ord. H e show ed them his h ands an d his side (verse 20). I hen
He com m issioned them with the w ords As the F ather has sent m e, even so I send
you. A nd, as an anticipation o f Pentecost, he b reath ed on them , a n d said to
them , Receive th e Holy S pirit"(verses 21,22). Did Jesus give them any indication
that th e first day o f the week was now to be substituted for the Sabbath? J o h n s
Gospel knows n o th in g o f any such thing.
T h o m as, th e disciple who fo r som e reason was absent, later refused to accept
th e testim ony o f th e ten th at they had indeed seen the risen C hrist. Unless I see
in his h ands the p rin t o f the nails, and place my finger in the m ark o f the nails, and
place my h an d in his side, I will not believe, h e insisted (verse 25).
A bout a week later Jesu s again en tered the locked room when T h o m as was
presen t (verses 26-29). T h e Revised S tan d ard V ersion gives the tim e as "eight days
later." Literally, th e G reek reads, afte r eight days. T his is no doubt an idiom ,
m eaning on th e eighth day, ju s t as the prediction o f Jesu s resurrection after
th ree days in M ark (chaps. 8:31; 9:31; 10:34) m eans "on the th ird day (see Matt.
16:21; 20:19; Luke 9:22; 18:33). T h e Jew s used the inclusive m eth o d o f reckoning
time. T h e specific day o f the week is not indicated, though it is usually taken as
m eaning th e following Sunday. A pparently J o h n did not see any special
significance in th e day.
T h e specific p u rp o se o f Jesu s appearan ce was evidently to give T h o m as the
kind o f evidence he d em an d e d in o rd e r to believe. Jesus th ere fo re invited the
d o u b tin g T h o m as to pu t his finger in the nailprints an d his h an d in Jesu s' side.
T h o m as was overw helm ed a n d exclaim ed, My Lord an d my G od! (John
20:28).

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T h e final post-R esurrection ap p earan ce o f Jesu s to the disciples o ccu rred on

th e shore o f th e Sea o f T ib eriu s (chap. 21:1-8). Seven disciples (Peter, T hom as,
N athanael, Jam es, J o h n , a n d two others, possibly A ndrew an d Philip) had gone
fishing. At daybreak, a fte r an unsuccessful night on the lake, a lone figure called to
them , "H ave you caught anything?" T h e ir answ er was No. "Well, cast your net on
the right side o f the boat and you will catch som e." T hey did so, an d as a result
caught 153 fish. J o h n im m ediately recognized th at the one responsible for the
catch was th e risen L ord. T h e im pulsive P eter then left the net, th e fish, the boat,
and his com panions, plunged into th e sea, and swam to shore.
T h e ch ief p u rp o se o f this m anifestation o f th eir Lord was to reinstate P eter as
a legitim ate m em ber o f the apostolic band afte r his tragic betrayal o f the M aster.
T h e day on which this revelation was m ade is not stated. T h e day itself apparently
had no significance.
Jo h n , like th e o th er Gospel writers, gives no su p p o rt to the idea th at th e day o f
rest an d w orship had been changed from the Sabbath to Sunday. T h is is indeed
surp risin g if such a change was supposedly m ade in the first century. If Jo h n 's
Gosepl is to be d ated a ro u n d th e end o f the first century, his silence about any such
ch an g e is certainly striking.
T h e First-D ay M eeting at T roas
T h e book o f Acts gives th e only explicit New T estam en t account o f a public
religious g ath erin g on "the first day o f the week" (Acts 20:7-12). O n his way to
Jeru salem Paul stopped for seven days at T ro as, a tow n situated n ear th e site of the
ancient city o f T ro y . O n the final day o f his stay there, the C hristian believers
g ath ered to g eth er "to break b re a d . Luke states that this g ath erin g took place on
the first day o f the week," which would co rresp o n d roughly with the day we call
Sunday. T his passage is, consequently, repeatedly cited as evidence that
C hristians w ere now observing S unday as a day o f w orship. It is th ere fo re
im p o rtan t to look closely at the passage to discover the n a tu re o f the evidence set
forth.
T h e re are several questions th at need to be asked re g ard in g this gathering:
Was this a re g u la r w eekend m eeting? O r was it occasioned by th e presence a n d the
im m inent d e p a rtu re o f the apostle Paul? A nd specifically w hen, in relation to o u r
present S unday, did the g athering occur? T h e ref erence to th e use o f lights a n d to
the p rolongation o f the service past m idnight, even till daybreak, plus the d eep
sleep o f Eutychus, m ake it obvious that this was a night gathering. But on what
night in relation to Sunday the n ight before S unday o r the night after?
F u rth erm o re , what is m eant by th e breaking of bread? Was this a fellowship
d in n er, th e L ard's S u p p er, o r p erh ap s a com bination o f the two?
U n fo rtu n ately, som e o f these questions cannot be answ ered with certainty.
T o begin with, th ere is no evidence that this g ath erin g was a re g u la r w eekend
service, as it is o ften assum ed to have been. T h e context would ra th e r suggest that
this was a special farewell m eeting fo r the apostle Paul, who was leaving the
following m o rning. T h e fact that this m eeting was held on the first day o f the
week" does not m ake it evident that the C hristians o f T ro a s habitually m et on that
day.
Evidence has already been cited to indicate that this was a night m eeting. F. F.
B ruce suggests that this tim ing was for the convenience o f the m em bers who may

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have had lo work d u rin g the daytim e. Be that as it may, all com m entators agree,
and it is clear from die text, that this was a night m eeting. But on what night in
relation to th e first day o f the week? Does Luke use the Jew ish m ethod o f
reckoning a 2 4 -h o u r day from sundow n to sundow n,* o r the Rom an m ethod o f
reckoning from m id n ight to m idnight? T h e re is an honest d ifference o f opinion
on this m atter.
If Luke is using the Jew ish m ethod o f reckoning, the m eeting was held on
what we call S aturday night, ex ten d in g to early Sunday m orning. T his was the
view held by C onybeare and Howson in their classic work on Paul: "It was the
evening which succeeded the Jew ish sabbath. O n the Sunday m orning the vessel
was about to sail." T his in terp re tatio n is reflected in a n u m b er o f recent English
translations o f the New T estam e n t .42 Foakes-Jackson was in ag reem en t with this
view when he w rote: "Paul an d his friends could not, as good Jew s, start on a
jo u rn e y on the Sabbath; they did so as soon after it as was possible, viz. at daw n on
the first day' th e Sabbath having en d ed at s u n s e t . I f the g ath erin g took place
on S aturday night, it would affo rd little su p p o rt fo r S undaykeeping.
H ow ever, th e re are o th e r Bible students who arg u e that this g ath erin g was
held on Sunday night ra th e r th an on S aturday night. M acG regor lakes this view
and argues th at on the m orrow " m eans the m orrow after the first day o f th e week,
i.e., M onday .44 B ruce asserts: "L uke is not using the Jew ish reckoning from sunset
to sunset but the Rom an reckoning from m idnight to m id n ig h t ."*1 Lake and
C adbury also d efen d this point o f view .46 In the face o f such an honest d ifferen ce
o f opinion it would not be safe to be dogm atic about the specific night o f th e week
designated. If, how ever, th e m eeting was on Sunday night, the breaking o f bread ,
which took place after m idnight, m ust have been on M onday m orning. H ence,
th o u g h it could have been the Eucharist, it would affo rd little evidence for
Sundaykeeping.
T h e p u rp o se o f the night gathering, Luke declares, was to break b read ." It
h ad becom e custom ary in Palestine to break bread with the hands ra th e r th an to
cut it with a knife. T h e host at the table, after the offering o f thanks, broke the
loaves a n d d istrib u ted them to his guests .47 H ence, this prelim inary action becam e
th e nam e fo r com m on meals in the early C hristian com m unities,4" even in the
G entile world. T h e act o f breaking the bread was rem iniscent o f the days when
Jesu s as the host broke bread for His follow ers .49T able fellowship, th erefo re, gave
expression to th e spirit o f unity an d com m union th at prevailed. T h e m em ory o f
Jesus an d the spirit o f koinoma gave a religious character even to a com m on meal.
T o break b read ," however, could also re fe r to die L o rd s S u p p er,w a meal
dedicated to th e m em ory o f Him who "took bread, blessed an d broke it, and gave
it to th e disciples " 51 as a symbol o f Himself. C onsequently, m any re g ard the
b reaking o f b read at T ro as as a celebration o f the L ord's S upper. It w ould be
n atural to expect such a celebration in connection with Paul's visit at T roas.
However, th ere are features o f the account that m ilitate against this view. O n e is
that the b reaking o f b read o ccu rred afte r m idnight, which ap p ears to be strange if
th e p u rp o se o f th e g athering in the evening was to celebrate the L ord's S upper.
F u rth erm o re, verse 11 speaks only o f Paul as eating bread, not the en tire
congregation. Also th ere is no m ention o f a cup n o r o f any prayers.
T h u s, this often-cited passage affords no real evidence for S undaykeeping in
New T estam en t times. T h e re is not even certainty re g ard in g the night involved:

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Was it S aturday-S unday o r Sunday-M onday? In eith er case, the g ath erin g was
exceptionala farewell gath erin g fo r the great m issionary a n d his traveling
com panions. N o r is it certain th at the L o rd s S u p p er was celebrated. T h e
expression to b reak b read " could re fe r to the beginning o f a farewell su p p er. But
g ran tin g the possibility that this was m ore than a farewell fellowship m eal, th ere is
no evidence th at this had becom e a weekly practice.
In d eed , th ere are n u m ero u s exam ples in the book o f Acts o f religious
gatherings on th e Sabbath in which the apostle took part. But th e re is no evidence
w hatever th at re g u la r assemblies for w orship took place on the first day o f the
week.
M oreover, the book o f Acts repeatedly pictures Paul as telling the Jew s that he
was tru e to th e basic religion o f their fathers as laid dow n in th e law an d the
p ro p h e ts (Acts 24:14). A fter his arrest he boldly asserted: " N e ith er against the
law o f the Jew s. n o r against the tem ple, n o r against C aesar have 1 o ffen d ed at all
(chap. 25:8). In the presence o f A grippa he declared: A nd so I stand h ere
testifying both to small an d great, saying nothing but what the p ro p h ets a n d Moses
said would com e to pass (chap. 26:22). Finally, in Rome he called to g eth er the
Jew s o f that city an d asserted that he had d o n e nothing against the Jew s o r the
custom s o f th eir fathers (chap. 28:17). How could he possibly m ake such
assertions, which w ere not challenged, if he had tau g h t the G entiles to forsake the
Sabbath an d observe a n o th e r day as the day o f worship?
T h e C ollection on th e F irst Day o f the W eek
T h e chronologically earliest referen ce to the first day o f the week in the New
T estam en t d o cu m ents is in 1 C orinthians 16:1, 2, w here Paul gives instruction
co n cerning th e relief o fferin g "for the saints." T h ese saints w ere the Jew ish
C hristians o f Jeru salem an d Ju d e a . E arlier in his career as a C hristian, Paul with
Silas h ad been sent to Jeru salem with funds from Antioch in a tim e o f fam ine (Acts
11:29, 30). Now the great apostle was planning fo r a m ajor love o fferin g from the
ch u rches o f M acedonia an d Achaia for these poverty-stric ken b re th ren . T h is was
a m atter th at loom ed large in P auls m ind an d was o n e o f the objects o f his th ird
m issionary to u r. H e looked u p o n this o fferin g as a sign an d pledge o f the unity in
C hrist betw een the G entile and Jew ish C hristians. A nd to the C orinthians h e gave
directions re g ard in g it sim ilar to those he had previously given the G alatian
churches: O n the first day o f every week, each o f you is to puL som ething aside
an d store it u p, as he may p ro sp er, so th at contributions need not be m ade w hen I
com e" (1 Cor. 16:2).
Paul u rg ed every m em ber o f the C orinthian C hristian com m unity to take
p art in this co n tribution. Every week each C hristian was to co n trib u te from
iiis week's earnings, laying aside this weekly o fferin g "on the first day o f the
week."
Why did Paul select the first day o f the week as the day when these m onies
were to be laid aside? M any see in this an indication that S unday had already
acquired a religious significance. Leon M orris com m ents: T his is the first piece o f
evidence to show that C hristians habitually observed that day."* R alph M artin
writes: T h is is u ndoubtedly an allusion to the C h u rch s holy day, the day o f
C hristian fellowship in com m em oration o f the L o rd s R esurrection . . . an d the day
o f th e S u p p er-m e al." Steven B arabas declares: Paul directed the C orinthian

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 SUNDAY IN T H E NEW T E S T A M E N T

C hristians to b rin g th eir weekly o fferin g to the charities o f the C h u rch on th e first
day o f th e w eek."
But a carefu l exam ination o f the passage leads us to ask w hether such
conclusions are in h ere n t in the text, o r w hether they are simply a reading back into
the New T estam e n t o f developm ents that cam e later? No sacred character
w hatever is ascribed to the first day o f the week by the apostle Paul in this text. N or
does th e passage say anything about going to church o r bringing a weekly offering
to th e c h u rc h s charities on th at day.
T h e first day o f the week is ra th e r spoken o f as a fitting tim e for an
ex am ination o f accounts, an d the p u ttin g aside o f fu n d s from the weeks profits.
T h e referen ce," G rosheide concedes, is not to the church services but to a
personal assignm ent which everyone had to p e rfo rm ."37 Each o f you is to pu l
som ething aside an d store it u p , as he may prosper" is the direction.
T h e A m erican S tan d ard V ersion gives a literal ren d erin g : Let each o n e o f
you lay by him in store, as he m ay p ro sp er." Lay by him " (parheauto titheto) m eans
to p u t aside at home."' G rosheide com m ents: Paul trusts th e C orinthians: he does
not ask them to h an d in th eir collection on a weekly basis, they are allowed to keep
the collected m oney and ihus little by little a significant am o u n t will be saved u p ." 5
And C raig explains, Pauls ex h o rtatio n called for regularity in saving ra th e r than
for faithful atten d an ce upon th e assemblies.""1' If these C hristians were m eeting
for public w orship on the first day, o n e may well ask why they w ere adm onished to
put aside fu nds privately at hom e on th at day.
No reason is indicated for the selection o f the first day o f the week. Deissm ann
has suggested th e possibility th at the first day o f th e week may have been payday in
the Im perial p erio d .6' T h e sam e suggestion is m ade by J. H ering in his
com m entary on 1 C orinthians.* If this is so, the reason fo r the choice o f the day
has n o th in g to d o with any supposed sacredness now attrib u ted lo that day. T h e
act o f reviewing th e course o f Providence and the prosperity experienced may be,
o f course, a deeply religious one, but that does not m ean that the day on which it is
d o n e is th e re fo re sacred. Long ago N e an d er correctly observed: All m entioned
h e re is easily explained, if one sim ply thinks o f the ord in ary beginning o f the week
in secular life."
T h e b eg inning o f the week may well have been designated, fu rth e rm o re , so
th at the o fferin g could be given the priority it deserved. B efore the d em ands o f
secular life could absorb the week's earnings, they were adm onished to plan for
this special o ffering.
T h is passage sets forth valuable suggestions for systematic an d regular fund
raising. But to ex tract from it evidence o f a change in the day o f w orship is to give
a forced in terp retatio n .
The Lords Day in Revelation 1:10
In addition to the New T estam en t references to the "first day o f the week,"
which have been exam ined, th e re rem ains to be considered the reference to the
L o rd s day" in th e o p en in g c h a p te r o f the Apocalypse. The passage reads: I Jo h n
. . . was on th e island called Patm os on account o f the w ord o f G od an d the
testim ony o f Jesus. I was in the Spirit on the L o rd s day, a n d I h eard behind me a
loud voice like a tru m p et" (Rev. 1:9, 10).
T his is the only passage in the Bible w here the exact G reek phrase here

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 I HF. S A B B A T H IN S CR IP T UR E AND HISTORY

translated th e L o rd s day is found. U nfortunately, th e re is no indication in th e

context to guide us in know ing what day is re fe rre d to. N or do co n tem p o rary
C hristian w riters help us, fo r th ere is no unequivocal use o f the phrase in any
au th en tic do cu m ent for nearly a century afte r Jo h n . N evertheless, the vast
m ajority o f com m entaries in te rp re t this as an u n d o u b ted referen ce to Sunday.
T h e re is, o f course, no question that Sunday becam e known as the L o rd s day
at a som ew hat later time. Kunake by itself, in fact, becam e the nam e fo r S unday in
later G reek, and rem ains so in the m odern form o f the language. T h e Latin
equivalent Dominica dies, fo u n d in the V ulgate o f th e passage, becam e the nam e for
S unday in ecclesiastical Latin. In fact Dominica is reflected in the nam e for S unday
in the R om ance languages, e.g., domenica in Italian, dommgo in Spanish, a n d
dnnanche in French.
But the question at issue is w hether Sunday was known as "the L o rd s day in
the late first century, an d w h eth er J o h n m eant S unday by the p hrase in Revelation
1: 10. T h e re is no specific evidence o f either. It m ust fu rth e r be pointed out that
J o h n s Gospel is usually d ated later than the Apocalypse. Yet, as noted above, the
Gospel ref ers to S unday sim ply as "the first day o f the week," which seems strange
if it was then know n as th e L o rd s day."
A few co m m entators in te rp re t "the L o rd s day" in Revelation 1:10 as
equivalent to the O ld T estam en t "Day o f the L ord, i.e., the eschatological day o f
ju d g m en t. A lthough the O ld T estam en t phrase Yom Yahweha (Day o f Yahweh) is
not translated as kunake hemera in the S eptuagint, but as he hemera tou kunou, using
th e genitive ra th e r than th e adjective, it may be arg u ed that th ere is little
dif f erence in m eaning betw een the two.6*T h e genitive may well have been used by
th e Septuagint translators in im itation o f the H ebrew , which has a d e a rth o f
adjectives and frequently supplies the lack by the use o f a genitive construction.
T h o se who in te rp re t the L o rd s day in Revelation 1: 10 as the fu tu re Day o f the
L o rd a rg u e that Jo h n in vision was tran sp o rte d to that day, and beheld its events
being un fo ld ed . A ccording to this view. Revelation 1: 10 means: In my trance I
fo u n d m yself at the day o f ju d g m e n t.
C harles H. Welch, in advocating this view, writes: T h e book o f Revelation is
taken up with som ething infinitely vaster than days o f the week. It is solely
co ncerned with the day o f the L o r d . T o read that J o h n becam e in spirit on the
L ord's day (m eaning Sunday) tells us practically nothing. T o read in the solem n
in troduction that J o h n becam e in spirit in the Day o f the L ord, that day o f
p rophetic im port, is to tell us practically everything .67
But does th e context o f the phrase the L ord's day in Revelation 1: 10 perm it
this kind o f in terp retatio n ? I think not. T h e vision that Jo h n beheld after being
caught u p by the Spirit was not o f events that belong to the eschatological "Day o f
th e L ord." R ath er it was a vision of the glorified C hrist walking am ong the seven
lam pstands. re p resen tin g th e seven churches, as a m inister to them in the present
age. In Revelation 1:9, 10, th e p ro p h e t gives the place a n d tim e w hen he received
th e vision, ra th e r than im plying that in his vision he was tran sp o rted to the final
day o f ju d g m e n t: I J o h n . . . was on the island called Patm os___I was in the Spirit
o n th e L o rd s day.
A th ird in terp retatio n , which has not been given adequate attention by most
New T estam en t students, is that th e L o rd s day" refers to the C hristian Pascha,
th e an n u al celebration o f C hrist's resurrection, which later cam e to be called

126
 SUNDAY IN T H E NEW T E S T A M E N T

'Easter." It is entirely possible that the earliest references in postcanonical

w riters to the L o rd s day" d o not re fer to a weekly observance at all, but to a yearly
R esurrection-day celebration. T h is annual L ords day was an a p p ro p ria te tim e for
the baptism o f catechum ens a n d the celebration o f the Eucharist. D ugm ore
suggests that th e re could be no m ore fitting tim e for J o h n to have a vision o f the
risen an d glorified C hrist than on the anniversary o f the R esurrection.
A basis for such an annual celebration m ight well be seen in Pauls first letter
to th e C o rinthians, w here the L ordship o f C hrist is especially em phasized. Was
Paul suggesting such a celebration w hen he wrote: F or C hrist, o u r paschal lamb,
has been sacrificed. Let us, th erefo re, celebrate the festival" (1 C or. 5:7, 8)? T h e
fact th at C hrist arose on the day w hen the offering o f first fruits was presented by
the Jew s seems to form the background o f a later statem ent: "But in fact C hrist has
been raised from the dead, the first fruits o f those who have fallen asleep" (chap.
15:20).
Finally, if one in terp rets the phrase the Lord's day" according to the analogy
o f S cripture, a case can be m ade for re g ard in g it as a reference to the seventh-day
Sabbath. T h e Sabbath was set ap a rt fo r sacred use at C reation (Gen. 2:2, 3). T h e
interm ediate agent in that creation, according to several New T estam en t
passages,'*" was th e L ord Jesus C hrist. T h e fo u rth o f the fam ous T en W ords
describes the seventh day as a sabbath to the Lord your G od" (Ex. 20:1 Off.). In
the book o f Isaiah G od calls it " my holy d a y ' and the holy day o f the L o rd (Isa.
58:13). All th ree o f th e Synoptic Gospels q uote Jesu s saying, T h e Son o f m an is
lord even o f the sabbath" (M ark 2:28; cf. Matt. 12:8; Luke 6:5).
T h is view may also have th e su p p o rt o f an interesting reference to the L o rd s
day in th e apocryphal Acts o f Jo h n : "A nd on the seventh day, it being the L ord's
day . . It is not possible to be certain that the a u th o r refers to th e seventh day o f
the week. H e may possibly m ean the seventh day o f the jo u rn ey , but the fo rm er
seems probable.
B ut if J o h n m eans the Sabbath in Revelation 1:10, why should he re fer to it as
the L o rd s day"? T h e book o f Revelation has as its background the conflict
betw een the L ord C aesar" an d the L ord C hrist. C hristians w ere facing
persecution an d th e th reat o f m artyrdom because o f their refusal to recognize
C aesar as lord. For them th e re was but one Lord, Jesus C hrist (1 C or. 8:5, 6).
D eissm ann has show n that th ere w ere special days devoted to the Rom an
em p ero r. W ould it not be ap p ro p ria te u n d e r such circum stances to exalt Jesus
C h ristas th e ru le r o f kings on e a rth (Rev. 1:5), an d to re fer to the Sabbath as the
real L o rd s day?
In conclusion, one may say that th ere is not sufficient data given in the book o f
Revelation to be certain o f the correct in terp retatio n o f the phrase the Lord's
day" in Revelation 1:10. T h e p o p u lar attem pt to equate it with S unday does not
rest on evidence supplied by the S criptures but upon postapostolic usage o f the
phrase, long a fte r Jo h n 's time. T h e view that the phrase refers to the
eschatological day o f ju d g m e n t is doubtful. M ore attention should be given to the
possibility th at the ph rase refers to an annual resurrection celebration. A nd study
could well be given to the idea that what is m eant is in reality th e seventh-day
Sabbath.

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 I H E S AB BA T H IN S CR I P T U R E AND HIS TORY

* C . E. B. r a n fie ld . T h e Gospel A ccording to Sa in t Alar* (G a m h tid g e. E n g ., 195 9 ). p. 4 6 3 .

* lh a g e n n m m n u tou labbatun m ean s "the S abbath h avin g in te r v e n e d "

" H enrv B a m a v S w ete. The Gosbel A ccording to Si M ark (G rand R a p id v 1951), p. 395.
9 T h e b i d Latin m a n u scr ip t C o o e x B ohiensisffcj a d d s a d escrip tio n o f th e R etu rret n o n after**fro m Ilie d o o r to
'h e tomb"* in verse 3: S u d d e n ly , at th e th ird h o u r ot th e d av, th ere was d a rk n ess o v et th e w h o le ea r th , a n d a n g els
d e s c e n d e d from h ea v en , an d rising in th e sp len d o r o l llu* living G o d thev a scen d ed to g eth er w ith lu m . a n d
im rnediatelv it w as lig h t (se e W illiam L. L an e. The Gosbel According / M ark, \ l ( . [(rand Kapxlv. 1974 J. p. 5 8 2 . n 3).
10 In th e p h rase th e first day,** th e G reek u ses th e card in al n u m era l o n e "
11 In con trast to verse 2. th e o rd in a l n u m era l p r d tf is u sed for "first." a n d Meek" (sahbatou) is vingul.o
'* Iren a eu s A^arro/ H ere\ie\ 3 .1 0 . 5 (A N F 1:426); cf. th e ]xissib le r e fe r e n c e t o Mark 1 6 :1 7 , IM. m 2 . 2() 3 (p . 3 8 )

17 R ob ertson . W ord P uturcs in the S e w Testam ent (N a sh v ille, 1 9 3 0 -1 9 3 3 ). I 2 3 9

** W alter B au er, .4 G reek-Engltsh Lexicon o f the S e w Testam ent a n d O ther E a r h Christian Literature, rev an d augru In

S ee th e G ood S e w s B ible (T .tA ^ J , C*oodsj>red. The Jerusalem Hible. W ev m o u lh %tran slation . et ce te ra , c l Ike

\\ m R am sa r m M ta m ^ tim tm e f^ N m a T ta ta m e m lfp a w n A R a p id s, I M S )

** ( reek ka th e x n tin t g ta p h e m . w rite so m e th in g lor s o m e o n e in correct c hronologM al o rd er ." B au er. A rn d t, and

I h e accu sative c a s e , to uibbatiin. in d icates d u r a tio n of tim e

A llie d P lu m m er. .4 t.n tic a l Exegetical Commentary an the Gospel According to S Luke. IC C t E d in b u rg h . 192*2). p.

Ju T h e sto n e at th e en tr a n c e of th e tom b w ou ld be d ifficu lt to re m o v e A n in ter estin g a d d itio n t o L uke 2 3 :5 3 in

( <idex B e /a e . th e O ld I .aim inanusc n p tv. an d th e S ahidu d ia le d o f th e I optic read A n d w h en h e had laid h im . h e
p la ted a g ie a l tone o n th e sep u lc h r e w hich tw entv m en co u ld scarce h a v e ro lle d .
77 T h e w o rd s " H e is n ot h e r e , but h as a n s e n . fo u n d in n u m e r o u s m a n u scrip ts, are o m itted fro m th e Revived
Stand ard V ersion . Ih e S n r English Bible, a n d o th er E n glish versio n s, b eca u se thev are absent fro m th e w estern''
rnanusc tip fs (( o d e x B e /a e a n c fth c O ld la t m m a n u sc n p tsi. an d are th e r e fo r e reganlt*tl as. to u se a W estcott anti
H orte d esig n a tio n , a w estern tio n in te ip o la tio n " W het her thev a re g e n u in e or n o t. th e q u e stio n "W hv seart li
jfiioujj ifie tleatl lo t o n e w h o lives*'" (N F..B ) d e a t h im p lies th e R esu rrettio n .

L uke 2 4 :1 7 ; see A I R o b e r t a .4 Translation of L u ke'\ Gospel (N ew Y ork . 1923). o. 133.

I h e G reek of th is sen ten ce c o n ta in s an id iom that is d ifficult to p u l in to E n glish T h e r e is n o g en era l
ig r eem cn i a m o n g p h ilo lo g ists reg a rd in g its tran slation T h e m ea n in g o f th e v erb agei has b e e n variouslv g iv en as
k eep.' s p e n d '(c * \Mwmi S m ith . \ M a n u a l (reek Lexicon of the S e u le%tament. 3 d ed [V.dirilnii g li. I937J. p. H; jo sep h
H enrv ( h a v er. .4 (>reek E nglnh Lexicon */ the S e w Testament (N ew Y ork . 1 889). p p 9. 10); "observe," "pass" ( lle t ii v
(e o r g e Liddell and R obert S o tt. .4 ( reekE n g ln h Lexicon (O x fo r d . 1940). p. 18); t a r n out**or co m p lete" (H e rm a n n
C re tn e i. B ib lu o Thetdogual le x ic o n . 4th etl | K dtnhurgh. 1895). j. f i l ) B u t t h e c h ie l m atter o f d isa g ree m en t is w h eth er
this verb sh o u ld b e taken im p erso n a lls (P lu m m e r. <ti> a t . p. 5;>4. )o h n M artin G reed . The G ospel According to S t L uke
la m d o n . I9 6 0 ), p 2 % . ( F I) M ou le. ,4n Idiom Book o f S e w Testament Greek (G am b ridge, r u g . I 9 5 3 |, p. 2 7 ), i.e.,
ne u asscs" or " one is k eep in g" lor s |ie n d in j O tin* th u d tlay or **w e a re at th e tint cl dav"; o t w h eth er Jesus** o r "He"
shou ld le su p p lied as th e sublet t. i.e .. "Jesus is s p e n d in g th e th ird dav" (B a u er. A rn d t, and G in g rich , op a t . p. 14) or
H e is alreaciv s |ten d in g ih e tint cl dav (F Blass an d A D eh ru n n cr , .4 Greek G ram m ar of the S e w Testament, trails a n d
etl bs Rotiert \V f u n k ((.I m a g o , 1961), par 129) or " H e has alica d v allo w ed th ree tlavs to pass" J a n ie s H o p e
M ou lton a n d N ig el I u rn er. .4 G ram m ar o f S e u T estam ent Greek (E d in b u rg h . 19631. 3 :2 9 1 ).
11 I h e a d d itio n "and from a h o n e u o m h " is fou nt! in later m an uscrip ts. It is d o u b tfu l that th is w as part o f the
o rigin al text M e t/g et ex p la in s this as an in ter p o la lio n : "Since in parts o l the a n cien t ch u rch h o n e s was u se d in the
eleb ration o f th e F.tuhatist a n d in th e li.iptisru.il liiu rgv. rop vists mav h ave a d d e d the r e fe r e n c e h ere in o rd er to
p ro v id e scriptu ral san ction for liturgical prat m e .'* B iu t e Sf M e t/g e t. .4 T extual Commentary (la m d o n a n d New

E Ireu aeu s A gainst HerexteI 3. I; (.le n ien t of A lexan d ria acco rd in g lu E u sebiu s Ecclesiastical History li. 14

" A r ch eo lo g ica l e v id e n c e sh ow s that a d a te in th e latler part of th e seco n d c e n tu ts , as was a d v o ca ted bv F. G.

Baur a n d oth ers, is u n te n a b le. T h e E d g e tto u Paps i u s # 2 . d ated s o . 140*160, co n ta in s G o sp el n arratives that
b orrow ed f rom all th e ( o s p e ls . in clu d in g John I hr R vlands I'apvrus 4 5 7 (p**) is a sm all fia g m e tu o f th e g o sp e l fro m
central Egvpt d ated / s.t> 125. in d icatin g th e g o sp e l was k n ow n th e r e a t that tim e. T h e discovery of a g n o stic librars
at N ag H am m ad i. a n d th e O u m ra u i si to lls h ave shed light on th e la n g u a g e and b a ck g ro u n d . A lbright a n d o th ers
have also sh ow n that th e a u tn o t o l John was w ell acq u ain ted w ith Palestinian to|M >giapnv. Jewish i u stum s, et <etera
S ee W 1 A lb righ t. R e ie n i D iscoveries in P alestin e an d the' ( o sjie lo l St |u h n .'' in The n u t kg rn u n d o f the S e u Testament
a n d lt \ E 'ih a to io \, e d bs W. I) D avies a n d D . D auh e ((C am bridge. E ng . 1956), pp. 153-171.

I2H
 SUNDAY IN T H E NEW T E S T A M E N T

A iu 1:15.
17 I*he p lu r a l su g g e sts that b o th th e o u ter gate le a d in g lo th e cou rty a rd a n d ih r in n er d o o r o p e n in g in to the
ro o m w ere Doth secu red
S e e j o s e f M aru N ieten , The Earliest Chixsttan l iturgy (St. Loui*, M o., a n d L o n d o n . 1 9 4 1 ), p. 5 4 6
w F. f . B ru ce, C tm m r n la n on the Book ol the Acts. X I C ((.rand R apids. 1936). p. 4 0 8
40 Cien 1:5. 8 ; Lev. 2 3 :3 2 ; cf. Mark 1:32
41 W | C o n s b e a r e and J S H o w aon , The L ife atu l Epistles of the Apostle P a u l (N ew Y ork. n .d ) . p. 5 2 0
47 See th e C atholic ed itio n o l th e R evised S tan d ard V ersion . The Jerusalem Bible. The .Yru E n g h d i Bible, th e Good
Xews Bthle, an d R onald Knox'. J . B Phillips', an d W illiam Barclay's translation*
i% F J. F oak es-Jack son. The Arts o f the Apostles. SI offa n X e u Testam ent Com mentary (L o n d o n . 1 9 3 1 ). p. 187
44 G. H . C. M acG regor. E x eg e sis o f " T h e A cts o f th e A p o stle s. IB . 9 :2 6 7 .
4> B ru te, /or. rii.
46 F. | h ak es )ac k son an d K irsopp L ik e , ed s.. The B eginnings o f Christianity, tiart I The Acts of the Apostles. 5 so ls
(L o n d o n . 1920*33). vol. 4: K irsopp la k e an d H en rs J C a d b u ry . E nglish T ra n u a tt on a n d C o m m u n io n , p. 2 5 5 .
47 J o h a n n es B rh m . "xMuu." r D S T , 5 72 8 . 7 2 9
4" I b i d . p 7 2 9 ; A cts 2 :4 2 , 46.
4M Matt. 14:19. 15:36; Mark 8 :6 , 19
*> I C or 11:20.
41 Matt 2 6 .2 6 .
M I C o rin th ia n s is usually d a te d r. a.D. 57.
M R om . 15:25-27; 2 C orin th ian * 8 , 9; A cts 2 4 :1 7 .
44 L eon M o r n s. The F m t Epistle of P a u l to the Corinthians (G rand R apids. 1958). p. 2 3 8 . ct. O scar C u llm a n n . E a rh
C hristian W orship (L o n d o n . 1953), p p . 10, I I
M R alph I* M artin, W orship in the E a r h ( h u rth ( U n d o n . 1964), p . 79.
S te te n B arabas. S abb ath , T he Z o n d en 'a n P u to n a l Bible U u tio ru in (G rand R a p id v 1 9 6 3 ). p. 7 36.
57 F W. G r o sh e id e . Commentary on the F ir\t E fistle to the C onnthians. X I C (G rand R a p id s. 1953). p. 3 9 8
B au er. A rn d t, a n d G in g r ich , up rif.. pp. 8 2 3 , 6 1 5 .
w G r o sh eid e . op. a t , p. 398
611 C laren ce T u ck er C ta ig . F x e g c sis o f T h e F itsi Epistle to the C orin th ian s." IB . 10:236.
61 A d olf D eissm a n n . L ig h t fr o m the A n n e n l East (N ew Y ork |I 9 2 2 |) . p . 361
68 J e a n H e r in g . T he First Epistle of S a in t P a u l to the (o n n th ia n s (L o n d o n , 1962). p. 183
63 A u g u stu s N ea tld er. G eneral H is to n o f the C hristian Religion a n d Church (B o sto n . |854-187()> . I 2 3 9
64 E xam p les in clu d e F I . A H o r t, The Apocalypse of S i J o h n b i l l (L o n d o n . 1908). p 15; J. B S m ith . A R exrlation
of Jesus C hnst. e d . by I. O tis V od er (S cottd ale. P e n n .. 1961). p p 3 1 9 -3 2 4 . J A. Seiss. The Apocalypse. 7th e d .. 3 so ls
(N ew Y ork. 19(H)). (J ia r le s W W elch . This Prophecy (B a n stea d . Eng . 19m )). p 49
** Isa 2:9; A m o s 5 :1 8 -2 7 ; Jo el 2 :1 1 , 31; S ep h 1:7. 14; 2 :2 . 3; 3:8. et cetera
** W ern er F o e rs ter, " x iu o ^ .' T D X T . 3 .1 0 9 6 . In I C o rin th ia n s 11:20 Paul speaLs nf th e L ord 's S u p p e r . u sin g th e
ad jective ku n a k o n (th e on ly o la c e o th e r tlian R evelation 1:10 w h ere th e ad jective is fo u n d m th e N ew T esta m en t),
w hile in I C o rin th ia n s 10.21 h e sp e a k s o f th e laird 's table, u sin g th e g en itiv e ton ku n o u
67 W elch , loc. a t.
w C . W D u g m o r e. Lord's D as an d Easter." X eotestam entua et patnstica, s u p p le m e n t to .Votum T estam ent um
(L eid e n . 1962). 6 :2 7 2 -2 8 1 la w r e n c e T . G e ra is. T h e Pascha and th e O rig in of S u n d a s O b servan ce," A U S S $
( l9 6 5 ):8 5 -9 6 . K en n eth A. S tran d . A n oth er Look al Lord's D as' in th e Earls C h u rch a n d in Rev. I. 10," X ew
Testam ent Studies (1 9 6 6 -1 9 6 7 ), 1 3 :74-181.
w J o h n 1:1-3; C o l. 1:15-17; H e b 1 : 1 .2 .
131
 CHAPTER 7

The Rise of Sunday Observance in

Early Christianity

Samuele Bacchiocchi

HE question o f the origin o f Sunday observance in early C hristianity has in

T recen t years aroused great interest on the p art o f scholars o f d ifferin g
religious persuasions. N um erous scientific an d scholarly studies on the subject
have a p p e are d over the past two decades and are clear evidence o f renew ed
interest in finding a m ore satisfactory answ er to the ever-intriguing question o f
th e tim e, place, a n d causes o f the origin o f C hristian Sundaykeeping.'
Jerusalem and the O rigin o f Sunday
The tendency in these recent studies has been to attrib u te to the apostles, o r
even to C hrist, th e initiative and responsibility fo r the ab a n d o n m en t o f
S abbathkeeping a n d th e institution o f S unday observance in its place. T h is thesis
that th e institution o f S unday observance goes back to the very first com m unity o f
Jeru salem rests o n several assum ptions.
It is assum ed by som e students, for instance, that since Paul could hardly have
p io n eered th e observance o f Sunday inasm uch as he is the only New T estam en t
w riter who w arns against the observance o f days (Col. 2:16; Gal. 4:10; Rom. 14:5,
6), S unday observance m ust have first begun in the prim itive com m unity o f
Jeru salem , p rio r to Pauls G entile mission. It is pointed oul that if Paul had been
the p ro m o ter o f S unday observance, he would have m et and answ ered objections
from a J u d a i/in g opposition, as was the case with reg ard to circum cision. The
absence o f any trace o f a Sabbath-Sunday controversy betw een Paul an d the
Ju d a i/in g party is, th erefo re, in terp re ted as indicating that w orship on the first
day o f th e week is an original apostolic institution that Paul found well established
and th u s accepted as a fait accompli.1
It is also p resu m ed by som e that since the events o f the R esurrection an d /o r
the ap p earan ces o f Jesus o ccu rred in Jeru salem on a Sunday, th e apostles m ust
th en have instituted S unday observance in th e city to com m em orate these very
events by a distinctive C hristian day an d with a unique C hristian liturgy. T his

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 T H E RISE O F SUNDAY OB SERVANCE IN EARLY C H R I S T I A N I T Y

action was allegedly en co u rag ed by (he im m ediate necessity felt bv the earliest
C hristians in Jeru salem to have a special tim e a n d place for th eir w orship, since
they no longer felt at hom e in Jew ish sabbath w orship." * M oreover, it is arg u ed
that only th e apostolic authority exercised in Jeru salem the m other ch u rch o f
C h risten d o m could have legitim ately changed the day o f w orship an d enforced
it on C hristians at large.
T h ese arg u m e n ts ap p e a r persuasive, but their validity m ust be tested in the
light o f th e historical inform ation provided by both the New T estam en t and the
early patristic literatu re reg ard in g the theological orientation o f the Jeru salem
church: Do th e earliest docum entary sources suggest that the first C hristians "no
longer felt at hom e in Jew ish sabbath w o rsh ip "' and consequently ab an d o n ed at
once its reg u lar w orship tim e an d places? Did the prim itive church o f Jeru salem
break im m ediately an d radically from the Jew ish religious traditions an d services?
A re th ere evidences that the resurrection o f C hrist was first com m em orated in
Jeru salem on a S unday th ro u g h the celebration o f the Lord's S upper? O w ing to
the lim ited scope o f the present ch ap ter, only b rief answ ers can be provided here,
with referen ce in the notes to my m ore extensive treatm ent.
The R esurrection.T h e widely accepted view that the event o f the
resu rrectio n has d eterm in ed the choice o f Sunday as the day o f w orship ' rests
m o re on speculation than o n facts. A re th ere any sayings in the New T estam en t
enjoining th e co m m em oration o f C hrists resurrection on the actual day o n which
it occurred? No!
Is S unday ever called in the New T estam ent th e Day o f R esurrection"? No! It
is consistently d en o m in ated "first day o f the week. * Was th e Lord's S u p p er"
celebrated exclusively on S unday to com m em orate C hrist's resurrection? No! The
New T estam e n t suggests that it was celebrated at indeterminate times a n d on
various days (cf. 1 C or. 11:18, 20,33, 34). M oreover, the rite proclaim s, prim arily,
th e Lord's death till he com es" (verse 26),* not the R esurrection.
Is C hrist's resu rrectio n presented in the earliest docum ents as the prim ary
theological m otivation fo r S unday w orship. No! Both B arnabas and Ju stin
M artyr, who provide the earliest record o f Sundaykeeping, m ention the
R esurrection as th e secondary o r additional reason for its observance, th o u g h this
is not to deny th e fact that the R esurrection later becam e the d om inant reason for
Sunday observance.*
T h e foregoing indications suffice to discredit the claim that C hrist's
resurrection d eterm in e d the origin o f C hristian S unday w orship d u rin g the
lifetim e o f th e apostles.
T he Jerusalem Church in the New Testam ent.T h e book o f Acts, which
provides the earliest historical account o f the Jerusalem ch u rch , gives no hint that
the acceptance o f th e Messiah caused converted Jew s to ab an d o n im m ediately the
re g u la r w orship tim e an d places o f th eir own people. P eter a n d J o h n , for exam ple,
after th e Pentecost experience, went u p to the T em p le at the h o u r o f p ra y e r (Acts
3:1). T h e re are am ple indications that attendance at the T em p le and synagogue
was still co n tin u ed by C hrist's followers, though com plem entary private m eetings
were co n d u cted loo. T h e synagogue is, in fact, the place o f w orship most

* I n l c i s o th e r w ise in d ica te d , all S crip tu re referen ce in thiv h apter are taken fro m th e R evised S tand ard
V ersio n .

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 T H E S AB BA T H IN S CR I PT UR E AND H IS T O R Y

frequently m en tioned as a tten d e d no t only by C hrist and His disciples b ut also by

C hristian converts. Paul, fo r exam ple, m et regularly in the synagogue on the
Sabbath with Jew s an d G reeks (Acts 18:4, 19; 13:5, 1 4 ,4 2 ,4 4 ; 14:1; 17:1, 10,
17). Apollo, likewise, w hen he arrived at E phesus, m et with th e believers in the
synagogue (chap. 18:24-26).*
Close attach m ent to Jew ish religious traditions an d services is particularly
noticeable in th e early Jeru salem church. Its m em bership was com posed mostly o f
converted Jew s (chaps. 2:41; 4:4; 5:14), characterized as " zealous for the law
(chap. 21:20). Luke rep o rts (in Acts) th at "a great m any o f th e priests w ere
obedient to th e faith (chap. 6:7). Presum ably these converted priests becam e the
eld ers who to g eth er with Jam es adm inistered th e Jerusalem c h u rch . T h e very
choice o f Jam es, the L o rd s b ro th e r (Gal. 1:19), ra th e r than an apostle as leader
o f th e chu rch , indicates how Jewishly o rien te d the new leadership and C hristian
priesthood" in Jeru salem really were by placing em phasis on blood relationship
with C hrist. Several works o f Ju d eo -C h ristian origin reveal m ore explicidy than
does th e New T estam e n t that in choosing the leaders o f the church, the m atter o f
blood relationship was re g a rd e d as m ore im p o rtan t than any o th e r kind o f
previous relationship with C h rist .10
C ertain events re p o rte d in Acts co rro b o rate this conclusion. For instance, the
Jew ish p ersecution re p o rte d in Acts 6-8 was ap p aren tly not against the whole
church b u t prim arily against the Hellenists," a nonconform ist g ro u p . A ccording
to Acts 8 :1, the ch u rch was all scattered . . . except the apostles. T h a t the apostles
were allowed to rem ain in the city suggests that they did not share the radical ideas
o f th e Hellenists, but m aintained an allegiance to basic Jew ish traditions."
Several additional m atters re p o rted in Acts fu rth e r establish this fact. First,
we may notice th at at the earliest C hristian ecum enical council, held in the city o f
Jeru salem (about a . d . 49-50), Jam es, the presiding officer, proposed th at the
Gentiles who becam e C hristians w ere to be exem pted from circum cision, but at
the sam e tim e they w ere to abstain from the pollutions o f idols an d from
unchastity an d from what is strangled a n d from blood. F or from early generations
Moses has had in every city those who preach him , for he is read every sabbath in
the synagogues (Acts 15:20, 21). T h e inclination tow ard traditional Jew ish
practices is obvious .11 Second, in the account o f Pauls last visit to Jeru salem ( a . d .
58-60), th e facts th at Paul was hastening to be at Jeru salem , if possible, on the day
o f Pentecost (chap. 20:16) an d that Paul's com pany had spent the days o f
U nleavened B read at Philippi (verse 6 ) suggest that C hristians still regulated
th eir lives by th e norm ative Jew ish liturgical calendar.
Finally, m ore enlightening still is the account o f what h a p p e n e d in Jeru salem
itself. Jam es a n d the elders not only in fo rm ed Paul that the m any thousands o f
converted Jew s w ere all zealous fo r the law' (chap. 2 1 :20) but these leaders even
co n fro n ted the apostle with the ru m o r that he dissuaded Jewish believers from
practicing ancestral custom s such as circum cision. T o discredit the malicious
accusation an d to prove that he him self live[d\ in observance of the law" (verse 24),
Paul u n d erw en t a rite o f purification in th e T em ple.
In such a clim ate o f p ro fo u n d attachm ent to Jew ish religious observances, is it
conceivable th at a longstanding and cherished custom such as S abbathkeeping

For a d u c u u io n o f th e Sabbath a n d S u n d a y in th e New T e sta m e n t. ie e th e p r ec ed in g tw o c h a p t e n .

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 T H E RISE O F SUNDAY OB SERVANCE IN EARLY C H R I S T I A N I T Y

had been abro g ated and th at a new day o f w orship had been intro d u ced in its
place? H ardly!
T he Jerusalem Church After A.D. 70. Because o f indications such as the
foregoing, som e scholars p re fe r to place the beginning o f S unday observance no
earlier th an a . d . 7 0 .m It is arg u ed that the flight o f the C hristians from Jeru salem
to Pella an d the d estruction o f the T em p le m ight have encouraged Palestinian
C hristians to b reak away from S abbathkeeping at that time.
U n doubtedly, th e exodus from an d the destruction o f Jeru salem had decisive
effects on the relationship betw een C hristianity an d Judaism . T h e re are. how ever,
significant historical indications that exclude the possibility th at the Judeo-C hris-
tians o f Palestine in tro d u ced S unday observance as early as the year a . d . 70 o r
soon th ereafter.
T h e historians Eusebius (c. a . d . 260-340) an d E piphanius (r. a . d . 315-403)
both inform us th at the c h u rch o f Jeru salem up to the siege o f H ad rian ( a . d . 135)
was com posed of, an d adm inistered by, converted Jew s .11 Eusebius describes a
g ro u p o f them , known as Ebionites, as being zealous to insist on the literal
observance of th e Law ." 10 E piphanius adds that those Jew ish C hristians who fled
from Jeru salem becam e know n as the sect o f the N azarenes, who "fulfill till now
Jew ish rites as circum cision, the Sabbath, an d o th e rs ." 1 T h e fact that the
N azarenes, who re p resen t the very direct descendants o f the prim itive
com m unity""' o f Jeru salem , retain ed S abbathkeeping as one o f th eir distin
guishing m arks fo r centuries afte r the destruction o f Jeru salem shows
persuasively th at this was the original day o f w orship o f the Jeru salem church and
that no ch an g e from Sabbath to Sunday occurred am ong Palestinian Jew ish
C hristians im m ediately a fte r the destruction o f the city in a . d . 70.
A n o th er indirect indication o f the survival o f Sabbath observance am ong
Palestinian Jew ish C hristians is provided by the curse o f the C hristians
(Birkath-ha-Minin), which the rabbinical authorities in troduced ( a . d . 80-90) in the
daily p ra y e r .19 It has been conclusively shown th at this was a test designed to bar
the C hristians from presence an d /o r participation in the synagogue service." T h e
fact th at m any Jew ish C hristians in Palestine still considered them selves essentially
as Jew s, keen to atten d the Sabbath services at the synagogue, discredits any
attem p t to m ake them responsible at this tim e fo r the introduction o f S unday
observance.'11'
It was not until the year a . d . 135 that a radical change took place in the church
o f Jeru salem . A t th at tim e E m p ero r H ad rian destroyed the city, expelled both the
Jew s a n d th e Jew ish C hristians, and prohibited categorically the practice o f the
Jew ish religion, especially S abbathkeeping and circum cision .22 In accordance with
th e e m p e ro rs edict, the city was re p o p u lated by foreigners, and only G entile
C hristians w ere allowed to enter.*' T h e latter d iffe red from Jew ish C hristians not
only racially b u t presum ably also theologically, since E piphanius suggests that
they provoked a controversy by intro d u cin g E aster S unday.M A significant
m inority o f C hristians ap p aren tly refused to accept the innovation occasioned by
the new im perial repressive m easures taken against Jew ish religious practices.
T h e fo reg o in g historical data discredits any attem p t to m ake the Jeru salem
ch u rch p rio r to a . d . 135 the cham pion o f liturgical innovations such as S unday
observance. We have found that this church was both racially and theologically the
closest and m ost loyal to Jew ish religious traditions. A fter a . d . 135, how ever,

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 T H E S A B BA T H IN S C R I P T U R E AND HI S TO R Y

radical changes took place in the Jeru salem c h u rch as a result o f H adrian's d ecree
that p rohibited the practice o f the Jewish religion and particularly the observance
o f th e Sabbath. But the new small C cntile ch u rch that becam e established in the
cit\ no lo n g er enjoyed religious prestige o r authority. In fact, for the second
century n o th in g is know n o f th e Jeru sa lem ch u rch , with th e exception o f a few
u n certain nam es o f bishops.'* It would be futile, th erefo re, to probe fu rth e r into
the origin o f S unday observance am ong the new insignificant O entile c h u rch in
Jerusalem .
Since the ad o p tio n o f new religious feast days and their en fo rcem en t on the
rest o f C h risten d o m could presum ably be accom plished only by a ch u rch that
severed h er ties from J udaisin rarly an d that enjoyed wide recognition, the church
o f the capital o f the em p ire ap p e a rs to be the m ost likely birthplace o f Sunday
observance. Several religious, social, an d political conditions that prevailed both in
th e city o f Rom e a n d in the C hristian ch u rch in that city substantiate the validity o f
this hypothesis.
Rome and the O rigin o f Sunday
T h e ancient C hristian ch u rch in Rome, contrary to most E astern churches,
was com posed prim arily o f a G entile C hristian m ajority (R om ans 11 an d 13) an d a
Judeo -C h ristian m inority (R om ans 14). Paul in his Epistle to th e R om ans explicitly
affirm s: "I am speaking to you G entiles* (chap. 11:13).77 I h e p redom inance o f
(entile m em bers an d their conflict with the Jew s, inside and outside the ch u rch ,
resulted, as staled well by L eonard G oppelt, in a chasm betw een the C h u rch and
th e Synagogue . . . unknow n in the Eastern churches. **
Early D ifferentiation. It is a recognized fact also that C hristians w ere early
distinguished from the Jew s in the capital city. T h e latter, in fact, seem ingly
influenced N ero (through the Em press P oppaea Sabina, a Jew ish proselyte) to
relieve him self o f the charge o f arson by p u ttin g the blam e on the C hristians."
A ccording to T acitus, N ero fastened the guilt [i.e., arson] an d inflicted the m ost
exquisite to rtu res on . . . C hristians. " T h e fact lhai in Rome the C hristians were
clearly d ifferen tiated from the Jew s m ore quickly than was the case in Palestine
suggests the possibility that the ab andonm ent o f the Sabbath and adoption o f
Sundav as a new day o f w orship could have occurred first in Rom e as part o f this
process o f d ifferen tiatio n from Judaism . A dditional significant factors present in
the C h u rch o f Rome enable us to verify the validity o f this hypothesis.
Anti-Judaic Feelings and Measures. Following the d eath o f N ero, the Jew s
experienced a setback. Military , political, fiscal, an d literary repressive m easures
were taken against them on account o f th eir resurgent nationalism , which
ex ploded in violent uprisings in m any places. Militarily, th e statistics o f bloodshed
provided by co n tem p o rary historians, even allowing fo r possible exaggerations,
are most im pressive. T acitus (c. a . d . 33-120), for instance, re p o rts having heard
th at 600.000 Jew s w ere besieged in the a . d . 70 w ar. Dio Cassius (c. a . d . 150-235),
slates th at in th e B arkokeba w ar o f a . d . 132-135, som e 580.000 Jew s w ere killed in
action, besides the num berless who died o f h u n g er and disease.
Politically, u n d e r Vespasian ( a . d . 69-79) both the S an h ed rin and the high
priesthood w ere abolished: an d u n d e r H ad rian , as we noted earlier, the practice
o f th e Jew ish religion an d particularly S abbaihkeeping were outlaw ed.

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 T H E RISE O F SUNDAY OB SE RV A NC E IN EARLY C H R I S T I A N I T Y

Also, fiscally, th e Jew s w ere subjected to a discrim inatory tax, the Jiscus
judaicus, which was in tro d u ced by Vespasian and intensified first by D om itian ( a . d .
81-96) a n d later by H a d rian .M
Literarily, a new wave o f anti-Sem itic literatu re surged at that time,
u n d oubtedly reHecting the R om an m ood against the Jews. W riters such as Seneca
(died a . d . 65), Persius ( a . d . 34-62), P etronius (died c. a . d . 66), Q uintilian (c. a . d .
35-100), M artial (c. a . d . 40-104), Plutarch (c. a . d . 46-after 119), Ju v en al (died c.
a . d . 125), a n d T acitus (c. a . d . 55-120), who lived in Rome for most o f th eir

professional lives, reviled the Jew s racially an d culturally. Particularly w ere the
Jew ish custom s o f S abbathkeeping a n d circum cision contem ptuously d erid e d as
exam ples o f d e g rad in g superstition.
T h ese repressive m easures a n d hostile attitudes prevailing tow ard th e Jew s
w ere particularly felt in the capital city. T itus, for exam ple, because o f the
m o u n tin g hostility o f th e populace against the Jews, was forced, though
"unwillingly (invitus), to ask B erenice, H erod the Y oungers sister (whom he
w anted to m arry), to leave R om e. T h e Jew ish problem becam e particularly acute
by H a d rian s tim e as a result o f that e m p e ro rs policy o f radical suppression o f the
Jew ish religion.
Such circum stances ap p aren tly en co u rag ed C hristians, too, to pro d u ce a
whole body o f anti-Jew ish literature, which began ap p earin g at that tim e. A
C hristian theology" o f separation from , an d contem pt for, the Jew s was
developed. C haracteristic Jew ish custom s, such as circum cision a n d S abbath
keeping, w ere particularly condem ned.
T he Church o f Rome and the Sabbath.T h o u g h denunciations o f Sabbath
observance can be found in the writings o f C hurch Fathers from m any
geographical areas, it is in th e C h u rch o f Rome that we find evidence o f the earliest
concrete m easures to wean C hristians away from veneration o f the Sabbath an d to
urg e S unday observance exclusively. Ju stin M artyr, for instance, w riting from
Rome ab out the m iddle o f the second century, presents a m ost devastating and
systematic co n d em n ation o f the Sabbath, as well as giving the earliest explicit
account o f C hristian S unday w orship services. H e em pties the Sabbath o f all its
theological significance, reducing it to a tem porary o rdinance derived from
Moses, which G od im posed solely on the Jew s as a m ark to single them o u t for
p u n ish m en t they so well deserve for th eir infidelities. w H e refers, on the o th er
h an d , to Sunday as "the day on which we all hold o u r com m on assembly, because it
is th e first day on which G od, having w rought a change in the darkness a n d m atter,
m ade th e w orld; an d Jesus C hrist o u r Saviour on the sam e day rose from the
d e a d ."59
Ju stin 's negative view o f the Sabbath is reflected also in the early introduction
o f the Sabbath fast by the C hurch o f Rom e, in spite o f the opposition o f Eastern
C hristianity a n d o f several W estern churches. T h a t the C hurch o f Rome was the
cham pion o f th e Sabbath fast a n d anxious to im pose it on o th e r C hristian
com m unities is well attested by the historical references from Bishop Callistus
( a . d . 217-222), H ippolytus (c. a . d . 170-236). Pope Sylvester ( a . d . 314-335), Pope
Inn o cen t I ( a . d . 401-417), A ugustine ( a . d . 354-430). and Jo h n Cassian (c. a . d .
360-435)/ T h e fast was designed no t only to express sorrow for C hrist's d ea th but
also, as Pope Sylvester em phatically states, to show contem pt fo r the Jew s"
(execratione Judaeorum) and for th eir Sabbath feasting" (destrucliones ciborum)."

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 T H E S AB BA T H IN S CR IP T UR E AND HISTORY

How would fasting on the Sabbath serve to avoid a p p e arin g to observe the
Sabbath with the Jew s," to use the w ords o f V ictorinus o f Pettau (died c . a . d . 304) ?42
T h e answ er is to be found in the fact that for the Jew s the Sabbath was definitely
not a day o f fasting o r o f m ourning. Even the strictest Jew ish sects objected to
fasting on th e Sabbath. T h e rabbis, th o u g h they d iffered in th eir views re g ard in g
th e tim e and n u m b er o f the Sabbath meals, agreed that food on the Sabbath ought

T h a t the early C hristians ad o p ted this Jew ish custom is im plied, for instance,
in A ugustines rhetorical re m ark in which, w hen re fe rrin g to the Sabbath, he says:
Did not th e trad itio n o f th e elders prohibit fasting on the one han d , a n d enjoin
rest on th e o th er? 44 F u rth e r su p p o rt can be seen in the opposition to the Sabbath
fast by C hristians in the East an d in som e im p o rtan t W estern areas, such as in
Milan at the tim e o f A m brose (died a . d . 397), and in certain churches an d regions

A strict Sabbath fast w ould naturally preclude also the celebration o f the
L o rd s S u p p er, since p artak in g o f its elem ents w ould be re g ard ed as breaking the
fast. C onsequently, as re p o rte d by several Fathers, th e Sabbath was m ade in Rome
not only a day o f fasting b u t also a day in which no Eucharistic celebration an d no
religious assemblies w ere allowed."T h e transform ation o f the Sabbath from a day
o f feasting, joy, an d religious celebrations to a day o f fasting, m ou rn in g , an d no
religious assembly rep resen ts concrete m easures taken by the C h u rch o f Rom e to
force C hristians away from the veneration o f the Sabbath. O n th e o th e r h an d , this
practice en h an ced S unday, a day o f rejoicing and feasting w hen the Sabbath fast

W hen did the C h u rch o f Rome in troduce the weekly Sabbath fast? T h e
historical genesis o f religious custom s cannot always be established w ith certainty,
an d this is tru e re g ard in g Sabbath fasting. T h a t it was in troduced early in Rome,
how ever, is clearly im plied by the following statem ent o f H ippolytus (w ritten in
Rom e betw een a . d . 202 a n d 234): Even today (K at yap vuv) some . . . o rd e r
fasting on the Sabbath, (a practice] o f which C hrist has not spoken, d ishonoring
th e Gospel o f C h rist ." 47 T hough it is difficult to establish w hether H ippolytus was
re fe rrin g to B ishop C allistus decretal enjoining a seasonal Sabbath fast o r to som e
M arcionites against whom he w rote a treatise (possibly to both?), the expression
even today" clearly presupposes that the custom h ad been know n for som e time.
It has been suggested that the weekly Sabbath fast o riginated as an extension
o f th e an n u al Holy S aturday o f the Easter season, w hen all C hristians fasted .48
T h is view ap p ears alto g eth er plausible, since, fo r instance, T ertu llian an d
A ugustine associated the two. T ertu llian specifically ap p ro v ed the annual paschal
Sabbath fast an d co n d em n ed the weekly Sabbath fast that Rom e and a few
W estern ch u rches practiced. You som etim es continue y o u r Station [i.e., fast]
even ov er the Sabbath,a day never to be kept as a fast except at the passover
seaso n ."4 An additional indication o f a connection betw een the two custom s is
pro v id ed by the fact that th e annual paschal S aturday fast, like the weekly one, was
designed to express not only sorrow for C hrist's d eath but also contem pt for the
p e rp e tra to rs o f His d eath , nam ely the Jews. T h e Didascalia Apostolorum (c. a . d .
250), for instance, enjoins C hristians to fast on Easter Friday an d S aturday "on
account o f th e disobedience o f o u r b re th ren [i.e., the J e w s]. . . because th ere o n th e
People killed them selves in crucifying o u r Saviour." w
 T H E RISE O F SUNDAY OB SERVANCE IN EARLY C H R I S T I A N I T Y

O u r investigation so far has established that the change in the day o f w orship
seems to have been encouraged, on the o n e hand, by the social, political, m ilitary,
and literary anti-Judaic im perial policies th at m ade it necessary for C hristians to
sever th eir ties with the Jews, an d , on the o th e r hand, by the very conflict existing
betw een Jew s an d C hristians. T h e C hurch o f Rom e, whose m em bers, mostly o f
pagan extraction, exp erienced a break from the Jew s earlier than in the East, and
w here th e u n p o p u larity o f the Jew s was particularly felt, ap p ears to have played a
leading role in inducing the ado p tio n o f S unday observance, as well as in
d ow n g rad in g th e S abbath by th e weekly Sabbath fast.
Sun W orship and the O rigin o f Sunday
W hy, it may now be asked, was S unday ra th e r than a n o th er day o f the week
(such as Friday, th e day o f C hrist's passion) chosen to evidence the C hristian
separation from Ju daism ? A nti-Judaism explains the necessity that arose to
substitute a new day o f w orship for the Sabbath, but the reasons for the specific
choice o f S unday m ust be fo u n d elsew here. Significant indications suggest that
Sun w orship with its S un-day was influential in d eterm in in g the choice o f
Sunday.
Sun W orship and the Planetary Week Prior to A.D. 150.T o establish a
possible causal relationship betw een Sun w orship and the C hristian adoption o f
S unday observance, it is crucial to verify th e contem poraneous existence by the
end o f th e first century o f both a w idespread Sun w orship an d a com m on use o f
the planetary week with its sun-day dies solis. * Only if the planetary' week was
in use in th e G reco-R om an w orld already in the first century o f o u r era an d the
Sun was being v enerated on S unday does the possibility exist that C hristian
converts from paganism , facing the necessity to w orship on a day th at would be
d iffe ren t from th e Jew ish Sabbath, w ere oriented tow ard th e day o f the S un.sl
G aston H. H alsberghe has persuasively dem o n strated in his recent
m o n o g rap h , The Cult of Sol Invictus, that Sun w orship was o n e o f the oldest
co m ponents o f th e R om an religion. As a result o f the pen etratio n o f E astern Sun
cults, H alsberghe concludes that from the early p art o f the second century a . d . ,
the cult o f Sol Invictus was d o m in an t in Rom e an d in o th er parts o f the E m pire." **
T h e identification an d w orship o f the em p ero r as Sun-god, en co u rag ed by the
Eastern theology o f th e "K ing-Sun," an d by political considerations, undoubtedly
co n trib u ted to th e diffusion o f a public Sun cult.
Did the p lan etary week also w ith its "dies solis day o f S un already exist in the
first cen tu ry a . d . in the G reco-R om an world? Only in such a case could the
pred o m in an t Sun cults have en h anced th e day o f the sun an d consequently
influenced C hristians to adopt this day fo r th eir weekly w orship after
re in te rp retin g its symbolism in the light o f the C hristian m essage .54
Several testim onies from such ancient w riters as H orace (c. 35 B . C . ) , T ibullus
(c. 29 B . C . ) , P etronius (died c. a . d . 66), F rontinus (c. a . d . 35-103), P lutarch (c. a . d .
46-after 119), Philostratus (c. a . d . 170-245), a n d Dio Cassius (c. a . d . 130-220)
clearly attest the existence an d com m on use o f the planetary week already in the
first cen tu ry a . d .55 M ural pictures an d inscriptions o f the planetary gods an d days
u ncovered in Pom peii and H erculaneum , as well as the so-called "indices

S ee th e a cco u n t o f th e p lan etary w eek g iv e n by S. D ou glas W a terh o u se in a p p e n d ix A , p p. 3 0 8 -3 2 2 .

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 THF. S AB BA T H IN S C RI P TU R E AND HISTORY

nundinarii" a n d th ree stone calendars (presenting in the right colum n th e eight

letters from A to H o f the Rom an nundinum m arket week and in the left colum n
the seven letters from A to G o f the planetary week, a n d to be d ated no later th an
the tim e o f T ib eriu s, a . d . 14-37), erase all do u b t o f the com m on use o f the
planetary week in ancient Rom e from at least the beginning o f the C hristian E ra.
T h e prevailing Sun w orship an d the contem poraneous existence o f the
planetary week caused a significant developm ent. T h e day o f S aturn, which
originally was th e first day o f the planetary week (as clearly evidenced by the indices
nundinarii and by the m ural inscriptions found in Pompeii and H erculaneum ,
w here th e days o f the week a re given horizontally startin g with the day o f S aturn),
was in tim e su p p lan ted by th e day o f the S un, which m oved from second place to

It is difficult to d eterm in e the exact tim e when the prim acy an d the prestige o f
the day o f S atu rn was tra n sfe rre d to that o f the Sun. T h at this h ad occurred
already by th e m iddle o f the second century is clearly indicated by the fam ous
astrologer Vettius Valens. In his Anthology, com posed betw een a . d . 154 and 174,
he explicitly states: And this is the sequence o f the planetary stars in relation to
the days o f the week: Sun, M oon, Mars, M ercury, J u p ite r, V enus, S a tu rn ."
Statem ents from Ju stin M artyr an d T ertu llian , as well as several M ithraea an d two
constitutions o f C onstantine (M arch 7 an d Ju ly 3, a . d . 321), confirm that th e day o f
the Sun occupied the dom inant place in the sequence o f th e days o f th e week.5*
Since th e em ergence o f th e day o f the Sun over that o f S aturn occurred
ap p aren tly in the early part o f the second century in concom itance with the
C hristian adoption o f Sunday observance in place o f the Sabbath, one may ask. Is
the latter related to the form er? Did the advancem ent o f the day o f the S un to the
position o f first day o f the week possibly influence C hristians, who desired to
d ifferen tiate them selves from th e Sabbath o f th e Jews, to ad o p t and ad ap t such a

Several kinds o f evidence su p p o rt this hypothesis. It is a fact, first o f all, that

C hristian converts from paganism w ere constantly attracted tow ard the
veneration o f th e Sun. T h is is indicated not only by the freq u en t condem nation o f
this practice by the F athers but also by significant reflexes o f Sun w orship in the
C hristian liturgy.5* In early C hristian art an d literatu re, fo r instance, the im age o f
the Sun was o ften used to re p resen t C hrist, the tru e Sun o f righteousness. In
the earliest know n C hristian mosaic (dated c. a . d . 240), found below the altar o f St.
Peter in Rome, C hrist is portrayed as the Sun (helios) ascending on the q u ad rig a
chariot with a nim bus behind His head from which irradiates seven rays in the
form o f a T (allusion to the cross ?).61 T h o u san d s o f hours have been devoted to
draw ing the sun disk with an equal-arm ed cross beh in d the head o f Christ a n d o f

A n o th er significant indication o f the influence o f the Sun culls on early

C hristian w orship is provided by the change in orientation fo r pray er from
Jeru salem to th e East.MSom e o f the reasons advanced by the Fathers to justify the
ado p tio n o f th e eastw ard position for p rav er are that the O rient rep resen ts the
birth o f light, the orien tatio n o f the ancient tem ples," G ods paradise an d /o r
C h rists co m in g." A pparently, C hristians who previously, as pagans, had
venerated the Sun, when faced with the necessity o f dissociating them selves from
the Jew s, not only ab an d o n ed the orientatio n tow ard Jeru salem for p ra y e r but
 H I E RISE O F SUNDAY OB SERVANCE IN EARLY C H R I S T I A N I T Y

also rev erted to th e direction o f sunrise, re in te rp retin g its m eaning in the light o f
the C hristian m essage. W ould not the daily praying tow ard the Sun encourage
C hristians to w orship also weekly on the day o f the Sun?
P erhaps th e most explicit exam ple o f Sun w orships influence on the
C hristian liturgical calendar is the adoption o f the pagan feast o f the dies natalis
Solis Invicti th e birthday o f the Invincible Sun which was celebrated on
D ecem ber 25. T h a t the C hurch o f Rome introduced an d cham pioned this date (as
in th e case o f Easter Sunday) is accepted by most scholars/* M ario Righetti, for
instance, a renow ned Catholic liturgist, writes: "A fter the peace the C hurch o f
Rom e, to facilitate the acceptance o f the faith by the pagan masses, fo u n d it
convenient to institute the 25th o f D ecem ber as the least o f the tem poral birth o f
C hrist, to divert them from the pagan feast, celebrated on the sam e day in h o n o r
o f th e Invincible Sun' M ithras, the co n q u e ro r o f d a rk n e ss."
T h ese few exam ples evidence sufficiently the influence o f Sun cults on
C hristian th o u g h t an d liturgy. A m ore direct indication o f the influence o f the
pagan v eneration o f the day o f the Sun on the C hristian adoption o f the very sam e
day is provided by the freq u en t use o f the symbology o f the day o f the Sun to
justify S unday observance.
Ju stin M artyr (c. a . d . 100-165) em phasizes th at C hristians assem ble on the
day called S unday . . . because it is the first day on which God, having w rought a
change in the dark n ess an d m atter, m ade the w orld ."66 Is the nexus betw een the
day o f th e Sun and the creation o f light on the first day a p u re coincidence? It
hardly seem s so, not only because Ju stin him self in his Dialogue with Trypho
explicitly com pares the devotion that pagans re n d e r to the Sun with that which
C hristians o ffe r to C hrist, who is "m ore blazing an d bright than the rays o f the
su n ,*7 b u t also because the coincidence between the creation o f light on the first
day an d th e veneration o f the Sun on the selfsam e day is clearly established by
several Fathers. Eusebius (c. a . d . 260-340), for instance, refers explicitly to the
m otifs o f the light a n d o f the day o f the Sun to justify Sunday w orship: "In this day
o f light, first day a n d true day o f the sun, w hen we g ath er afte r the interval o f six days,
we celebrate th e holy an d spiritual Sabbaths. . . . In fact, it is on this day o f the
creation o f th e w orld that God said: 'Let there be light"; and th ere was light.' It is
also on this day th at the Sun o f Justice has risen for o u r souls."6
Such testim onies an d o th ers that could be cited clearly reveal that the choice
o f th e day o f th e Sun was not m otivated by the desire to venerate the Sun-god on
his day, but ra th e r by the fact that such a day provided a fitting symbology that
could efficaciously com m em orate an d explain to the pagan world two fu n d a
m ental events o f th e history o f salvationcreation and resurrection.69Je ro m e well
expresses this point: If it is called day o f the Sun by the pagans, wre m ost willingly
acknow ledge it as such, since it is on this day that the light o f the world has appeared
and o n this day the Sun of Justice has risen." 70
U ndoubtedly, th e existence o f a rich Judeo-C h ristian tradition that associated
the Deity with th e sun and light facilitated an d encouraged such an am algam ation
o f ideas .71 It ap p ears, th erefo re, that the ingredients necessary to influence the
C hristian choice o f th e pagan day o f the Sun were already present w hen the latter
m ade its ap p earan ce in Rome. V arious Sun cults were d om inant in ancient Rome
by th e early p art o f the second century, and their symbology soon found
co u n terp arts in C hristian literature, art, an d liturgy. F u rth erm o re, the valoriza-

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lion o f the day o f the Sun over that o f S atu rn (which we found to be concom itant
with th e C hristian ad option o f Sunday observance in place o f the Sabbath)
seem ingly influenced th e C hristian choice o f th e sam e day, since its rich
symbology was conducive to w orship o f the tru e Sun o f Righteousness, who on the
day "divided light from darkness an d on the day o f the resurrection separated
faith from infidelity."7*
T he Early T heology o f Sunday
A b rief survey o f th e basic theological m otivations advanced by th e early
Fathers to justify both the choice and the observance o f Sunday will enable us to
test the validity o f the conclusions em erging from o u r study.
R esu rrectio n . We noticed earlier thal the New T estam ent gives no hint that
th e apostles instituted a weekly o r yearly com m em oration o f the R esurrection on
Sunday. It is notew orthy, in fact, that both B arnabas and Ju stin , who lived at the
very tim e w hen Sunday w orship was rising, present the R esurrection as the second
o f two reasons, im portant but not p re d o m in a n t. N evertheless, the resurrection
o f C hrist eventually em erged as the prim ary reason fo r the observance o f Sunday.
A ugustine p erh ap s provides the most explicit enunciation o f this when he writes:
T h e L o rd s day was not declared to the Jew s but to the C hristians by the
resu rrectio n o f the L ord a n d from that event its festivity had its o rig in . 74Several
liturgical practices such as th e prohibition to fast an d to kneel on Sunday, as well as
th e celebration o f a S unday-m orning Lord's S u p p er, were in troduced to h o n o r
specifically th e m em ory o f the R esurrection .75 Since, however, C hrists re su rre c
tion initially was not the exclusive o r p re p o n d e ra n t justification fo r Sunday
w orship, we need to recognize an d evaluate the role played by o th e r theological
m otives as well.
Creation.T h e com m em oration o f the anniversary o f the creation o f the
w orld is a justification frequently adduced by the Fathers for observing S u n d ay .76
W e cited earlier Ju stin , Eusebius, an d Jero m e , who m ention the creation o f light
on th e first day as a reason for S undavkeeping .77 A pp aren d y this justification was
in ten d ed prim arily for pagans to w hom C hristians wished to explain that o n the
day o f th e Sun they did not venerate the S un-god but ra th e r celebrated the
creation o f light a n d the rise o f the Sun o f R ighteousness, events o ccurring on the
first day.
In th e polem ic with S abbathkeeping C hristians, how ever, the C reation
arg u m e n t was used in a m odified form to show th e superiority o f Sunday over the
Sabbath. In th e Synac Didascalia (r. a . d . 250) the term s o f the dispute are most
explicit: Cease th ere fo re , beloved b re th ren , you who from am ong the People
have believed, yet desire (still) to be tied with the bonds, and say that the Sabbath is
p rio r to the first day o f th e week because that the S cripture has said: In six days did
God make all things; and on the seventh day he finished all his works, and he sanctified it.
We ask you now, which is first, A laf o r T au ? For th al (day) which is the
g re ater is th at which is th e beginning o f the world, even as the Lord o u r Saviour
said to Moses: In the beginning God created the heaven and Ihe earth. 7
A sim ilar reasoning ap p ears, th o u g h in a m ore refined form , in the treatise On
the Sabbath and Circumcision, found am ong the works o f A thanasius (c. a . d .
296-373), but probably spurious: T h e Sabbath was the en d o f the first creation,
th e Lord's day was the b eginning o f the second in which He renew ed an d restored

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the old. In th e sam e way as H e prescribed that they should form erly observe the
Sabbath as a m em orial o f the en d o f the first things, so we h o n o r the L o rd s day as
being th e m em orial o f the new creation. Indeed. H e did not create a n o th e r one,
but H e renew ed th e old one an d com pleted what H e had begun to d o ."9
T h is notion o f the Sabbath as herald o f the end o f the first and o f the
beginning o f th e second creation is totally foreign to the S criptures and
ap p aren tly was devised to refu te the S abbathkeepers claim o f the superiority o f
the Sabbath as th e m em orial o f C reation.
The Eighth Day, A n o th er valuable arsenal o f apologetic techniques to
d efen d th e superiority o f S unday over the Sabbath was provided by the symbology
o f th e eighth day. As a designation fo r Sunday, this term first ap p ears in
anti-Judaic polem ical writings, such as the Epistle of Barnabas an d the Dialogue with
Trypho. It was widely em ployed in C hristian literatu re o f the first five ce n tu ries."
Such a designation ap p aren tly derives from chiliastic-eschatological specula
tions on the seven-day C reation week (som etim es called "cosmic week") prevailing
in Jew ish and Jew ish C hristian circles."' T h e d u ratio n o f the w orld was subdivided
into seven p eriods (or m illennia), o f which the seventh (identified with the
Sabbath) generally re p resen ted paradise restored. At the e n d o f the seventh
period th e etern al new eon would daw n, which eon cam e to be known as the
eighth day" since it was the successor to the seventh.
In th e polem ic with S abbathkeepers, the symbology o f the eighth day was
applied to S unday to prove the superiority o f the latter over the Sabbath. A wide
range o f arg u m en ts were draw n not only from apocalyptic literature but also from
the S criptures, philosophy, an d the natural world. As the eighth eschatological
day, S unday was d efen d ed as the symbol o f the new world, su p erio r to the
Sabbath, which rep resen ted only the seventh terrestrial m illennium .1 Also, as the
Gnostic o g d oad, S unday was p resen ted as a symbol o f the rest o f spiritual beings in
the supercelestial etern al world, found above the sevenness o f this transitory
w orld. M oreover, S unday could be prestigiously traced back to th e prophecies
o f the O ld T estam en t, by m eans o f the Biblical n u m b er eight, which the Fathers
found in several references from the O ld T estam ent, such as the eighth day for
circum cision; th e eight souls saved from the Flood; the fifteen cubits (seven plus
eight) o f the Flood w aters above the m ountains; the superscription o f Psalms 6
and 11 (for th e eig h th day); the fifteen (seven plus eight) gradual psalm s; the
saying give a p o rtio n to seven, o r even to eight," o f Ecclesiastes 11:2 ;'7 the eighth
day w hen J o b o ffered sacrifices; an d o th ers. Invested with such p rophetic"
authority, th e eighth day could legitim ately" re p resen t the fulfillm ent o f the
reign o f the law, allegedly typified by the Sabbath, and the in au g u ratio n o f the
kingdom o f grace supposedly exem plified by Sunday. Jero m e expressed this view
by saying th at th e n u m b er seven having been fulfilled, we now rise to the Gospel
th ro u g h th e eig h th .
T h e polem ic use o f the symbolism o f the eighth day that developed out o f
apocalyptic, Gnostic, an d Biblical sources to prove the superiority o f Sunday over
the Sabbath co rro b orates again that S unday w orship arose as a controversial
innovation a n d not as an u n d isp u ted apostolic institution. In d eed , when the
Sabbath-Sunday controversy subsided, the very nam e eighth day an d its
in h ere n t eschatological m eaning (used first by B arnabas an d afterw ard by
n u m ero u s Fathers) w ere form ally and explicitly re p u d iated as a designation and

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m otivation for Sundaykeeping! J o h n C hrysostom (c. A.t>. 347-407), B ishop o f

C onstantinople, provides a most explicit confirm ation o f this developm ent. A fter
explaining th at the eighth day rep resen ts exclusively th e fu tu re life, he affirm s
categorically: "It is for this reason that no o n e calls the L ords day the eighth day

T h is b rie f survey o f the various early C hristians' m otivations for Sunday

observance suggests that th e new day o f w orship was introduced in a clim ate o f
controversy an d uncertainty. It ap p ears thal because o f ihe exigency that arose to
sep arate C hristians from the Jew s a n d th eir Sabbath, G entile C hristians ad o p ted
the venerable day o f the Sun, since it provided an adequate tim e an d symbolism to
com m em orate significant divine events thal occurred on that day, such as the
creation o f light a n d th e resu rrectio n o f the Sun o f Justice. T h is innovation
provoked a controversy with those who m aintained the inviolability and
superiority o f th e Sabbath. T o silence such opposition, we found that the
symbolism o f th e first day an d of the eighth day was introduced and widely used,
since they p ro vided valuable apologetic arg u m en ts to d efen d the validity and
superiority o f S unday. As the first day, Sunday could allegedly claim superiority
over the Sabbath, since it celebrated th e anniversary o f both the first an d the
second creation, the latter in au g u rated by C h rists resurrection. T h e seventh day,
on th e o th e r h an d , could claim only to com m em orate the com pletion o f C reation.
As th e eighth day. S unday could claim to be the alleged continuation, fulfillm ent,
an d rep lacem ent o f the Sabbath, both tem porally an d eschatologicallv.

T h e picture that has em erg ed in this c h a p te r is that the o rigin o f S unday was
th e result o f an interplay o f Jew ish, pagan, a n d C hristian factors. Ju d aism , we
fo u n d , co n trib u ted negatively to the rise o f S unday by creating the C hristian
desire for a radical separation from Jew ish observances such as the Sabbath. It also
co n trib u ted positively by providing the cosmic m illenarian week an d the
consequent possibility o f d efen d in g S undav as the eighth day rep resen tin g the

Paganism suggested to those C hristians who had previously known th e day

an d the cull o f th e Sun the possibility o f ad o p tin g the venerable clay o f the Sun" as
th eir new day o f w orship. s' nce ',s r 'c^ symbology was conducive to ihe w orship o f

C hristianity, lastly, gave theological justification to S unday observance by

leaching thal th e day com m em orated im p o rtan t events such as th e inauguration
o f C reation, th e resu rrectio n o f C hrist, an d ihe eschatological hope o f the new
w orld to com e. It ap p ears, th erefo re, that Jew ish, pagan, an d C hristian factors,
tho u g h o f d iffe rin g derivation, m erged to give rise to an institution capable o f
satisfying the exigencies o f m any Jew ish and pagan converts.
O u r study has also show n (we hope persuasively) thal the adoption o f Sunday
observance in place o f th e Sabbath did not occur in the Jeru salem church by virtue
o f th e au th o rity o f C hrist o r o f the apostles, bu t ra th e r took place several decades
later, evidently in th e C h u rch o f Rom e d u rin g the second century. Ii was solicited

We fo u n d , too, that the earliest theological justifications d o not reflect an

organic Biblical-apostolic teaching, but ra th e r d ifferin g polem ic argum entations.
 I HE RISE O F SUNDAY OBSERV ANCE IN EARLY C H R I S T I A N I T Y

T h o se Biblical testimonia th at w ere draw n from the O ld T estam en t (references to

the n u m b ers eight an d one) to prove the legitimacy an d superiority o f Sunday
were eventually ab an d o n ed , since they were based on faulty, questionable, and
questioned. Biblical herm eneutics.
T h is m eans, to state the m atter frankly, that S unday observance does not rest
on a fo u n d atio n o f Biblical theology an d /o r o f apostolic authority, but ra th e r on
later co n trib u to ry factors to which we have briefly alluded above. Any attem pt,
th erefo re, to fo rm u late a Biblical theology o f S unday to help solve the pressing
problem o f its w idespread pro fan atio n is doom ed to fail. M ore hopeful results
could be ex p ected from edu catin g o u r C hristian com m unities to rediscover an d
accept those p e rm a n e n t values a n d obligations o f the Sabbath co m m an d m en t th at
are still relevant to C hristians today.

Ed. N ote: Although various items of importance regarding the Sabbath and Sunday
from the second through fifth centuries A .D . are noted at random within the broader contexts
of chapters 8-10, a more systematic and comprehensive treatment of the subject is provided i n
appendix B at the end o f this volume. It may also be noted here that the topic o f The 'Lord's
Day' in the Second Century" is treated in appendix F.

NOTES
1 A m o n g (h e m o re recen t an d sign ificant stu d ies a rc W illy R ord orf. S u n d a y (P h ila d elp h ia . 1968); C. S. M osn a,
Storia della dom enica dalle o n jp m fin o agii tm u del V secolo, A n alecta G rego ria n a 17 0 (R o m e. 1969); Franc is A. R egan .
D ies D o m in ica a n d D ies Solis: T h e B e g in n in g s o f th e L ord's Day in C h ristia n A ntiqu ity" (S .T .D . d isse rta tio n .
C atholic U n iversity o f A m erica, 1961); a n d Paul K. Jew ett, The L ords Day (G rand R apids. 1971). S ee S a m u e le
B a cch io cch i. From Sabbath to Sun d a y (R om e. 1977). for ad d itio n a l b ib liograph y.
2 T h e s e a ssu m p tio n s an d co n clu sio n s a rc exp licitly p resen ted bv J ew ett, op. cit.. p p. 5 6 , 5 7 . R o rd o ri also
ex c lu d e s th e possib ility that th e o b se rv a n ce o f S u n d ay is a I'aulm e in v en tio n , first b eca u se Paul had b een so stro n g in
his p o lem ic again st an y k in d o f d e v o tio n to p articu lar days,** an d s eco n d b eca u se "he w ou ld h ave a n sw ered th e
o b jectio n s o f a (u d a izin g o p p o s itio n . H e in ter p r ets th e sile n c e o v er th e Sabb ath -S un d av issu e as "the m ost e lo q u e n t
p r o o f that th e o b se rv a n ce o f S u n d ay had b een r e co g n ized by th e en tir e a p o sto lic C h u rch a n d h ad b een a d o p te d by
th e P a u lin e ch u rch es." O p. a t., pp. 2 1 8 .2 1 9 . J. A . J u n g m a n n . T he M ass o fth e R om an R ite (N e w Y ork, 1 950). 1 : 2 0 ,2 1 ,
a rg u es that th e re p la cem en t o f th e S abbath w ith S u n d ay o ccu rred b etw een th e m a rty rd o m o f S tep h e n a n d the
p ersecu tio n o f th e year a . d . 44 as a result o f th e Jew ish p ersecu tio n . M osna a lso re a so n s that th e C h ristia n s in
J eru sa lem d e ta c h e a th em selv es very early fro m th e T e m p le an d sy n a g o g u e b eca u se o f th e p ersecu tio n fro m th e
relig io u s le a d e rs (op. a t., p p. 179, 180). 't'his view is d iscre d ited bv th e fact that th e First J ew ish p ersecu tio n was
a p p a r en d y d ire cted , not again st th e w h o le c h u rch , but p rim arily again st a n o n c o n io r m ist g r o u p k n ow n as
H ellenists." T h is is s u g g e ste d by A cts 8 : 1, w h e re it is re p o r te d that w h ile tn e H ellen ists w ere sca ttered ,' th e a p o stles
w ere a llo w ed to rem ain in th e c ity ,u n d o u b te d ly b eca u se th ey d id n ot sh are th eir bold view s (see p . 134). M o reo v er, as
w e shall n o te , th e J e r u sa le m ch u rch was d e e p ly attach ed to Jew ish o b se rv a n ces u ntil a . d . 13a.
s R o rd o rf. op. a t., p. 2 1 8 ; cf. M osn a. op. a t., p. 53.
* R o rd o rf. op. a t., p. 2 1 8 .
5 M osn a. (yp. a t., p. 4 4 . For o th e r ad v o ca tes o f th is view , see n o te 2.
6 S. V. M cC aslan a c o g e n tly states that to say that S u n d a y is o b se rv ed b eca u se J e s u s ro se o n that day is really a
petitw p n n a p u , for such a celeb ration m igh t just as w ell be m on th ly o r a n n u a lly a n d still be an o b se rv a n ce o f that
p articular oav* T h e O r ig in o f th e L ord's D a y J B L 4 9 (1 9 3 0 ):6 9 .
7 In 1 C o rin th ia n s 1 1 Paul takes p a in s to in stru ct th e C o rin th ia n s co n ce rn in g th e m anner o f c e leb ra tin g th e
L ord's S u p p e r , but o n th e q u e stio n o f th e time o f th e assem bly h e rep eats n o few er than fo u r lim es, "w hen you co m e
t o g e th e r . o v v ep x 01^ (verses 18. 2 0 , 3 3 . 3 4 ), im p ly in g indeterm inate d ays. M o reo v er, th e fact that Paul e m p lo y s
th e ad jective "L ord's. x v o ia x o c . to d escrib e o n ly th e n atu re o l th e S u p p e r a n d not S u n d a y (th e latter h e calls by the
Jew ish d esig n a tio n "first d ay o f th e w eek" [ch ap . 16:2]), esp ecially w h e n m en tio n o f th e sa cred n ess o f th e tim e co u ld
n a v e s tr e n g th e n e d th e ap ostle's p lea for a m ore w o rsh ip fu l attitu d e d u r in g th e p artak in g o f th e L o rd s S u p p er,
h ard ly su g g e sts that S u n d a y was alread y k n ow n as th e "Lord's day" o r that th e L ord's S u p p er was celeb ra ted
e x clu siv ely o n S u n d a y . T h e latter view is d e fe n d e d stren u o u sly bv R o rd o rf (op. a t., p p. 2 2 1 -2 2 8 ). H is a rg u m en ts,
h o w ev er, are righ tly rejected by M osn a. op. a t., p. 5 2 . an d by O . B etz in his re v iew o f R o r d o r fs b o o k (JB L 83
(I 9 6 4 ]:8 I* 8 3 ). C o n c e r n in g th e m ea n in g o f th e L ord 's S u p p e r , th e allu sio n to C h rists sacrifice is clear a lso in the
S ynoptic a cco u n t o f th e Last S u p p e r (M att. 2 6 :2 8 ; Mark 14:22-25; L uke 2 2 :1 7 -2 0 ). T h e D idache (d a ted b etw een a . d .
7t) a n d 150). th o u g h it d e v o te s th ree ch a p ters (9, 10. 14) to th e L ord s S u p p e r a n d lists m any rea so n s for e x p r e ss in g
th ank s o v er th e c u p an d b read , m ak es n o a llu sio n to C h rists resu rrection . T h e sa m e is tru e o f C lem en t's Epistle to the
C orinthians (d ated ab ou t a . d . 9 5 ). T h e R om an b ish o p em p lo y s severa l sym bols (ch ap s. 2 4 -2 7 ) to rea ssu re the
C hristians o f C o rin th that th ere shall b e a fu tu r e resu rrection , o f w hich H e has re n d er ed th e L ord J e su s C hrist th e
first-fruits" ( A S F 2 4 : 1 ). b u t o m its th e m en tio n o l th e L ord s S u p p er a n d S u n d a y w orsh ip . T h is o m issio n is certain ly
su rp risin g i f th e F.ucharist was alread y ce leb ra ted o n S u n d ay and had acq u ired th e c o m m em o r a tiv e v a lu e o f th e
R esu rrecu on .

TS1SAH-I0 14 c
 T H E S AB BA TH IN' S CR I P T U R E AND HI S TO R Y

B I h e crucial passage* o f B arnabas a n d |u s tin a re ex a m in e d al le n g th in S a m u ele B a cch io cch i. A nti-Judaism and

the O n g m o f Sunday (R o m e. 1975), p p . 94*1 If, and in idrm, From Sabbath to Sunday, pp. 2 1 8 -2 3 3 .
9 B. Bagat t i su g g e sts that the c o n v e r te d priests naturally c o n tin u e d to ex e rcise tn eir m in istry ( The Church From
the Circumcision (Jeru salem . 1 9 7 1). p. 6 7 ). T h e ir m inistry m ay w ell h a v e b een n e e d e d , sin ce, a cc o rd in g to L u k e, th ere
w ere m a n y th o u sa n d s . . a m o n g th e Jew o f th o se w h o h ave b elieved " (A cts 2 1 .2 0 ). F. F. B ru ce a d v a n ces th e
h y p o th esis that " there m ay w ell h ave b een seven ty o f th em (i.e .. e ld e r s l, co n stitu tin g a s o n o f N a za ren e S a n h d rin ,
w ith J a m es as th eir president.** Commentary on the Book of the Acts (G rand R apids. 1954). p. 4 2 9 . T h e sa m e view is h eld
by C narles W. C arter a n d R alph Far le. The Acl% of the Abostles (G rand R apids, 1959). p. 322.
10 For a co n cise su rv ey o f the ex a lta tio n o f la m e s in in e J u d e o -C h r is tia n literatu re, see B agatti. op. a t., pp. 7 0 -7 8 ;
c f. B acch iocch i. From Sabbath to Sunday, p p. 142*145.
11 T h is view is p ersu a siv ely d e fe n d e d t>y O . C u llm a n n , C o u ra n ts m u ltip le s d a n s la c o m m u n a u t p rim itive." in
Jud/o-chnstianism e (P a n s, 1972). p. 58; idem, D issen sio n s W ith in th e Early C h u r c h ,'* V mon Seminary Quarterly R eview
2 2 ( 19 6 7 ):8 3 -8 7 . In th e ch a r g e m ad e again st S te p h e n , th e r e is a g en eric r e fe r e n c e to th e T e m p le , la w . a n d cu sto m s;
but th e r e is n o specific a llu sio n to th e S abbath If, as s o m e sp e cu la te (cf. R o rd o rf, tip. cit.. p p. 1 2 7 ,2 1 7 ), th e H ellen ists
p ro m o ted S u n aay o b se rv a n ce, th ev w ou ld h ave stirred u p a sh arp c o n tro v er sy , esp ecially in view o f th eir vocal*
m issionary activity" a n d o f th e loyal a d h e r e n c e to Jew ish cu sto m s o f th e J er u sa le m ch u rch . T h e fact that n o e c h o o f
such a p olem ic can b e d e te c te d in A cts su g g e sts tnat n o ch a n g e in th e d av o f w o rsh ip h ad yet o cc u r red .
** S everal p o in ts a re n otew orth y in th e p rop osal o f J a m es, a p ro p o sa l a p p r o v ed by th e a p o stles a n d th e c id e r s
(v erse 22). I T n e e x e m p tio n from circu m cision was g ra n ted only *to th e b reth ren w h o are o f th e G en tiles' " (verse
2 3 ). th ere b ein g n o co n ce ssio n in th is regard for th e J ew ish C h ristia n s, w h o c o n tin u e d to circu m cise th eir ch ild ren .
TTiisis in d icated b o th by th e ex iste n c e a fter th e C o u n cil o f a circu m cisio n p a rts, a p p aren tly su p p o r te d by J a m es (Gal.
2 :1 2 ). an d by th e co n c e r n o f th e le a d e rs o f th e Jer u sa le m ch u rch to s ile n c e th e ru m o r that Paul w as teac h in g le w s
not to circu m cise th eir ch ild r en or o b se rv e th e custom s*" (A cts 2 1 :2 1 ). 2. M o reo v er, o f th e fo u r p ro v isio n s o f th e
d e c r e e n o ted in A cts 15 :2 0 . o n e is m oral (ab sten tion 'from th e p o llu tio n o f id o ls . . an d fro m w hat is stra n g led an d
fro m blood* **). I his u n d u e co n ce rn fo r ritual d efilem en t an d fo o d law s is reflective of th e great resp ect p rev a ilin g for
th e ce rem o n ia l law. 3. Finally, th e statem en t that J a m es m a d e to su p p o rt his p ro p o sa l is also sign ificant: For n o m
early g en er a tio n s M oses h as h ad in ev e ry city th o se w h o p reach h im . for h e is react every sabbath in th e sy n a g o g u es' '*
(v erse 21). T h o u g h J a m e s s rem ark h as b e e n variously u n d er sto o d , in ter p r eters gen erally r e co g n ize that b o th in his
p ro p osal an d in its ju stification J a m e s reaffirm s th e b in d in g n atu re o f th e M osaic law. w hich w as cu sto m a rily ta u g h t
every S abbath in th e sy n a g o g u es. T h e m a n ifesta tio n o f su ch an ex c essiv e resp ect b> th is J er u sa le m C o u n t il lo r tn e
M osaic ce rem o n ia l law e x c lu d e s categorically th e h y p o th esis that th e J er u sa le m ch u rch h ad alreadv b ro k en away
fro m S ab b a th k eep in g a n d p io n e e r e d th e a d o p tio n o f S u n d ay w orship.
15 It is p ossib le, as s u g g e ste d by R. C. H . L en ski. that th e se Jew ish b eliev ers in Palestine s u ffe r e d b c ta u se o f false
ru m ors reg a rd in g Paul." The Interpretation o f the A d s o f the Apostles (C o lu m b u s. O h io . 1 944). p. 8 7 8 . T h e co n c e r n o f
th e le a d e rs of th e ch u rch to se e Paul d em o n str a te p u b licly nis resp ect for an cestral cu sto m s rev ea ls, as sta ted by
L en ski. that "they retain ed th eir J ew ish w ay o f livin g, circu m cised their ch ild r en , ate k o sh er, kept th e Sabbath,
etc." Ibul
14 T h is h y p o th esis is ad v a n c ed by R egan , w h en h e w n tes: C an o n e point to anv o n e ev en t m partit ular in w hich
th e d ecisiv e break o c c u r rcd b etw een th e Sabbath and that dav w e now call S unday? A m ost likely d a te w o u ld p robably
be th e year a .d . 70 w ith th e d estru ctio n o f th e T e m p le o f Jeru sa lem ." -Op. a t., p 18.
,s E u seb iu s Ecclesiastical History 4. 5. 2-11 ( N r N F f t 1 :1 7 6 . 177); E p ip h a m u s Adx>enus haereses 7 0 . 10 (P C
4 2 :355*358).
16 Eccl. H ist 3 .2 7 . 3 (L C L ). O n th e q u e stio n o f th e liberal w in g o f th e E b iom tes w h o o b se rv ed S u n d a y in a d d itio n
to th e Sabb ath , see th e d iscu ssio n in B acch iocch i, From Sabbath to Sunday, pp. 153-156.
17 A d ve n u s haereses 2 9 . 7 (P C 4 1 :4 0 1 ).
M. S im o n . La m ig ra tio n Pella: L g e n d e o u ralit," in Judo-chnstianism e, p. 48. J . D a m lo u a lso view s th e
N a /a r e n e s as th e d e s c e n d a n ts o f th e A ram aic -sp ea k in g C h ristian s w h o fled to T ra n sjo rd a n and w h o sep a ra ted fro m
th e rest o f th e C h u rc h b ecau se th ey re g a rd ed th e Jew ish o b se rv a n ces o f Sabbath an d circu m cisio n as still o f
o b ligation" (The Theology o f Jeursh Christianity [L o n d o n . I 9 6 4 |. p. 56). A sim ilar assessm en t is g iv en by B agatti. op. a t.,
p p. 3 1 -35.
19 T h e d a te a . d . 8 0 -9 0 for th e in tro d u ctio n o f th e m aled ictio n is a ccep ted by p ractically all sch olars. For an
e x te n siv e b ib liograp h y, se e W. S ch ra g e. UTOcjvvtYcirfO." T D N T . 7 :8 4 8 .
S e e esp ecially th e stu d y o f M .S im o n , V ents Israel (P a n s, 1964; reprin t o f 1948 e d .) p. 2 35.
21 J a m e s Parkes rem arks, T h e fact that th e test was a sta tem en t m a d e in th e sy n a g o g u e serv ice show s th a l a l the
u m e o f m a k in g it th e J u d e o -C h n s tia n s still fr eq u en ted th e sy n a g o g u e . The Conflict / the Church arul the Synagogue
(L o n d o n . 1934). p . 78.
22 T h e fo llo w in g is a sa m p le o f sta tem en ts o fte n o c c u r n n g in th e T a lm u d r e g a rd in g H ad rian's an ti-Jew ish
p olicies: T h e G o v e rn m en t o f R om e h ad issu ed a d e c r e e that th e) sh o u ld not study tn e T o ra h a n d that th ey sh o u ld
not circu m cise th eir so n s a n d that they sh o u ld p r o fa n e th e Sabbath** (B T a lm u d . R osh h a -S h a n a h 19a (S o n c in o ]). J.
D eren b o u rg . w h o p ro v id es a w e ll-d o c u m e n ted treatm en t o f H ad rian's war a n d p o lities, writes: T h e g o v e r n m e n t o f
R om e p ro h ib ited , u n d e r p en alty of d e a th , circu m cision , th e o b serv a n ce o f the Sabbath a n d th e stu d y o f th e
law."E ssai sur l'histoire et ta gographie de la Palestine (P a n s. 1867), p 4 3 0 .
n E u seb iu s r p o n s : W n c n th e city had b een e m p tie d o f tn e Jew ish n a tio n a n d h ad s u ffe r e d th e total
d estru ctio n o f its a n cie n t in h ab itan ts, it w as c o lo n iz e d by a d iffe r e n t race A n d as th e C h u rch th e r e was now
c o m p o se d o f G e n tiles, th e first o n e to a ssu m e th e g o v e r n m e n t o f it after th e b ish o p s o f th e circu m cisio n was
M arcus." Eccl. H ist -I 6 . 4 ( S P S F V 1 :1 7 7 ,1 7 8 ).
24 A d iten u s haereses 70. 10 (PC 4 2 :3 5 5 .3 5 6 ) " T h e c o n tr o v e r sy a t o w ( H t i ^ x ^ litera lly . w as stirred u p ] after
th e e x o d u s o f th e b ish o p s o f th e circu m cisio n ( a . d . 135) a n d it has c o n tin u e d u ntil o u r u m e . T h e b ish o p m ak es
specific r e fe r e n c e to th e fiftee n J u d e o -C h n stia n b ish o p s w h o u ntil a . d 135 o b serv ed th e Q u a rto d ec u n a n Passover
For a d iscu ssio n o f Epipham us* text, see Bat t h u m hi. From Sabbath to Sunday, p p. 161. 162. a n d idem, Anti-Judaism and
the O ngiri o f Sunday, p p. 4 5 -5 2
25 B agatti (op. a t., p. 10) is o f th e o p in io n that th e Passover co n tro v er sy in J eru sa lem w as p ro v o k ed by th e retu rn
o f J u d c o -C h ristia n s to th e city, sin ce a o o u t sixty years later N arcissu s. B ish o p o f J er u sa le m , fa cin g o p p o s itio n from
Q iia rto d ec im a n s. a p p e a le d for h e lp to his teach er C lem en t o f A lex a n d ria (P C 9 :1 4 8 0 ) T h is h y p o th esis d o e s not
e x c lu d e th e p ossib ility th al e v e n a m o n g ih e new ( entile m em b e r sh ip so m e re fu sed to accep t th e new E aster S u n d ay
d a te, sin ce tn e latter w as by n o m ean s u n iversally a cc ep te d by all. O n th e ex te n t o f th e o b se rv a n ce o f E aster S u n d a y ,

146
 T H E RISE O F SUNDAY OB SERVANCE IN EARLY C H R I S T I A N I T Y

see th e le n g th y treatm en t in B acch iocch i. From Sabbath to Sunday, p p 1 9 8 -2 0 4 . especially n n . 9 7 , 101, 102.
O n th e G en tile b ish o p s o f J er u sa le m , net E u sebiu s Eccl t i n t 5. 12 ( S P S F f 2 1:226).
27 T h a t ih e m ajority o f tn e m em b ers in R om e w ere p agan co n v erts itc lea rly in d ica ted a lio by Pauls sta tem en t in
R om ans 1: M1 am e a g e r to p r e a c h th e g o s p e llo >ou also w h o a re in R om e" (v erse 15). "I h a v e o fte n in te n d e d to co m e
to you m o r d e r that I m ay reap som e.h a rv est a m o n g you ft* u e ll a am ong the m t of the Gentile** (v erse 13).
** L eon ard G o p p e lt, Les O ngtnes de TEglise (Paris, 1961), p. 80S.
29 Several authors suggest this possibility See. for instance, A. von Harnack. The M u tto n a n d E xpansion o f
Christianity in the First Three Centuries (New York, 1908), 1:51. 40(); J. Lehreton andII. Zeiller, The History o f the Prtwuttve
Church (New York. 1944), 1:372; Ernest Renan. A n tic h n s U Boston. 1897), p 109; rierre Banffol. P n m itn * Catholicism.
(London. 1911). p. 19.
w Annales 15. 44.
51 H istonae 5. 13; J o se p h u s W ar o f the Jeu>s 6 . 9 . 3 sp ecifies that 9 7 ,0 0 0 Jew s w ere tak en ca p tiv e a n d 1.1 m illion
e ith e r w ere killed or p erish ed d u r in g th e siege.
12 H istonae 6 9 . 13.
S ee n o te 2 2 ab ove. S o m e sch olars m ain tain that sacrifices still co n tin u e d at th e T e m p le after a . d . 7 0 . th o u g h in
a red u ce d form ; cf. K W . ( lark. W o rsh ip in th e Jerusalem T e m p le a fter a . d . 7 0 . S e w Testam ent Studies 6
( 1 9 5 9 - 19 6 0 ):2 6 9 -2 8 0 .
u A cco rd in g to S u e to n iu s fc. a . d . 7 0 -1 2 2 ), thcfiscu sju d a icu s was ex c ised fo r th e tem p le o f l a p i tn CapUoltnus e v e n
fro m th<sc w h o w ith o u t publicly a ck n o w led g in g that faith yet lived as Jews" (D om itian 12 |L C L )). L'nder H ad rian
(D .D . 1 17-138), a cc o rd in g to A p p ia n , a c o n tem p o ra ry h istorian , th e Jew s w ere su b jected at that tim e to a p oll-tax
h eavier th an that im p o sed u p o n th e s u r r o u n d in g peop les" (H om an History, The Syrian W a n 5 0 [L C L ])
M Q u o ta tio n s f rom tn ese an d o th er R om an a u th ors are cited in B acch io cch i, From Sabbath to S u nday, p p 17 3 -1 7 7 .
36 S u eton iu s' e x p r e ssiv e ini-i/ui m n ta m (T itu s 7) in d icates that th e sep a ra tio n was d ifficu lt for b o th o f th em
37 The following list of significant authors and/or writings, which defamed thelew s to a lesser or greater degree,
may serve to make the reader aware of the existence and intensity of the problem: The Preaching o f Peter, T he Epistle of
H am abas, Quadratus' lost Apology. Aristides Apology. The D isinflation betueen Jason a n d Papiscus concerning C hnst.
Justin's D ialogue uith T n p h o , Mmiades' A gainst the Jews (unfortunately lost). Apollinarius' A g a in st the Jew s (also
perished), Melito's O n the Pas%o\<er. The Epistle to D iognetus. The Gospel o f Peter, Tertullians A g a in st the leu's, Ongen's
Against Celsus. For a brief analysis of these works, see Bacchiocchi. From Sabbath to Sunday, pp 178-185 An excellent
survey of the Christian anti-Jewish literature of the second century is provided by F Blanc hetierc. Aux sources de
I'anti-judaismc chretien. R e n te d 'H istone ei de Philosophic R eltpeuses d3 ( 1973):353-398.
** D ialogue u ith T n p h o 2 1 . 1. S e e also 2 3 . 3; 2 9 . 3; 16. I T h e s e a n d o th e r tex ts o f J u stin M artyr a re q u o te d and
d iscu ssed ill B acch iocch i, From Sabbath to Sunday, p p. 2 2 3 -2 3 3 , a n d in idem. Antt-Judaism a n d the O rigin o f juruAn. p p
I0 I1 I4
* Apology I 6 7 (A N F I 186).
40 H ie Liber P o n tifica ls u n d er th e n am e o f B ish o p C alh stu s record s as th e on ly act o f his p o n tifica te th e in stitu tio n
of a sea son al Sabbath la s t: H e estab lish ed a Sabbath fast to b e ob se rv ed th ree tim es a year [at th e tim e o f th e h arvest],
o f th e w heat, o f th e g ra p es an d o f th e oil** (L e Liber Pontificalis. text, introduction et com m entane, e d . by L. D u c h e sn e
(Paris. 1955). s o l I . d 141). For fu rth er in fo rm a tio n o n tn e rela tio n sh ip o f th e R om an c h u rch to th e S abbath feast,
see B a cch iocch i. Sabbath to Sunday, pp. 185*198, w h e re a n o e n t so u r ces are cited .
41 S. R. E. H u m b ert A d i'e n u s G raecom m calum nias 6 (P L 14 3 :9 3 7 ). T h e tex t is q u o te d an d d iscu ssed in
B a cch io cch i, From S abbath to Sunday, p p . 194, 195.
42 Vic to t in u s D e fa b n c a m udm 5 (C S E L 4 9 :5 ) T h e fu ll p assage reads: O n th e sev en th d a y , H e rested fro m all H is
w orks. O n th is d a y w e a re a cc u sto m ed to fast n g o r o u slv so that o n th e L o rd s das w e m av g o fo rth to o u r b read w ith
g iv in g th ank s. W e m ust fast e v e n o n F n d a s in ord er that w e m igh t not a p p ea r to o b serv e th e Sabbath w ith th e J ew s, of
w h itn th e la ird o f th e S abbath H im se lf, th e C h n s t. says by H is p ro p h e ts that H is so u l h a teth .**
44 For a g o o d treatm en t o f th e S abbath m eals, see N a th a n A. B arack. A H isto n o f the Sabbath (N ew Y ork . 1965),
p p 100, 101, 182, n. 70; cf. J. T a lm u d . Shabbat 15:3; J u d ith 8 :6 ; J u b ilee s 5 0 :1 0 , 13; C D 1 1:4, 5; H e rm a n n L. Strack
a n d Paul B illerlieck . K om mentor zum S'euen Testam ent (M u n ich . 1922), 1 :6 1 1, 6 1 2 .
44 Fjnstle to C asulanus 3 6 6 ( S P S F t I I 2 6 7 ).
45 I h e fact that in M ilan C hristian s d id n ot fast on th e Sabbath is attested bv th e ad v ice A m b ro se ga v e t o M onica.
A u g u stin e's m oth er " W hen I am h ere [i.e .. in M ilan] I d o not fast o n Saturday; but w h en I am at R o m e I
d o A u g u stin e Efnstle to C asulanus 36. 3 2 [ S P S F f I I 270]; cf. idem. Epistle to J a n u a n u s 54. 3; P a u lin u s Vita Ambrosn
18 K rim flar d ic h o to m y e x i l e d to N o r th t f r i a i in th e tim e o i A u gu stin e I n fact t h e b fch o p w rk cs ii h a p p en s,
esp ecia lly in A frica, that o n e ch u rch , o r th e ch u rch es w ith in th e sam e d istrict, m av h a v e s o m e m em b ers w h o fast an d
o th ers w h o d o n ot fast o n th e sev en th d a y ." Epistle to C asulanus 36. 3 2 [ S P S F H . 1:270]; fo r an an alysis o f the
Sabbath fast in earls C h r istia n a s, see K en n eth A. S tran d . T he Early C hristian Sabbath (A n n A rb or, M ich., 197 9 ), p p.
9 -1 5 . 2 5 -4 2
46 P op e In n o ce n t I ( a . d . 4 0 1 -4 1 7 ) esta b h sh ed that as th e trad ition o f th e C h u rch m ain tain s, in th e se tw o days
[i.e . F n d as a n d S aturday] o n e s h o u ld not ab solu tely (pem tus) ce leb ra te th e sacram ents" (A d D ecentium 2 5 . 4 . 7 [PL
2 0:5551); S ocrates (c. a . d 4 3 9 ) co n fir m s th e situ ation in R om e w h en h e rep o rts that " alth ou gh alm ost all ch u rch es
th ro u g h o u t th e w orld ce leb ra te th e sacred m ysteries o n th e sabbath o f ev ery w eek , yet th e C hristian s o f A lex a n d ria
a n d at R o m e, o n accou n t of so m e an cien t trad ition , h ave ce a sed to d o this" (Eccl H ist 5. 2 2 [ N P N F I2 2 :1 3 2 ); S o zo m en
(c a . d 4 4 0 ) re fe rs exclu sively to relig io u s assem b lies, sayin g that w h ile "the p e o p le o f C o n sta n tin o p le, a n d alm ost
ev ery w h er e, a ssem b le to g e th e r o n th e Sabbath, as w ell as o n th e first dav o f the week." su c h a cu sto m is n ever
o b serv ed at R om e o r at A lex a n d ria Eccl H ist 7 19 ( S P S F I 2 2 :39 0 ).
47 I n D anulem eommenlartu< 4. 2 0 3 (G C S 1:234).
** R o rd o rf o b se rv es that sin ce th e w h o le of w estern C h r isten d o m by this tim e (i.e ., T e r tu llia n s tim e] fasted on
H o ls S atu rd ay. . . it w o u ld h ave b e e n easy to have hit u p o n th e id ea o f fastin g o n ev ery Saturday (just as e v e n Sunday
w as a little E aster). O t. a t., p 143.
49 O n F astine 14 ( A S F 4 :1 1 2 ); A u g u s tin e sim ilarly associates th e w eekly Sabbath fast w ith th e a n n u a l paschal
Sabbath fast, ex p la in in g that w hile th e fo r m e r w as kept only by "the C h u rch o l R om e, a n d s o m e c h u r ch es in th e W est.
. o n c e in th e sea r, nam ely at Easter, all C hristian s ob serv e th e sev en th clay o f th e w eek by fa stin g . Epistle to
C asulanus 36. 31 ( S P S F t 1 1:270). T h e sam e p roh ib ition to fast o n th e Sabbath w ith th e ex c e p tio n o f th e a n n u a l
paschal Sabbath fast is fo u n d in th e Apostolic Constitutions 5 15, 18. a n d in th e Apostolic Canons 64
50 Dida.scaha Apostolorum 5. 14. 19 (llo n n o llv . p p. 184. 190). In th e Aposhdtc Constitutions, a related d o c u m e n t, in a

147
 I H E S A B B A T H IN S C R I P T U R E AND HI STORY

sim ilar vein C h ristian s are e n jo in e d to last o n E aster Friday an d Saturday b eca u se in th e se d ays H e w as taken
fro m u s by th e J ew s, falsely so n a m e d , a n d fa sten ed to th e cross." 5. IH ( A S F 7 :4 4 7 ); c f 5. / 5 ( A S F 7 :4 4 5 ).
E p ip h a n iu s also re fe rs to an a lleg ed ap o sto lic o rd in a n ce, w hich esta b lish ed : "W hen th ey [i.e .. th e Jew s] fea st, w e
sh o u ld m o u rn for th em w ith fastin g, b eca u se in that feast th ev fa sten ed C hrist o n th e C ro ss. A d v e n u s harre \es 70. 1 1
(P C 4 2 :3 5 9 . 3 6 0).
41 T h e c h ie f ob jection again*! th e p o ssib le in flu e n c e o f S u n w orsh ip w ith its "Sun-day" o n th e C h ristia n ch o ic e o f
S u n d ay is o f ch ro n o lo g ica l n atu re. It is g en erally a rg u ed that C hristian S u n d a y w o rsh ip o rig in a ted b e fo r e th e
ex iste n c e o f th e p la n e ta r y w eek. T h u s , fo r in stan ce, M osna reasons: T o b e able to speak o f in flu e n c e [ o f S u n
w o rsh ip ] o n S u n a a y . o n e s h o u ld d e m o n str a te that th e d a y d ed ica te d to th e S u n already ex iste d in th e earliest tim es o f
th e C hristian com m u n ity as a fix ed day that recu rred regularly every w eek , a n d that it c o r r e sp o n d e d ex a ctly t o th e
d a y a fter th e Sabbath. For this, o n e sh o u ld d em o n str a te th e ex iste n c e o f th e p lan etars w eek b e fo r e Sun d ay." O p . a t .,
p. $ 3 . R o r d o r f ex p r e ss e s th e sam e view ev e n m ore em p h atically. H e m a in ta in s that sin ce th e earliest e v id e n c e for th e
ex iste n c e o f th e p lan etary w eek is to b e d a te d tow ard* th e e n d of th e first centu ry a d .." at a tim e w h en h e claim s "the
C h ristian o b se rv a n ce o f S u n d a y w as . . a p ractice o f lo n g stand in g" (op. a t.. p. 3 7 . cf. p. 1 8 1 ). any in flu e n c e o f S u n
w o rsh ip o n th e o rig in o f S u n d a t is to b e categorically ex c lu d e d . R ordorf'* a rg u m en t falls short o n tw o co u n ts. N ot
o n ly d o e s h e fail to d em o n str a te that th e o rig in o f C hristian S u n d ay o b se rv a n ce is p rio r to th e in tro d u ctio n o f th e
p lan etary w eek , but h e also attrib u tes to th e latter (p erh a p s in ten tion a lly ? ) an o b v io u s late d a te in o rd er to d e fe n d th e
ea r lier e x iste n c e o f C h ristian S u n d ay o b se rv a n ce
** G aston H. H a lsb er g h e . The C i t o f S o l Invictus (L eid e n . 1972). p p. 2 6 ,4 4 . H a lsb er g h e cites A . v o n D o m a szew sk i
(A b h andlungen zur Rm ischen Religion [1 9 0 9 ]. p 173) as an earlier a d v o ca tc o f th e view that th e S u n w as an
a u to c h th o n o u s g o d in a n cie n t R om e.
M T h is p oin t i* e x p r e ss e d by Franz C u m o n t, T he M y s te n n o f M ithra (N ew Y ork, 195 6 ), p. 101.
M B efo r e th e ex iste n c e o f a w eek ly "Sun-day," th e S u n w as ven er a te d every m o rn in g . R eg a rd in g S u n w o rsh ip in
In d ia, Persia, S yria, an d in th e G r eco -R o m a n w orld , see F. J. D lg er. S ol S a lu tu (M u n ster, 1925); fo r P alestin e, see
Rralencyklopdie f r protestantische Theologie u n d Kirche (1 8 6 3 e d .). s.v. " Son n e bei d e n H ebrern ." by W. B a u d issin ;
Lexikon f r Theologie u n d Kirche ( 1964 e d .). s.v. "Sonne," by H . B a u m a n n , that th e sun cult w as w id esp r ea d e v e n a m o n g
th e H ebrew * b e fo r e a n d lo s ia h 's r e fo r m is w ell estab lish ed by p assa g es su ch as 2 K ings 2 3 : 11 ; E zekiel 8 :1 6 ;
W isd om 16:28; P h ilo (D r Vito contem plative 3. 2 7 ) rep o rts that th e T h e r a p eu la c p ra y ed at su n rise, seek in g fo r h ea v en ly
light.
54 H o ra ce a llu d es to th e day o f J u p ite r (T h u r sd a y ) w h en d escrib in g th e vow o f a su p er stitio u s m o th er (Satirae 2.
3. 2 8 8 -2 9 0 ). T ib u llu s in o n e o f his p o e m s e x p la in s that he c o u ld h a v e e x c u s e d h im self for stavin g in R o m e w ith his
b elo v e d D elia by c la im in g that "the sa cred d a y o f S aturn h eld h im bac k" (C arm ina I 3. 15-18). T h e day o f S a tu rn w as
re g a rd ed as an u n lu ck y d a y (die\ nefastus). S ex tu s P rop ertiu s sp eak s, for in sta n ce, o f th e sign o f Saturn that b rin g s
w o e to o n e a n d all" (Elegies 4. 1. 84 [L C L ]. P etrom u s in h is n o v el The B a nquet of Tnm alchto d escrib es a stick ca len d a r
a ffix e d o n th e d o o rp o st w ith th e n u m b e r o f th e d ays o n th e o n e sid e a n d t h e lik en esses of th e sev en stars o n th e
oth er. A k n o b was in serte d in th e re sp ectiv e h o le s to in d icate th e d a te a n d th e day (S atyncon 3 0 ). F r o n u n u s rep o rts
that V esp asian attack ed th e le w s [ a . D . 70] o n th e d ay o f S atu rn , o n w hich it is fo rb id d en for th em to d o a n y th in g
serio u s, a n d d e fe a te d th e m "(Strategem ata 2. 1. 17). Plutarch raises th e o u e s tio n , "W hy are not th e da y s w hich h a v e th e
n a m es o f th e p lan ets a rr a n g e d a cc o rd in g to th e o rd er o f th e p lan ets ou t th e co n tra ry ?" Symposiacs 4. 7 ., P lutarch's
Complete Works (N ew Y ork . 1909). 3 :2 3 0 . U n fo r tu n a tely only th e tid e o f th is d ia lo g u e has c o m e d o w n to u s. D io
C assiu s m en tio n s that as early as 3 7 a.c:.. w h e n J er u sa le m was ca p tu red b y S o siu s ancl H e ro d th e G reat, th e S abb ath
w as e v e n th en called th e d a \ o f Saturn" ( History 4 9 . 2 2 ). For an ex te n s iv e survey o f d o c u m e n ts related to th e
p lan etary w eek , se e R obert L eo O d o m . Sunday in R om an Paganism (W a sh in g to n . D .C .. 194 4 ). p p . 5 4 -1 2 4 ; c f.
B a cch iocch i, From Sabbath to Sunday, p p . 2 4 1 - 2 4 /.
M In th e light o f th e s e an d o th er in d ication s, th e a rc h e o lo g ist A ttilio D egrassi at th e T h ird In tern a tio n a l
C o n g r ess o f G reek a n d R om an E p igrap h y (1 9 5 7 ) stated : 1 w ish to insist o n my co n v ictio n that th is p lan etary w eek
. d id not b eco m e k n ow n an d co m m o n ly u se d , as gen erally b eliev ed , only in th e first h a lf o f th e first centu ry a.D ., but
already in the first years o f the A ugustan era (27 b .c .-a .d . 14]. . . T h is is a co n clu sio n that a p p e a rs in evitab le a fter th e
d isco v er y o f th e ca len d a r o f N ola." *'Un n u o v o fra m m en to d i ca len d a r io R o m a n o e la settim a n a p lan etaria d e l sette
g iorni," A m del Terzo Congresso In te m a zio n a le dt Epigrafia Greca e L a tin a (R o m e, 1957). p. 103. (Italics su p p lie d .) T h e
sa m e article is in clu d ed by th e au th or in h is S c n tti i o n ai antichita (R o m e. 196 2 ). p p . 6 8 1 -6 9 1 . For a so u rce co llectio n o f
th e various sto n e p lan ctarian ca len d a r s, p ain tin gs, a n d in scrip tio n s o f th e planetary g o d s a n d d a y s se e Corpus
In s m b tu m u m Latirw rum . ed . A . R eim er (B er lin , a p u d G. R eiin e ru m , 1 8 6 3 -1 8 9 $ ). 1:218, 2 2 0 , 3 4 2 ; 4 : 5 i 5. N o . 4 1 8 2 ;
5 8 2 , N o . 5 2 0 2 ; 7 1 2 , N o . 6 7 7 9 ; 7 1 7 , N o . 6 3 3 8 . S everal s to n e p la n e ta u a n c a le n d a r s a r e re p r o d u ce d a lso by A. D eg ra ssi
in his recen t e d itio n o f Inscnfrtiones Italuie (R o m e. 1963). 3 :4 9 . 5 2 . 5 3 . 5 5 . 56.
57 Anthologiarum 5. 10 (h r o ll). Ehe d ate is estab lish ed by O tto N e u g e b a u e r and H en ry B V an H o e se n . Greek
Horoscopes (P h ila d elp h ia . 1949), p. 177. R obert L. O d o in , "V ettiu s V a len s a n d th e Planetary W eek," A U S S 3 (1 9 6 5 ).
1 1 0 -1 3 7 , p ro v id es a p e n etra tin g an alysis o f th e ca len d a tio n s u sed by V ettiu s V alcn s a n d sh o w s c o n v in cin g ly that
"V ettiu s V alcn s, w h o u n d o u b ted ly w as a p a g a n , u sed th e w eek o f sev en d a y s, [a n d ] re ck o n e d th e sev en -d a y w eek as
b e g in n in g w ith th e day o f th e S u n (S u n d a v ) an d e n d in g w ith th e sabbatical d a y (Sabbath day)" (p. 134): H . ftu m a in c,
"D im ancnc," D A C L 4 :9 1 2 d e fe n d s th e sa m e view o n tn c basis o f d iffe r e n t ev id e n c e s , cf. W. H R oscher. "Planeten,"
Allgem eines Lexikon der gnech u n d rm M ythologie ( 1909), col. 2 5 3 8
w Ju stin M artyr im p lies th e p r e e m in e n c e o f S u n d ay by h is th r e e fo ld r e fe r e n c e to it in h is I Apology 6 7 ; T cr tu llia n
re p lies to th e tau nt that C hristian s w ere S u n w orsh ip ers b ecau se th ev m a d e "Sunday a day o f festivity," sa v in g . "It is
y o u , at all ev e n ts, w h o h ave e v e n a d m itte d th e sun in to th e calen d a r o f th e w eek; an d you h a v e selected its d ay
[S u n d a y ], in p r e fe r e n c e to th e p r e c e d in g d ay [Saturday], as th e m ost suitable in th e w eek fo r eith e r an e n tir e
a b stin e n c e from th e b ath, o r for its p o stp o n e m e n t u ntil th e e v e n in g , o r for tak in g rest a n d fo r b a n q u e tin g ." A d
ruitiones 1 .1 3 ( A S F 3 :1 2 3 ). O n th e d o m in a n t p osition o f th e su n in tn c M ithraea o f th e S ev en Portals, o f th e S ev en
S p h er es a n d o n th e B o n o n ia relief , se e L eroy A. C am p b ell. M ithraic Iconography a n d Ideology (L e id e n , 1968), p p.
3 0 0 -3 0 7 . figs. 19. 20; cf. C u m o n t. op. a t., p. 167; th e text o f (C onstantine's S u n d a y law o f M arch 7. 3 2 1 . is fa u n a in
C odfxJ u stim a n u s 3. 12. 3 an d that o f Ju ly 3 , 3 2 1 , in Codex Theodosianus 2. 8 I.
v For a co n cise survey o f the in flu e n c e o f astrological b eliefs o n early C h n stia n itv . see J a ck L in d say, O rigins o f
Astrology (L o n d o n . 1 9 71), p p . 3 7 3 -4 0 1 ; cf. B acch iocch i. From Sabbath to S u n d a y, p p. 2 5 2 . 2d3.
60 For ex a m p le s o f literary a p p lica tio n o f th e m o tif o f th e su n to C hrist, see. e .g .. D ialogue with Trypho 121 ( A S F
1 :109); M e lilo O n Baptism 2. D (ed . by J . B. Pitra. Analecta Sacra S p ia leg io Solesmens [ 1884]; C lem en t o f A lex a n d ria

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 T H E RISE O F SUNDAY O B SE RV ANC E IN EARLY C H R I S T I A N I T Y

Protrepttcus 11. 114 ( A S F 2:203); Stromateis 7. 3 ( A S F 2:528); Origen In S u m a o s hom ila 23. 5; In L eiitic u m homila 9.
Cyprian l)r orations 35 (C S E L 60. 1/2:292); Ambrose In Psalmos 118. Srrm o 19 6 (C S E L 62:425); Dolger, ttp a t. (esp
chapeen 20 and 21). provides an extensive documentation of the influence of Sun worship on Christian liturgy Cf
Bacchiocchi. From Sabbath lo S unday, pp. 253. 254.
61 See E. Kirschbaum. The Tomb of St. Peter and Paul (London. 1959). pp. 35. 36; P. Testini. Archeologia (rufiana
(Bologna. 1958). p. 167; cf. an artistic reproduction of Christ portrayed as Sol Imnctus in F. Cumont. Texte\ ft
monuments figures relatifs aux masteres de \tyifira (Brussels. 1899). 2:434. So. 379.
T h at p ravin g tow ard J eru sa lem w as c u s to m a n a m o n g th e )ew s is in d ica ted by D aniel's p ractice a n d by
S o lo m o n 's p rayer at th e d ed ica tio n o f th e T e m p le (D an. 6 :1 1 ; 2 C h r o n . 6 :3 4 ff.); th e p ractice was co n tin u e d by th e
J u d e o -C h n s tia n sect o f th e E b ion ites, w h o. a cc o rd in g to Iren a eu s. p rayed tow ard J er u sa le m as if it w ere th e h o u s e ol
G o d (Adi'ersus haereses I. 2 6 [a n / 1:352]).
63 S e e . for in stan ce. Stromateis 7. 7; Or oratione 32; Apostolic Constitutions 2. 5 7 ( , \ S F 7 .4 2 1 ). D idascaha 2. 57
(C o n n o lly .p . 119); H ip p o ly tu s D r A ntichruto 5 9 ( A S F 5:2 1 6 ); C yril Caterhesibus 1 .9 ; Basil D r S p in tu Snelo 2 7 . 6 4 (PC
3 2 : 189. 192); G regory o f vssa D e oratione D om ini 5 (P C 4 4 :1 1 84); A u g u stin e D r sermone D om ini in monte 2. 5. 18 (P L
3 4 :1 2 7 7 ).
w H a lsb er g h e . op. a t., p. 17 4 . states: T h e au th o r s w h om w e co n su lted o n this p oin t are u n a n im o u s in a d m ittin g
th e in flu e n c e o f th e p a g a n ce leb ra tio n h eld in h o n o r o f D eu s Sol Invictu s o n th e 2 5 tn o f D ecem b er , th e S a ta lis Invicti,
o n th e C h ristian celeb ration o f C hristm as. T in s in flu en ce is h eld to be re sp o n sib le fo r th e sh iftin g o f th e 2 5 th o f
D ecem b er o f th e birth of C hrist, w hich h ad u n til th en b een h eld o n th e day o f ih e E p ip h a n y , th e 6 th o f Jan uary." For
a d d itio n a l re fe r e n c e s an d disc u ssion se e B acch iocch i. From Sabbath to Sunday, p p. 2 5 6 -2 6 1 .
Mano Righetti. M a n u a le th stona litrgica, 4 vols. (Milan. 1950-1956). 2:o7. Cullmann similarly comments:
"The Roman Church intentionally opposed to this pagan nature cult its own festival of light, the festival of the birth of
Christ.**T he Early Church (Philadelphia. 1956). p. 30.
I Apology 67 ( A S F 1:186; the passage is analyzed in Bacchiocchi. From Sabbath to S u nday, pp. 230-232.
67 D ialogue unth T n p h o 121
** Commentana in Psalmos 91 (PC 23:1169-1172; italics supplied); m his Life of Constantine Eusebius similarly states
that the Saviors day . derives its name from light, and from the sun** (4. 18 [SP SF f 2 1:544]).
w Maximus o f T u r in (c. a . d . 4 0 0 -4 2 3 ) view s ih e d esig n a tio n o f th e d a y o f th e S u n a s a proleptic a n n o u n c e m e n t
o f th e re su rre ctio n o f C h n st: W e h o ld th e day o f th e l o r d t o b e v en era b le a n d so lem n , b eca u se on it th e S a v io u r, like
th e risin g su n . c o n q u e r e d th e d a rk n ess o f th e u n d er w o r ld a n d g le a m ed m th e g lory o f th e resu rrectio n . T h is is why
th e sa m e day w as called d av o f th e su n by th e p a g a n s, b eca u se tn e S u n o f Justice o n c e risen w o u ld h a v e illu m in a ted
it." H om ila 61 (P L 5 7 : 3 7 1). G a u d en tiu s. B ish o p of Brescia (c a . d . 4 0 0 ), Serm o 10. I n E xodi lectwne octavus (P L
2 0 :9 1 6 ). a n d Sermo 1. De Exodo lectume p n m u s (P L 2 0 :8 4 5 ). ex p la in s that th e lo r d 's d a v b eca m e first in rela tio n sh ip to
th e Sabb ath , b ecau se o n that day th e S u n o f R ig h teo u sn ess has a p p e a red , d isp ellin g th e d a rk n e ss o f th e J ew s, m eltin g
th e ice o f th e p agan s a n d restorin g th e w orld to its p rim ord ial ord er; cf. Hilary o f P oitiers Trac tat us in Psalmos 6 7 . b
(C S E L 2 2 :2 8 0 ); A th a n a siu s Expositio in Psalmos 6 7 . 34 (P C 2 7 :3 0 3 ); A m b r o se H exaem eron 4 . 2. 7 (P L 14:2 0 3 ). and
Epstola 44 (P L 1 6 :1 188).
70 In die dominica Paschar homila corpus C hnstianorum , Senes L atina (Turnholti: Tvpographi Brepols Editores
Pontihcii, 1953) 78. 550. I 52; the same in Augustine Contra Eaustum 18. 5 (P L 42:346); in Sermo 226 (P I. 38:1099)
Augustine explains that Sunday is the day of light because on the fint dav of Creation God said. Let there Ik?light'
Ana there was light. And God separated the light from darkness. And God called the light day and the darkness
night."
71 Malachi. for example, predicted that "the Sun of nghteousness [shall] arise with healing in 1m wings" (chap.
4:2. K.I.V.). Zechartah. tne father of John the Baptist, announced the coming of Christ, saying that the sunrising
(vuxo/.n) "from on high hath visited us, to give light to them that sit in darkness (Luke 1:78, 79, K.J.V.); cf. Ps.
84 11; 72:17; Isa 9:2; 60:1-3; Zeph. 3:8; John 1.4. 5. 9; 5:35; 8:12; 9:4. 5; 12:34; Rev 22:4.5.
75 D ion ysiu s o f A lex a n d ria Analecta sacra spialegio solesmensi 4 (ed . by J. B Pitra. 1 883. p. 4 2 1 ).
73 See note 8.
74 Epistula 55. 23 (C S E L 3 4 /2 .1 9 4 ); in a n o th e r ep istle A u g u stin e sim ilarly states that "the Lord's day has b een
p r e fe r r e d to th< Sabbitth 1 ii,t- fio th i>t A c r a u n t c t k n . Epistula 3 6 12 f( S l 3 4 2 :4 0 ).
75 A u g u s tin e exp licitly ex p la in s that on S u n d ay tastin g is in le n u p t e d a n d w e pray sta n d in g , b eca u se it is a sign
o f th e resu rrection . Ibid., 55. 2 8 [C SE L 3 4 /2 :2 0 2 ]); cf De S p m tu S a nctu 2 7 . 66 (S C . p. 2 3 6 ); in th e Apostoltc
Constitutions it is stated: "W e pray th rice [on Sun d ay ] sta n d in g in m em o ry o f H im w h o a ro se in th r e e days" (2. 5 [ A S F
7 :4 2 3 ]); C v p n a n d eclares: T h o u g h p artak en by C hrist in tn e e v e n in g . . . w e ce leb ra te it [i.e .. th e L ord 's S u p p er] in
th e m o r n in g on accou n t o f the resu rrection o f th e lo r d ." Epistula 6 3 . 15 (C S E L 3 /2 :7 1 4 ).
7ft In a ny inn o f p raise to S u n d ay, a ttrib u ted to A m b rose, it savs: "On th e first day th e b lessed T rin ity c reated th e
w orld o r rather th e resu rg en t R ed eem er w h o co n q u e red d e a th . liW rated us" (M . B n tt. The H ym ns o f the B r n n a n a n d
A fm a /[ N ew Y ork, 1948], p. 9 1 ); c f G r e g o n o f N azian zu s O ratio 44 In novam D omtntcam 5 (P C 3 6 :6 1 2 ): "As th e first
crea tio n b egan o n th e lo r d ' s Dav (th is is clearly in d icated by the fact that th e Sabbath falls sev en d a y s la ter, b ein g
re p o se fro m w ork), so th e seco n d crea tio n b eg a n o n th e sam e d a y ; Analecta sacra spialegio solesmensi 4 ( Pitra, p. 4 2 1 r.
"God H im se lf has in stitu ted Sunday th e first day b o th o f creation an d also o f resu rrectio n : o n th e dav o f crea tio n H e
sep a ra ted light fro m d a rk n e ss an d o n th e d ay of th e resu rrection H e d iv id ed b e lie f fro m u n b e l ie f ; th e a u th o r know n
as th e A m b rosiaster (Liber quaestionum vetens et n o n testamenti 9 5 . 2 [C SE L 5 0 :1 6 7 ]) p ro p o se s a variation o n th e sam e
th em e: In fact th e w orld w as created o n S un d ay a n d sin ce it fell a fter crea tio n , a g a in it w as resto red o n Sun d ay . . . . In
(h e sa m e day H e b oth resu rrected a n d created ."
7 S e e n otes 66 . 68 . 70.
78 S y n a t D idascaha 6 . 18 (C o n n o lly , p p. 2 3 3 . 234); o th e r in terestin g a rg u m en ts are a lso su b m itted to p ro v e th e
su p erio rity o f S u n d ay o v er th e Sabbath.
79 De sabbatis et d reum as tone 4 (P C 2 8 :1 3 7 )
80 S ee The Epistle of Barnabas 15; D ialogue with T n p h o 2 4 .4 1 , 138; for a s u n e v o f th e u se o f th e " eigh th dav" in th e
F athers, see B acchiocch i. From Sabbath to Sunday, p p. 2 7 8 -3 0 1 .
81 In th e Slavon ic Secrets o f E noch (an a p o e n p h a o f th e O ld T esta m en t in ter p o la ted by Jew ish C h n stia n s tow ard
th e en d o f th e first ce n tu ry ) w e find n ot only th e seven -d avs-m illen n ia sc h e m e , but a lso th e first ex p licit d esig n a tio n o f
th e n ew e o n as "the e ig h th dav" (E n och 3 3 : 1, A P O T , 2 :4 5 1 ).
82 O r ig e n , e .g .. ex p la in s: T h e n u m b er e ig h t, w hich co n ta in s th e p o w e r o f th e resu rrectio n , is th e fig u re o f th e

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w orld lo ( o m r . ju st as th e n u m b er sev en is ih e sym b ol o f th is p resen t w orld" (Selecta rn P ialm ot Psal. 1 18 [P(i

12:1624]); c f. Syria* D rdaualia 6 . 18; for V ic to n n u s o f Pettau the sev en th day b espeaks o f th e d u r a tio n o f th e p resen t
w orld , o f th e co n su m m a tio n o f th e hum an ity o f C h n st an d o f th e " seven th m illenary o f years, w h en (Christ w ith H is
elect shall reign." T h e e ig h th d ay. o n th e con trary. "is in d e e d th e e ig h th d ay o f that fu tu r e ju d g m e n t, w hich will p a ss
b ev o n d th e o r d e r o f th e s e v e n fo ld a rra n g em en t" (O n the C reatum of the W orld [ A S F 7 :3 4 2 ]); cf. B a cch io cch i. r u m
Sahhalh to Sunday, p p. 2 8 7 -5 0 0 . for a d d itio n a l p atn stic r e fe ren ce s a n d d iscu ssio n .
M S ee. for e x a m p le . C lem en t o f A lex a n d ria Excerpta ex Theodoto 6 3 ; Strom ateu 4. 2 5 . ( A S F 2 :4 3 8 ); 6 . 16. ( A S F
2 :5 1 2 . 5 I S ) . O n g e n Contra C ehum 6 . 2 2 ; esp ecially Iren a eu s A d iv n u s haereses I. 5. 3.
M Ju stin in terp rets a r b u r a n h th e e ig h th day o f th e circu m cisio n , th e e ig h t p erso n s saved fro m th e F lo o d , an d
txrssiblv th e fiftee n cu b its (sev en j> lus eight o f th e H o o d w aters that ro se a b o v e th e m o u n ta in s (see D a n ielo u , "Le
D im a n ch c co m m e h u itiem o our. p. 6 4 ) as p refig u r a tio n an d ju stifica tio n for th e o b serv a n ce of Sun d ay (D ialogue with
T n p h o A l: 138: A s t e n u s o f A m asa H om tlut 2 0 f/% 4 0 4 4 4 . 4 4 5 . 4 4 8 . 449): " In asm uch as th e first resu rrectio n o f the
race a fter th e flo o d h a p p e n e d to eig h t p erso n s, th e L ord has b e g u n o n th e e ig h th day th e r e s u r r a tion o f th e dead";
cf. G regory o f N vssa h e beaM udmihu. O raiw 8 (P C 44: \2 9 2 ) .E fm to la 2 6 (P I. 1 6 :1 0 8 8 , 8 9 5 . 8 9 6 ).
v k to r im a i O n the C reatum o f the W orld ( A S F 7 :3 4 2 )
* Hilary in ter p r ets th e fiftee n gr a d u a l p salm s as th e co n tin u a tio n o f th e sev en th d ay o f th e ( >ld Testam ent and
th e e ig h th day o f th e G o s p e l. bv w hich w e rise to holv a n d spiritu al things" ( 7 'rattatui tuper P ialm oi (C S E E 2 2 :1 4 )). S ee
al Epuiola 26 10 (P L 16:1088).
S ec EbutoUt 2 6 . 8 (P L 16:1088): G regory th e G reat M orabum 3 5 . 8 . 17 (P L 7 6 :7 5 9 ): Jerom e C tm m n U r h u in
E t c l n u u t n 1 1 .2 (P L 2 3 : 1 157).
** Gregory the ('real, referring lo the eighth day when lob offered seyen ucrtlicn alter the leaning of hi on
and daughter, explains. T h e Hon truly indKatn that the btnaed Job when of (enng u t nine on the eighth dav. wa,
celebrating the mystery of the resurrection " M aralium I. 8. 12 (P L 75:532).
w (o m n r M a n m m E c r i a m O n 11.2 (P L 20:1157) S e e a h o E pttlitla 26 9 (P L 16:1088).
90 D t (ombunctumr 2. 4 (P C 47:415).
 CHAPTER 8

The Sabbath in Asia

Werner K. Vyhmeister

H E p resen t ch ap ter will exam ine the main sources dealing with Sabbath and
T S unday observance in Asia from approxim ately the fo u rth to the seventeenth
centuries. A fter an introductory survey o f the situation in N ear E astern Asia, and
an exam ination o f the anii-Judaistic lite ratu re o f the period, a brief account will be
given o f what is know n about Sabbath-Sundav observance am ong the N estorians
(including C hina an d India) and the A rm enians .1
Sabbath and Sunday in Asia in the Early Centuries
By th e second h alf o f the fo u rth century, the practice o f keeping both Sabbath
and S unday was w idespread in C hristian Asia, as w ittiessed by several docum ents.
For exam ple, th e so-called Constitutions o f the Holy Apostles,, com posed in Syriac, a . d .
375, reflect what probably was the most generalized attitu d e tow ard Sabbath-
Sunday observance in th e Eastern C h u rch at that time: But keep the Sabbath,
an d th e L ord's day festival; because th e fo rm er is the m em orial o f the creation,
and th e latter o f th e re su rrec tio n ."* T h e Sabbath is never supposed to be a day o f
fasting (except on Easter, on account o f C hrist's b u rial ).5 Even slaves would work
only five days so th at o n die Sabbath-day and the L o rd s day" they could go to
ch u rch for instruction in piety .4
T h e sixteenth canon o f the synod o f Laodicea (c. a . d . 364) prescribes: T h e
Gospels are to be read o n the Sabbath, with the o th er S crip tu res ."1 As will be
noticed later, canon 29 tells C hristians not to ju d a iz e o n the Sabbath day. But then,
canons 49 a n d 5 1 recognize the special n atu re o f both Sabbath an d Sunday d u rin g
L ent .6
T h e C hristian ed ito r (from Antioch-Syria?) who at about the sam e tim e
ex p a n d ed th e Ignatian Epistles slates: "T h e re fo re let us no longer observe the
Sabbath in a Judaistic way and rejoice in idleness. . . . But each o f you should
observe Sabbath in a spiritual way, rejoicing in study o f laws---- A nd afte r keeping
the Sabbath, let every lover o f C hrist celebrate the festival o f th e L o rd s Day the
resu rrectio n day, d ie royal day, the most excellent o f all days .7
Socrates Scholasticus indicates (c. a . d . 440) that alm ost all churches
th ro u g h o u t th e world celebrate the sacred m ysteries on the sabbath o f every

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week."" Essentially the sam e is re p o rte d by Sozom en (c. 450) w hen he states that
th e people o f C onstantinople, an d alm ost everyw here, assemble to g eth er on the
Sabbath, as well as on the first day o f the week .9 B oth Socrates an d Sozom en, in
the tests q u o ted in p art above, single o u t only Rom e and A lexandria as places
w here th ere was no Sabbath assembly. Socrates also states th at even A rians in
C o n stantinople co n gregated on S aturday a n d L ord's day in each w eek ." 10
B ishop A sterius o f A m asea o f Pontus in Asia M inor (c. 400) says in o n e o f his
homilies: "It is beaudful to C hristians an d to the industrious that the team o f these
two days com es to g eth er; I speak o f the Sabbath an d the L o rd s day, which tim e in
its course brings a ro u n d weekly. For as m others an d nurses o f th e ch u rch they
g ath er th e people, set over them priests as instructors, an d lead both disciples and
teachers to have a care fo r souls.""
S unday observance, along with Sabbath observance, had becom e so well
accepted, according to Syrian bishop T h e o d o re t o f C vrrhus (c. 393-c. 458), that
even th e Ebionites kept both days .11 H ow ever, th ere w ere several dissenting
voices .15 F u rth erm o re , even in those areas w here Sabbath was being observed,
Sunday had already becom e the im p o rtan t liturgical day o f the w eek. Slowly in
som e places, ra th e r quickly in others, the Sabbath becam e som ething like a
fossilized festivity for m any Eastern C hristians. T hey refused to follow the
exam ple o f Rom an C hristianity o f fasting on the Sabbath d ay .1' But, eventually,
the Sabbath ceased to be a day o f rest, while it was still considered, officially, as a
day o f festivity.
T h e E astern O rth o d o x C h u rch is p erh ap s the best exam ple o f this evolution
in th e practice o f Sabbath observance. Even as late as the seventeenth century
Sam uel Purchas (c. 1577-1626), listing the beliefs a n d practices o f the G reek
C h u rch o f th e C onstantinople p atriarchate, states that they solem nize S aturday
(the old Sabbath) festivally, an d eat therein flesh, forbidding as unlaw ful, to fast
any S aturday in the yeere, except Easter Eve .16 So, the distinguishing m ark o f
Sabbath was not rest but festivity heightened by the absence o f fasting.
T h e situation o f the M aronite C hurch was for a while similar. T h e M aronites,
writes Purchas, d o not fast on the Lords day, n o r on the S abbath .17 T h is an d
o th e r practices w ere ab an d o n ed by them w hen, u n d e r the C ru sad e rs influence,
an ag reem en t was m ade with the Rom an C h u rch in 1182; but an anti-R om an
reaction led to the revival o f the recently ab an d o n ed practices. H ow ever, the
national synod o f 1596 resulted in th e final subm ission o f the M aronites to the
Rom an S ee.1" H ere again. Sabbath observance was in essence the absence o f
fasting.
It should probably be briefly ad d ed that S unday observance was not at first
u n d ersto o d as necessarily m eaning com plete cessation o f w ork on that day.
C o n stan tin es Sunday law o f M arch 7 ,3 2 1 , although recom m ending S unday rest,
also expressly indicated th at "persons engaged in agriculture may freely an d
lawfully co n tin u e th eir p u rsu its ."19 In his S unday law o f July 3, 321, C onstantine
ad d ed th at all m en shall have the right to em ancipate an d to m anum it on this
festive day, and the legal form alities th e re o f are not fo rb id d e n .20
Je ro m e (c. 345-r. 419), re fe rrin g to nuns in B ethlehem , w rote th at o n the
L o rd s day only they proceeded to the ch u rch beside which they lived, each
com pany following its own m o th er-su p erio r. R eturning hom e in the sam e o rd e r,
they th en devoted them selves to th eir allotted tasks, an d m ade garm ents e ith e r for

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them selves o r else for o th e rs .**1 H ow ever, later legislation, to g eth er with
persistent an d grow ing ch u rch pressure, succeeded eventually in m aking Sunday
also a day o f rest.
How can we explain the grow ing em phasis on Sunday to the d etrim en t o f
Sabbath observance in Asia d u rin g the early M iddle Ages? Several factors a p p e a r
to have been w orking, such as: ( 1 ) the obvious prestige o f a day whose observance
was req u ired by im perial laws, since C onstantine I; (2) the relation betw een
Sunday and C h rists resurrection, em phasized repeatedly by C hristian w riters,
with S unday being m ade to a p p e a r m ore m eaningful to C hristians than was the
m em orial o f C reation (the Sabbath); (3) persisting anti-Judaism ; an d (4) to a m uch
lesser d eg ree, th e influence o f the R om an Catholic C h u rch .
T h e im pact o f factors 1 an d 2 in favor o f Sunday observance is so obvious that
no additional com m ent is necessary. T h e im portance o f anti-Judaism as a factor in
th e ra th e r fast ab a n d o n m en t o f Sabbath observance has been noted in c h a p te r
seven, but deserves som e fu rth e r attention h ere because o f the fu rth e r
developm ents d u rin g this later period.
Anti-Judaism in Church Canons and Byzantine Legislation
C anon 29 o f th e synod o f Laodicea (c. 364) reads; C hristians m ust not
ju d aize by resting on the Sabbath, but most work on that day, ra th e r h o n o u rin g
the L o rd s Day; a n d , if they can, resting then as C hristians. But if any shall be
fo u n d to be ju d aizers, let them be an ath em a from C hrist.
T h e Apostolic Canons, later in corporated as part o f book 8 o f the Apostolic
Constitutions, cam e from the sam e period (c. 381). O f special interest are canons 65,
70, an d 71;
65. If any one, eith er o f the clergy o r laity, en ters into a synagogue o f the
Jew s o r heretics to pray, let him be deprived an d suspended. . . .
70. I f any bishop, o r any o th e r o f th e clergy, fasts with th e Jew s, o r keeps the
festivals with them , o r accepts o f the presents from th eir festivals, as unleavened
bread o r som e such thing, let him be d eprived; but if he be one o f th e laity, let him
be suspended.
71. If any C hristian carries oil into an heathen tem ple, o r into a synagogue o f
the Jews, o r lights u p lam ps in th eir festivals, let him be su sp en d e d .5
C hristian-Jew ish contacts seem to have been freq u en t, o r at least easy. Even
som e o f the clergy were, evidently, participating in som e Jew ish cerem onies and
festivals. T h e re was the risk o f losing sight o f th e uniqueness o f the C hristian
gospel. As canon 62 implies, som e o f the clergy for fear o f m en, as o f a Jew , o r a
Gentile, o r an heretic" w ent so fa r as to deny the nam e o f C h rist ."*6
Jew ish influence was indeed strong. Laws w ere enacted by the Byzantine
em p ero rs to keep Jew s from proselytizing am ong C hristians ,*7 though the laws
also g u aran teed the status o f Ju d aism as a lawful religion. H ow ever, the laws also
established that th e Jew s should not insult the Patriarch (396),*" n o r should they
mock the cross at Purim (408).** Possession o f C hristian slaves by Jew s was at first
reg u lated (417).*' an d later forbidden (sixth ce n tu ry ).1 E m p ero r Leo the Isaurian
(r. 680-741) reiterated that Jew s could not possess C hristian slaves. No new
synagogues could be built (423, 438). Jew s were to be exiled for circum cising
non-Jews (423) an d punished with d eath for proselytizing (438). Ju stin ia n I
(483-565) revised a law o f H onorius (409 o r 412) that com m anded that Jew s

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should be left u n d istu rb ed on Sabbaths an d feast days, by ad d in g that on their

feasts Jew s w ere not entitled to sum m on C hristians. Leo the Isaurian, about two
to th ree centuries later, insisted that proselytizing to Judaism a n d apostasy to
Ju d aism w ere to be pu n ish ed .
C anon 11 o f the Q uinisext C ouncil (692) w arns C hristians: "Let no o n e in the
priesdy o rd e r n o r any laym an eat the unleavened bread o f the Jew s, n o r have any
fam iliar in tercourse with them , n o r sum m on them in illness, n o r receive
m edicines from them , n o r bathe with them ; but if anyone shall take in h an d to do
so, if he is a cleric, let him be deposed, but if a laym an let him be cut o ff ."57
Anti-Jewish Christian Literature From the Fourth to Fifteenth Centuries
T o the foregoing evidences o f C hristian anti-Judaism should be ad d e d the
fact that betw een the fo u rth a n d the ninth centuries m ore than twenty Eastern
C hristian w riters p re p a re d one o r m ore works against the Jew s.5* Some o f these
works w ere w ritten with the p u rp o se o f w inning Jew s to C hristianity. But, as A. P.
H aym an com m ents in the introduction to o n e o f these books, "the C h u rc h s
anti-Jew ish polem ic was m otivated, not by any abstract theological considerations,
but by a very real th rea t to its position. 5*
W riting ab o u t anti-Jew ish docum ents w ritten by N ear E astern m onks from
the seventh th ro u g h eleventh centuries, A. Lukyn Williams suggests that not a
few o f them give the im pression o f being w ritten by those w ho had indeed Jew s
aro u n d them , an d th ere fo re feared the influence o f Jew s on others if not on
them selves, yet never cam e into any close intellectual contact with Jews. T hey
wrote in the ho pe that th eir w ords would provide w eapons for th eir b re th re n who
did m eet them , an d would also answ er difficulties about the relation o f the New
T estam en t an d the C hurch to the O ld T estam e n t an d the Synagogue. T h e fo rm er
reason m ust not be elim inated, o r even unduly m inim ised, although the latter was
m ore successful in the results a tta in e d ."4"
T h e real problem underlying J o h n C hrysostom s eight Homilies against the
Jews (387-389) is that o f C hristians participating in Jewish festivals, with som e
getting circum cised. T h is tim e, however, it is specifically G enule C hristians who
are involved .41
Isaac o f A ntioch (fifth century a . d . ) , in his Homily Two against the Jews,
witnesses to the fact that the sam e stale o f affairs existed in his days as h ad existed
in those o f Jo h n C hrysostom ; his hom ilies inveigh against C hristians w ho practice
circum cision a n d celebrate Jew ish festivals.4*
J a c o b o f S erug (c. 4 5 0-521), in his th ree Homilies against theJews, ap p ears to be
dealing with real difficulties raised in the m inds o f his congregation by th eir Jew ish
n eig h b o u rs ."45T h e sam e h ap p en s with P seudo-E phraim s De Fine et Admomtione ,44
and with Je ro m e o f Jeru salem (eighth century a . d . ) . C om m enting on Je ro m e s
work, Williams suggests that, a fte r all, "the C hristian C hurch was even in the
eighth century exposed to d a n g e r from Jew ish influence, and felt b ound to arg u e
with Jew s according to its o p p o rtu n ities an d know ledge ."45
T h e early centuries o f Byzantine history clearly show a progressively
increasing hostility betw een the Jew s and th eir C hristian n eig h b o u rs ."46 T h e
vitality o f Ju d aism a p p e are d as a p erm an en t th rea t to the C hristian C hurch.
YVhat did this anti-Judaism m ean in term s o f Sabbath observance? O ne
indication is given in A p h rah at's Homilies (336-345), w ritten, from all appearance,

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to provide C hristians with arg u m en ts with which to com bat Jews, an d to

stren g th en the faith o f C hristians who were w eakening in the face o f Jew ish
attacks ."47 His th irteen th homily deals specifically with the Sabbath (De Sabbato).**
T h e Jew s boast that they live by the Sabbath, suggests A p h rah at, an d he
co unters th at th e Sabbath was not given to distinguish between life an d d eath ,
righteousness an d sin. Its p urpose, he says, was not to be the great test o f
obedience to G od, but to provide physical rest; an d its observance is useful for
health but not fo r salvation. O therw ise, he continues, it would have been
established from th e beginning o f the world, and for all creatures, w hereas the
patriarchs, in spite o f the fact lhac they w ere am ong G od's elect, did not keep the
Sabbath. Domestic anim als, he fu rth e r posits, observe the Sabbath as m en d o in
spile o f th e fact that th ere is no com m andm ent o r divine rem u n e ratio n fo r them ;
and thus it is clear that the Sabbath corresponds to a physical need, not to a
religious duly. In view o f this, A phrahat concludes that it has been an d still is
perm issible, w hen d eem ed necessary, not to observe the Sabbath, for instance, in
tim e o f war, as in th e cases o f Jo sh u a an d the Maccabees. F u rth erm o re , Jews
should not p rid e them selves in its observance; it does not give them any m erits.
How ever, th e institution is nevertheless good, desired by G od. If He rested, how
m uch m ore should we! T h e Sabbath should be observed in G ods way, a n d for
failure to do so properly, the Jew s were scattered abroad.
It seems clear that in A p h ra h a ts co m m unity 49 the Sabbath was observed
along with Sunday, as the Apostolic Constitutions prescribe. Som e o f the believers
kept the Sabbath in the sam e m an n er as the Jews. A phrahat him self does not d are
to elim inate Sabbath observance entirely, but he tries to elim inate what he
considers its Jew ish character, which, to him , em pties the Sabbath o f religious
significance .40
A som ew hat later w riter, Pseudo-G regory o f Nyssa, in his Selected Testimonies
from the Old Testament against theJews (c. 400), declares that the Sabbath was given to
the Jew s to slop th eir desire for m oney. W hen they cam e oui o f Egypt, he says, they
did not have any th in g except what the Egyptians had given them , and ihey w ere
eag er to m ake m oney by continuous toil. T h e re fo re God lim ited th eir labor to six
days o nly .*1
T h e re is also som e d o cum entary evidence show ing that converted Jew s w ere
req u ired to ab an d o n com pletely th eir Sabbath observance. In a long profession o f
faith o f u n certain E astern origin, attached to the Clementine Recognitions, a
converted Jew states, in part: I ren o u n ce the whole w orship o f the H ebrew s,
circum cision, all its legalisms, unleavened bread, Passover, the sacrificing o f
lambs, th e feasts o f Weeks, Jubilees, T ru m p ets, A tonem ent, T abernacles, an d all
the o th e r H ebrew feasts, th e ir sacrifices, prayers, aspersions, purifications,
expiations, fasts. Sabbaths, new m oons, foods an d drinks. A nd I absolutely
re n o u n ce every custom an d institution o f the Jew ish laws ."51 A sim ilar, but
sh o rter, profession o f faith from the church o f C onstantinople also specifies
ab an d o n m en t o f th e S abbath .55
Byzantine e m p e ro r H eraclius (610-641), as part o f his efforts to unify his
em p ire w hen it was th rea ten ed by Moslem invaders and by o th er forces,
com pelled m any Jew s to be baptized "from fear, o r even by direct physical
com pulsion .54T h e church, know ing that the new com ers had not been instructed,
drew u p treatises with that purpose. O ne o f these treatises is The Teaching o f Jacob

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(634),55 which declares that the Israelites, before Moses, had n eith er co m m an d
m ents n o r S abbath observance. But once the law o f Moses cam e, they w ere told to
keep th e Sabbath and all the com m andm ents. A fter Jesus C hrist, the Sun o f
R ighteousness, cam e, one should n o t ab an d o n Him and go the way o f the
S abbath .56 T h e section is fittingly entitled T h e uselessness o f Sabbath."
If, as it ap p ears, The Teaching o f Jacob reflects the official position o f the
O rth o d o x C h u rch in the B yzantine E m pire, by 634 (and perh ap s som ew hat
earlier) th e Sabbath had ceased to have any significance for that ch u rch as a day o f
physical rest. N evertheless, by force o f tradition the Sabbath still retain ed a small
d eg ree o f liturgical im portance.
A bout a cen tu ry later, Jo h n o f Damascus (c. 675-c. 749), the last o f the great
Eastern F athers, w riting in M oslem -ruled Syria-Palestine, p re p a re d a docum ent
entitled Against the Jews, C oncerning th e S abbath .57 A nd The Disputation of
Sergius the Stylite against a Jew ap p ears to belong to the sam e century (c. 730-c. 770).
Its geographical setting is som ew here betw een Hom s (Emesa) an d A ntioch, in
Syria, an d its p u rp o se was to stren g th en C hristians who w ere in d a n g e r o f
apostatizing to Ju d aism . C h ap ter 22 starts with the following interesting
rem ark: "T h e Jew said: T h e n , when 1 ap p ro ach ed you, I ap p ro ach ed inadvisedly,
for I was unaw are th at you (C hristians) had all this knowledge. But now I am
am azed how, a fte r know ing (all) this, th e re are am ong you som e C hristians who
associate with us in the synagogue, a n d who bring offerings an d alms a n d oil, and
at th e um e o f the Passover send unleavened bread (and), doubtless, o th e r things
also. T h ey are not entirely C hristians, an d som e o f o u r m en had said that, if they
w ere truly C hristians, they w ould not associate with us in o u r synagogue an d in o u r
law. A nd now, because o f this, we are all the m ore scandalized." R egarding the
Sabbath, the a u th o r repeats som e o f the well-known argum ents, closing with the
statem ent Also God does no t cease work on the S abbath ."60
Sergius, in trying to explain why som e "weak and feeble" C hristians "give oil
o r b rin g unleavened bread to your provocative synagogue, suggests that these
are d o u b te rs . . . the children o f heathen an d th eir m ind has not yet been cleansed
from th e fear o f th e ir fathers' idols. O r they are the children o f H ebrews, an d the
fo rm e r custom still prevails over th em .61
A nastasius, in his Dissertation against the Jews (c. 1050), briefly restates the
well-known anti-Sabbath position. T h e Sabbath rest was given to the Jew s in Old
T estam en t times, he says; but w hen Jesus came, the Jew s crucified Him on the
g ro u n d s that H e had broken the law an d do n e away with the Sabbath. H ad He?
W ould n o t the Jew s save a beast on Sabbath, an d not a m an? A nd they also
circum cised on the S abbath .65 A fter quo tin g Psalm 9 5 :8 -1 1, he develops the idea
o f a new kind o f rest as follows:
" T h e re fo re a n o th e r [heterosj sabbatism [sabbatismos] and an o th e r [hetera] rest
has been left, which is (the) faith in C hrist, as (the) Lord said th ro u g h Jerem iah the
p ro p h et: B ehold (the) days are com ing, an d 1 will establish with the house of
Israel and with the h o u s e o f ju d a h a new covenant' [Jer. 31:31]. W hen he says new,
he m akes th e first o n e o ld ."M
Dionysius B ar Salibi (died 1171), Jacobite m etropolitan o f A m id (Diabekr) in
the u p p e r T igris valley, 100 miles n o rth o f Edessa, was the a u th o r o f several
com m entaries on Biblical books, an d o f a work entitled Against the Jews. As late as
the th irteen th century the Jacobite C hurch felt the need to pro m u lg ate canons

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th at fo rb id th e p articipation o f bishops an d o th e r clerics in the Jew ish Passover

celebrations, enjoin the faithful to work on the sabbath and no t to observe it in the
Jew ish m an n er, a n d . . . forbid C hristians to receive unleavened bread from the
Jew s .65
T h e anti-Jew ish w ritings continued into the fo u rte en th and fifteenth
centuries, but these Jacobite canons a p p e a r to be the latest source w here the
Sabbath occupies a p ro m in en t place.
T w o Marginal Christian Groups C onsidered to Be Influenced by Judaism
T w o m arginal groups are m entioned by several au th o rs as S abbathkeepers,
with no re fere n ce to S undaykeeping on th eir part. T h e first o n e seems to have
o rig in ated as a result o f the schism created within Novatianism by Sabbatius,
d u rin g th e reign o f T heodosius I (379-395). Socrates Scholasticus calls Sabbatius
a converted Jew . . . who nevertheless continued to retain m any o f his Jew ish
prejudices ."66A catalog o f heresies, attrib u ted to M aruthas, Bishop o f M aipherkat
(died c. 420), gives the following description o f the Sabbatians:
T h ey say th at the sacrifice should be o ffered on Sabbath, a n d not on Sunday;
th at the Torah should be read to the people, and not the Gospel. C ircum cision has
not been abolished, nor th e com m andm ents o f the Law elim inated. T h e (Jewish)
Passover m ust be observed because the New T estam ent is not o pposed to the O ld.
H olding u n to th e Law, they still p re te n d to be C hristians .67
Purchas (r. 1625) describes the second g ro u p as follows: T h e re are others,
co n tin u in g from ancient times u n d e r divers Lords, Rom anes, G reekes, Saracens
an d C hristians, called S urians, unfit fo r W arre, m en for the m ost p art U nfaithful!,
D o u b le-d ealin g , Lyers, In c o n s ta n t, F o rtu n e fa w n e rs, T ra y to rs , G ifi-ta k e rs,
esteem ing T h e ft an d Robbery fo r nothing, Spyes to the Saracens, im itating th eir
L anguage an d C ondition. . . . T hey keepe S aturday holy, n o r esteem e S aturday
Fast lawfull but on Easter Eeven. T hey have solem ne Service on Saturdayes, eate
flesh, an d feast it bravely like the Jew es. 6*
Purchas does not stale w here this g ro u p was located. But the context suggests
eith er Syria, o r less probably, Asia M inor. T h e re is no way o f know ing w hether
th ere was any connection betw een these Surians" a n d the Sabbatians.
T he Nestorians
In 424 th e hostilities betw een Persia an d Rome led to the severance o f th e ties
betw een th e East Syrian C h u rch (in Persian territory) and the faraway patriarchal
see o f Antioch (u n d e r Rom an control), and in 486 N estorianism was officially
ad o p ted by the Persian Church.* T his N estorian C hurch o f th e East" had its
patriarchal see in Seleucia-C tesiphon until c. 762, w hen it was m oved to B aghdad.
In 1258 it m oved to Mosul an d , finally, a fte r 1400, to M aragha, east o f Lake
U rm ia .70
T h e N estorians distinguished them selves as m issionaries, A. M ingana
re fe rrin g to them as "the most m issionary ch u rch that the w orld has ever see n .71
T h ey sp read from Persia to A rabia, India, T u rk e sta n , Siberia, a n d C hina, with
th eir g reatest expansion being reached in the th irteen th century.7* Since separate
sections below are devoted to C hina and India, the rest o f the p resen t section will
deal with the info rm ation available on Sabbath-Sunday observance in the o th er
areas reached by th e N estorians.

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A canonical letter w ritten by N estorian p atriarch Ishu'-Y ab (c. 585) dis

cusses S unday observance at som e length: In reg ard to the Lord's day, th e holy-
first day o f the week. . . . Since the kingdom o f heaven has been ann o u n ced , the
day o f th e bodily resu rrectio n o f the Son o f God has been given to the children o f
the house (the C hristians) in place o f G od's day o f rest; an d the day in which
the g eneral renew al has been figuratively accom plished an d will really be
accom plished, in place o f the day o f rest that benefits m en an d anim als; the day
th at begins the week, in which this transitory world began, an d in which also
the fu tu re world will begin, that will have a beginning but no en d , in the place o f
the day in which the week ends. . . . In the first day o f the week, o u r Lord
broke an d o p en ed the Sheol by m eans o f His resurrection, laid the foundation o f
the C h u rch an d p reached the Kingdom o f heaven. T h at is why th e children o f the
d o ctrin e o f life m ust keep, from evening to evening, the day in which these
m arvels w ere accom plished. . . . Some o f the faithful abstain them selves, d u rin g
the first day o f the week, o f w orking o r traveling until the church (service) has
finished. But others, be it because o f an em ergency stro n g er than th eir good will,
o r b e c a u s e o f t h e i r o w n d i s d a i n f u l , r e b e llio u s a n d f r o w a r d w ill, lik e
disobedient ch ildren, treat the L ord's day, the first day o f the week, as they treat
the sabbath o r the second day o f the week, and thev d o not h o n o r it at all, that is,
they do not want to h o n o r them selves that day by perform ing divine works and
justice. T h is is inadm issible. T h ey w ork out o f love o f the m oney that leads to sin
and does not last."
T h is interesting text clearly shows that, officially, the day o f w orship for the
sixth-century N estorian ch u rch was Sunday. Sabbath rest seem s to have been so
com pletely ab an d o n ed th at individuals who did not h o n o r S unday at all were
accused o f treatin g that day as if it w ere as secular as Sabbath o r M onday. O n the
o th e r h an d , those who w orked o r traveled on S unday afte r the church services
w ere over w ere not condem ned. F u rth e r on in this sam e letter (addressed to the
C hristians in the island o f D aral, who had pearl fishing as o n e o f th eir main
occupations), th e patriarch deals with the special situation o f the pearl divers who
o ften had to dive on S unday. If they can com e to church, he declares, let them
com e; if not, it w ould be necessary to find a solution to protect them both from
sinning and from financial loss .74
From th e sixth century on, S unday is th e only day o f rest that we have been
able to find in N estorian sources, an d in descriptions o f N estorian practices by
W estern m edieval travelers .75 T h e only rem n a n t o f Sabbath observance seems to
be th e persistent obligation to refrain from fasting on that d ay .76
By the sixteenth century the N estorians had retreated to the only place that
still seem ed safe fo r them , the roughly trian g u lar area between Lake U rm ia, Lake
Van, an d Mosul (in w hat is today northw estern Iran, eastern T u rk ey , and
n o rth e rn Iraq). Very little is known o f th eir history d u rin g the next two centuries.
A fter the N estorian schism o f 1551, the Rom an Catholic C h u rch e n te re d the
scene, an d two U niate patriarchates eventually developed, both recognized by the
Papal See .77 H owever, w hen at the beginning o f the nin eteen th century the
Protestants learned o f the existence o f these C hristians, they found them
anti-popish" with n eith er icons n o r crucifixes in their churches, only a sim ple
an d symbolic C ross."7" S unday was still being kept, quite strictly am ong the
m ountain dw ellers, but not so strictly in the plains .79

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China
T h e first reliable inform ation on the presence o f C hristianity in C hina dates
from th e T ang dynasty (618-907)." It is found in the im perial edicts o f 638, 745,
and 845, in th e fam ous N estorian M onum ent, uncovered n ear H si-an-fu in 1623
o r 1625, an d in o th e r N estorian records discovered in C hina d u rin g the first h alf
o f the tw entieth century.
T h e N estorian M onum ent, erected in 781, describes the arrival in C h'angan
o f B ishop A lopen (635) an d gives som e inform ation on the "propagation o f the
L um inous Religion in C hina. It also has a description o f the beliefs and practices
o f th e N estorian C hristians in C hina that includes the following inform ation:
Seven times a day they m eet fo r w orship and praise, and earnesdy they o ffer
prayers fo r the living as well as for the dead. O nce in seven days, they have "a
sacrifice w ithout th e anim al (i.e., a bloodless sacrifice). T h u s cleansing th eir
hearts, they regain th eir p u rity ."81
J e a n V u illeum ier ( 1864-1959) takes this text as a p ro o f o f Sabbath observance
in seventh- and eig h th-century C h in a ."1 O n the o th e r hand, P. Y. Saeki, a Jap a n ese
ex p ert on the N estorian M onum ent and o th er N estorian docum ents and relics in
C hina, states on linguistic gro u n d s that the text refers to S undaykeeping ."5
In som e o f th e o th er N estorian docum ents discovered in C hina th ere are a
few hints th at seem to su p p o rt Saekis position. First o f all, it is puzzling to discover
th at no m ention o f a weekly day o f rest is found in a ra th e r lengthy
ex p o sitio n -p arap h rase o f the T e n C om m andm ents that ap p ears in the Jesu s
Messiah S utra," w ritten probably betw een 635 an d 638, ju st after A lopen's arrival.
T h e o th e r com m an d m ents are m entioned, the first th ree in an oblique way, the
last six in a very clear m a n n e r .*4Was the a u th o r afraid to be clear about the weekly
rest because o f th e N estorians' recent arrival?
In J u n e o f 1905 Dr. A. von Le Coq discovered several Syriac m anuscripts in
Kao-chang, C hinese T u rk e sta n . O ne o f diese m anuscripts is a portion o f a
N estorian ch u rch book giving the nam es o f p ro p e r A nthem s, etc., to be used on
Sundays and the C h u rch Festival days" for the whole year. It belongs to the ninth
o r the ten th cen tu ry , at th e latest .*5 Line 16 states, First I say this that on a Sunday
shall th e C h u rch be consecrated": an d line 23 refers to S undays evening
service."
A n o th er set o f Syriac m anuscripts, discovered at the im perial palace in
Peking betw een 1925 an d 1926, are a portion o f the N estorian H ym ns in the
N estorian Service Book . . . used on Sunday th ro u g h o u t the y ear ."*7 T hey w ere
w ritten in th e tw elfth o r the th irteen th century, o r earlier.** An interesting
referen ce is m ade in one o f the hym ns to the S unday o f the m artyrdom o f two
"blessed m arty rs. A lthough these docum ents are not in them selves com pelling
p roofs re g ard in g th e day o f w orship, the little inform ation they provide on the
weekly day o f rest basically harm onizes with what is already know n about the
N estorian practice in o th e r areas o f Asia.
It may be ad d ed that u n d e r the M ongol em p ero rs o f the th irteen th century,
Rabban Sawma, a N estorian m onk, traveled all the way from Peking to W estern
E urope, an d th at th ro u g h o u t the book that records his life an d travels, S unday
ap p ears to be th e norm al day o f worship. T h e re is not even a hint o f
Sabbath-Sunday tension in the detailed account o f his contacts with the Rom an
Catholic C h urch. In Rome he celebrated the Eucharist on a Sunday, with full

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papal approval, an d the pope even invited him to stay with him in R om e .90
T h u s, in C hina d u rin g this period we d o not find any evidence o f C hristian
S aturday observance. T h e re a re several docu m ents that, on the contrary, suggest
that as early as the seventh century Sunday was the only day o f weekly rest am ong
C hristians th e re .91

India
It is not know n w hen C hristianity originally reached India. T h e first possible
traces o f its existence th ere are from the third century, and clear evidence begins
with th e fifth cen tu ry .9 T h e C hristian church in India was su b o rd in ated to the
N estorian p atriarch ate o f Seleucia-C tesiphon, and Syriac was its liturgical
language. A lthough eventually C hristianity spread widely th ro u g h o u t In d ia ,94
w hen Vasco d a G am a arrived in India in 1498 he found the vast m ajority o f the
rem aining C hristians living on the M alabar Coast in southw est India. A ccording
to a co n tem p o rary N estorian In d ian source, 30,000 families lived th ere .
T h e re are no known references to Sabbath observance by the church in India
before the arrival o f the P ortuguese. D uring the synod o f D iam per (1599), Rom an
Catholic A rchbishop Aleixo de M enezes succeeded in getting the approval o f a
d ecree req u irin g that all the books w ritten in the Syriac tongue be tu rn e d over to
Jesuit F ath er Francisco Roz, to be "perused an d corrected, o r d estro y ed .* Ju liu s
Richter, com m enting on this decree, writes: It is to this vandalism that we m ust
a ttrib u te the scarcity o f reliable inform ation concerning the earlier history o f the
T h o m as C h u rc h ." 1 How ever, it is difficult to im agine that all the books w ere
located. O n th e o th e r han d , the absence o f docum entary evidence gives us no
special freed o m to speculate; an d both S tephen Neill and Jo h n Stewart assum e
that before th e arrival o f the P ortuguese th e M alabar C hristians kept S unday."
T h e sam e N estorian Indian docum ent re fe rre d to above, w ritten in Syriac
possibly in th e first decade o f the sixteenth century, describes the first landing o f
the P o rtuguese in India an d som e o f the N estorians initial contacts with them .
T h e a u th o r tells how he m et these P ortuguese, for the first tim e, in th e town o f
C an an o re an d stayed with them for two and a h a lf m onths. T h e n he continues:
T h ey o rd e re d us one day to say mass. T hey have p re p are d for them selves a
beautiful place, like a chapel, an d th eir priests say th eir mass in it every day, as is
th eir custom . O n the Sunday, th erefo re, o f Nusardail [the sixth Sunday after
T rinity], afte r th eir priest had finished his mass, we also w ent an d said mass, at
which they w ere greatly pleased with us."'"
In 1505, a Rom an Catholic Italian traveler, Ludovico di V arthem a, left the
following com m ents about the T h o m as C hristians he met at kayam kulam (north
o f Q uilon): In this city we found some C hristians o f those o f St. T hom as, som e o f
whom are m erchants an d believe in C hrist, as we d o . . . . T h ese C hristians keep
Lent longer th an we do: but thev keep Easier like ourselves an d they all observe the
same solemnities that we do. But they say Mass like the G reeks. ,0" N o fu rth e r details
are given, b u t the im plications seem quite clear that Sunday alone, not both
S aturday an d Sunday, was th e weekly dav fo r worship.
T h e detailed descriptions o f the custom s an d o f the religious practices o f the
T h o m as C hristians, w hen they first cam e in contact with the P ortuguese, m ention
only S unday observance .'01 H owever, Sunday labor was not in fre q u e n t ."1011
W ednesday a n d Fridav w ere th e weekly davs o f fasting." with no fasting on the

100
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S abbath 104 n o r on S unday .105 Sundays and the days o f lasting w ere kept from
sundow n to su n d o w n .1
Relations betw een th e T h o m as C hristians an d the P ortuguese w ere friendly
for a few years. H ow ever, tension began to rise w hen some Rom an Catholic priests
started p en e tratin g into th e local churches, insisting on saying m ass according to
the Latin rite. T h e R om an Catholic C hurch e n te re d m ore an d m ore into the
affairs o f th e T h o m as C hristians, until it finally succeeded in bringing them to the
Rom an fold in th e synod o f D iam per (1599).
T h e acts a n d decrees o f this synod are the best witness to the effo rt o f the
Rom an C atholic C h urch to straighten out" the T h o m as C hristians in alm ost
incredible detail re g ard in g th eir religious beliefs a n d practices .107 E verything th at
was supposedly w rong seem s to have been m entioned in the decrees.
T h e synod decided that it was w rong to eat flesh on Saturdays, m aking
S aturday, along with Friday, a day o f fasting.1' It was also w rong to fast o r keep the
festivities from evening to evening. T h ese had to be kept from m idnight to
m idnight, to be in harm ony with th e Holy M other C h u rch . " T h u s, the
O bligation o f ceasing from labour b eg in sat the m idnight o f the said day [Sunday],
and ends at the m id night o f Monday.""" Sunday is m entioned m any times as the
only day o f weekly rest .111 No Sabbath-Sunday tension is detected in any o f the
m any d ecrees.11*
T h e re is, how ever, som e evidence re g ard in g observance o f the Sabbath
tow ard th e e n d o f th e seventeenth century. A bout 1673, C. Dellon, a F renchm an,
was im prisoned by th e Inquisition while traveling in India. A fter his release, about
two years later, he w rote a book, The Inquisition at Goa, and in his account he refers
to people accused before the Inquisition o f "assisting at the Jew ish S abbath," In
T h e accusation o f J udaizing included having conform ed to the cerem onies o f the
Mosaic law; such as not eating pork, hare, fish w ithout scales, &c., o f having
atten d ed th e solem nization o f the sabbath, having eaten the Paschal Lamb, &c ." 114
At least two w riters 115 have concluded from Dellon's account that th ere w ere
m any S ab bathkeepers am ong the C hristians in India at that tim e .111 How can this
be so, inasm uch as th ere was no know n Sabbath keeping before the synod o f
D iam per in 1599? Dellon him self seems to provide the answer. B efore he deals in
detail with th e treatm en t o f th e ju d a iz e rs by the Inquisition, he gives an account o f
the force conversion, in Portugal, o f m any Spanish and P ortuguese Jew s who
cam e to be classified as "New C hristians." T h e New C hristians" had a very
difficult tim e being accepted by the O ld C hristians." Most, if not all, o f th eir
business dealings and social contacts were with o th e r New C hristians." T h e ir
conversion was not always believed to be true. T hey w ere u n d e r constant suspicion
o f s e c re tly p r a c tic in g J e w is h c e r e m o n ie s , in c lu d in g S a b b a th o b s e r v
an ce .117 M any o f them , u ndoubtedly, w ent to the P ortuguese colonies with the
hope o f escaping th e rigidities o f life in P o rtu g al.11"
W hen th e Inquisition asked Dellon to m ention the nam es o f his accusers, he
finally had to nam e som e o f his b re th ren , the only ones th at knew o f his
S abbathkeeping because they had, to g eth er with him , been keeping the Sabbath.
T h e "New C hristians . . . look fo r th e ir accusers an d accomplices in a certain
class .119 It seem s clear, in the context, that the "certain class" re fers to th e New
C hristians." It is n o t im possible, as h ap p e n ed with Judaizing C hristians in o th e r
areas o f th e world, that som e C hristians o f Indian origin w ere attracted by the
 I HE S A B B A T H IN S CR IP T UR E AND HIS TORY

cerem onies practiced by New C hristians" who were still Jew s at heart. H ow ever,
Dellon's account seems to have only New C hristians" in m ind. T h ese are the only
known Sabbath keeping C hristians in India before the nineteenth ce n tu ry .180
Armenia
C hristianity en te re d A rm enia a p p a ren d y by the beginning o f th e th ird
ce n tu ry .1,1 A fter th e synod o f V agharshabad (491), in which the A rm enian
C h u rch co n d em n ed the C ouncil o f C halcedon, the A rm enians ad h e re d to the
strict Nlonophysite d o ctrin e .' T ension arose with th eir G reek O rth o d o x
neighbors, a n d M onophysitism lost g ro u n d w hen A rm enians and Byzantines
united u n d e r E m p ero r H eraclius (610-641). In 652, when E m p ero r C onstans II
(641 -688) a p p e are d at Dewin (T e v in )," the decisions o f C halcedon w ere solemnly
proclaim ed on S unday in the m ain c h u rc h .10
Both th e Sabbath and S unday seem to have been kept in A rm enia, probably
from th e fo u rth century on. In the seventh century, the fathers atten d in g the
Q uinisext C ouncil (692) acknow ledged that they had learned that in the regions
o f A rm enia a n d in o th er places certain people eat eggs a n d cheese on the Sabbaths
and Lord's days o f the holy len t. The council decided that the whole C h u rch o f
God which is in all the world should follow one rule," that is, the G reek O rth o d o x
ru le .1,4
Som e years later, in 719, probably as a reaction, th e A rm enians at the synod o f
Dewin (Tevin) tried to draw a m ore m arked line betw een them selves and the
G reeks. T h ey decided, am ong o th e r things, to abstain from fish, oil. eggs, and
b u tter d u rin g Lent, except on Sundays and S aturdays.'
In th e C ouncil o f M anazkert in 728, atten d e d by all the A rm enian bishops
and also by som e Jacobite bishops, C halcedon was rep u d iated afresh . . . the five
days' prelim inary fast before Lent restored, S aturday as well as Sunday m ade a
day o f feasting an d synaxis [religious g ath erin g ]."126T his action suggests that the
Sabbath rest had been at least partially forgotten. T h e Sabbath had probably
b eco m eju st a day w ithout fasting, not intended fo r religious m eetings, as was the
case with th e o th e r E astern churches. T h e council restored the significance o f the
Sabbath as a day both o f feasting an d religious gathering.
M anazkerts im portance is indicated in F. C. C onybeare's com m ent that in
general, "these rules have been observed in the A rm enian ch u rch ever sin ce."'
C ontacts betw een the A rm enians an d the R om an Catholic C h u rch d u rin g the
C rusades resulted, eventually, in the establishm ent o f the A rm enian U niates, o r
U nited A rm enians, who severed ties with th eir church an d attached them selves to
R om e.1 A m ong them was the Lousinian dynasty o f the last in d ep en d e n t
A rm enian kingdom o f Cilicia, including Leo VI, who gave him self u p to the
Egyptian M am elukes in 1375.
E arlier in th e fo u rte en th century, an E thiopian m onk an d fo u n d e r o f a new
m onastic house, E ustathius (c. 1273-1352), who had left his country because he
could not keep Sabbath th ere unm olested, had arrived in A rm enia a fte r stopping
in C airo, Jeru sa lem , and C yprus (see pp. 176, 177). Did he, perhaps, choose to
spend his last fo u rte en years in A rm enia because he could keep the Sabbath th ere
as he th o u g h t he should?
It seems that from early tim es the A rm enians had a ch u rch o rd e r o f a sim ilar
n atu re to, but still d iffe ren t from , the Didascalia Apostolorum. Several m anuscripts

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 T H E S AB BA TH IN ASIA

o f this A rm enian Dtdascalta are known today. Five o f them , exam ined in som e
detail by A braham T eria n o f A ndrew s University, w ere copied from the
th irteen th to th e eig h teen th century. In all except one, th ere is a clear injunction
for Sabbath observance .1*9T h e following translation, m ade by T eria n , is from an
eig h teen th -cen tu ry m anuscript:
T h e apostles o rd e re d an d firmly established that on the Sabbath day th ere
should be feast an d w orship in all the world; th ere should also be a m em orial
(service) for all m artyrs. O n that day the priests should o ffe r the eucharist and
recite th e Psalms joyfully, fo r they ann o u n ce the com ing o f th e G reat King. It
behooves all saints to rejoice in the presence o f C hrist."
T h ese m anuscripts are not a com pelling p ro o f that A rm enians continued to
keep th e Sabbath d u rin g the latter part o f the M iddle Ages a n d early m odern
times. H ow ever, th e discovery in the n in eteen th century that the A rm enian
C h u rch still had a special reg ard for the Sabbath suggests that Sabbath and
S unday were kept by this ch u rch , at least to a certain extent, all th ro u g h these
cen tu ries .0
Summary and C onclusions
T h e observance o f Sabbath to g eth er with S unday was w idespread in
C hristian Asia d u rin g the second half o f the fo u rth century, an d continued to be
so fo r approxim ately a n o th e r century. How ever, th ere is no clear docum entary
evidence that afte r die year a.d. 500 Sabbath and Sunday w ere observed together
by th e m ain C hristian churches in Asia, the only exception being the A rm enian
C h u rch , plus som e New C hristians in India, who also observed the S aturday
Sabbath. N evertheless, a certain respect fo r the Sabbath was show n, an d continues
to be show n, by ih e Eastern churches in general by th eir refusal to m ake the
Sabbath a day o f fasting. But even this vestige o f the Sabbath's fo rm er status was
lost am o n g such C hristians as the N laronitesand the U nited A rm enians w hen they
cam e into com m union with Rome.
As in earlier C hristian history, anti-Judaism continued to be, from th e sixth
century on w ard , o n e o f the most im portant factors in accelerating the process o f
ab an d o n m en t o f Sabbath observance. T h e church often felt th re a te n e d by the
synagogue, an d several C hristian p reach ers and w riters did th eir best to show that
Sabbath observ ance was only o n e m ore Jew ish practice, o f no value for C hristians
if not definitely anti-C hristian. However, th eir very concern in trying to
discourage Sabbath observance shows that the practice persisted o r reap p eared
fo r centuries with varying intensity, in d iffe ren t areas o f N ear E astern Asia, an d in
open defiance to th e official teaching o f the O rth o d o x , the N estorian. an d the
Jacobite churches.

NOTES
1 W c Hill be lim n e d to a rath er succinct p resen ta tio n o f th e d o c u m e n ts that d e a l w ith S abb a th -S u n d a s
o b serv a n ce, giv in g only th e historical b a ck g ro u n d that is in d isp en sa b le to u n d er sta n d in g each d o c u m e n t T h e
so u rces w e have b een ab le to locate giv e o n l\ fragm en tary in fo rm a tio n o n S abbath-Sunday o b se rv a n ce in A sia
2 CunstUuIutTii o f the H oly Apostles 7. 2 . *23 ( A S F 7:46$). C f. 2 . 7 59; 5. 3. 2 0 ( A S F 7:423, 449)
*Ibid.
4 Ibtd .. H. 4. 3 3 ( A S F 7 :4 9 5 ) It sh o u ld probablv b e m en tio n ed h ere that Kphraetn th e S yrian (i 3 0 6 -3 7 3 ). the
great classical w riter o f th e Syrian C h u rc h w h o d ie d in Svria ab out th e tim e w h en th e to -ca lled G o w titutum s o f the H o h
Apostles w ere tak in g fin al sh a p e in that co u n tr y . c learlv p rea c h e d in favor o f Sunday o b se rv a n ce I rv in g to im p ress on
his listen ers th e im p o rta n ce o f S u n d a v . h e said that Sundav had tak en fro m Sabbath th e b irth rig h t, as J a co b d id . and
as was d o n e w ith E p h raim . H e calls fo r a m o r e c a r efu l ob servan ce o f S u n d a v . not on ly as a dav o f physical rest (Serm on

163
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T H E S A B B A TH IN S CR I PT UR E AND H IS TOR Y

pour l'ofhce de n u it de la rsurrection du Seigneur, in W illy R o rd o rf. Sabhat et dim anche dans t'Eghse ancienne (N eu ch .itcl.
S w itzerlan d , 1972], p. 185).
5 T he Canoru of the Synod H eld in the City o f luiodicea ( N P N F /2 14:133).
6 Ibid.. 14 155. 156.
7 P s e u d o -Ign atiu s S ta g n e sians 9 :3 . 4. c d . by F u n k -D iek am p , q u o te d in A . K raft, S o m e N o te s o n Sabbath
O b servan ce in Early C hristianity." A U S S 3 :2 4 . S ee a lso T raitions 9 :5 -6 (K raft, op. cit., p. 2 4 . n . 19).
8 S o cra tes S ch olasticu s Ecclesiastical H istory 5. 2 2 (N P N F /2 2 :1 3 2 ).
9 S o z o m e n , Ecclesiastical H istory 7. 19 (N P N F /2 2 :3 9 0 ).
10 S ocrates S ch o la sticu s EccL H ist. 6. 8 (N P N F /2 2 :1 4 4 ).
11 A steriu s o f A m asea. H om ily 5. o n Matt. 19:3 (P C 4 0 :2 2 5 ).
12 T h e o d o r e t o f C yrrh u s H aereticarum Fabularum 2. I (P C 8 3 :3 8 9 ). C f. E u seb iu s Ecclesiastical H istory 3. 2 7 (in The
Loeb Classical Library [C a m b r id g e. M ass.. 1949] 1. 2 6 3 ).
15 E p ip h a m u s i t 3 1 5 -4 0 2 ), b ish op o f S alam is, C yp ru s, in h is M ed icin e Bax (3 7 4 -3 7 7 ) again st h ere sies (P anarion)
co n sid ers that th e "little" w eek ly Sabbath has b een su p e r se d e d by C hrist, "the great Sabbath," o f w h o m it w as a type.
P a n a n o n Haereseim 3 0 , 3 2 , 6 -9 (K. H oll, C C S 2 5 , 1915), q u o te d in R o rd o rf, op. a t., p p. 4 5 , 5 5 . E p ip h a n iu s a d d s, in De
Fide (3 7 7 ) 2 4 .7 (H o ll. C C S 3 7 , 1933): "In certain p laces, r e lig io u s s e n ices are ce leb ra ted a lso o n th e Sabbath d ays, but
n ot everyw h ere." S e e R o rd o rf. up. cit.. p p . 5 4 . 5 5 . G r egory o f N vssa (3 3 1 ? -3 9 6 ? ) o p p o s e d th e a ttitu d e o f so m e
C h n s u a n s w h o d is h o n o r th e S abbath d ay but k e e p S u n d a v . w h e n h e tells th em : "D o you n o t k now that th ese d a y s are
sisters." De C astigatw ne (P C 4 6 :3 0 9 ). M ore will be said o n this p o in t later in th is ch a p ter w h en th e an ti-Jew ish
C hristian literatu re o f th e f o u n h a n d th e fifth c e n tu ries is d iscu ssed .
14 J o h n C assian (c. 360-c. 4 3 3 ) in h is Institutes o f the Coenobia 3. 11 (N P N F /2 1 1:218), m e n tio n s that o n S u n d a y
m o rn in g in "the L ord's co m m u n io n , th ey u se a m o re so le m n an d a lo n g e r s e n 'ic e o f Psalm s a n d prayers a n d lesson s.
. . . A n d n e n c e it resu lts t h a t . . . an in d u lg e n c e o v e r o th e r tim es seem s to b e g ra n ted to th e b reth ren o u t o f re v eren ce
o f th e Lord*! re su rre ctio n . . a n d . by rea so n o f th e d iffe r e n c e w hich is in te r p o se d , it makes the day to be looked fo r u a r d to
more solemnly at a festival, an d o w in g to th e an ticip ation o f it th e fasts o f th e co m in g w eek are less felt." (Italic s su p p lied . )
15 C assian ex p la in s that R om e kept th e S abbath fast b eca u se tra d itio n said that Peter fasted o n S abbath b e fo r e
h is e n c o u n te r w ith S im on M agu s. B ut th is fast w as n ot in te n d e d to be ca n o n ica l. I f Peter h ad had to last o n S u n d a y ,
w e w ou ld h ave d o n e it to o , fo r that o n e o cc a sio n , as a m atter o f n ecessity." but "no ca n o n ica l ru le o f fa stin g w ould
h ave b een m ad e g e n e r a l fro m this." Institutes 3. 10 (N P N F /2 11: 2 18). C assian reitera tes that Sabbath is n ot a d av o f
fastin g in th e East. W e a re ch a rg e d to giv e to both d ays that is. to th e sev en th a n d eig h th ea u a lly th e sa m e sh a re o f
th e service." T h e d isp en sa tio n o f fa stin g is n ot J ew ish , but fo r th e b en efit o f th e w e a n e d b o d y . I f th r o u g h o u t th e
w h o le year w e fast live d ays a w eek , o u r b od y "w ou ld easily be w orn o u t a n d f ail, u n less it w ere rev iv ed by an interval
o f at least tw o days." Ibid., 3. 9 .; cf. ch a p . 12 (N P N F /2 1 1 :217. 2 1 8 ).
16 S a m u e l Pure h as, H akluytus Posthum us or P ure has H is Pilgnm es (N ew Y ork. 1 965). 1 :350. C f. B. I. K idd , The
Churches o f Eastern Christendom (L o n d o n . [1 9 2 7 ]), p p . 7 0 , 7 4 , l3 o , 131, 4 7 0 ; C h arles J o s e p h H e fe le . A History o f the
C h n stuin Councils (E d in b u r g h . 18% ). 2 :3 2 0 . T h e Q u in isex t C o u n cil (6 9 2 ). u n d e r C reek O r th o d o x c o n tro l, d e t id e d
"that also in th e C h u rc h o f tn c R om an s th e ca n o n shall im m ovab ly stand fast w hich says: If an y cle n c shall b e fo u n d to
fast o n a S u n d ay o r S aturday (ex ce p t o n o n e o ccasion o n ly ) h e is to b e d e p o se d ; and if h e is a laym an h e shall b e cut
o f f " (can on 55). C a n o n 5 6 req u ires that "on th e Sabbaths an d L o rd s d a y s o f th e holy lent" all C hristian s. A rm en ia n s
in clu d ed , sh o u ld "abstain fro m ev e ry th in g w hich is killed." an d also " from eg g s a n d ch eese" (N P N F /2 1 4 :3 9 1 ). S ee
also R. L O d o m . " T h e S abb ath in th e G reat S ch ism o f a . d . 1054." A U S S 1 (1 9 6 3 ):7 4 -8 0 .
17 Purchas. op. a t., p. 38 7 .
Ibid.; A . A. S ta m o u li. "M aronites." S chaff-H erzog 7:1 8 9 .
19 Codex J u stm u in u s [h erein a fte r cited as C l] 3. 1 2 ,3 , trans. in P h ilip Sc h a ft. History o f the C hristian Church (G rand
R apids. 1957). 3 :3 8 0 . n. I.
20 Theodostan Code [h e r e in a fte r cited as C T , Codex Theodosianm ] 2. 8. I. tran slated by C ly d e Pharr (P rin ceto n ,
N .J., 19 5 2 ). p 44
21 The le tte rs o f S t. Jerom e. L etter 108, to E u sto ch iu m , sec. 2 0 (N P N F /2 6 :2 0 6 ).
22 For in stan ce. Sun d ay law s by: (a) E m p erors (rattan Y alen tia n a n d T h e o d o s iu s I. o f N o v em b er 3 . 3 8 6 .
fo rb id d in g litigation o n th e "L ord's Dav" (C T 1 1 .7 . 13. trans. in Pharr, op. cit.. p. 3 0 0 ); an d (b) E m p eror T h e o d o siu s II
o f th e Eastern R om an E m p ire, o f F e b r u a n I, 4 2 5 , fo rb id d in g public sp e cta cle circu s, th ea ter o n S u n d a y (ibid.,
15. 5. 5. in P h a n . op. cit., p. 4 3 3 ). S e e n o te o f M. A . K u g cn cr an d r.gd. 1 1 if fa u x o n th e e ffec t o f T h e o d o siu s ll 's law o n
the p re a c h in g o f patriarch S e v e r u s o f A n tio ch (5 1 2 -5 1 8 ). in Les H om iliae Cathdrales de Sv+re D Antioche, in Patrologia
O n en ta lu [h erein a fte r cited as PO ] (P a n s. 1922). vol. 16. p. 862.
23 A s S o /o m e n a n d S ocrates S ch olasticu s record it. R om e's p o sitio n again st Sabbath o b se rv a n ce w as w ell k n ow n
in th e fifth ce n tu ry . It u n d o u b ted ly had so m e in flu en ce o n th e p ractice o f E astern C hristian s. H o w ev e r, R om an
C a tholic in flu e n c e o n th e M aron ite C h u rc h a n d o n a s eg m en t o f th e A rm en ia n C h u rch is m o re clearly se e n m u ch
later in th e M id d le A g es (b e g in n in g w ith th e C m sa d e s)
24 A s tran slated in N P N F /2 14:148. C f. M arcel S im o n . Verus Israel (Paris. 1964). p p . 3 8 2 . 3 8 3 . 4 2 2 . 4 2 3 .
25 The Ecclesiastical C anons o f the Same H oly Apostles (A N F 7 :5 0 4 ).
Ibid., 7 :5 0 3 . 50 4 .
27 For a d eta iled listin g o f th ese law s, se e la m e s Parkes, T he C onftirt o f the Church a n d the Synagogue (C lev ela n d .
1961), p p . 3 7 9 -3 9 1 . T h e law s cited in n o te s 2 8 to 3 6 a re tak en fro m this sou rce.
28 C T 16. 8. 11. o f A pril 2 4 . 3 9 6 (P h arr, op a t , p. 380); cf. C T 16. 8. 2 2 . o f O ct. 2 0 . 4 1 5 ( P h a n . op. cit., p. 3 8 1 ).
29 C T 16. 8 . 18, o f May 2 9 . 4 0 8 (Pharr, up. a t . p. 3 8 1).
M C T 16. 9. 4 . o f A p ril 10. 4 1 7 (Pharr, op cu.. p . 3 8 1 ).
51 C J 1. 3. 54 an d 1. 10. 2 (S ch a ff. op. a t , p 387).
52 E cloga. A p p . 6. 2 6 (p. 3 8 8 ).
35 C T 16. 8. 2 5 . o f Feb. 15. 4 2 3 . C T 16 8. 2 7 . o f J u n e 8 . 4 2 3 ; N o v ella 3 o f T h e o d o siu s II. o f J a n 3 1 . 4 3 8 (d. 3 8 1 ).
u Ibid.; cf. E cloga. A p p . 6. 3 0 o f L eo th e Isa u n a n statin g that circu m cisio n o f a C hristian sh o u ld be p u n ish e d (p
388).
S5 C J 1. 9 . 13 (S ch a ff. o. n t.. p . 387).
36 E cloga, A p p . 4. 2 4 , 16 (p. 388).
57 The Canons o f the C o u n cil in T rullo (N P N F /2 14:370)
M T h e fo llo w in g in c o m p le te list has b een co m p iled fro m A. L ukvn W illiam s. A di*rsus Judaeos (C a m b rid g e.

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 T H E SAB BA TH IN ASIA

1935), p p 9 3 -2 0 3 ; Parkes, op a l . o p . 2 7 1 -3 0 6 ; S im o n , op. a t., an d A. P H a sm a n . tra m . T he D ep u ta tio n o f Sergius the

S h iite a gains i a Je m (L ou vain . 1 9 73). pp. 1-77 M ost o f tn e anti-Jew ish litera tu re in th e N ea r East d u r in g th e p erio d
u n d er c o n sid era tio n w as w ritten in G reek . T h e Svriac w riters w ill be specifically in d ica ted
1 A p h rah at (Syriac). H o m ilie s (3 3 6 -3 4 5 ).
2 . J o h n C h r v so sto m . E ig h t H omilies A gainst the leu* (3 8 7 -3 8 9 ). A Dem onstration to Jew s a n d Greeks th a t Christ is God
(c. 386).
3. P seu d o -C h rv so slo m , A gainst Jeu-s a n d Greeks (t.e H eathen ) a n d Heretics, a n d A gainst Jen's, u ith reference to the
B razen Serpent (d a les u n k n ow n ).
4. P scu d o -G re g o rv o f N yssa. Selected Testimonies from the O U Testam ent against the Jew s (c. 4 0 0 ).
5 M arooth a (S y n a c ). Book o f Evidences (b e fo r e 4 2 0 ).
6 . Isaac o f A n tio c h . H om ily T w o against the Jew s (first h alf, fifth cen tu rv ).
7. M ana (S v n a c ). Against the Jew s (4 5 7 -4 8 4 ).
8. J a co b o f S eru b IS \n a c . r 4 5 0 -5 2 1 ). th r e e H omilies against the Je u i
9. T he Discussion o f Archbishop G regentius with the Je w H erban tc. 480).
10. (uestums addressed to Antiochus the D ux (sixth cen tu ry?).
1 1. lo h n , a N esto ria n (Syriac), w rote a treatise again st th e Jew s (sixth cen tu rv ).
12. P s e u d o -E p h raim (Svriac). De F ine et Adm onitione. Rhythm against the Jews d e ln rre d upon P alm S u nday, and
Rhythm 44 (fo u r th , fifth , an d sixth ce n tu ries).
13. T he Teaching of Jacob (S argis d 'A b erg a ) (6 3 4 ).
14. L eo n tiu s. A gainst the Jews (c. 660?).
15. The Trophies o f Damascus (6 81).
16. S te p h e n o f B ostra. A gainst the Jew s (e. 7 0 0?).
17. le r o m e o f J er u sa le m . A D ialogue concerning the H oly T rm ity. the Discussion o f a J e w with the C hristian tc. 7 3 0 ).
18. J o h n o f D am ascus. Against the Jews, concerning the Sabbath f t , 740).
19 The D isputation o f Sergius the Styhte against a J e w tc. 730-c 7 7 0 ).
2 0 . " A n astasius. Dissertation against the Jew s (c. 1050).
2 1 . D ion ysiu s bar Salibi (Svriac). Commentaries, an d A gainst the Jews (a .d . 12).
2 2 . A n d ro n ic u s o f C o n sta n tin o p le. A D ialogue against the Jew s (1 3 1 0 ? ).
2 3 . G e n n a d iu s. A R efutation o f error o f the Jew s (c. 1455).
T h e r e is a c o r r e s p o n d in g w ealth (ab out tn ir u -eight w riters) o f an ti-Jew ish litera tu re a m o n g Latin a n d S p an ish
a u th o rs (fo u rth to fiftee n th cen tu ries). S e e W illiam s, op a t., p p. 2 0 6 -4 1 8 .
w H avm an . op. a t., p. 75; cf. S im o n , op a t., p p. 3 5 4 -3 9 3 .
40 W illiam s, tip. a t., pp. 159, 160.
41 H avm an . op a t., p .7 5 ; cf. P G 4 8 :8 4 3 -9 4 2 . W illiam s, op. a t., o . 133. n . 2 . co m m en ts: C h ry so sto m 's h a tred of
th e Jew s is not c o n fin e d to th ese e ig h t H o m ilie s, as m av b e seen fro m th e co u n tless re fe r e n c e s to th em M attered
th ro u g h o u t h is w orks
H avm an . op. fit., p. 74.
4S Parkes, op a t . p . 2 7 9 .
44 W illiam s, op. a t., p. 104.
45 Ibid., p. I6
4,1 Parke*, op a t., p. 3 0 5 .
47 Hayrnan, oi>. a t., p p. 7 5 . 7 6 , b ased o n Jacob N e u sn e r . A phrahat a n d Judaism ( L e id e n . 1971). p p 1 2 4 . 125, 144.
149, 168. 171; cf. W illiam s, op. a t., p. 102.
4N A p h rah at, D e Sabbato, m Patrologa Synac a [h erein a fte r cited as PS], ed . by R. ( ratlin, part 1 (P a n s, 1894),
1 :5 4 0 -5 7 f
4U For several years A p h rah at was b ish o p an d abbot o f th e m on astery o f Mar M athai, o n th e ea stern sid e o f the
T ig n s (u n d er Persia), a few m iles n orth east o f M osul. H e d ie d c. 350.
40 S im o n , op a t . p p . 3 7 5 .3 7 6 ; cf. W illiam s, op. a t., p p . 9 7 .9 8 ; A p h ra h a t. De Fide, in P S 1:43; idem. D e C a n ta te, in
P S 1:78, 9 6 2 , 119
41 Delecta Testim onia A d i m u s Judaeos 13 (PG 4 6 :2 2 2 ); W illiam s, op. a t., p p . 125. 128. 129.
w PG 1 :1 456. tran s. in Parkes, op. a t., p. 3 9 8 .
45 A ssem an i Cod. I M . 1. 105. q u o te d in Parkes, op. a t., p. 397.
54 W illiam s, op. a t., p p . 151. 152.
45 T h e n a m e in G reek is The T eaching o f Jacob In E thiopic th e n a m e is Sargis d'Aberga (W illiam s, op. a t., p. 152).
T h e E th iop ic text w ith French tran slation is in P O 3 :5 5 5 -6 4 3 , an d 13:5-109.
56 P O 3 :6 1 2 .
47 J o h n o f D am ascu s De Fide O nhodoxa (P G 9 4 :1 2 0 1 -1 2 0 6 ).
48 H a v m a n . op a t., p. 74 (cf. D isputation 2. 8 . 3. 5 . a n d m ost o f ch a p . 22).
19 D isputation 2 2 . 1; cf. D isputation, 4. 12 (ibid.. p. 72).
* D isputation, 4. 103 (ibid., p. 9).
61 D isputation, 2 2 . I. 12. 5 (ibid.. p p. 7 2 . 7 6 . 73).
61 A ttrib u ted to A nastasiu s o f Sin ai (sev en th centu rv ). but not his w ork , a cc o rd in g to W illiam s, op. a t., p. 175.
based o n in tern al e v id e n c e T e x t in PG 8 9 :1 2 0 3 -1 2 8 2 .
M P G 8 9 1 2 4 1 -2 4 8 0 .
M Ibid . 8 9 :1 2 5 2 . C f. co l 1249; W illiam s, op. a t., p p . 177, 178. 180
M H avm an . trp a t., p. 76. a n d n 99: " S u m m a n zrd in K aw erau. Die jakobitische Kirche, p. 106. fro m Bar
H ebrern ' Som ocarum . C f. also K azan. Isaac of Antioch's Homihs. O C [O nem C .hnstuinus (L eip /ig -W irv lia d en )]. 4 9 :6 9
P erh aps a very b r ie f n o te o n th e Syrian J a to b ite s sh o u ld lie a d d e d h ere. The fen re fe r e n c e s w c h a v e fo u n d about
their w eek ly d ay o f rest m en tio n on ly Sun d av o b se rv a n ce (m an u scrip ts o f 8 2 4 . 1 084. 121 4 . 1 539. a n d also
in fo rm a tio n o n th eir cu sto m s in th e tw en tieth ce n tu rv ). S ee H W C o d ringt o n . Studies o f the Svnan Liturgies (L o n d o n ,
(r. 1937J). p p . 4 4 -4 7 ; se e also Sept M enologesJacobites, in P O 1 0 :1 2 5 -13 0 (m a n u scrip ts o f 1210 an d 1465). 9 2 , 134. C f.
in fra , sectio n 6 (A rm en ia ) o n th e p r e s e n c e o f a few J a co b ite b ish op s in th e C o u n cil o f M anazkert (7 2 8 ). w h ere
Sabbaths as w ell as S u n d a y s w ere m a d e d avs o f fea stin g an d relig io u s g a th erin g . S ee n o te 127.
** S ocrates Sch olastic u s Eccl. H ist 5. 21 ( N P N F t2 2 :1 2 9 ); cf. 7 . 5 . 12 ( S P S F V 2 : 15 5 . 15 6 . 15 8 ), S o z o m e n . E ccl
H u t.. 7. 18 X P S F t2 2 :3 8 8 . 389). C a n o n 7 o f th e C o u n cil o f (.o n sta n u n o p le (3 8 1 ) m en tio n s th e S abbatians to g eth er

165
 T H E S AB BA TH IN S CR I PT UR E AND HISTORY

w ith several o th er h eretical g ro u p s i.\7 \V f7 2 1 4 :185). C f. also J o a n n e s D o m m icu s M ansi. Sarrorum (.o n a lio ru m N o va el
Am plisstm a ColUctw (G raz, i9 6 0 ) , 3 :5 6 4 . W ith so m e m od ification s, this ca n o n is in co r p o r a ted in th e Q u im sex t C o u n cil
<692). ca n o n 9 5 ( N P N F /2 14:405). T h e Sabbatians a re not m en tio n ed H ad th ev d isa p p e a red alread y by 6 9 2 ?
67 A s q u o te d bv E. A m a n n . S ab b atien s." D u h o n n a ire Hr T h /d o p e Catholique (Paris. 1939), 14:431; c f. M ansi, op
a t.. 2 :1 0 5 6 . 1057. S ee also E. T issera n t. "M arouta d e M avpherual." D ictionnaire de T h /o lo p e C athulufue (1 9 2 8 ).
1 0 :1 4 7 -1 4 9 . T he H u to n o f Barhadbeiabba Arbaux. w ritten at th e en d o f th e sixth ce n tu ry , g iv es a d escrip tio n that is very
sim ilar to th e o n e a ttrib u ted to M arutha. T h e S abbatians are ca lled S im b atiam sis (and S a b b etiv e. in Syriac). P ()
2 3 :1 8 1 , 187, 188. T h e Sabbatians a re also m c n u o n e d in th e b*x>k en titled L a m p o f D a m n s (La l^ im p e d e s T ln t b r e s ) .
w ritten in E gyp t by Priest S am s ar-Ri' ^sah A bul-Bar ak.it (d ied 13 2 0 -1 3 2 7 ). in whic h . a m o n g a sim ilar list o f h eresies,
th e "Sabbateens" (F ren ch ) a re d escrib e d as rests o f th e Jew s w h o h ad em b ra ce d C hristianity w ith an u n clea n heart
T h e y th o u g h t that th e Sabbath d av d e se r v e d m o re than S un d ay to b e h o n o r e d and that o n it o ffe r in g s sh o u ld be
m ad e." P O 2 0 :6 8 2 .6 8 3 Ijtm p o f b a r b ie s j w as an en cy c lo p ed ia o f ecclesiastical scien ce o f th e C optic C h u rch . T h e s e
S a b b a th k eep ers are m e n tio n e d as h a v in g e x iste d , but not n ecessarily as a g ro u p . T h e r e is n o co n n e c tio n b etw een
th ese Sabbatians a n d th e Sabhatian m o v em en t w ith in Ju d aism o f th e se v e n te e n th cen tu ry , w ith Sabbatai T s e v i. S ee
G e rsh o m S ch o lem . Sabbatai Sent: the M ystical M essiah 1 6 2 6 1 6 7 6 (P r in ceto n . N .J.: 1973).

69 G. A. M aloney. "Eastern C h u r c h e s. N C E 5:16; M. J. (.Costelloe. N esto ria n C hu rch." M C E 1 0 :344; K idd , op

a t . , p. *118; K en n eth Scott L atou rette, A H istory o f the Expansion of I .h m tia n iti (N ew Y ork. 1 937), 1:230.
70 J o h n S tew art. N estorian M issionary Enterprise (E d in b u rgh : 1928), p. 102; A ziz S. A tiva. A H istory o f Eastern

12 A rth u r V 6 6 b u s. H tstoryo f the Schixil o f N u t bis (L o u v a in T l9 6 5 ). jp. 3; The Journey o f W illiam o f R ubruck. in The
M o ngol M ission, e d . by C h r isto p h er D aw son (N ew Y ork. 1955), p p . 7 9 -2 2 0 ; A . M ingan a. The Early S pread o f Christianity
in India (M an ch ester. 1926), p 34; (a x lr in g to n , op a t., p. 60; S tew art, op a t.. p 196
75 *7jT 'yahb patriarch N esto n a n u s, E pistula can on ica ad la c o b u m ep isco p u m (c. 5 8 5 ) 19.* in Das B uch de Synhados.

74 R ord orf, op. cit., p. 2 2 9 , n. 5. R ord orf adds: " T h e spiritu al L etters o f m on k J o h n (d ied 5 3 0 ). e d . S. V a ilh e.
E chos d O rien t 8, 1905, p. 1561. sh ow exactly th e sam e toleran t p o sitio n ."
71 R. H . C o n n o llv . T he L iturgical Homilies o jN a n a s (d ied c 5 0 2 ] (C am brid ge: 1909). p. 2 3 ; V o o b u s. oto a t., p. 2 9 8 .
ls o -iab o f H ad iab (c. 6 5 0 ) " arran ged th e serv ice look for th e S u n d a y s o f th e w hole year"; M artvrius (S a h d o n a ) (r
sev en th ce n tu ry ], O e u iv e t fy in tu e lte s (L o u v a in : 1965). 3 :1 8 , 19; ibid., vol. 4, p. 9; R ubruck (c. 125 0 ). in D a w so n , op. cit.,
p p. 163, 172. 1^4, 177, 178, 180. (R ub ru ck . w rilin g ab out so m e o f th e N esto ria n s "w ho a re w ith th e T artars" accu ses
th em o f h avin g "several w ives like th em ." T h e n he adds: " W hen th ey e n ter a ch u rch they w ash th eir lo w er m em b ers
like th e Saracens; th ev eat m eat on Fridays an d h ave fea stin g on that day a fter th e Saracen cu stom ." D a w so n , op. a t.,
p. 145; cf. Pure h as, <>/. cit., I 1:68.) E. A. W allis B u d g e, The M onks of KublAi KhAn Em peror o f C hina [th irtee n th cen tu ry ]
(L o n d o n , 1928), p p . 15 6 , 3 0 5 M osi in ter estin g is th e d eta iled d escrip tio n a n d d e fe n s e o f th e tru th o f C hristianity"
en titled The Jew el, w ritten by Mar A bd Y esh u a, N estorian m etro p o lita n o f N isibis and A rm en ia , in 1298, in clu d ed as
a p p e n d ix B in G e o rg e Percy B a d g er. The Nestorians a n d their RitwiLs (L o n d o n , 1852). 2 :3 8 0 -4 2 6 . Sun d ay is p r esen ted
as th e holv first day o f th e week" that sh o u ld be h allow ed bv all. T h e " A p o stles o rd a in ed , that o n th e first d a y o f th e
w eek C hristian s sh o u ld su sp en d all w orld ly o cc u p a tio n s, an d e n g a g e in p rayer to G o d , in re a d in g th e Holy
S crip tu res, a n d m m ed ita tin g o n th e life o f C h r i s t * (p. 4 1 5 ). Friday is also m e n tio n e d , as a day o f fa stin g (p p . 4 16.
4 1 7 ) Sabbath is not m e n tio n e d at all, n ot e v e n w h ere fastin g is d iscu ssed (p p . 4 16-418). It is necessary to rem em b er
that th e N esto ria n s an d th e R om an C atholic C h u rch exc h a n g e d s o m e friendly letters d u r in g th e th irte en th an d early
fo u rteen th ce n tu ries ( 12 4 7 , 1288, 13 0 4 , e tc e te r a ) But th e sch ism that led to th e crea tio n o f th e U n ia te P atriarch ate of
th e C h a ld e a n s took p lace in 1551 k K essler, "N estorian s." S c h a ff- H e r z n g ft: \2 \. 122; cf. A tiva. irp a t . p p . 2 7 7 , 2 7 8
78 B ad ger, op. a t., p p . 187, 188; see also p. 4 1 6 . C f. R ub ru ck . in D aw son , op. a t., p. 164

79 A sah el G rant. T he N estorians (L o n d o n . 1841), p o . 6 0 -6 3 , 184, 185. A. H . L ew is, A C n tu a l H istory o f the Sabbath
a n d the Sunday in the C hristian Church (P la in field , N.J.: 1903), pp. 2 1 9 - 2 2 1 , c o n ten d s that Dr G rant's sta tem en ts refer
to Saturday ob serv a n ce. A ca r efu l re a d in g o f G rant's b ook , an d esp ecia lly o f p a g e 185. w h e re it is said that the
" prep aration b e fo r e th e Sabbath" b eg in s "about th ree h o u rs b e fo r e su n set o n Saturday," m ak es L ew is in terp reta tio n
com p letely u n te n a b le C f. C o d n n g to n . op a t., p p. 8 2 -8 5 . K essler (op. a t., p. 122) states that th e n in etee n th -cen tu ry
N esto ria n s kept b oth S abbath an d S u n d ay. N o d eta ils are given o n w hat is m ean t by S abbath o b serv a n ce. It m ay w ell
h ave b een just th e a b sen ce o f a Sabbath fast, as N estorian s kept o n fa stin g o n W ed n esd a y s an d Fridays. S ee L ew is. <rp
a t., p. 2 1 9 T h e r e are ab ou t 3 0 ,0 0 0 N esto ria n s in th e N ear East today. A b o u t 8 ,0 0 0 live in Syria. " T h e rest live a ro u n d
B a gn d ad a n d M osu l, sh e p h e r d e d by o n e m etro p o lita n a n d a sin g le bishop." A liya, op. cit., p. 2 8 6 ; c f. C o ste llo e , op

K en n eth Scott L a to u rette. A H istory o f C hristian M issions in C hina (N ew Y ork. 1929). p. 51.
1,1 A s q u o te d bv P. Y. S aek i. The S e s to n a n M onum ent in C hina (L o n d o n . 191 6 ), p p 164, 165. C f. C h a rles F. H o m e
(d irector o f ed itorial sta ff). T he Sacred Books a n d E ar h L iterature of the East (N ew Y ork, 191 7 ). p. 3 8 4 ; John F oster. The

w le a n Y u ilie u m ier. L e jo u r du repos d trovers les Ages (D am m a rie-les-L y s (S. a n d M .. 1936). p. 166.
H5 P. Y. S aek i. T he S e s to n a n Documents a n d Relics in China (T o k v o . 1951). p p . 4 5 , 4 6 , 4 9 . 50; cf. p p. 6 8 , 1 0 1, and

S aek i. N estorian Documents, p p. 1 1 4 -1 1 6 . 134-136; c f. also p p . 1 2 5 -1 3 3 .

90 B u d g e , op. a t., p p. 190. 1 9 1 .2 0 9 .2 1 6 .2 2 6 .2 3 2 .2 5 4 .2 6 8 . C f. p p. 2 6 7 ,2 8 9 . w h ere Sabbath is m e n tio n e d in the

c o n te x t o f n o n r e lig io u s activities (local ten sio n , an d a m assacre) in w hich C hristian s w ere in v o lv ed .
91 T h e T a i Pm g re b e llio n ( 1848-c. 18 6 4 ). w hich fea tu red Sabbath o b serv a n ce by strict su sp e n sio n o f w ork and
b u sin ess a n d by th ree services" (L atou rette. C hina, p. 2 9 7 ). d o e s not b e lo n g to o u r p erio d . T h e ir Sabbath o b serv a n ce

166
 T H E SAB BA TH IN ASIA

was B ib le b ased , as w ere several o f th eir o th e r p ractices, but th eir th eo lo g y was sy n c r e tism . T h e r e is n o historical
c o n n e c tio n b etw een th em an d th e C hristian ch u r c h e s that w ork ed in C h in a in ea rlier cen tu ries. Ibid.. p p. 2 9 5 -2 9 9 . C f.
Franz M ichael. The T a ip m g Rebellion (S eattle. 1966), 1:24-34.
91 M ingan a. op. a t.. p p . 8. 9 . 16-18, 2 6 . 2 7 , 6 3 . 64; S tew art, op. a t., p p . 8 5 -8 8 ; L W . B row n . The In d ia n C hnstians
o f SL Thomas (C am b rid ge. 1956). p p . 6 6 -6 8 .
93 M ingan a. op. a t., p p . 27 -3 0 ; S tew art, op. a t., p p. 8 8 . 89; L atou rette. Expansion. I .23 1 * 2 3 3 ; S tep h e n N eill, The
Story o f the C hristian Church m India a n d Pakistan (G rand R apids. 1970). p p. 17. 18; B ro w n , op. a t., p p . 6 8 , 69.
* M ingan a. oft. a t., p p . 5 3 -5 6 .
95 N esto ria n d o c u m e n t, w n tte n in S y n a c . in i bid., p. 38; cf. p 55. G e o r g e Mark M oraes, A History o f Christianity in
India (B om b ay, 1964). p . 175. speaks o f 1 0 0 .0 0 0 C hristian s in lhat area at that tune.
A Diocesan Synod o f the Church a n d Bishopnck o f A ngam ale (C onim bra. 1606). a ction 3, d e c r e e 16. q u o te d in
M ichael G e d d e s. The H istory o f the Church o f M alabar (L o n d o n . 1694). p 172.
97 T h o m a s C h u rc h is a n o th e r n a m e u se d for th e C h u rc h o f In d ia , o r . in a n a rro w er sen se , th e C h u rc h o f
Malabar. J u liu s R ich ter, A History o f M issions in In d ia (E d in b u r g h . 1908). p. 82.
98 N eill, op. a t., p. 19; S tew art, op. a t., p. 123. Stew art w rites: T h ey w ere p a n icu la r a n d d ev o u t in th eir Sabbath
atten d a n ce." B ut h e evid en tly m ean s first-dav sabbath (S u n d ay). H e also re fe rs lo a n o ld Sanscrit fab le. " T h e J a ck a l
an d th e D eer." w h e re th e jackal u ses th e w ords: T h e sn ares are m a d e o f sinew ; how ca n I to -d a v . o n th e L ord s D ay.
to u ch th e se w ith m y teeth ? P age 9 4 . T h e fab le m ay h ave b e e n w ritten b e fo r e th e le m h cen tu ry a . d . A cco rd in g to
Stew art, th e w ord s "the L o rd s Day** m ay "reflect C hristian in flu en ce "
99 As q u o te d in M ingan a. trp a t., p. 41.
100 G . P. B ad ger, c d . The Travels o f L u d m 'u o di Varthema A.D . I 2 0 3 - I 1 0 8 (L o n d o n . 1863). p. 180. q u o te d in
B row n , op. a t., p p. 8 4 . 8 5 . (Italics su p p lied .)
101 M oraes. up a t., p p. 188, 189, 198; P. Placid ) P od ip ara./> is 1 homos-Christen (W rzb u rg , 1966), p. 7 7 . R ichter,
op. a t., p. 78.
I0* R ich ter, oft. a t., p. 78
103 P od ip ara, loc. a t., R ich ter, op a t., p. 78.
104 R ich ter, op. a t., p. 78.
103 M oraes. op. a t., p. 199.
106 p od ip ara, <tp cit., p. 77; M oraes. op. a t., p. 188.
107 G e d d e s d e v o te s 347 p a g es o f his b ook just to th e tran scrip tion o f th e acts a n d d e c r e e s (p p . 9 7 -4 4 3 ).
Cc*dde.<j/j a t., p 3 5 / (action 8,d6C reeS l5* 16) ( mmisK e n o u g h , th e o b lig a tio n lo fast o n W ed n esd a y s was
lified (d e c r e e 15); cf. p. 351 (action 8, d e c r e e 10).
109 Ibid . pp. 3 5 7 , 3 5 8 (action 8 , dec r e e 16).
110 Ibui. N o tice lh at th e night, fo llo w in g Biblical u sa g e, p rec ed es th e day
111 Ibid , p p 2 5 3 2 5 5 (act. 5, d ec. 1 1 13), 2 9 7 ,2 9 8 (a d . 7. d ec. 6 ,8 ) , 3 2 3 (aci 8. d ec. 3). 3 3 1 (act. 8. d ec. 9 ). 3 4 7 (a n .
8. d ec. 9 ), 3 5 2 (act. 8 , d ec 10), 354 (act 8, d ec. 11). 3 5 7 -3 5 9 (act. 8, d ec. 16, 17), 3 6 7 (act. 8, d e c . 2 4 ). 3 9 3 (act. 9 . d ec. 5).
4 1 3 (act. 9 . d ec. 2 5 ), 4 1 8 , 4 2 0 (con clu sion ).
' IJ In o n e o f ih e several n o t-o-frien d Iv e n c o u n te r s b etw een A rch b ish o p A leix o d e M en ezes (R o m a n C atholic)
a n d A rch d ea co n G e o r g e (T h o m a s C h ristian ) in th e m o n th s p r ec ed in g th e sy n o d o f D ia m p er. th e A rch d ea co n
i h a lle n g e d th e A rch b ish o p to p ersu a d e th em that " non e can be saved o u t o f th e O b ed ie n c e o f th e R om an C hu rch."
H e m e n tio n e d , th e n , a letter of P op e C aiu s w h e re h e slated lh at "he had n o th in g to d o w iih th e C h u rch o f Babvlon"
(N esto ria n ). an d a n o th e r I d le r w h ere in ih e sam e T r u th is affirm ed ." T h is letter "is ca lled in o u r B o o k s th e L etter o f
th e L ord 's-d ay, b eca u se it is said u p o n lh at d a y to h ave fallen d ow n fro m H eaven" (G e d d es. op. a t., p p. 6 9 , 7 0 ). T h e
title o f th is letter w ou ld su g g e st that th e T h o m a s C hristian s had a special regard for S u n d a v . a n d d id n ot s eem to feel
any co n tra d ic tio n b etw een their k e e p in g th at d av an d ih eir d e sir e lo slay in d e p e n d e n t fro m R om e.
1.3 D ellons A ccount o f the Iru/uisition at Goa (H u ll, 1812). p. 53.
114 Ibid.. p. 56; cf. a lso p p. 5 7 -6 0 , 6 4 , 6 7 .
1,5 C h ristian E d w ard son . Facts o f Faith (N a sh v ille, 1943), p p. 156-158; Lew is, op. cit., p p. 2 2 5 , 2 2 6 .
116 Bv 1673 th e T h o m a s C hristian s w ere splil in to iw o factions: o n e allied w ith R o m e, the o th er (a fter the
K o o n eji cross g a th erin g o f 1652) fa ith fu l to th e o ld E astern trad ition s a n d h o stile to R om e. N eill, op. a t., p. 36.
1.7 D ello n . op. cit., p p. 53 -6 3 ; cf., o n ih e N ew C hristians" and th e Inq u isition in Portugal. G e o rg S ch u r h a m m e r.
Francis X ainer (R om e. Ili7 3 ). 1 :622-654.
1.8 A ssu m ed in D e llo n . op a t., u p . 5 3 -6 3 . O th er Jew s had b een livin g in Ind ia for ce n tu ries b e fo r e th e arrival o f
th e P o rtu g u ese. S ee. for in stan ce. The Travels o f M arco Polo (N ew Y ork (1 9 3 1 ]), p. 2 7 9 . T h e P o r tu g u ese e x p e lle d the
J ew s "from their o rig in a l settlem e n t in C ran ganore" in 1566, but th e Jew s "w ere g iv en sh elter in C o ch in by th e Ra)a o f
( u l i i i i wh e r e th en sm all yettlem en t now exists. T h at Jew ish c o lo n ie s w ere esta b lish ed n ear th e S y ria n C hristian
co lo n ie s is not in d ou b t." S. G . P oth an , T he S yn a n Christians o f K erala (N ew Y ork, 1963). p. 33.
1.9 D ello n , op. a t., p. 6 1 .
1.0 I h e on lv r e fe r e n c e that w e h ave fo u n d to real C hristian S a b b a th k eep ers in In d ia b e fo r e ih e arrival o f
Sabbath k eep in g m ission aries in th e n in e te e n th centu ry c o m e s fro m c. 180 6 . A n glican C la u d iu s B u ch a n a n . Christian
Researches tn .\sia (P h ila d elp h ia , 18 1 3 ). p . 143, writes: " T h e A rm en ia n s in H in d o sta n . . . m ain tain ih e so lem n
o b se rv a n ce o f C hristian w orsh ip , th r o u g h o u t o u r E m p ire on th e se v e n th day; a n d th ey h ave as m any sp ires p o in tin g
to h ea v en a m o n g th e H in d o o s as we o u r s e lv e s.*
1.1 L a to u rette. E xpansion. 1:105.
H . G e lzer . A rm en ia." Sch a ff-H erzog. 1:292.
113 Ibid.. p p 2 9 2 . 2 9 3
1.4 C a n o n 5 6 (N P N F I2 14:391). C f. n o te 16.
1.5 E. F. K. F ortescu e, T he A rm enian Church (N ew Y ork . 1872. 1 9 7 0 ), p. 24. T h e s e d ecisio n s w ere n ot fo llo w ed
for a tim e" b y th e A rm en ia n s o f L esser A rm en ia." m o re in flu en ce d by th e G reek s (ibid.).
*** F red erick C orn w allis C o n v b ea re. A rm en ia n C h u r c h , The Encyrlopdedia B n ta n n u a , I Ith e d . (N ew York.
197 0 ), 2:571
127 Ibid
118 T h e U n ited A rm en ia n s n u m b er ab ou t 10 0 ,0 0 0 . G e lz e r ,op a t., p. 2 9 4 ; E n d re von I vAnka, J u liu s T yciak . Paul
W iertz. H andbuch der O stkirchenkunde (D sseld o rf. 1971). p. 7d 8. T h e G reg o ria n A rm en ia n s n u m b er ab out 1.6
m illion . M aloney , op. a t., p p . 16. 17.

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m M an u scrip ts 5 8 . 10 0 .2 5 6 .2 9 7 . a n d 1 1 1 8 o f th e L ib ra in e d c s P P M ech ith aristes (V ien n a ). T h e s e h a v e b een

ex a m in e d an d partialis tran slated bv A braham 1'enan of A n d rew s U n iv ersity . S ee Janies J. C . ( .o x , " Stu d ies in th e
D eterm in ation an d E valu ation o f th e D om in ical la ig o i as C ited in th e O rig in a l T e x t o f th e (reek D idascalia
A p o sto lo n im " (Ph I) d isserta tio n . H arvard U n iversity. 1973), 1:7. n 7. T er ia n has seen o th er sim ilar m a n u scrip ts in
th e A rm en ia n C o n s e n t o f St. J a m es, in J er u sa le m , a n d th in k s that th ere are m u re c o p ie s in th e M a4toc Library
(Maitoc* M aten ad aran ) in E revan, S oviet A rm en ia.
130 A s n o te d a b o v e, u n d e r "India" (cf. n o te 120). B u ch an an states that th e A rm en ia n s in In d ia k eo t th e sev en th
dav. H e also m en tio n s that th e A rm en ia n s "are to b e fo u n d in every p rin cip a l city o f Asia," in clu d in g "all th e p rin cip a l
c e s o f In d ia, w h e re th ev arrived m any ce n tu ries b e fo r e th e English," C en tral Asia a n d . in g en er a l, "from C a n to n to
^ n sta n tin o p le (B u ch a n a n , op ciL. p p 141, 142). It is a ssu m ed that w h erev er thc> w en t, th ev kept th e Sabbath.
F o n e s c u e . op. cit.. p. 5 3 . w rites "It m u st not lie for go tten that th ro u g h o u t th e Fast Saturday is lo o k ed o n as a seco n d
Sun d ay. T h e A rm en ia n s k e e p S aturday as a d ay in h o n o u r o f A lm ig h ty G o d , th e C reator o f all th in g s, a n d S u n d a y in
co m m em o r a tio n o f th e N ew C reation b rou gh t about by th e R esu rrectio n o f ou r B lessed la ird J e s u s C h r i s t . " W hat
kind o f S abbath o b se rv a n ce is m ean t h ere? J o h n M ason N ea le ( 18 1 8 - 18 6 8 ) in h is A H u to ey o f the H oly E astern Church
(L o n d o n . 1850). 2 :7 9 5 . q u o te s R icaut. w ho, co m p la in in g o f th e d ifficu lty m u n d er sta n d in g th e svstcm o f A rm en ia n
fasts, says o f th e A rm en ian p riests that th eir " learn ing p rin cipally co n sists in k n o w in g th e a p p o in ted tim es o f fa stin g
an d fea stin g , th e w hich th ey n ev er om it on S u n d a y s to jxih lish u n to th e p eo p le." It can be in fer red that th e dav w h en
th e p e o p le w ere available in c h u rch fo r su ch a n n o u n c e m e n ts was Sundav N e a le co m m en ts: " T h e re is. in tru th , n o
g T e a t difficu lty in th e A rm en ia n fasts; at th e sa m e tim e, th ere are great d iffic u lties in th e ( a len d a r. a rising fro m th e
Saturday c o m m e m o r a tio n s fix ed as su c h , an d th e tran slation o f festivals fro m a fast to a fo llo w in g Saturday " I M .
O n 2 :7 3 1 . a fter statin g th at th e ob serv a tio n o f th e Saturday is. as e v e n o n e k now s, a subject o f b itter d is p u te b etw een
the ('reeks an d Latins; th e fo rm er o b se rv in g it as a festival, th e latter a* a d as o f a b stinence." N ea le a d d s A m o n g
both ('reeks an d A rm en ia n s Saturday is view ed in th e light o f a seco n d S u n d a v . th e latu rgv is th en ce leb ra ted e v e n
w h en o n o th e r d ays o f th e w eek it is not; co m m u n io n s are m o re freq u en t, a n d in th e dailv o ffic es, as * c shall s ee. the
troparia. etc.. are varied , as for a day o f p ecu liar solem n ity " N eale's e q u a tin g Sabbath o b se rv a n ce bv th e A rm en ia n s
witn Sabbath o b se rv a n ce by th e G reek s (cf. Fort esc u e . op a t., p. 5 3 ). h elp s u s to u n d ersta n d that th e Sabbath receiv ed
so m e special c o n sid era tio n , p articularly m ark ed by in creased liturgical activity But as th e q u o ta tio n fro m Ricaut
su g g ests, S u n d a y was th e g reat day w h e n th e w h o le c o n g r e g a tio n t a m e t o t hurt h Even todav sp ecial m ass is said o n
Sabbath in s o m e A rm en ia n ch u rch es (cf. th e C a th e d n u of St Jam es, in J er u sa le m , as re p o r te d bv A T e n a n ) But
today S u n d ay ap p ears to be th e o n ly w eek ly d av o f rest an d w orsh ip for th e p e o p le H cm ever. as so m e o f th e ab ove
q u o ta tio n s seem to im p ly. Sabbath o b se rv a n ce (w ith S u n d a v ) was sull a m ea n in g fu l ex p e r ie n c e a m o n g th e A rm en ia n s
o f th e n in e te e n th centu ry .
 CHAPTER 9

The Sabbath in Egypt and Ethiopia

Werner K. Vyhmeister

NE o f the most fascinating exam ples o f persisting observance o f the seventh

O day o f the week as the Sabbath, u p to the tw entieth century, is found in
Ethiopia. A lthough closely linked to Egypt in ecclesiastical affairs from the fo u rth
century on, Ethiopia had a m ind o f its own w hen it cam e to Sabbath observance.
T h is c h a p te r p resen ts first the available evidences for Sabbath-Sunday observance
in Egypt, b eg inning with the fo u rth century. T h e n , the m ajor portion o f the
ch a p te r is devoted to Ethiopia.

Egypt
T h e evolution o f S abbath-Sunday observance in Egypt is quite sim ilar to that
which has already been noticed in the preceding ch a p te r for o th e r N ear Eastern
countries, with th e exception o f A rm enia. In a . d . 306, A rchbishop Peter o f
A lexandria (died 311), w rote in canon 15 o f his Canones Poenitentiales:'
"W ednesday is to be fasted, because then the Jew s conspired to betray Jesus;
Friday, because, he th en su ffered fo r us. We keep the Lord's Day as a day o f joy,
because th en o u r L ord rose. O u r tradition is, not to kneel on th at day."* But
n o th in g is said ab out the Sabbath, even though the E astern tradition o f fasting
only on W ednesdays and Fridays is clearly present. M oreover, since later
C hristian w riters re fe r to Sabbath observance in Egypt, the m ention o f S unday
alone in this sh o rt canon may be taken as an indication that Sunday was considered
at th at tim e as the m ost im portant day o f weekly w orship, but not necessarily as the
only day.
In (Pseudo) A thanasius' Homilia de Semenle (fourth ce n tu ry )3 we read:
"O n th e Sabbath day we g ath ered to g eth er, not being infected with Judaism ,
for we d o not lay hold o f false Sabbaths, but we com e on die Sabbath to w orship
Jesus, th e L ord o f th e Sabbath. For o f old th ere was am ong the ancients the
hon o rab le Sabbath, b u t the L ord changed the day o f the Sabbath to the Lord's day,
and not we alone despise the Sabbath, but the p ro p h e t is the one who cast it aside
and said, Y our new m oons a n d Sabbaths my soul h ates ." 4
T h e S abbath, this source indicates, was being kept, bu t not as the Jew s kept it.
T h e homily goes on to discuss th e occasion w hen C hrist's disciples began plucking

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heads o f grain an d eating th em this as a clear exam ple o f the Jew s' perverting the
m eaning o f S abbathkeeping by fo rb id d in g to be d o n e on the Sabbath what even
G od had not fo rb id d e n .5
A n o th er pseudo-A thanasian work discusses o th e r aspects o f the Sabbath-
S unday question: T h e re fo re , afte r the first creation, God rested. For that reason
th at gen eratio n [the Jews] has observed the Sabbath on the seventh day. But the
second creation has no end. For that reason he [God] has not rested, but he still
works. So, we d o not observe a Sabbath day as in the times o f the first (creation); but
o u r ho p e is in th e com ing Sabbath o f sabbaths, w hen the new creation will have no
en d , but it will be revealed an d will celebrate a p erp etu al feast. T h e Sabbath was
given to th e first people fo r the following reason: that they would know equally
well th e en d o f (the old) creation an d the beginning (of the new). . . .
It is not because o f th e physical rest that (God) gave the Sabbath, but so that
they [the Jews] would recognize the en d o f the (first) creation. . . . H e w anted,
precisely, that in know ing its end, they would search for the beginning o f the
following (creation). T h e n , the en d o f the first creation was the Sabbath; the
beginning o f th e new one is the L o rd s day, when he has renew ed and begun anew
th e old o n e . 6
Even circum cision, p erfo rm ed on the eighth day, anticipated "the spiritual
reb irth o f all afte r the seventh day :7 "As the L ord's day is the beginning o f
creation an d th e en d o f th e Sabbath, so, having reg en erated m an. it has pu t an en d
to circum cision. T h ese two things are, in fact, accom plished on the eighth day: the
beginning o f creation and o f regeneration o f m an. For this reason the eighth day
has abolished the Sabbath, an d not the Sabbath the eighth day. *
(Pseudo) A thanasius clearly states that C hrist changed the day o f th e
Sabbath to th e L ord's day," an d that the Sabbath was abolished by Sunday. B ut at
th e sam e tim e, he rep o rts th at in the fo u rth century, C hristians in Egypt still cam e
on th e Sabbath to w orship Jesus, the L ord o f the Sabbath."
T im o th eu s I, archbishop o f A lexandria (c. 381), says that since com m union
was ad m inistered on Sabbaths and Sundays C hristians should abstain from
m arital relations on these two days in o rd e r to be in condition to partake o f the
spiritual sacrifice."''
Palladius (c. 363-425), in his Histona Laustaca (419/420), re fe rrin g to the
Egyptian m onks who followed the rule o f Pachom ius (292-346), says that they
p artook o f com m union o n Sabbath an d on S un d ay .10 In the sam e work he
m entions T ao r, a virgin who had already spent thirty years in a m onastery. Every
Sunday, while the o th e r virgins went to church for the com m union service, T a o r
stayed, clothed in rags, w orking."
J o h n Cassian (c. 360-r. 433) in his Institutes of the Coenobia (425-430) also refers
to custom s o f the Egyptian m onks w hen he states: W herefore, except V espers
an d N octurns, th ere are no public services am ong them in the day except on
S aturday and S unday, w hen they m eet to g eth er at th e third h o u r for the p u rp o se
o f Holy C o m m u n i o n . " T h e th ird h o u r co rresp o n d s to 9:00 a . m .
Cassian m entions also an old m onk who lived alone in his cell and never
p arto o k o f food by him self alone. Even if fo r five days ru n n in g none o f the
b re th re n cam e to his cell h e constantly put o ff taking food until on S aturday o r
S unday he went to ch u rch fo r service an d found som e stran g er whom he b ro u g h t"
to his cell to eat with h im . 15

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Cassian adds th at ih ro u g h o u i the whole o f Egypt and the T h e b a id " 14 in the

evening an d n o ctu rn al w orship services, th ere is the option o f reading two lessons,
one from th e O ld an d o n e from th e New T estam ent. But on S aturday an d
S unday they read them both from the New T estam e n t ." 15
In Cassian's Conferences (w ritten betw een 426 and 428) he argues against the
practice o f som e m onks who considered the sacram ents so holy th at they did not
d are to p artak e o f them m ore than once a year. It is m uch b etter to receive them
every S unday fo r th e healing o f o u r infirm ities ." 18T h e omission o f Sabbath could
be an indication o f the g re ater im portance attrib u ted to Sunday, even w hen
Sabbath was still kept to a certain e x te n t.
A fter Cassian, ch u rch historian Socrates Scholasticus (c. 440) re fers to
Sabbath and S unday observance in Egypt in the following term s:
A lthough alm ost all churches th ro u g h o u t the world celebrate th e sacred
m ysteries on th e sabbath o f every week, yet the C hristians o f A lexandria an d at
Rome, on account o f som e ancient tradition, have ceased to do this. T h e Egyptians
in the n eig h b o rh o o d o f A lexandria, and the inhabitants o f T hebais. hold their
religious assemblies on the sabbath, but d o not participate o f the m ysteries in the
m an n er usual am o n g C hristians in general: for a fte r having eaten and satisfied
them selves with food o f all kinds, in the evening m aking th eir offerings they
partake o f the m ysteries." *
Sozom en (c. 400-c. 447), in the parallel passage o f his Ecclesiastical History,
writes:
"T h e people o f C onstantinople, and alm ost everyw here, assem ble together
on th e Sabbath, as well as on the first day o f the week, which custom is never
observed at Rom e o r at A lexandria. T h e re are several cities and villages in Egypt
w here, co n trary to th e usage established elsew here, the people m eet to g eth er on
Sabbath evenings, an d , although they have d in ed previously, partake o f the
m ysteries ." 19
Som e years earlier, Cassian had w ritten th at com m union was celebrated in
Egypt at th e th ird h o u r (9:00 a . m . ) on Sabbath and Sunday. Socrates Scholasticus
an d Sozom en m ention now a S abbath-evening celebration o f the Eucharist, a fte r a
meal. T h ey co n sider this practice contrary to the usage established elsew here" by
C hristians. C ould it be that since the tim e o f Cassian's sojourns in Egypt about a . d .
400 the Sabbath celebration had, in a m atter o f th ree to fo u r decades, been
red u ced to this evening com m union service in the country, an d com pletely
elim inated in A lexandria?
Striking in th e accounts o f Socrates Scholasticus and Sozom en is th eir
m ention o f Rom e an d A lexandria as the places w here C hristians did not assem ble
on the Sabbath day. T h e reasons are not clearly given. R eference to an ancient
trad itio n is m ade by Socrates. It is well known that Rome had begun keeping
Sunday in the second century. O ne o f the strong factors th at p ro m p ted R om es
decision was th e C hristians' desire to disassociate them selves from Judaism .
In d eed , the ch u rch in Rom e went so far as to convert the Sabbath into a day o f
fasting.*
A lexandrian C hristianity, too, had early ad o p ted S unday observance.
How ever, in harm o n y with E astern C hristianity, it had also kept the Sabbath as a

S ec ch a p ter 7 . p. 137.

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day o f w orship a n d a festival. Did the strong Jewish population o f A lexandria have
any p art in th e decision m ade by the church in that great city to eventually
ab andon Sabbath observance com pletely?
It is a well-known fact th at at least since the Epistle of Barnabas (early second
century) th ere was tension betw een C hristianity an d Judaism in A lexandria.
Socrates Scholasticus, discussing A lexandrian history, says th at th e Jew s are
always hostile tow ard the C hristians. H e also m entions that A lexandrian Jews,
being disengaged from business on the Sabbath, an d sp ending th eir tim e, not
hearin g th e Law, but in theatrical am usem ents, *' increased th e existing tension
d u rin g th e tim e o f Cyril, archbishop o f A lexandria (412-444). T h e Jew s b u rn e d a
chu rch an d killed m any C hristians. Cyril reacted with his characteristic bellicosity
and expelled the Jew s from A lexandria in spite o f the opposition o f the prefect
Orestes. "T h u s the Jew s who had inhabited the city from the tim e o f A lexander
the M acedonian w ere expelled from it, strip p ed o f all they possessed." a
It seems to be m ore than coincidental that Sabbath services d isap p eared from
the A lexandrian churches apparently d u rin g the tim e o f A rchbishop Cyril. It is
interesting to notice that, according to Socrates Scholasticus an d Sozom en, "in the
neig h b o rh o o d " o f th e city an d elsew here in Egypt, Sabbath services continued.
H owever, as noted above, these services were confined to Sabbath evening. Was
the rest o f C hristian Egypt trying to reach a com prom ise betw een its respect for
the Sabbath an d A lexandria's strong reaction against it?
A m ong several hom ilies w ritten in the late fifth o r early sixth century and
attrib u ted to Eusebius o f A lex an d ria ,24is one (Hom ily 16) entitled "O n the L o rd s
D ay."1' T h is hom ily p u rp o rts to be an answ er to the following questions asked by
an individual n am ed A lexander to Eusebius at the close o f a Sunday service: "Why
do we need to keep the L ords day w ithout w orking in it? W hat is o u r rew ard if we
do not w ork? T h e long answ er includes the following ideas and com m ents: 1.
T h e holy day o f the L ord" is a m em orial o f the Lord. It is called the L o rd s day
because it is th e lord o f all days. It is the beginning o f creation, o f resurrection, and
o f th e week; an d these th ree beginnings" allude to the beginning o f the most holy
T rinity.** 2. G od has given us six days to work a n d one to pray, to rest, an d to m ake
o u r evil actions d isap p ear. So, o n e should go early to the church on the L o rd s day,
and should not d e p a rt before the en d o f the service .*7 3. T h e re is no reason to
observe th e L o rd s day unless, besides ceasing from work, we go to church. 4.
W oe to all who, in the L o rd s day. play th e zither, dance, litigate, work, take oath
o r m ake o th ers take o ath, because they will be co n d em n ed to the etern al fire, and
their lot will be with the hypocrites. 5. It is not right even to try to help the poor
people with th eir w ork on Sundays. Slaves, hired m en. oxen, all need the S unday
rest .*9
A C optic fragm ent, probably o f the sixth c e n tu ry ," is very sim ilar to Eusebius'
instructions on how S unday should be kept: "I instruct you to not d o anything on
the holy S unday, an d to not get involved in disputations, o r in lawsuits, o r in acts o f
violence, but to give your attention to the holy S criptures, and to give b read to the
need y___ C u rsed be the o n e w ho does anything on the holy Sunday, except what
benefits th e soul o r what is necessary to take care o f the anim als ." 11 T his ap p ears to
be the first instance when a curse was pro n o u n ced for w orking on S unday.
Zacharias Scholasticus (c. 465-after 536), church historian and bishop o f
M ytilene. in his Life o f Sei'erus, p atriarch o f A ntioch, m entions that on Sundays in

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 T H E S AB BA T H IN EGYP T AND E T H I O P I A

A lexandria people congregated at the tim e o f the celebration o f the Eucharist,

and he refers to S unday as the day o f C hrists re su rrec tio n .55
B eginning with the sixth century, th e re are no known references to Sabbath
observance am o n g the Egyptian Coptic C hristians. T h e change from Sabbath
and S unday observance to only S undaykeeping led to som e tensions betw een the
E thiopian C h u rch and A lexandria, as will be shown later in this chapter.
F u rth erm o re , if A lexander Ross (1590-1654) is to be tru sted , by the seventeenth
century the Egyptian C opts kept "no Lords day, n o r Feasts except in Cities ." 55
It should also be m entioned, how ever, that som e aspects o f the earlier dual
observance o f Sabbath an d S unday w ere rem em bered for centuries in Egypt by
the copyists a n d read ers o f the so-called Egyptian Church Order a n d o th er sim ilar
works. T h e Egyptian Church Order is identified as a version o f the Apostolic Tradition
o f H ippolytus. T h e G reek text o f th e Apostolic Tradition was translated to Sahidic (a
C optic dialect) probably not before the latter p art o f the fifth ce n tu ry .56It was later
translated into A rabic. T h e following statute is fo u n d in the Sahidic version: Let
the servants (of th e Lord) work five days; on the Sabbath (Sabbaton) and the L o rd s
day (Kyriake) let them rest for the church th a t they mav be instructed in piety. T h e
Sabbath because G od H im self rested on it when H e com pleted all the creation.
T h e L ord's day because it is the day o f the resurrection o f the L ord." M
A m ong The 127 Apostolic Canons, found in several Arabic m anuscripts,Vl th ere
is o n e canon th at strictly forbids fasting on Sabbath an d Sunday, except for Easter
S abbath .40 T h e re is an o th e r canon stating that even sick persons should be
enco u rag ed to participate in the Easter Sabbath fast.
T h u s, th e Sabbath was not entirely forgotten. H owever, th ere is no evidence
available to show th at the statute on Sabbath an d Sunday rest for servants (slaves)
was obeyed in m edieval E gypt .42 Sunday ap p ears to have been the only day o f
weekly rest in C hristian Egypt afte r the year 500.
Ethiopia
Pre-Christian Ethiopia. C hristianity reached the kingdom o f Aksuin, the
fo re ru n n e r o f p resent-day Ethiopia, in the first half o f the fo u rth century.
Previous to this th e country had fo r centuries received m erchants and seafarers
from southw est A rabia who had established com m ercial and m ilitary posts and,
later on, m ingled with the existing C ushitic population. As they settled fa rth e r
inland, these im m igrants no d o u b t re p ro d u ce d in the highlands o f Africa the
type o f social, political, a n d cultural organization which they had left behind in
A rabia ."45
Was th e seventh-day Sabbath known in the A ksum ite kingdom before the
arrival o f C hristianity? E dw ard U llendorff, who has carefully researched w hat he
calls H ebraic-Jew ish Elem ents in Abyssinian (M onophysite) C hristianity,"
strongly co n ten d s th at before C hristianity arrived in Aksum , m any A ksum ites had
already been influenced by Jew ish beliefs an d practices. W hen C hristianity was
accepted, m ost o f these Jew ish elem ents w ere kept and have persisted even until
today. How could w'e otherw ise, he queries, explain the presence o f Sabbath
observance, circum cision on the eighth day, food laws, an a rk o f th e covenant,"
and o th e r Jew ish elem en ts ?44
U llen d o rff fu rth e r notes: In the Semitic cu ltu re which the im m igrants from
South A rabia had tran sp lan ted across the Red Sea into the A ksum ite kingdom the

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 T H E S AB BA TH IN S CR I PT UR E AND HI STOR Y

Jew ish in g red ien t m ust have been fairly p rom inent. T h a t was d u e no t only to the
u n d o u b ted p resence o f som e Jew s an d Jew ish proselytes am ong the im m igrant
trad ers a n d setders, but also to the notable Hebraic-Jewish ad m ix tu re in South
A rabian civilization at that p e rio d .45 However, he has to adm it th at fo r the
history o f th e carriers o f those influences we lack nearly all g enuine and
tru stw o rth y source m aterial .46
T h e strict S abbathkeeping Falashas ("em igrants), m istakenly considered by
som e as black (or Ethiopian) Jews, are, according to U llendorff, from all the
evidence available, d escendants o f those elem ents in the A ksum ite K ingdom
who resisted conversion to C hristianity ."47 T hey were discovered in the sixteenth
century, an d live now to the n o rth o f Lake T a n a .4" U nfortunately, th ere is no way
o f know ing w hen they first cam e into contact with Judaism .
M axime Rodinson takes a dim view o f U lIendorfF s argum ents and suggests
th at before stating that certain Jew ish practices en tered the A ksum ite kingdom
p rio r to C hristianitys arrival th ere, it is necessary to study these practices one by
one an d try to establish the probable dates o f the historical appearan ce o f each one
o f them in th e A ksum ite kingdom . R odinson also points out that in m o d ern times
"the im itation o f the O ld T estam en t, even to the point o f identification with Israel,
is a freq u en t p h en o m en o n in countries colonized by E u ro p e ." 4 T h is could have
h ap p e n ed in old Ethiopia a fte r C hristianity was accepted. M oreover, it appears
un co ntrovertible that Ju d aizin g C hristianity was well re p resen ted in A rabia; and
thus, in tim e, its influence could have reached E thiopia.
It seems clear th at at p resen t th e re is no way o f proving that Sabbath
observance was known an d practiced in A ksum before the arrival o f C hristianity .*1

The First Ten Centuries o f Sabbath and Sunday Observance (Fourth to

Thirteenth). A ccording to several G reek an d R om an C hurch historians,
C hristianity e n te re d Aksum in the first h alf o f the fo u rth century. Its apostle was a
C hristian from T y re nam ed F rum entius, who, as a youth, to g eth er with Edesius,
was cap tu red by th e A ksum ites w hen th eir boat touched at an A ksum ite port.
F ru m en tiu s eventually becam e th e king's secretary and Edesius the king's
cu p b earer. T h e ir influence was used to p rotect C hristian m erchants an d to spread
C hristianity. A fter several years, F rum entius an d Edesius w ere g ranted
perm ission to leave A ksum . Edesius w ent back to T yre. F rum entius went to
A lexandria, Egypt, and requested from B ishop A thanasius (c. 296-373) the
a p p o in tm en t o f a bishop for the C hristians in Aksum . A thanasius consecrated
F rum entius, who thus becam e the first Abuna (O u r F ath er), a tide used later by
the E thiopian m etro p o litan .52 A bout the year 340, the conversion o f King Ezana
m arks the official beginning o f Aksum (and Ethiopia) as a C hristian kingdom .
No d o cu m en t is available with inform ation on Sabbath observance in the
early history o f C hristian Aksum . H owever, since F rum entius was a Syrian
C hristian, an d the A ksum ite C h u rch was so closely connected with Egypt from its
very beginning, we can assum e that the c u rre n t Egyptian a n d Syrian practice of
keeping both Sabbath and S unday was follow ed .54
C hristianitys influence was stren g th en ed in the A ksum ite kingdom with the
arrival, at th e en d o f the fifth century, o f gro u p s o f Syrian m issionaries. T h e
ch u rch grew rapidly, thanks to their m issionary zeal. T hey established schools and
tran slated at least parts o f the Bible and o th e r religious books into E thiopic .55

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 T H E S AB BA T H IN EGYPT AND E T H I O P I A

H ow ever, while Sabbath an d S unday were both generally observed, it is well

known th at already in the fo u rth century th ere was a grow ing anti-Sabbath
sentim ent in Egy p t and in o th e r areas o f the N ear East. As has been noted in the
first p a rt o f this ch ap ter, A lexandria an d most probably all Egypt had by th e year
500 ab an d o n ed any sem blance o f Sabbath observance.
W hat effect did the new A lexandrian position on S abbathkeeping have in the
A ksum ite kingdom ? T h e re is no docum entary evidence from this early period. It
is possible that th e A lexandrian position was not at first forced upon Ethiopia. B ut
th e steady line o f Egyptians who w ere consecrated as m etropolitans o f Ethiopia
m ade th e A lexandrian influence felt to som e extent in the following centuries.
T h e earliest known hint o f tension com es from th e eleventh century. In a re p o rt
on Ethiopia, Bishop Sawiros requested Patriarch Cyril II (1077-1092) o f
A lexandria to write to the E thiopians "forbidding them to observe the custom s o f
th e O ld T e sta m e n t ." 50T h e Sabbath is not specifically m entioned. B ut in 1238, Ibn
al-Assal com pleted his Collection o f C anons for the benefit o fC o p tic C hristians in
Egypt w here "th e observance o f the Sabbath is clearly rejected as a Jew ish
custom ."17 At least from this period onw ards, it is quite evident that the Egyptian
bishops w ere d eterm in ed to im pose the official A lexandrian line on the
E th io p ian s."
T h e Collection o f C anons was translated into Ethiopic (Geez), tran sfo rm ed
and ad a p te d to local conditions. It is known as the Fetha Nagast (Legislation o f the
Kings"), and has retained its value an d practical im portance in Ethiopia to the
p resent d a v ."w In c h a p te r 19 the authorities fo r Sabbath observance are given.
T h e first one is canon 29 o f the C ouncil o f Laodicea, which clearly tells C hristians
to work on the Sabbath day. It is followed by canon 20 o f the Council o f Nicea:
And d o not keep the Sabbath as the Jew s." But th en , based on the Didascalia,
C hristians are u rg e d to observe the Sabbath in the sam e way as S unday is observed.
T h e exam ple o f Jew s an d h eathen is even used as a re p ro o f .61
T h e Fetha Nagast quotes, fu rth e r on, from the Q alem entos ,62 indicating that
servants should work five days a n d go to church on both Sunday an d Sabbath to be
in structed in godliness. Finally, in closing, the Didascalia is quoted again in a
passage urg in g th e believers to receive the E ucharist every Sabbath and Sunday
(except on E aster S abbath ).65
T h e Fetha Nagast, as a collection o r com pilation, has provided some source
m aterial both in favor o f an d against Sabbath observance. But the real pow er
b ehind the a ttem p t to elim inate Sabbath observance in Ethiopia was the
A lexandrian p atriarch. King Zara Yaqob (1424-1468), describing the situation
that obtained in th e fo u rte en th century, has w ritten: T h e observance o f the
Sabbath was not in force in th e kingdom , and the Sabbath was abolished in the
realm s o f th e p atriarchs [of A lexandria]. T hey considered it ju s t like the o th e r five
w orking days [of th e week]. T h ey also considered all those who observed the
Sabbath asjew s, they excom m unicated them , and did not give them perm ission to
e n te r th e ch u rch es."
It is possible th at the a p p a ren d y su d d en an d strong drive to d o away with
Sabbath observance in E thiopia was connected with a disp u te betw een the
p atriarchs o f A lexandria an d A ntioch that broke ou t d u rin g the first half o f the
th irteen th century. B efore that tim e it had been conventional for A ntioch to
ap p o in t the Jaco b ite bishop for Jerusalem . H owever, Patriarch Cyril III

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 T H E S AB BA T H IN S CR I P T U R E AND HI STORY

(1235-1243) o f A lexandria seem s to have used ihe grow ing m ilitary a n d political
superiority o f Egypt in ap p o in tin g an A lexandrian bishop fo r the Jacobite church
o f Je ru sa le m ." Ignatius II, patriarch o f Antioch, retaliated by ap p o in tin g an
E thiopian pilgrim , Abba T hom as, as m etropolitan o f E thiopia /'6
T h e re is no way o f know ing w hether Abba T hom as ever w ent back to
E thiopia. H ow ever, ietters w ritten by the E thiopian kings to the A lexandrian
p atriarchs in the second h alf o f th e th irte e n th century m ake clear th at Ethiopia
was having difficulties getting new m etropolitans from A lexandria. Som e clerics
o f Syrian origin h ad arrived with uncertain credentials, but w ere accepted by the
king w ithout full consensus o f the E thiopian C hurch. T h e re were Syrian
m etropolitans still living in Ethiopia in 1290, but the opposition against th em was
on th e increase. Finally the king decided to write (1290) to the A lexandrian
patriarch an d to the sultan o f Egypt asking for a m etropolitan. His request was not
h o n o re d .67
At th e sam e time, d u rin g the second half o f the th irteen th century, Egyptian
m onks went to Ethiopia so writes E. A. Wallis B udgeand having profited by
the refo rm o f the C optic C h u rch in A lexandria, they devoted th em selv es. . . to the
restoration o f the decayed C hurch o f A byssinia." T h at restoration" most
probably included the Sabbath question .69
T o the Syrian an d Egyptian influences we need to add the effect o f a strong
m onastic revival a fte r the m iddle o f th e th irteen th centurya revival produced
p erh ap s in p a rt by these influences. It is possible that out o f loyalty to A lexandria,
and as a reaction against the Syrian m etropolitans," th e A lexandrian rejection o f
th e Sabbath was soon accepted by this revived m onasticism , an d by the country at
large. T h e fact is that the great Sabbath controversy o f the fo u rte en th and
fifteenth cen tu ries seems to have o riginated with a m onastic leader, Eustathius
(Ewostatewos), w ho did not want to give u p Sabbath observance.
From Eustathius to Zara Yaqob (c. 1300-1468).E ustathius (c. 1273-1352)
had established his own m onastery in S arae .70 Many students jo in ed him , an d he
tau g h t them until the arrival in Ethiopia o f the new Egyptian A buna, Yaiqob,
whom he m et on his way to the king's co u rt (c. 1337). Soon afte r this, he left the
co u n try as a result o f religious controversies. A rival g ro u p o f clergy m ade an
attem p t on his life im m ediately before his d e p a rtu re . In C airo fellow E thiopian
pilgrim s accused him , before the patriarch, o f observing the Sabbath as well as
Sunday.
E ustathius adm itted that the Sabbath was central in the conflict. But he
d efen d ed his position by re fe rrin g to the T e n C om m andm ents an d to the Apostolic
Canons.1' H e told the patriarch: I cam e to your c o u n try . . . so that I may die fo r the
word o f G od, fo r I have found no rest in this W orld. In E thiopia they said to me.
B reak th e Sabbath and the [other] rest Days like us, an d I refused. A nd h ere you
say to me Be one with us in p ray er' while you do not observe the rest Days ."71
E ustathius an d his disciples left C airo for Jerusalem . O n the way, at the
m onastery o f Scete, he is said to have been put in fetters. T h ese cruel people
op p o sed him fo r the Law an d C om m andm ents (of G od). 7 H e w ent from
Palestine to C yprus, an d finally to A rm enia, w here he died fo u rte en years later.
A fter his d eath , several o f his disciples re tu rn e d to E thiopia a n d jo in ed h ands with
th e disciples w ho had stayed behind. Planting m onasteries mainly in th e n o rth e rn
provinces o f th e kingdom , they gave birth to the house o f E ustathius, opposed to

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the h o u se o f T ak la-H aym anot, which followed the official, A lexandrian, line .74
E ustathius had taught against the A lexandrian position on the Sabbath. His
disciples m ade th e Sabbath th e ir rallying point. T h ey grew ra th e r rapidly in
nu m b ers, to th e great alarm o f th e anti-Sabbath party. T h e A buna personally led
the cam paign against the followers o f E ustathius. F ortunately fo r them , the
m etropolitan see was vacant fro m 1388-1398/9; an d this becam e the period o f
th eir greatest advance. W hen B ishop B artholom ew finally arrived, he asked King
Dawit (1380-1412) for help in bringing the recalcitrant 'h o u se o f Ewosjatewos
back to strict A lexandrian discipline.
K ing Dawit sum m oned Abba Filipos and o th er E ustathian leaders fo r a
theological discussion on the Sabbath. As a result, Filipos an d som e o f his
colleagues were im prisoned. D uring his fo u r years o f detention, from 1400 to
1404, Filipos won m any allies am o n g the a tten d an ts an d clergy o f the royal court.
U p o n his release, the king co m m anded the disciples o f Eustathius to observe
both Sabbaths 76 (that is, both th e Sabbath and Sunday). H owever, at the sam e
time, the A lexandrian opposition to Sabbath observance was supposed to be
m aintained in the n on-E ustathian churches an d at the royal court.
P ro te c te d by th e ro y al d e c re e , th e E u s ta th ia n h o u s e e x p e rie n c e d
w idespread grow th in the country, an d it also began gaining g ro u n d at the royal
court. F or instance, an increasing n u m b er o f m onastic com m unities read o p ted
the Sabbath, an d at the royal court a pro-Sabbath clergym an assayed to give
religious instructions to the p rin ces .77
W hen Zara Yaqob (1434-1468) cam e to the th ro n e, he seem ed to have had
clear pro-Sabbath convictions, an d he found a vigorous house o f E ustathius
opposed by a politically weak anti-Sabbath party. H e im m ediately set o u t to unify
his co untry, but th e Egyptian bishops, Mikael an d G abriel, were opposed to any
official change. Finally the king convened the C ouncil o f D abra M itmaq (1450),
co n cerning which th e king him self wrote: A nd God . . . revealed the h o n o u rs o f
the two Sabbaths to o u r fathers, the reverend bishops Mikad an d Gabri'l. He
had not m ade this revelation to the [Egyptian] bishops o f Ethiopia who cam e
before th e m .. . . A nd o u r fath ers A bba Mikad a n d Abba G abri e l . . . agreed with
us on th e observance o f the two Sabbaths, an d they declared this in th eir own
handw riting." *
T h e religious unification o f the country having been achieved, nu m ero u s
decrees w ere passed to regulate the religious conduct o f the people. C hristians
were not to p erfo rm on S aturday and Sunday, any kind o f labor," but w ere to
com e to g eth er in the churches for the study o f the service o f G od and the Holy
S pirit .79 I f som e C hristians lived too far from a church, a priest had to be sent to
them on Friday, an d spend th e w eekend there, giving religious instruction .80
T o Zara Yaqobs time co rresp o n d s the final redaction o f the Mashafa Berhdn
(Book o f Light), w hose m ajor concern is Sabbath observance. T h e au th o rsh ip o f
this book has been generally attrib u ted to King Zara Yaqob him self. However,
m ore recently, E phraim Isaac has com e to the conclusion that the book is a
com posite work based on a p re-fifteenth-century original hom iletical discourse
com posed in h o n o r o f the S abbath ."81
T h e M a s h a f a B e r h d n ( M B ) s t r o n g l y e n j o i n s b o th S a b b a t h a n d
Sunday observance. In o rd e r to avoid confusion, S aturday is often called "the first
Sabbath." T h e first book o f the M B consists o f six readings for "the first Sabbath."

T S 1 S A H -I2 177
 I'HF. S A B B A TH IN S CR I P T U R E AND H IS T O R Y

T h e second re ad in g includes a ra th e r lengthy list o f works th at should not be done

o n Sabbath an d o n Sunday": agricultural work (farm ing), plowing, cutting o f
grain o r grass, cutting o f wood, grinding, ferm en tin g o f beer, ferm en tin g o f
grapes o r m ead, reap in g o r th resh in g rip e grain, cu ttin g vegetables (n ear o r far)
an d cutting o f trees, w atering o f farm land an d g a rd e n [trees] and vegetables,
w ashing o f clothes, h u n tin g wild anim als, catching birds, fishing, covering [roofs
of] houses, being on a ro ad , collecting sheaves [of grain] so as to m ake one heap,
carrying grain into the houses from the field, building a fence, w riting a book,
tan n in g the vellum , sm ithing iron, clay-work, m aking m uddays for food, weaving
o f cloth, sewing o f cloth, weaving cotton o r wool (spinning), weaving o f baskets
and th e like, m aking palm leaf [hats] and th e like, punishing o f m en-servants and
m aid-servants, binding o f all m en, let them not d o any worldly work an d all that is
like it; and com ing near to a wom an. . . . A nd draw ing w ater is desecrating the
Sabbath." "
T h e list o f prohibited works is followed im m ediately by th at which can be
d o n e on th e first Sabbath an d Sunday: slaughtering o f anim als, cooking o f food
an d th e like, p re p arin g o f wat [Ethiopian sauce o f special spicy a n d hot flavor] and
the like. W hoever wants can eat m eat which is slaughtered on th e first Sabbath and
on S unday e ith er roasted o r b o iled ."" T h e reason given to ju stify these seemingly
liberal rules is that if the people w ere not allowed to d o this. Sabbath a n d Sunday
w ould be days o f sadness, an d not o f joy as they are supposed to be.
A lthough the MB enjoins the observance o f both Sabbath an d S unday, it is
obvious that it was w ritten with the pu rp o se o f d efen d in g Sabbath observance over
against th e ones who said that the Sabbath had been abolished. M atthew 5:18, 19,
is qu o ted several times to rem ind the read ers o f th e unchangeable ch a rac te r o f
G ods law. T h e lota th at is m entioned th ere represents, in fact it is, th e T e n
C om m andm ents. T h ese cannot change. O n the o th er hand, the beginning o f the
nam e o f Jesu s is i o t a , by nu m b er, ten." MT h e T e n C om m andm ents an d Jesus are
th u s very closely connected. T h e a u th o r continues: R egarding him who
abolished th e h o n o r o f the first Sabbath, behold he up ro o ted the fou n d atio n o f the
church. H e cast h er out because he has abolished one m ajor w ord from the
Decalogue u p o n which the church is fo u n d ed . . . .
"W hosoever strikes ou t one w ord from the Decalogue, behold he has stricken
out th e n am e o f Jesus. . . .
A nd if o n e strikes ou t o f the nam e o f Jesus, behold he has stricken ou t the
nam e o f th e T rinity. A nd if o n e struck ou t o n e from the T rin ity , he has indeed
cancelled o u t his C hristianity. "
In o rd e r to m ake absolutely su re that th ere is no m isunderstanding, th e text
o f th e D ecalogue is rep eated in full both in read in g two a n d in reading six.* T h e
following p arag ra p h sum m arizes quite well the m ain th ru st o f book one o f the
M B:
T h e keeping o f the first Sabbath is [equal to] the keeping o f Sunday. If
[therefore] th e first Sabbath is not kept, [it is indeed as if] S unday is not kept; for
the h o n o r o f th e first Sabbath is w ritten in the Orit [the Law], the p rophets, a n d the
gospel, and th e Snodos o f the apostles. H e who honors it [also] honors G od who
wrote with his own han d and com m anded that one should h o n o r it. A nd God
honors him who ho n o rs t.",,
S cattered th ro u g h several o f the o th e r five books o f th e M B th e re are m ore

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references to th e law and the Sabbath. In book two "we find a special e ffo rt that
was m ade to criticize those who breach the Sabbath. In an elaborate section the
eospel stories are called u p o n to show that Jesus did not desecrate the first
S a b b a th .. .
Zara Yaqob was helped, in his efforts in favor o f Sabbath and Sunday
observance, by som e pseudo-apostolic writings an d o th er works that had been
translated into Ge'ez, ap p aren tly d u rin g the fo u rte en th century, as p art o f ihe
literary revival th at accom panied m onastic renewal. Som e o f them , such as the
Didascalia, w ere known earlier in Arabic translation.
In th e Ethiopic Didascalia Sabbath and S unday observance is strongly
enjoined, as th e following fragm ents clearly show: C h ap ter 29: W e o u g h t not to
fast on th e Sabbath, except the o n e day (the Sabbath) o f the Passion. . . . But the
o th e r Sabbaths let us h o n o u r because o u r L ord rested from His work on the
Sabbath." C h ap ter 30: . . . a n d h o n o u r the Sabbath being gath ered to g eth er in the
C h u rch with joy an d gladness." C h a p te r 38: O L ord Almighty, who didst . . .
ap p o in t th e Sabbath, and rest th ereo n from all T h y work, and hast com m anded us
to rest (on it) from all the w ork o f o u r hands." .. an d didst com m and them to rest
on th e Sabbath day, that they m ight give T h e e hum ble thanks, an d be safe from all
evil___W herefo re H e hath com m anded us to rest on every Sabbath day, because
on th e Sabbath day o u r L ord rested from all His work. . . . A nd g re ater th an all
these is (the day of) His holy resu rrectio n which o u r Lord an d Saviour and
C reato r, God th e W ord, hath tau g h t us (to o b serv e).""
A n o th er work that ap p ears to have influenced Zara Yaqobs prescriptions on
practices connected with Sabbath observance is the so-called Egyptian Church
Order. T his work is based on H ippolytus' Apostolic Tradition, fo u n d , with m any
adaptations, as p art o f Book 8 o f the Apostolic Constitutions (c. a . d . 375). O n e o f its
canons, in th e Ethiopic version, prescribes: [And on the sabbath and] on the first day
o f th e week th e bishop, if it be possible, shall with his own h an d deliver to all the
people, while th e deacons break the bread." A few lines fu rth e r it becom es very
clear th at Sabbath and S unday w ere considered to be d iffe ren t from the "other
days ."90
Zara Yaqob also used the Kidan, an Ethiopic version o f The Testament o f our
Lord, as an au th o rity prescribing Sabbath and Sunday observance.*'
T h e Sinodos is a n o th er im p o rtan t work that was translated d u rin g the
fo u rte en th century. T o g e th e r with the Didascalia it o rd ers the religious life o f the
Ethiopians even to day .91 King Zara Yaqob sent a copy o f it to the Ethiopian
com m unity in Jeru salem (1442) with the m essage: "I hereby send you this book o f
Snodos so that you may get consolation from it on the days o f ihe First Sabbath and
on S un d ay s."
T h e Apostolic Canons are an integral part o f the Snodos.*4 C anon 66 reads:
"A nd we have o rd e re d in o u r w ritings [that] you, your slaves, an d your servants
should work five days, an d [that] on the Sabbath an d on S unday you should rest. 95
T h e re is also in the Canons a homily that repeats the idea that on Sabbath and
S unday both m aster and slave should have the o p p o rtu n ity to go to church a n d be
instructed in th e C hristian religion. A m ong the Biblical texts used are Genesis 2:2,
Exodus 31:13, an d Isaiah 56:4-7. Interestingly enough, the O ld T estam en t
p ro p h e ts are cred ited with having o rd e re d that the "Sabbaths (i.e., Sabbath and
Sunday) should be kept .96

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T h e re are o th e r texts from this period, o r earlier, th at deal directly with

Sabbath an d /o r S unday observance. A m ong these are the Ethiopic Athanasius
Anaphora (a glorification o f the "holy Sabbath o f the C hristians," i.e., Sunday),
prayers for th e Sabbath day, an d a homily about the S abbath .97
Zara Yaqob's chronicler gives us what is probably the best sum m ary o f the
kings effo rts to restore Sabbath observance w hen he writes: T h e E thiopian
people had . . . neglected the precepts o f th eir faith and the m an n er o f th e keeping
o f th e Sabbath a n d feast days. I have m yself witnessed, in my youth, th at the
Sabbath was p ro fan ed a n d that everyone w orked on that day.
It was only beginning from the n in th h o u r (i.e., 3:00 p. m .), w hen the tru m p e t
was sou n d ed , th at all activity ceased an d that the people, starting th eir rest, would
say, i t is now th at the Sabbath begins.' O th e r feast days w ere no b etter observed.
T h e King re-established them an d prescribed that the Sabbath should be as holy as
Sunday, w ithout any distinction, according to the prescriptions o f the holy
a p o stle s.. . . All these beliefs an d practices, as well as o th ers o f a sim ilar n atu re,
were ex p o u n d e d by o u r King who o rd e re d them to be taught to all m en and
w om en by calling them all to g eth er in every locality every Sabbath an d feast
d ay ."9
First Contacts With Rome and Portugal (c. 1482-c. 1600). Francisco
Alvarez (died c. 1540), in his Narrative of the Portuguese Embassy to Abyssinia, testifies
o f th e observance o f both the Sabbath an d Sunday. In a passage th at seem s to re fe r
to the Sabbath controversy a ro u n d the year 1400 he refers to a king who
co m m anded th at S aturday should not be observed; this m onarch was opposed by
Abba Philip with his friars, who "u n d erto o k to show how G od had com m anded
th at S aturday should be k e p t . . . an d he m ade it good before the King. T h e re fo re
they say th at he was a Saint fo r m aking S aturday to be k ep t . 99
L ater in th e century, probably in 1482, u n d e r King Iskindir (1478-1494),
Franciscan m onk Ioane d e C alabria arrived in Ethiopia with a lay com panion,
G iovanni da Im ola. Many E uropeans w ere in the country at that tim e.1"" A fter
years o f waiting, loane de C alabria was apparently allowed to see the young king.
W hen Francisco Alvarez him self visited Ethiopia (1520-1526?), Egyptian Bishop
M arqos told him that King Iskindir had tried, about that time, to change the
traditional practices o f the Ethiopians, especially concerning the Sabbath and
food laws .101
Alvarez was o n e o f the m em bers o f the exploratory mission sent by the king o f
Portugal in answ er to a request for help sent by Q ueen H elena o f Ethiopia in 1507.
Ethiopia felt th rea ten ed at that tim e by the Moslems o f the Red Sea littoral.1 T h e
mission arrived in 1520. Alvarez ap p aren tly succeeded in w inning the confidence
o f King Lebna D engel (1508-1540) and o f the A buna, to the point o f discussing
the possibility o f doing away with Sabbath observance and food laws .105
A fter ab out six years o f stay in Ethiopia the mission left for Portugal, taking
along an E thiopian envoy. Saga za-Ab (Zaga Zabo), an d leaving behind physician
Jo ao B erm u d ez .104
At som e tim e betw een 1527 an d 1534,l0> Saga za-Ab is re p o rte d to have
explained in Lisbon the following about Sabbath observance in Ethiopia (in the
context o f a re p o rt on o th e r beliefs an d practices, as well): W e are bound by the
Institutions o f the Apostles to observe two days, to wit; the Sabbath a n d the
L o rd s-day, on which it is not lawful for us to do any work, no, not the least. O n the

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Sabbath-day, because God, afte r he had finished the creation o f the world, rested
th ereo n ; which day, as God would have it called the Holy o f Holies, so the not
celebrating th e re o f with great honor and devotion seems to be plainly co n trary to
G ods will and p recept, who will su ffer heaven an d earth to pass away sooner than
his w ord; a n d th at especially, since C hrist cam e not to dissolve the law, but to fulfill
it. It is not, th ere fo re , in imitation of the Jews, but in obedience to Christ and his holy
apostles, th at we observe that day, the favor that was show ed herein to the Jews,
being tra n sfe rre d to us, C hristians. . . . We do observe the L o rd s-day afte r the
m an n er o f all o th e r C hristians in m em ory o f C hrists re su rrec tio n ." 106
M eanwhile, in the East, the Moslem military leader A hm an ibn Ibrahim
(nicknam ed G ran , the left-handed"), o f the su ltanate o f Adal, had started his
raids an d incursions that b ro u g h t ruin, devastation, a n d misery upon C hristian
E thiopia. As early as 1529 he inflicted a m ajor defeat on Lebna Dengel. In
desp eratio n th e king sent Jo a o B erm udez to E u ro p e in 1535 to sum m on help.
T ry in g to enlist the sym pathy an d su p p o rt o f P ortugal and o f o th e r C hristian
pow ers, the king m ade it be know n that he was willing "to b rin g the m onophysite
C h u rch , w ithout changing its ch aracter o r doctrine, u n d e r the su p rem e
ju risd ictio n o f th e C h u rch o f R om e . 107
B erm u d ez em bassy eventually resulted in the arrival at the Red Sea po rt o f
Massawa ( 1541 ) o f 400 P ortuguese soldiers with firearm s, sent by P ortugal from
Goa (India) u n d e r the leadership o f C ristovao d a Gam a, y o u n g er b ro th e r o f
Vasco. M eanwhile young C laudius (Galawdewos, 1540-1559) had succeeded his
fa th e r on th e E thiopian th ro n e. W ith the decisive help o f the P ortuguese firearm s
he succeeded in d efeating, and in finally killing, G ran (1543). For all practical
p u rposes the Moslem m enace h ad en d ed . Now the country needed to be rebuilt.
C o n fro n tatio n with the Rom an Catholic C h u rch began soon a fte r the
above-m entioned decisive m ilitary victory. B erm udez was back in Ethiopia an d
insisted th at th e R om an rite be en fo rced th ro u g h o u t the country. C laudius
refused, an d , according to the royal chronicler, finally (c. 1545) had B erm udez
exiled to th e co u n try o f G a f .. . . C laudius disliked the religion o f the F ranks.
W ishing to convert Ethiopia to the Rom an faith, Pope Ju liu s III ap p o in ted a
Patriarch o f Ethiopia (1554). In o rd e r to p re p are the way for him , Gonales
R odriguez a n d two o th e r Jesuits went to Ethiopia first (1555). T h e king treated
them kindly, but firmly rejected th eir pressure to abandon the faith o f his
ancestors. In 1557 Jesu it B ishop A n d r d e O viedo arrived in E thiopia.I(WT h e
royal ch ro n icler com m ents: T h e object o f this voyage . . . was to criticize the tru e
faith which was b ro u g h t to E thiopia from A lexandria an d openly to proclaim the
false belief which issued from R om e . 110
C laudius explained to O viedo that he already had a m onophysite A buna. H e
arg u ed with him an d his com panions, "defeated them in arg u m e n t an d
co n fo u n d ed th e ir falsehoods . 111 O u t o f these disputes cam e what is know n as
C laudius C onfession o f F aith. T h e Jesuits, as others before them , had accused
the Ethiopian C h u rch o f observing several Jew ish custom s an d laws. C laudius
refu tes these charges in the context o f a fairly com prehensive confession o f faith.
In re g ard to Sabbath and S unday observance he writes:
B ut as fa r as o u r celebration o f the Sabbath day is concerned, we d o not
celebrate it as th e Jew s do, who have crucified C hrist, saying: Let His blood (fall)
over us and over o u r children. For these Jew s n eith er draw w ater n o r kindle a fire

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n o r cook any food, n o r bake bread, n eith er [do] they go from house to house.
But we celebrate it in bringing the offering [i.e., the Sacram ent] on it an d in
keeping the agape, as o u r fathers, the apostles, have com m anded us in the
Didascalia. We d o not celebrate it in the way that Sunday is celebrated, which is the
new day, about which David said: O n this day which the Lord has m ade, let us be
glad a n d full o f jo y . 11*
C laudius follows very closely Zara Yaqob's position o f a century earlier.
S unday seems to be p re fe rre d , but he is far from ready to give u p the Sabbath. T h e
contrast betw een the Jew ish and the C hristian (E thiopian) ways o f observing the
Sabbath is sharply draw n.
Soon afterw ard, in 1559, C laudius was killed in battle. His b ro th e r Minas
(1559-1563) succeeded him. A fter the victory over Graft, 100 o r 150 surviving
P ortuguese soldiers had settled in Ethiopia an d had becom e an integral p a rt o f the
p o p u latio n ."5 In the words o f A. Jo n es and E. M onroe, C laudius had allowed the
Abyssinian wives an d slaves o f the P ortuguese to ad o p t the Rom an faith, an d had
perm itted the Abyssinians to atten d the Rom an churches. Minas forbade this, and
when Bishop O viedo defied him , he was barely restrained from killing the Jesu it
with his own hands." 114
A bout this tim e the Mashafa Tomar (Book o f the L etter) ap p eared ,
translated from the Arabic. A ccording to tradition, the original cam e dow n from
heaven in th e C h u rch o f Saints P eter a n d Paul in Rom e in D ecem ber, A. G r. 1050,
in the presence o f all the principal priests an d a very large co n gregation ." 1,5 "T h e
letter deals with C hristian doctrines in th e broadest sense, but directs particular
atten tio n to th e im portance o f Sabbath observance. "
Minas was succeeded by his son Sartsa Dengel (1563-1597), who reversed his
fa th e rs policy, protected O viedo, tolerated the R om an priests, an d was even
accused by th e native clergy o f having asked the pope to send m issionaries to
Ethiopia. His ch ronicler records the baptism en masse o f a newly co n q u ered
h eathen people, p e rfo rm ed on a Sabbath an d th e im m ediate Sunday, in the
twenty-fifth year o f his re ig n ."7
The Ephemeral Trium ph o f the Anti-Sabbath Party (1604-1632).Some
years later, in 1603, Spanish Jesu it P ero F. Paez arrived in Ethiopia. A m an o f
ex tra o rd in ary ability, h e m astered G e ez in one year. His "com m on sense,
shrew dness a n d discretion "* appealed to all classes. He established a school in the
m onastery o f F rem onat (near Aksum ), to which both E thiopian and P ortuguese
ch ildren w ere ad m itted, an d w ere taught the Rom an faith. T h e fam e o f Paez as a
teacher soon reached the royal court. In April, 1604, he was received by the new
king, Za Dengel (1603-1604). T h e king both favourably and patiently" listened to
"several D isputes . . . about C ontroversies in R elig io n .. . . Mass was also said afte r
th e Roman m an n er, and a S erm on P reachd; with which Zadenghel was so taken,
that . . . he resolvd to subm it him self to the Pope. ",
Za D engels decision to jo in the Rom an Catholic C hurch becam e clear to his
subjects when he set fo rth an edict "That no Person should any longer observe the
Sabbath as a Holy day." 'm L etters followed from him to both Pope C lem ent V III and
King Philip III o f Spain a n d Portugal, asking fo r artisans, soldiers, an d m ore
Jesu it fathers to instruct his subjects .1,1
T h e reaction in Ethiopia was fast an d violent. Peter, the A buna, released the
people from th eir oath o f allegiance to the king, and excom m unicated Za Dengel.

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Only once before had a king been excom m unicated (for incest). A successful
m ilitary revolt en d e d with the defeat an d death o f the king, only m onths later, in
O ctober o f 1604, in spite o f his being su p p o rted by about 200 P ortuguese soldiers
with firearm s.1
T o Za D engels reign belongs the Saw am Nafs (R efuge o f the Soul"), a letter
w ritten to the king by Newaya Masqal from the latter's place o f exile in Egypt. It is
an a ttem p t to convince the king to hold firm to the A lexandrian faith. In c h a p te r 2
the a u th o r tells th e king that in yielding to the Jesuits and rejecting the Sabbath he
has ig n o red both the law o f th e C rea to r and the canons o f the apostles. T h e n ,
tu rn in g against th e "innovators" who arg u e that the Jew s crucified Jesus because
H e b ro k e the Sabbath, he quotes Jo h n 5:18, and concludes th at if the charge o f His
break in g th e Sabbath is en o u g h to justify abolishing Sabbath observance now,
th en th e belief in God as Jesu s F ath er should also be abandoned. Newaya Masqals
logic could be charged with ignoratio elenchi, but he is one m ore clear exam ple o f
the d ee p concern fo r Sabbath observance shown so m any times by E thiopians .115
A fter som e th ree years o f a war o f succession, the th ro n e was finally m ade
secure in the h an d s o f Susenyos (1607-1632). T h e king was an educated m an and
. . . was favourably im pressed by the intelligence and learning o f the Jesuit
priests ." 1,4 H e eased the restrictions against th e Rom an faith and perm itted
proselytizing. L etters w ere sent to the pope a n d to the king o f Spain requesting
assistance .115
By 1612 Susenyos had privately decided to becom e a Rom an Catholic. T h e re
w ere several public disputes on the two n atu res o f C hrist, a key point o f
d isagreem ent betw een the A lexandrian (m onophysite) and the Rom an faith. T h e
Jesuits won every time. E ncouraged by these results, the king published an edict
giving liberty to all his subjects to em brace Rom an C atholicism .'
E thiopian M etropolitan Sim eon, several o f the nobility, an d m any o f the
clergy decided to rebel. T h e rebels were defeated by Susenyos (1617), who in the
year 1620 published a n o th er edict forbidding Sabbath observance as Jew ish and
re p u g n a n t to C hristianity. An anonym ous reply to this edict so incensed the king
that, according to Ludolf, he "renew d the Edict about the Sabbath, and
co m m an d ed th e H u sb an d m en to Plough an d Sow upon that Day, ad d in g as a
Penalty u p o n th e O ffen d ers, for th e first Fault the F orfeiture o f a weavd
V estm ent to th e value o f a Portugal Patack; for the second, Confiscation o f Goods,
and th at th e said O ffence should no t be prescribed to Seven years; a certain form
usually inserted in th eir m o re severe D ecrees ." 1,7 L u d o lf could not hide his
ad m iratio n fo r the piety o f the E thiopians "since they w ere thus to be com pelld to
the Neglect o f th e Sabbath by such Severe Laws, w hen we can hardly be in d u cd by
stricter Penalties to observe th e Lord's-D ay ."118
T o m ake su re that the d ecree would be obeyed, a general, accused o f having
refu sed to work on the Sabbath, was beaten with rods, and publicly d e g ra d e d , 129
an d in trying to explain his position to the chief nobles an d com m anders o f the
arm y, Susenyos expressed his su rp rise at the accusation th at he had ch an g ed the
religion o f the country. H e h ad only re fo rm ed it. C hrist, in fact, had two natu res,
he a d d ed . In the next place he had abrogated the Observation of the Sabbath Day, became
it became not C hristians to observe the Jew s Sabbath.150
T h e arm e d rebellion against the P rophanation o f the Sabbath," as it was
called by some, sp re a d .'51 B ut the king was able to defeat the rebels. E ncouraged by

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his victories, in 1622 he issued a proclam ation to his subjects giving the reasons
why he had ab a n d o n ed the A lexandrian faith an d accepted the R om an. H e urg ed
them to follow his exam ple. But the rebellion co n tin u ed .1
H aving received a reply from Paul V, Susenyos answ ered in a letter d ated
J a n u a ry 31, 1623, prom ising to obey him as universal pastor o f the ch u rch , an d
asking for a P atriarch.1 M ore Jesuits cam e in 1623. T h e n , in 1624 o r 1625,
A lphonso M endez, th e new P atriarch, arrived. H e is described as a brave an d a
bold m an, but rigid, uncom prom ising, narrow -m inded a n d in to le ran t ." 154
M endez m ade Susenyos a n d his sons an d officials and priests m ake a new
confession o f th e Rom an Faith in F ebruary 1626, an d to swear solemnly by the
Gospel an oath o f obedience to His H oliness the Pope;" an d he in tro d u ced
sw eeping ch an g es.1 S aturday becam e a day o f fasting.1*
T h e changes so abruptly in tro d u ced soon began to tu rn the tide against the
king, an d he was co n fro n ted with a grow ing opposition to the religious civil w ar
th at was ru in in g the country. In response to arg u m en tatio n by enem ies o f th e
Jesuits, King Susenyos finally yielded slightly .'*7 An edict was published th at
p erm itted again the exercise o f all the ancient cerem onies that w ere not
re p u g n an t to the faith. W hen M endez protested, suggesting that a new edict be
p ublished with th e help o f o n e o f the Jesuits, the king com plied. But the new edict
specified in article 2 T h a t the Festivals should be observ'd according to th e
ancient C o m p u tation o f T im e," an d in article 3 that w hoever w anted to d o so could
fast on th e fo u rth day o f th e week instead o f on the S abbath.15"
A fter one m ore m ilitary victory against the rebels, Susenyos, pressed by his
son Fasiladas an d o th ers to stop the carnage o f his own subjects, proclaim ed
religious freedom in Ju n e , 1632.IW Thus en d ed the most decided attem pt to
m odify the religious faith o f Ethiopia, the Sabbath included, since C hristianity
had en tered th e country in the fo u rth century a . d .
Susenyos died a Rom an Catholic in S eptem ber o f the sam e year. T h e new
king, Fasiladas (1632-1667), o rd e re d the Jesuits out o f the country (1633), a n d
th en started b u rn in g all th e Catholic books he could find, an d . . . beheading an d
h an g in g every priest, w h eth er Jesuit o r C apuchin, an d all who were associated
with th e m ." 140His son, Y ohannes I (1667-1682), went even fu rth e r by expelling all
Rom an Catholics from Ethiopia (1669).1,1
E thiopia had now e n te re d a new period o f relative isolation. Sabbath
observance (to g eth er with th at o f Sunday) has co ntinued u n in te rru p te d since the
seventeenth cen tury until to d ay .1,1 H ow ever, the quality o f Sabbath observance is,
by far, not unifo rm in all p arts o f the c o u n try .145
Summary and C onclusions
Both th e Sabbath a n d Sunday w ere observed in fourth-century Egypt.
H ow ever, S unday was th e p re fe rre d day. C om m union was adm inistered in
A lexandria (c. 385) only on these two days, and the Sabbath was never supposed to
be a day o f fasting, except o n Easter Sabbath. M oreover, until c. 400 th ere w ere no
public services in th e Egyptian m onasteries except for V espers an d N octurns
o th e r th an on the Sabbath an d Sunday.
It ap p ears that d u rin g the first h alf o f th e fifth century, C hristians in
A lexandria sto p p ed assem bling together an d celebrating the sacred m ysteries
on th e Sabbath. However, th e churches in the neighborhood o f A lexandria and

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elsew here in Egypt participated in the m ysteries on Sabbath evening. It is

possible that th e A lexandrian change o f posture can be traced to the anti-Jew ish
o u tb reak u n d e r A rchbishop Cyril (412-444) that resulted in the expulsion o f the
Jew s from A lexandria. C hristian-Jew ish relations had been less th an cordial in
A lexandria at least since the second century a . d .
T h e available d o cum ents also suggest that from approxim ately the year 500
Egypt ab a n d o n ed all sem blance o f Sabbath observance.
C hristianity e n te re d the kingdom o f Aksum in the fo u rth century. It is
assum ed th at Sabbath and Sunday w ere from the outset observed as days o f rest,
following the practice o f the ch u rch o f A lexandria to which the ch u rch o f the
A ksum ite kingdom was closely attached. B eginning, apparently, with the eleventh
century, th e A lexandrian See began ex ertin g pressure on the E thiopian C h u rch to
follow its exam ple in ab a n d o n in g Sabbath observance. By the second half o f the
th irte e n th cen tu ry , Ethiopia was well on h er way tow ard following A lexandria.
An increasingly stro n g pro-Sabbath reaction was cham pioned by E ustathius
an d his followers b eginning in the first half o f the fo u rte en th century. It
culm inated with th e full legal reinstatem ent o f Sabbath as a day o f rest (along w ith
Sunday) by King Zara Yaqob d u rin g th e first h alf o f the fifteenth century.
In th e last q u a rte r o f the fifteenth century, the first Rom an Catholic priests
en tered E thiopia. In 1541 a force o f 400 P ortuguese soldiers arrived in answ er to
King Lebna D engels d esp erate plea for help against the Moslem invaders. A fter
victory, B erm udez first, then O viedo a few years later, unsuccessfully ex erted
pressu re on kings C laudius and Minas to subm it to the Rom an C hurch, and to
ab an d o n , am o n g o th e r beliefs and practices, the observance o f the seventh-day
Sabbath.
Jesu it P. F. Paez was successful in attracting King Za D engel to the Rom an
Catholic faith. T h is m onarch issued an edict forbidding Sabbath observance
(1604). A fter th e king was killed in the ensuing revolt, Paez won over King
Susenyos, who becam e a R om an Catholic. Susenyos issued harsh edicts
com m anding th e people to work on the Sabbath and crushed alm ost all arm ed
opposition. B ut a fte r Paezs death (1622), Patriarch A lphonso M endez's rigid,
un co m prom ising ways stren g th en e d the anti-Jesuit party. T h e king, a fte r a final
m ilitary victory, d ecreed com plete religious freedom and abdicated. His son
Fasiladas expelled the Jesuits. L ater King Y ohannes (1669) expelled all R om an
Catholics from his kingdom .
Since th e sev enteenth century, Ethiopia has kept, u n d istu rb ed , both Sabbath
and Sunday. H ow ever, real Sabbath observance today, as far as the Coptic C h u rch
is co n cerned, is confined mostly to the ru ral areas in the n o rth e rn provinces.

NO TES
1 C a n o n s later a p p r o v e d by n a m e n ot q u o te d as b in d in g , in ca n o n 2 o f the Q u in isex t C o u n cil in 6 9 2 . N otitia
H u to n o -L ittera n a (in tro d u cto ry n o tes to th e w ork s o f St. Peter; P G 1 8 :4 4 9 , 450 ).
a Saruti Petri Episcopi A le x a n d n m f t M a rtyn s Etas tula Canonira trans. in N P N F f2 14:601.
3 T h e H om ilia d r S rm e n tf is o n lv attrib u ted to A th a n a siu s, b ish o p o f A lex a n d ria (c. 2 9 6 -3 7 3 ). It is co n s id e r e d o f
d u b io u s au th e n ticity (P G 2 8 :7).
4 S. P N . A th an asii H om ilia de Sem enie (P G 2 8 :1 4 4 ); se e E n glish v ersio n in S D A B S S B , N o . 1422.
5 Ibid (PG 2 8 :1 4 4 . 145)
6 S. P. N. A th an asii D t Sabbatis f t C trc u m n sw n f (P G 2 8 :1 3 3 . 137). (Italics su p p lie d .) F ren ch v ersio n in W illy
R o rd o rf, Sabbat f t dtm anrhe dans IEgU sf a n c tm n e (N cu t hatel. S w itzerlan d. 1 972), p. 9 1 .
7 Ibid. (PG 2 8 :1 4 0 ); F ren ch v ersion in R ord orf. op. a t., pp. 185, 187.
* Ibid (PG 2 8 .1 4 1 ); R ord orf. o f a t., p. 187. S ee also a clearly sp u rio u s w ork attrib u ted to A th a n a siu s. Syntagm a
D o ftn n a f ad M onafhos, O mnrsque C nrutianut tarn Clcncos quam Laicos (P G 2 8 :8 3 7 ). T h e a u th o r classifies Sabbath

185
 T H E S AB BA TH IN S C R I P T U R E AND HISTORY

o b servan ce to g eth er w ith actions su ch a as trig " r i b " to a b ro th er, o r d e a lin g w ith m agic a n d in ca n ta tio n s, as
s o m eth in g that a C hristian hould n ot d o (col M 9 ) H o w ev e r. S abbath a n d Sunday a re sin g led o u t as d a vs w h en
t.isim g sh o u ld not takr p lace, exc ep t 1*r Faster S a lilu th * *1 8 4 0 |
The C arum ual Ai&ruvn o f Timothy. the M ost H oly B uhttp of Alexandria, to ho VVai O ne o f the C L Fathery Gathered
Together at Constantinople, to the Q u/iium i Proposed to H im (o m e r n tn g Bisfutpt a n d Clerus. Q u e stio n X II I . in N P X F I 2 , 14
(A p p en d ix IX >:613 < e e PC. 33 ISO' S ee a b o R o rd o rf. op rtf., p p 10$, 105
: \'a\\mUu> IhM ona ad l.a u iu m ^ n . M I" PC N 1 0 1 0 ), a n d chap 15. 1 6 (PC S 4 : 1 0 3 6 ) S ee a b o
R ord orf. op fit., p. 87. R o rd o rl. op fit., p. 8 5 . q u ote Vita / la m ti P a th tm n 2 S a t follow s H e [P a ch o m iu s] p rescrib ed ,
th e u p e n n te n d e n i o f th e m on astery w ul a rran ge lo r th ree (session o f) in stru ction : o n e o n th e S abbath a n d tw o o n
S u n d a \ A ccord in g to R o rd o rf. th e C optic text o f Pachom iu' ru le is not that clear. It states that th e in stru ctio n had
to take p lace. ob ligatorily, tw ice a week.*' Ibid.. n. 3
11 I b id . 138 ( n i 3 4 :1 2 3 6 ) S ee R ord orf. op. rtf., p. 2 0 7
11 J o h n C^assun The )n \titu te\ of the Coenobw 3. 2 ( N P N f t 2 11 213).
15 I b id , 5 2 6 ( S P S F V 11 2 4 3 )
14 I bid . 2. 4 (N P N F /2 1 1:206)
11 I b u i , 2 . 6 ( N P S FI2 11 2 0 7 )
' J o h n ( a u i a n . Conferenres 2 3 . 21 (N P N F f2 1 1:531).
17 C f. ch ap . 8 . n n . 14. 15.
S ocrates ScholastM u s E fciesunttcal H utory 5. 2 2 (N P N F J2 2 .1 3 2 ).
19 S o to m e n E ffle iu u tifa l H uiory 7 19 (N P N F f2 2 390)
* S ocrates Scholastic u s E c tl. H u t. 7. IS ( N P S F f t 2 :1 5 9 ). cf. M arcel S im o n . V e rm Israel (P a ra . 1 964). p 382.
Had
n Ibid
25 C f ( a u u n ' t w itn ess (r. 4 0 0 ). w ith S ocrates Scholastic us' a n d S o to m en ' sta tem en ts i t 4 4 0 ).
H R ord orf. op a t., p 2 0 8 . an d p 2 0 9 . n 4; Cl. K ruger. E u sebiu s o f A lex a n d ria . S th a ff-H eru tg . 4 2 0 8
15 T e x t in PC* 0 6 /1 :4 1 3 -4 2 1 . F ren ch version in R o rd o rf. op rtf., p p. 209*219.
** Ibtd . col. 4 1 6 .
r Ibui
n I b u i. c o ls 4 1 9 . 4 2 0
79 Ibid , co ls 4 2 0 . 421
50 R ord orf. op rtf., p. 2 1 9 . n. 3. ex p la in s that th e fragm en t ha b een attrib u ted to Peter o f A lex a n d ria (d ied 3 1 1 )
But R ord orf argue that th e S u n d ay le g isla tio n in th e fra g m en t cerns im p ossib le at th e b e g in n in g o f th e fo u rth
centu ry O n th e o th er h an d , th e con ten t a re strikingly sim ilar to E usebiu o f A lex a n d ria h o m ilv 16
** (P seu d o ) P eti u s A le x a n d n n u m . Fragm entum . in Texte u n d L'ntersuehungen :ur G exthuhte der a lu h n s tln h e n
I iteratur. so l 2 0 . e d by G S ch m id t (1 9 0 1 ). q u o te d in R ord orf. op. n L . p p 219*221
n R ord orf. op rtf . p 2 2 1 . n . I
M Zac h arie le Sc h olastiu u e V w de S M r t (P O 2 :3 2 ).
u S e e m P O 1 4 :344. a r e fe r e n c e to th e holy n igh t o f th e li ir d s Dav in The li f e of Abba Jo h n Ktuime John K h a m l
was a Syrian w h o lived in Eftvpt (so m etim e b etw een /0 0 an d 8 6 0 ). T h e r e are r e fe ren ce s to eeral co n set rations d o u r
o n Sunday in th e th ir te e n tn ce n tu ry , in M o u fa /z a l I bn Abal-Fazail. H u U m e des Sultans M a m lo u k. P O 14 4 4 7 -4 5 1 .
M A lex a n d er Ros. Pansebeta or. A K ir o f a ll Religions in the W orld (L o n d o n . 1 6 5 5 ). p. 494
* Ciregory D ix. e d .. T he Treatise on the Apastabe Tradition o f S t H tp p o h tu s o f Rom e ( liin d im . 196 8 ), p Ivm
17 Ibtd.. p lix
M W ilson B B ish ai. S abb ath O b se r v a n c e fro m C optic S ources." AVSS I ( I 9 6 3 ):2 7 . c f a parallel tex t in 1st "127
Canons des ApStm." 1:65. trans. fro m A rabic to F ren ch bs J e a n IV n er a n d A ugutm P e n o r . in PO 8 :6 4 9 .
** T h e Arabic v ersion was m a d e fro m th e C opu c b e fo r e 1295 T h e r e are eyera! m an uscrip t In P O 8 :5 6 7 * 5 7 0 .
m an uscrip t are m e n tio n e d fro m th e ears 1339. 1348. 13 5 3 . 1 641. 166 4 . a n d 1 7 3 0
* I tn d . 2 4 5 (P O 8 :6 8 4 )
41 I b td , I 4 0 (P O 8 :6 1 2 )
41 C f j> 175 in th is sam e ch a p ter o n th e im p act that Ib n al-Assa!* (o ile r turn o f C anons ( 1 238). p rep a re d for the
b en efit of (.o p tic C h ristian s in E gyp t, h ad o n E th iop ia
Edw ard I 'lle n d o r ff. The Ethiopians. 2d e d (L o n d o n . 196 5 ). p. 4 9
44 Idem , H ebraic-Jew ish E lem en t in A bvssin ian (M o n o p h ssite ) C h ristia n ity ." /o w n w j/o / Sem etu Studies I (J u h .
1 956) 2 1 6 * 2 5 6 . idem, E th u tn a and the Bible (L o n d o n . 1968). p p IS -3 0
w Idem Fthurpta. p. 23.
46 Ibui T h ere is a late E th iop ian trad ition a cco rd in g to w hich in p re-C h ristian d a y s part o f th e p o p u la tio n
follow ed th e Jew ish re lig io n , an d th e o th e r part w o rsh ip e d th e s e r p e n t. S ee uiem, F. th u p u m \. p 9 7 ; !?. A W allis
B u d g e. A H istory o f Ethiopia (L o n d o n . 1928). 1:148. C f w ith th e a lso late trad ition d e p e n d ') o f th e q u e e n o f Shelia.
S o lo m o n , an d M eneltk I th at, for all practical p u r p o ses, w as treated as historical fact w h en it was in clu d ed in th e 1955
C o n stitu tio n I 'lle n d o r ff. Ethiopians, p p 6 4 . 6 5 . 143. 144. 194. B u d g e, op t i t . pp. 194*200. 2 2 0 * 2 2 7 . et ce te ra
47 I'lle n d o r ff. Ethiopia , p. I l l
a M axim e R o d in so n . Sur la Q u e stio n de In flu e n c es Ju ives' e n E th iop J o u r n a l o f Sem etu Stu d iet 9 (S p rin g
19(H): 12 T h eir n u m b er has b een variously estim a ted at b etw een 1 5 ,0 0 0 an d 6 0 ,0 0 0 A m o n g th e w orks they haye
w ritten w e find th e C o m m a n d m e n ts o f th e S a b b a th '' C lle n d o r ff. E th io p ia n. p p 111. 154 S ee a lso Ernst
H am m ert h n n d t. Stellung u n d B edeutung dei Sabbat* in AOuopten (S tuttgart. 1963). p p 66*69.

** I b u i, 51*19.
51 S ee T a d d e ss e T a m rat, C hurrh a n d State in F.thutpui 1 2 7 0 - 1 ) 2 7 (O x fo r d . 197 2 ). p p. 2 1 8 , 2 1 9 . It sh o u ld
probably b e m e n tio n e d at th is p oin t that th e E th iop ian e u n u c h b a p tited by P h ilip (A cts 8 .2 6 - 3 9 ) was n ot an A k su m ite
subject, bu t a m in ister o f o n e o f th e C a n d a ce s o f N u b ia, w h o se cap ital w as at M eroe. 130 m iles n o rth o f K h a n u m (in
p resen t-d av S u d an )
** S in ce that tim e , a n d u n til J u n e 2 9 . 1959, th e E th io p ia n C h u rch d e p e n d e d o n A lex a n d ria fo r her
m etro p o lita n A lm ott w ith ou t ex c e p tio n th e A b u n a was an E gyp tian . (. A. M a lo n ey . E th io p ia n R ite. S C E 5 :5 8 7 . I#
K ruger. Abyinia a n d th e A byssin ian C hu rch." S r h a ff H erzog. 1:19; B J . K idd. The C hurthes o f Eastern (.hnstendom
( la in d o n , I9i?7), p p. 4 4 8 , 4 4 9

186
 T H E S A B B A TH IN EGYPT AND E T H I O P I A

M B u d g e. op. at.. p. 2 5 8 ; I 'lle n d o r ff. Ethiopians. p p 100. 101.

M C f. c n a p 8 . p p 151. 152. and c h a p 9 , p p. 1 7 3 .1 7 4 . K id d , up at., p 153. writes: C o n ser v a tiv e b eca u se o f
ih cir a g e -lo n g isolation , ih r A b yssin ian s h a v e retain ed cu sto m s o n c e p revalen t in fa rlv day th e c o m m u n io n o f
in fa n ts fro m th e ch alice, th e o b se rv a n ce o f Sabbath a* w ell a S u n d a s. a n d th e celeb ra tio n o f th e Agape1."

History of the Patriarchs o f Alexandria 2. 3. 3 3 0 . q u o te d in T a m rat. op at., p. 2 09.

60 L'nd b eob ach tet n ich t S en Sabbat wie d ie j u d e n " H a m m e r hrnidt' (op at.. p. 6 0 ) tra n sla tio n fro m Ge^ez.
61 Ibvd T h e Dtdascalta w a ^ n t t e n in S y n a d u r in g th e th ird cen tu ry a . d . It w as in co r p o r a ted , w ith a d a p ta tio n s, in

^ * T h e p se u d o -C le m e n tin e w ork k n ow n as T e a c h in g o f th e A p ostle Peter to C lem en t," tra n sla ted Irom the
Arabic in to L th iop ic at th e e n d o l th e f o u n e e n ih centu ry , or early fiftee n th centu ry (n ot later th an 1425). Ib id . p. 4 2 .

/a r a - ^ a iq o b Mfahajd Bnhan (B ook o f Light") 2 (h e r e a fte r cited as MB), q u o te d in T a m ra t. op. c il . p. 2 1 0

71 (nutia E wostatfwos, e d . by B T u raiev in Monumenta Aethurpiae Hagult*gia. fuv m (P etro p o li. 1 9 0 5 ), p. 9 1 .

u u o te d in T a m ra t. op. ni., p. 2 0 7 . C f. R ud olf K n u an d H u b ert k n s s -H e in n c h . in I olhskundluhe Anteile in Kuli und
Legerule athiopnt her Heihger (W iesb ad en . 1975). p. 112. T h ey state that E w ostatew os (E u stath iu s) was th e fo u n d e r o f
the teac h in g o n th e san ctification o f th e S abhath Som eh ow th e \ seem to fo rg et that o n p a g e 15 thev h a se re fe r r e d to
a m ira cle o fC a b r a M an tas Q e d d u s o n a w om an w h o w as in tro u b le b ecau se, a m o n g oflter th in g s, th e d id not h o n o r
the Sabbath ( S a tu r d a \). T h e m iracle is su p p o se d to h ave h a p p e n e d several d eca d es b efo re E ustathius' b irth (cf p. 9)
As E phraim Isaac h a s d e a r lv slated . B y an d large th ere is now sch olarls a g re em en t that k e e p in g Saturdav Sabbath is
ill a n cien t E th iop ian custom.**- A Sew Text-Cntual Intrudu/tion to Maihafa BerhAn, with a Translation of Botik I (l.e td e n .

umtat/u'as. p. 9 6 . q u o te d in T am rat. op. a t . p. 2 0 7 . n . 6 .

T a m ra t. op at., jj 2 3 8 . c f H a m m e r sc h m ^ t. op rif., p p. 3 0 . 31.

MB 1 3 (Isaac, op. ait.. 108). C f. Isaac, op a t . p p . 9 5 -9 8 . 1 0 8 -1 11; see also p p . 133, 134.

w J . M H a r d e n . \h e Ethiopu Didascalia, T ra n sla tio n s o f C hristian L itera tu re. S eries 4: O rien ta l T e x ts (L o n d o n .

1920). Q uoted in H am m e rsc h n u d t. ot> at., p p 3 7 . 38
D ix . op a t . p p 4 3 . 44 See a lso H a m m e r * h m id t. op. at., pp. 4 2 -4 7 ; I. O u a sten . "A postolic C o n stitu tio n s."
SCE. vol. I. p p 68 v>. 6 9 0 It sh o u ld be n o te d that th e p h rase an d o n th e Sabbath and" d o e s n ot a p pear in th e
c o r r e sp o n d in g text o f th e Canons of Hippohitui. a h fth - or sixth -cen tu rv drastic recastin g o f th e Apostolu Tradition d o n e
in E gvpt D tx.op a t . p p. Ixxvi. Ixxvti. 4 3 .e s p n. 1 It seem s to be an E thiopic in terp o la tio n , u n d e r lin in g th e E th iop ian
C hu rch's d e e p co n ce rn for S abbath o b se rv a n ce C f. a n o th e r in stan ce o f an in terp o la ted Sabbath" m th e K lhiopit
versio n o f th e Egyptian Church Order (that d o e s n ot a p p e a r in th e Sahidic an d Arabic v ersio n s) in K en n eth A S tran d .
"A f u rth er N o te o n th e Sabbath in C optic S o u r ces, A t / S S 6 (19 6 8 ): 154, 155.

91 U lle n d o r ff. Ethiopiani. p 14V " T h e .Sinociai is th e E th io p u n tran slation o f th e ca n o n s o f th e A p o stles a n d th e

a p ostolic co n stitu tio n s tak en fro m th e A le x a n d n a n C h u rch , p lu s th e ca n o n s o f th e ec u m en ica l (Council o f N icaea I
an d th e ca n o n s of th e six local sy n o d s o f A ncvra. N co ca esa rc a . (an gres. Sardica. A n tio ch , a n d L aodicca." G A

L u d o f f x ommentanus ad Suam Hvtonam Aethiopicam (K tankfurt, 169 1 ). p. 3 0 3 . q u o te d in T a m ra t. op cU.. p

94 The Apostolu Canons are s o m etim es called Statute* of the Apostles. o r (.anones Eeeleaastia T h ey are p a ri o f b o o k 8
ot the Apmtolu Constitutions (ASF 7 :5 0 0 -5 0 5 ); H am m ers hrmclt. <>t> <i t . p 17, M llo n r y , i f iit . p M 7
95 Ci. H o r n e r. The Statutes of the Apostles (L o n d o n . 1904). p. 08 , q u o te d in H a m m e rsc h n u d t. of. at., p 47.
96 H a m m e rsc h n u d t. op. ri/ .^pjj. 4 / . 4 8 (in fo rm a tio n taken from H o r n e r, op a t . p p. 6 8 -7 0 ). T h e S abbath is

* R ichard K. I*. P an k h urst. e d .. The Ethiopian Rtnal Chronicles (A d d is A baba. 196 7 ), p p . 3 9 . 40.
^99 Francisco A lvarez, Narrative of the Portuguese Embassy to Atnssinia (1 5 2 0 -1 5 2 7 ) (L o n d o n . 186 1 ). p p . 2 3 . 3 4 .

187
 T H E S AB BA TH IN S CR IP T UR E AND HI STOR Y

101 I b id . p . 2 9 1 ; cf. U U cn d orfF , Ethiopians, p p. 3. 4 , 7 1 . 72.

102 I 'lle n d o r ff. Ethiopians, p . 71; B u d g e . op. cit., p p. 3 3 0 . 331
,M A. H . M J o n e s an d F.lizabelh M on roe. A H u to n o f Ethiopia (O x fo r d . 1960), p p. 7 6 , 7 7 . S ee a lso B ek ele H ey e,
" T h e S abb ath in E th io p ia (research p a p e r. A n d rew s U n iversity (1970J). pp. 2 4 . 25.
104 U lle n d o r ff. E thiopians, p. 4; B u d g e , op. cit., p p. 3 3 1 . 332.
105 A cco rd in g to B u o g e fof>. n i., p. 3 3 2 ), in 1527 o r 1533; a cc o rd in g to SD A B SSB , N o . 1463. c. 1532; a n d in 1534
a cc o rd in g to A. H. Lew is, A C ritical His to n of the Sabbath am i the Sunday m the Christian Church. 2d ed . (P la in field . N .J..
190 3). p. 2 1 2 .
106 M ich ael G e d d es, Church History of Ethiopia (L o n d o n . 1696). p p. 3 4 . 3 5 , q u o te d in Lew is, op. a t., p p . 2 1 2 . 2 1 3 .
S ee also SD A B SSB . N o . 1463; J e a n V iiille u m ier. Le jou r du repos travers les Ages (D a m m a n e -les-L y s. 1 936), p. 165.
107 U lle n d o r ff, Ethiopians, p. 7 4 . H e y e (op. a t., p. 3 0 ) a p p a r en tlv q u o tin g fro m th e letters sen t w ith B er m u d ez
both to J o h n 111 o f P ortugal a n d to P op e Paul III, giv es th e fo llo w in g p ara g ra p h la k en fro m T ek le tsa d ik M eku ria, A
History o f Ethutpia from Lebna D en zel to Teunxiros (A d d is A baba. 1953). p p. 194, 195: "W e are w illin g to su b ject o u r faith
an d o u r C h u rc h to th e H oly S ee at R om e. W e are w illin g to r e co g n ize th e so v ereig n ty o f P ortugal o v er o u r E m p ire
W e a n d th e p e o p le s o f o u r E m p ire are w illin g to b e c o m e P o r tu g u ese an d R om an C atholic subjects. T o m ak e this
effe c tiv e w e n ave g iven th e b ish op ric to B erm u d ez." C f. Budf^c. op a t., p. 3 3 5 ; J o h n M ason N ea le. A History o f the H o h
Eastern Church (L o n d o n . 18 4 7 ). 2 :3 4 7 . 3 4 8 . It sh o u ld be m e n tio n e d that th e h istoricity o f B erm u d ez's co n secra tio n as
b ish o p (A b u n a) o f E th iop ia is still d is p u te d . S e e H e v e. op. a t., p p . 3 5 , 36; H a m m e rsc h m id t. op. a t., p. 4 9 . B u d g e (op
a t., p. 3 3 2 ) states that Zaga za-A b had alread y (1 5 $ 4 ) p resen ted to P o p e C lem en t V II a letter fro m L eg n a D en g el
a ck n o w led g in g th e su p rem a cy o f th e p o p e C f. N ea le , op a t., p. 3 4 8 , w n o states that th e "letters" w ere d e liv e r e d bv
"chaplain A lvarez."
'* F rom th e ch r o n ic le o f the fifth year o f C lau d iu s, as q u o te d in B u d g e, op. cit., 2 :3 5 2 ; cf. H e y e , op a t . p p . 35.
36. Ever sin ce th e C ru sa d es. "Franks" was a c o m m o n g en tin ic for W est E u ro p ea n s in g en er a l, in th e M id d le East.
109 B u d g e, op. a t., 2 :3 4 5 -3 4 7 ; U lle n d o r ff. Ethiopians, p. 77; H a m m e rsc h m id t. op a t., p p. 4 9 , 5 0 . N uftez B arreto
had b e e n origin ally a p p o in te d Patriarch of E th iop ia, but h e stayed b e h in d , in Ind ia. W h en n e d ie d , A n d r e d e O v ied o ,
w h o alrcad v was in E th iop ia (sin ce 1557). b ecam e Patriarch (1 5 6 1 ). B u d g e, op. cit.. 2 :3 7 3 .
110 P an k h urst. op. a t ., p. 76.
1.1 find.
1.2 A s a u o te d by H a m m e rsc h m id t, ot>. a t., p. 51; see a lso p p . 4 8 -5 3 ; cf. J o b l.u d o lp h u s (H io b L u d o lf]. A N ew
History of Ethiopia (L o n d o n . 1682), p . 2 4 7 ; B u d g e, op. a t.. 2:3f)4; P an k h urst. op. a t., p. 78.
U lle n d o r ff. F.thioptans, p. 7*.
114 J o n e s an d M o n ro e , op a t., p. 9 0 .
1.5 B u d g e , op. a t ., 2 :5 7 3 . T h is is ap p a r en tly a q u o ta tio n fro m th e hook.
1.6 U lle n d o r ff. Ethiopians, p . 151.
117 B u d g e, op. a t.. 2 :3 7 3 , 374; P an k h u rst, op. a t., p p . 8 8 , 89.
" B u d g e, op. a t.. 2 :3 7 7 ; cf. L u d o lf. op. a t., p. 32o.
1,9 L u d o lf. op. a t., p. 3 2 6 .
I2t) Ibid.. p. 3 2 7 ; c f. B u d g e, op. cit.. 2 :3 7 8 ; H a m m e rsc h m id t. op. a t., p. 54.
121 Ibid.. B u d g e , trp. a t.. 2 :3 7 8 .
122 B u d g e, op a t . 2 :3 7 8 -3 8 0 ; H a m m e rsc h m id t. op. a t., p. 54.
123 H am m e rsc h m id t. o. a t., p p . 5 4 , 55. It was th o u g h t, b efo re, that it h a d b een w ritten d u r in g C la u d iu s' reig n .
S ee B u d g e , op. a t., 1:155; U lle n o o r f f. Ethiopians, p. 151.
124 B u d g e , op. a t.. 2 :3 8 8 .
125 U lle n d o rf f, Ethiopians, p. 78; L u d o lf. op. a t., p. 3 2 8 . A n attem p t w ill be m a d e to fo llo w a clear ch ro n o lo g ica l
seq u e n c e o f th e e v e n ts d u r in g S u sen y o s' reign . It is q u ite d ifficu lt, at tim es, to see th is se q u e n c e in L u d o lf s History
Ilnd., pp. 3 2 8 -3 3 0 .
127 Ibid . pp. 3 3 2 .3 3 3 A d eta iled stu d y o f P o r tu g u ese in ter v en tio n in E th iop ia co n ta in s sev era l item s o f in terest
D aniel A u g sb u rg er. "Le sabbat e n E th io p ie et les criv a in s p ortu g a is d u X V le et X V I I e sicles" ( D ip l m e L icen ci
th esis. S m in a ir e A d v e n tiste. C o llo n g es-so u s-S a lv e . France. 1 9 /0 ).
,i8 L u d o lf. op. a t., p 3 3 3 .
129 C. F. R ev, The Romance of the Portuguese in Abyssinia (L o n d o n . 1 9 3 5 ), p. 2 5 3 , cited by H e v e . op. a t., p. 5 4 . See
also L u d o lf. op. a t., p. 333; B u a g e . op. tit., 2 :3 9 1 .
,M L u d o lf, op a t., p p. 3 3 3 , 3 3 4 .
151 Ibid.. p . 334.
,M Ibid . p . 335; B u d g e , op a t .. 2 :3 8 9 .
153 L u d o lf. op a t., p. 3 2 8 . M etrop olitan S im eo n h ad b e e n killed in an a rm ed c o n fro n ta tio n . Ibid.. p. 3 3 2 ; B u d g e.
i f a t . 2 :3 8 9 .
154 B u d g e , op. a t.. 2 :3 9 0 .
135 Ibid., cf. H c v c . op. a t., p p . 5 7 , 58; I 'lle n d o r ff, Ethiopians, p. 78.
156 L u d o lf. op. cU.. p. 3 5 1 .
1.7 For th e a r g u m e n ts u se d , see L u d o lf, op. cit., p. 350.
' / W . . p. 351.
159 S ee B u d g e, op. a t., 2 :3 9 3 , 395; c f. L u d o lf. op. cit., p. 357 ; U lle n d o r ff. Ethiopians, p. 78.
140 B u d g e , op. a t.. 2 :4 0 1 . 4 0 2 .
141 P an k h urst. op. cit., p. 102
142 O n w itn esses to S abbath o b se rv a n ce in E th iop ia (w ith S u n d a y ) in th e sev en teen th ce n tu ry , see: S D AB SSB .
N os. 1464. 1465; U lle n d o rff Ethutpia. p. 110 (cf. n. /); L u d o lf. op. a t., p p. 2 9 9 -3 0 2 ; R oss, op cit.. p. 4 9 5 ; S am uel
Purchas, Hakiuytus Posthumus or Purchas His Pilfrnmes. 2 0 vols. (N ew Y ork. 1965). 1 :3 7 6 . 4 0 8 . For w itn esse s fro m th e
e ig h te e n th to th e tw en tieth ce n tu r y , sec: U lle n d o r ff. Ethiopia, p p 112. 113; idem. Ethiopians, p. 105; L ew is, op. a t., p.
214; H am m e rsc h m id t. op cit., p p . 1 .2 : H arrv M id d le to n H yatt, The Church erf Abyssinia (L o n d o n . 1 928). p p . 2 2 4 -2 8 2 ;
A d rian F ortescu c, The Lesser Eastern Churches (L o n d o n . 1^13), p. 3 19.
145 E th iop ian H e y e w rites: "In th e n o r th e r n p rovin ces, esp ecia lly in th e G o v e m o r a te C ieneral o f G o d ja m , w hich
is th e str o n g h o ld o f th e C op tic C h u rc h , th e S ev en th -d a v Sabbath is still strictly o b se rv ed . T h is is a lso tru e in m ost parts
of the G overn or ate Crcneral o f Eritrea. T ig r e , a n d B eg e m d ir. A tra v eler can see th e farm ers th resh in g w h ea l d u r in g
th e h arvesttim e, o n S u n d a y s, esp ecially o n S u n d a v a fte r n o o n s B ut. n o w ork o f anv s o n is d o n e o n th e S abbath bv the

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 CHAPTER 10

The Sabbath and Lords Day

During the Middle Ages

Daniel Augsburger

H E early M iddle Ages as a whole accepted w ithout questioning the Lord's day
T o f th e great C h u rch F athers and th eir spiritualized in terp retatio n o f the
Sabbath rest. T h is concept o f the L o rd s day was expressed clearly by A ugustine
( a . d . 350-431), w ho becam e th e tu to r o f the m edieval theologians.

T he Spiritual Interpretation o f the Fathers and Early Medieval Period

A ccording to A ugustine, the first day o f th e week is th e glorious m em orial o f
the resu rrectio n o f th e Lord an d His victory over evil. It celebrates the spiritual
rest th at H e acquired for us. Man, th erefo re, m ust observe it, not by ceasing from
work but by ceasing from sin, and live in a perp etu al Sabbath. A ugustine said, in a
serm on on the Gospel o f Jo h n : " T h e Jew s taking the observance o f the Sabbath in
a carnal sense, fancied th at the L ord had, as it were, slept afte r the labor o f fram ing
the w orld, even to this day. . . . Now to o u r fathers o f old th e re was o rd a in e d a
sacram ent o f the Sabbath, which we C hristians observe spiritually, in abstaining
from every servile work, that is from every sin (for the L ord saith, Everyone that
com m itteth sin is the servant o f sin) a n d in having rest in o u r h eart, that is spiritual
tranquillity. A nd although in this life we strive a fte r this rest, yet not until we have
d e p a rted this life shall we attain to that perfect rest. '
T h is was also the view o f the E astern C hurch. In his great exposition o f the
o rth o d o x faith, J o h n o f Damascus (c. 675-c. 749) explained that the fo u rth
co m m an d m en t m ust be u n d ersto o d mystically by the spiritually m inded: "Yea we
shall celebrate the perfect rest o f h u m an n atu re, I m ean the day afte r the
resurrection, on which th e Lord Jesus, the a u th o r o f life an d o u r Saviour, shall
lead us into th e heritage prom ised to those w ho serve God in the S p ir it.. . . W hat
belongs to us, th erefo re, who walk by the Spirit an d not by the letter, is the
com plete ab a n d o n m e n t o f carnal things, th e spiritual service a n d com m union
with God. . . . T h e Sabbath, m oreover, is cessation o f sin.
In Ju d eo -C h ristian controversies this spiritual u n d ersta n d in g o f th e Sabbath

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 T H E S A B BA T H AND LORD S DAY DUR ING T H E MIDDLE AGES

was a m ajor arg u m e n t o f the C hristians. Isidore o f Seville (c. 560-636), whose
Etymologies rem ain ed the encyclopedia o f know ledge o f m edieval m an, appealed
to th at concept in his Contra J udaeos, which he w rote to try to win by persuasion the
Jew s whom th e Visigoth kings, recendy won over to Rom an O rthodoxy, were
a ttem p tin g to convert by persecutions. In the second book o f th at work he stated
that it could not be a sin to work on the Sabbath since G od H im self is active in the
universe every day o f the week. T h u s the keeping o f the Sabbath m ust be spiritual:
B ear no b u rd e n on the Sabbath day. H e ar the m ystery o f prophecy. H e bears
b u rd e n s on th e Sabbath, w hom the day o f ju d g m e n t will find with his
transgression; he bears b u rd e n s o n the Sabbath who, though he believes in C hrist,
does not cease from sin . 5
A m ong th e C h u rch Fathers the day o f the L ord was also called the eighth day,
the glorious day o f the etern al rest o f G od. Originally that notion cam e from a
blend o f Gnostic speculation a n d neo-Pythagorean cosmology that em phasized
the distinction betw een the seven spheres w here the evil angels are kept an d the
eighth one w here G od dwells. As it was applied to Sunday, it signified reality an d
eternity in contrast with the seven days o f the week, which w ere symbolic o f tim e
an d illusion. In the West, the concept acquired a m illenarist dim ension in which
the seventh day becam e typical o f the last earthly m illennium that precedes the
etern al eighth day o f bliss.
T h e idea o f th e eighth day appealed greatly to A ugustine, who was so fond o f
n u m b er symbolism. A ccording to him , the eighth day typifies the heavenly rest
p re p a re d by G od for His children, which he describes so glowingly in the last page
o f th e City of God: T h e seventh shall be o u r Sabbath, which shall be b ro u g h t to a
close, not by an evening, but by the L ord's Day as an eighth an d eternal day,
consecrated by th e resu rrectio n o f C hrist, and prefiguring the eternal repose not
only o f th e spirit, but also o f the body. T h e re we shall rest an d see, see an d love,
love a n d praise."* T h u s, the eighth day stands fo r a b etter rest.
W e m ust, th erefo re, not be su rprised to find G regory the G reat (540-604), the
first W estern m edieval theologian, saying that "seven days rep resen t the present
time, th e eighth day designates life eternal, which the Lord revealed to us th ro u g h
the re su rrec tio n ." 5
It is at th at tim e also, especially in Judeo-C hristian controversies, that
C hristian w riters begin to claim th at even in S criptures the first day o f the week is
m uch holier th an th e seventh one. W hile the Sabbath was hallow ed once, S unday
was hallowed repeatedly. Isidore o f Seville, for instance, writes: It is clear that
[Sunday] was already very solem n in the Holy S criptures. It is indeed the first day
o f th e world, th e day w hen th e angels w ere created; the day w hen C hrist was
resu rrected ; th e day w hen the Holy Spirit fell upon the aposdes; the day w hen the
m an n a was given fo r the first tim e in the wilderness. . . . Is not the sabbath the
seventh day which follows Sunday? It m ust be, th erefo re, o n Sunday that m anna
fell for th e first time. F or the Jew s already then o u r S unday was g re ater than
S abbath .6
T h is statem en t o f Isidore had a lasting influence on later w riters. It was
copied verbatim , as we shall see, by B ede, Rabanus M aurus, an d Alcuin. T h e
d ouble justification o f S undaykeeping by the historical fact o f the resu rrectio n o f
the L o rd and by th e Biblical evidence o f the Sunday hallowings was used by most
o f th e theologians who dealt with that problem later on. B ut one m ust not forget

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 T H E S AB BA TH IN S CR I P T U R E AND HISTORY

that fo r Isidore o f Seville. Sunday ran k ed low am ong ch u rch festivals. In his
Etymologies he states that th e first o f all the C hristian holidays is Easier. T h e n com e
Pentecost, th e E piphany, Palm Sunday, M aundy T h u rsd ay , a n d finally S u n d ay .7
Steps Toward Making Sunday a Rest Day
T o u n d ersta n d the developm ent o f th e day o f rest d u rin g th e m edieval
period, we m ust not forget that in the early ch u rch , Sunday was not a day of total
rest from physical labor. A strong e ffo rt was m ade to draw a sh arp distinction
betw een the wicked idleness o f the Jewish day o f rest a n d the spiritual delight o f
Sunday. In a serm on A ugustine said, You m ust keep the Sabbath spiritually, not
in carnal idleness like the Jews. T hey w ant to have fre e tim e for th eir frivolities an d
th e ir pleasures. It would be far b etter for the Jew to do som ething useful in his
field th an to sp en d tim e shouting in th e stadium . A nd th eir wives w ould be b etter
o ff spinning o n the Sabbath th a n dancing shamelessly o n th e ir tcrraces."*
It was only in the fourth cen tu ry that S unday celebration ceased being an
early-m orning festivity. L ater on, when religious services began to be held in the
m iddle o f the m orning, work sto p p ed only at th e time o f th e divine offices .9
Je ro m e w rote th at the n u n s at B ethlehem w ent to church a n d resum ed their
sewing afterw ard.'" T h e B enedictine ru le stated clearly that all m onks at M ount
Cassino should b e a c tiv e o n Sunday, preferably reading, but if they w ere unable to
read , they should ten d to m anual activities."
M ention should be also m ade re g ard in g the reaction o f Licinianus, bishop o f
C arth ag en a ab o u t 582, to what he h ea rd from his friend Bishop V incentius about
the Letter from Hem>en. T his letter, as we shall see later, advocated a sabbatizing o f
Sunday with com plete abstention from work o n that day. Licinianus re m in d e d his
co rresp o n d en t th at u n d e r th e new law th ere was no prohibit ion o f labor on th e day
of th e L ord. In fact, he ad d ed , if th e faithful d o not go to ch u rch on th at day, it is
far b etter for them to d o som ethinggard en in g , spinning, hiking, o r som e o th er
usefid activity.1
T h e re was so little thought o f stopping work on Sunday th at th e C ouncil o f
O rleans in 538 expressed grave concern ab o u t th e fact th at som e encouraged
idleness on the first day o f th e w eek. At Rom e at the end o f the sixth century Pope
G regory th e G reat was greatly distressed because som e Jew ishness" was seeping
into the chu rch . Some people advocated the prohibition o f work, even necessary
work, on Sunday. H e had also h ea rd that som e went as far as fo rb id d in g any
bathing. T his ap p e a re d to G regory as a re tu rn to legalism. He show ed that one
should distinguish betw een bathing for cleanliness and bathing for pleasure and
lust. T o sto p w orking is m eaningless, since tru e S undaykeeping is rest from sin, a
sabbath that is fo u n d in C hrist alone.M
D uring that period, C hristians refused to see any identity betw een th e O ld
T estam en t rest an d S unday because they associated die seventh day with idleness
and foolishness while they looked upon S unday as a day fo r w orship and useful
activities. A ugustine proclaim ed loudly that Sunday is not fo r th e Jews: T h e day
o f th e L ord is n o t for the Jew s, but because o f the resurrection o f the L ord, set
a p a rt for th e C h ristians ." 15 For th at reason th e C hristians saw no reason to draw
from the prescriptions o f the fo u rth com m andm ent norm s for th e observation o f
S unday .16 T h a t sh a rp distinction betw een the two days was vividly symbolized at
Rome and in som e o th e r places by the fact that S aturday was a day o f fasting an d

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 T H E S A B B A T H AND LORD S DAY D UR IN G T H E MIDDLE AGES

Sunday a day of rejoicing, u p o n which it was utterly w rong to m o u rn .17

W hile th e desire to distinguish Sabbath from Sunday was very strong, one
m ust note, how ever, th at in th eir legislation the C hristian em p ero rs had
attem p ted to secure cessation o f certain activities. T h ey applied to S unday, it
ap p ears, th e traditional n o rm followed in th e observation o f pagan holidays: Licet
quod praetennissum noceret, O n e may do what would cause harm if it w ere o m itted .
T h u s ru ral labors th at could be postponed, trials in court th at had to do with the
quest fo r gain, a n d en tertain m en ts w ere fo rb id d e n .
In o rd e r to en courage public w orship, the church also began soon to
co n d em n certain types o f labor. At the Council o f O rleans, which had opposed
Ju d aizin g tendencies, the people w ere told not to plow, p ru n e vines, erect fences,
plant posts, et cetera, that o n e may have leisure m ore easily to atten d church and
take p a rt in p ra y ers . 19 A lthough Pope G regory had upheld a spiritual rest, he
d em an d ed th at all secular activities should stop to allow the people to devote th eir
tim e to p ra y e r .20 T h is is the reason why he was so critical of Jan u a riu s, bishop o f
C agliari, who used his Sundays fo r harvesting crops.
Som e w ent even fu rth e r in sabbatizing the day o f the Lord. As we have seen,
the Council o f O rleans refers to C hristians who w anted to prohibit the
p re p ara tio n o f food and th e use o f farm anim als, an d G regory the G reat knew
som e who rep ro v ed bath in g on Sunday. T h e m ost curious witness o f that
tendency is the fam ous Letter from Heaven, to which allusion has already been
m ade. It ap p e are d first in Spain but enjoyed an im m ense success both in the West
an d in th e East. In som e places in the East it still enjoys credence today.
T h e text o f this letter to which B ishop Licinianus re fe rre d has not been
p reserved, an d he m entions only prohibition o f food p re p ara tio n an d walking.
H ow ever, it is in teresting to see what was included in later versions. T h e letter
began with a p reface telling the story o f the d o cu m en thow it was fo u n d at o n e o f
the m ost fam ous shrines o f C hristianity, at Jeru salem o r on the m ain altar o f St.
P eter at Rom e, a n d how it was w ritten not by an angel but by C hrist H im self, with
His own blood o r with letters o f gold.
T h e letter itself d em an d e d the strictest Sabbatarianism : Do not sit in the
forum on th e L o rd 's day a n d ju d g e idle m atters o r go h u n tin g and g ath erin g gam e
on this day. Do n o t milk cattle on this day either, but ra th e r be occupied with the
poor. Do n o t send your oxen to work on this day. . . . You m ust not wash your
clothes n o r wash o r cut your h a i r .. . . T ru ly I say to you, be very faithful in keeping
th e day o f the L ord, not even g ath erin g vegetables from your gardens on the day
o f th e L o rd ."24
A ccording to th e letter, the day should be consecrated to pious purposes, fo r
going to ch u rch , fo r visiting the sick, fo r com forting the w orried, an d for m aking
peace with o thers. It u ttere d a frig h tfu l curse against those who w ere irrev eren t in
church: "I advise you by this letter th at th ere m ust be no one in my churches, m an
o r w om an, who d ares to talk an d chit-chat, o r to sit dow n o r to go o ut d u rin g mass
befo re th e solem n rites are finished.
N atu ral and su p e rn a tu ra l disasters w ere th rea ten ed against the tran sg res
sors. T o fam ines, locusts, and sicknesses w ere ad d ed such things as b u rn in g stones
an d poisonous flying snakes. W om en w ho d a re to work in the g ard en w ere w arned
th at I will sen d u p o n you w inged snakes to beat an d d ev o u r your breasts.
T h e episde m ad e m uch use o f the O ld T estam ent. It g ro u n d e d the du ty to
t s is a h - i j 193
 T H E S AB BA TH IN S CR IP T UR E AND HI STORY

keep Sunday on th e Sabbath com m andm ent, a n d called for careful observation
from sunset on S aturday night, from the n in th h o u r o f the sabbath until the first
h o u r o f th e second day. **
T h is concept o f the L o rd s day m ust have been shared by som e o f the A rian
rulers, fo r th e Visigoths su ffe red a telling defeat by the R om ans in 543 because the
attack was m ade on Sunday a n d the G oths would not fight.
T he Saturday Sabbath in the Early Period
T h e re w ere C hristians who kept the seventh day, probably along with the
first day o f th e week. G regory the G reat writes in the epistle that has already been
quoted: It has been re p o rte d to me th at m en o f a perverse spirit have sp read
am ong you som e despicable doctrines th at are com pletely opposed to o u r holy
faith, teaching th at all work m ust be in te rru p te d on the Sabbath. W hom could I
call them but p reach ers o f the A ntichrist? Is it not A ntichrist who shall com e an d
force all to keep Sabbath an d S un d ay ?27 In the beginning o f the seventh century,
th erefo re, we have at Rom e people who advocated total rest on the seventh day,
an d it is in teresting that the pope calls that day Sabbath."
Finding people at Rom e who advocate keeping both Sabbath an d Sunday
should not be a great surprise, since we have witnesses to that practice in o th er
parts o f th e Em pire. In th e Apostolic Constitutions (com piled in the later h a lf o f the
fo u rth century), for instance, we are told: But keep the Sabbath a n d the L o rd s
day festivals; because the fo rm er is th e m em orial o f the creation an d the latter o f
the re s u rre c tio n .. . . I. Peter, a n d I, Paul, have o rd ain ed : let the slaves w ork five
days; but on th e Sabbath day a n d the L ord's day let them have leisure to go to
chu rch for instruction in piety: on the Sabbath in re g ard to the creation; on the
L o rd s day in re g ard to the re su rrec tio n ." G regory o f Nyssa (c. 330-c. 395)
explains: W ith w hat eyes can you behold Sunday, if you desecrate the Sabbath?
Dont you know th at these days are b re th ren ? H e who esteem s the one, disregards
also th e o th e r .29Jo h n Cassian (c. 360-435) states concerning Egyptian m onks that
they had no public assemblies on o th er days, besides in the m o rn in g a n d at
evening, except on the Sabbath o r on the L o rd s day. w hen they m et at the th ird
h o u r to celebrate the co m m u n io n . 50
A ugustine noted a great flexibility tow ard w orship requirem ents: In som e
places th e com m union takes place daily, in som e only on the Sabbath a n d the
Lord's day, a n d in som e only on the L o rd s d ay .51 T h e tension concerning the
keeping o f both Sabbath a n d Sunday is reflected in a homily given at a Sabbath
m eeting, b u t op posing S abbatarian idleness an d proclaim ing the superiority o f
Sunday over th e seventh day.5* It is that variety o f uses that Socrates Scholasticus
(died 445) describes in his Ecclesiastical History: A lthough alm ost all churches
th ro u g h o u t th e w orld celebrate the sacred m ysteries on the Sabbath o f every
week, yet the C hristians o f A lexandria an d at Rom e on account o f som e ancient
traditions have ceased to do this.
T he Sabbath in the Celtic Church
C ertain scholars have assum ed that the Celuc C hurch kept the seventh day o f
th e w eek .54 A study o f th e available evidence shows first th at fo r the Irish, the
Sabbath was distinct from the L o rd s day. A ccording to C olum bas b io g rap h e r
A dom nan (late seventh century), the saint said on his d eathbed: T ru ly this day is

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 T H E S A B BA T H AND L O R D S DAY DUR ING T H E MIDDLE AGES

for m e a Sabbath, because it is my last day o f this present laborious life. In it afte r
my toilsom e labours I keep Sabbath; a n d at m idnight o f this following venerated
L ord's Day, in th e language o f the S criptures I shall go the way o f the fathers." In
the sam e work we are told that it was the custom in Ireland to go to ch u rch and
celebrate mass on th e L o rd s day: [Colum ba] obeyed th eir com m and and on the
L ord's Day according to custom he e n tered the church, along with them , after the
read in g o f the g o sp e l.. . . W hile the rites o f the Mass were being celebrated o n the
L ord's Day according to the custom . C olum ba's Rules for his m onks (early
seventh century) contain references only for a Lord's day public worship.
T h e Sabbath seems to have received som e special recognition. In C olum ba's
directions for th e choir office, the singing o f m ore psalms was o rd a in e d fo r the
nights o f Sabbath an d S unday th an for the o th er nights o f the week. "O n the most
holy nights, nam ely on those o f the L ord's Day o r the Sabbath, th ree times the
sam e n u m b er is p erfo rm ed at m orning, that is. with thrice ten an d six psalm s ."57
St. Davids followers from the eve o f the Sabbath until the light shines in the first
h o u r afte r the break o f the Sabbath, em ploy them selves in watchings, prayers an d
genuflexions, except one h o u r afte r m orning service on the S ab b ath ." T hese
special vigils rem in d us o f the practices com m anded by J o h n C assian. T h e
m onks' diet was im proved on Sabbath an d Sunday. O n those days they could a d d a
little cheese boiled in w ater to their slim fa re .*0
Some texts may well indicate som e recognition o f the seventh day also. T h e
ancient law Senchus M or states that "even' seventh day o f the year" was to be
devoted to the service o f th e Lord.*' In a letter attrib u ted to C olum ba but whose
real au th o rsh ip is unkow n we find a passage that m ight indicate a spiritualized
S abbathkeeping. We are bidden to work on six days but on the seventh day which
is the Sabbath, we are restrained from every servile labour. Now by the n u m b e r six
th e com pleteness o f o u r work is m eant, since it was in six days that the L ord m ade
heaven an d earth . Yet on the Sabbath we are forbidden to labour at any servile
work, th at is sin, since he who com m its sin is a slave to sin, so that, w hen in this
present age we have com pletely fulfilled o u r works, not h ard en in g o u r h earts, we

It is not clear w h eth er the L ord's day was kept in the early Celtic C h u rch in a
Sabbatized way, th at is, according to the Old T estam en t laws. In the Life o f Patrick
by M uirchu, we a re told that St. Patrick, resting on the L o rd s day, heard pagan
laborers building earthw orks nearby. T h e saint forbade them to work on the
L ord's day. In an o th e r passage o f the sam e work it is said th at it was [Patrick's]
custom e not to travel betw een vespers o f the Lord's night an d the daw n o f the
second day o f the week ."45 In A dm onan's Life o f Columba, how ever, we find that
saint help in g w ayfarers to be fe rried across the strait an d to be received at Iona on
a Sunday. H e also refers to a m onk fishing on a S unday with o th e r men.*' W e find
in th at Life no th rea t against violators o f Sunday rules, sim ilar to those that abound

T his attitu d e tow ard the Sabbath and to the Sabbatizing o f S unday m ust be
considered in th e b ro a d e r setting o f a strong c u rre n t o f interest in, an d reverence
for, Ju d aism a n d the O ld T estam en t, which Marcel Simon calls "the ju d aizin g
craze ."4* It had very d e e p an d ancient roots, an d its pow erful attraction was felt
 f H E S AB BA T H IN S CR I P T U R E AND HISTORY

particularly strongly by the C hristians o f Syria. J o h n C hrysostom delivered eight

hom ilies at Antioch in 386 an d 387, probably to w arn the faithful against the
allurem ents o f th e synagogue. He was m oved to action by the large n u m b e r o f
C hristians who had no intention o f leaving the church but who atten d e d Jew ish
services not only as observers but as enthusiastic participants.^ T h e great o ra to r
was especially exercised because the great Jew ish holidays w ere im m inent an d he
knew that C hristians would find their way en masse to the synagogue. Many went
th ere because they believed that the Jew ish cerem onies w ere solem n an d holy .*7 In
fact, an o th e r C h u rch F ather, Jero m e , talks about C hristians who th o u g h t that
those rituals w ere holier than those o f the Christians.**
T h e sam e c u rre n t re ap p ea red later in som e parts o f the West, w here we find
nuclei o f C hristians isolated in lim e an d space w ho w anted to keep the gospel and
observe Jew ish precepts at the sam e time. M any o f them lived in the Visigothic
realm . Isidore o f Seville speaks o f m any who are n eith er truly Jew s n o r truly
Christians.*'* A n o th er d o cum ent inform s us that late in the seventh century in
Septim ania th ere was a disquieting am ount o f ju d aizin g . T h e Visigothic rulers
w ere led to enact the d eath penalty fo r C hristians who practiced Jew ish rituals .'1
T h is m ust not have been en forced successfully, since Pope H ad rian I in 794 w rote
a letter to th e Spanish bishops to com plain that nothing was being d o n e about
C hristians who fratern ized with Jew s in pleasures an d beliefs.4*C hristian au th o rs
o ften speak o f C hristians p artaking in Jew ish Sabbath banquets. T h e popularity
o f Ju d aism may have been because m any C hristians w ere convinced that the Jew s
p reach ed fa r b etter than the priests.M
The sam e situation is re p o rted elsew here. T h e anonym ous a u th o r o f a
com m entary on D euteronom y from th e m iddle o f the eighth century knew
C hristians who held to the gospel and to the Jew ish precepts. R abanus M aurus
(776-856). th e great abbot o f Fulda, m entions Jew s an d Ju d aizers in o u r tim e," a
g ro u p lo which F ulbert o f C h artres (c. 960-1028) also re fe rre d in his serm o n s .57
The w ords Ju d aize r" an d Judaizing" w ere used, it is true, very looselysom e
times fo r very m in o r deviations from orthodoxy. While recognizing this fact, B.
B lum enkranz, one o f the leading authorities in this dom ain, concludes his study o f
Ju d aizin g cu rren ts by saying, In a conscious, determ in ed way, C hristians
accepted Jew ish practices, influenced as they w ere eith er by the reading o f the Old
T estam en t alone, o r by real contact with Jews, above all in observing the Sabbath
rest o r in accepting som e o f the food p re c e p ts."5*
A ccording to the th irteen th canon o f the C ouncil o f Frioul in N o rth e rn Italy
held in 796 o r 797 th ere w ere farm ers who kept the S abbath. The fact that the
recently co nverted B ulgarians w rote Pope Nicholas I to ask w h eth er they should
stop th eir w ork on the Sabbath indicates th at the Sabbath rest was still a live m atter
in that region in the tenth century.* A council at the end o f the ninth century
u rg ed th e people to keep Sunday ra th e r than Sabbath an d drew stern m easures
against Ju d a iz in g .61 I he very frequent repetition o f the anti-Sabbath canon o f
Laodicea in m edieval councils shows the persistence o f Sabbatizing.6
T h e anti-Sabbath attitu d e o f the W estern C hurch was an im portant factor in
th e G reat Schism o f 1054. T h e E asterners w ere very critical o f the W estern
practice o f fasting on S aturday because it contravened the canons o f so m any
councils. T h e W esterners fell that th e word o f the pope should be sufficient to
settle that m atter an d d em an d ed the pro m p t subm ission o f th e Byzantines.w T h e

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 T H E S A B BA T H AND LORD'S DAY D UR IN G T H E MIDDLE AGES

q u arrel em bittered itself as the Catholics accused th e C hristians o f C onstantinople

o f Ju d aizin g with the Jew s an d C hristianizing with the C hristians, while genuine
believers should look upon th e Jew s and th eir Sabbath with execration. T h e
E asterners, C ardinal H u m b ert w rote, chose to observe the Sabbath with the
Jew s . 65 A fter th e schism , the p atriarch o f C onstantinople, Michael C erularius,
w rote the patriarch o f Antioch an account o f the tragic event and said, "For we are
com m anded also to h o n o r the Sabbath equally with the L o rd s day and to keep it
an d not to work on it ."66
T h e desire to have a S abbath-type holiday was also affected by the
ever-increasing use o f the O ld T estam en t by the church itself in its liturgy and
laws. It was easy to draw analogies betw een the A aronic priesthood and the
Catholic hierarchy, the Paschal lam b an d the sacrifice o f the mass, the Passover
an d C hristian Easter. In G aul a n d in Spain the O ld T estam ent becam e a creative
p attern fo r C hristian ritu al .67 T h e influence was not always as obvious as with
re g ard to the Paschal lam b, which was blessed by the priest on Easter Day and
eaten at d in n e r im m ediately afte r, but it was reflected in countless usages, as
C hydenius has show n in his book Medieval Institutions and the Old Testament.
T h is p o pularity o f the O ld T estam e n t m ade it the m odel, as well, fo r courtly
cerem onials, especially in C arolingian times. Inasm uch as the C hristian rulers
were considered to be the p ro p e r successors and im itators o f the O ld T estam ent
kings, it becam e custom ary for th e popes, for instance, to address the C arolingian
kings as Novus D avid .1 T h u s both church and state exalted the use o f the O ld
Testament.
T he D ecalogue as a Basis for Sunday O bservance by the Barbarians
T h e decline o f learning th at accom panied the victory o f the b arbarians led to
a g re ater reliance upon the Mosaic law in general. As the new co n querors
developed th eir own legislation they attem pted to include the Biblical ideals,
ra th e r th an Rom an law, in th eir codes. T h e fu rth e r a law rem oves itself from
Rom an law, writes V erdam , th e m ore it seeks su p p o rt in Mosaic law, at least in so
far as C hristianized peoples a re co n c ern e d ." 1 T h is was tru e until the revival o f
Rom an law in the twelfth an d th irte e n th centuries.
W ith th at great influence o f the O ld T estam en t p attern it com es as no
su rp rise th at the ch u rch tu rn e d to the D ecalogue in its efforts to secure the
observance o f S unday by the barbarians. Asking the new converts to keep a special
day for w orship was not an easy endeavor. Even in an ancient C hristian cen ter
such as Arles in the sixth century, if we believe the serm ons o f C aesarius o f Arles,
S undaykeeping left m uch to be d esired. H e describes the people w ho leave before
mass is finished; he talks o f o th ers who still rest on T h u rsd ay in h o n o r o f
J u p ite r, but would do any w ork on the day o f the L o rd .72 Late in the sixth century
in Spain, M artin o f B raga also contrasted the zeal o f th e pagans for the day o f
J u p ite r with the carelessness o f the C hristians.
A lthough ref erences to S undaykeeping by the barbarians are very scanty, one
can see th at ch u rch atten d an ce m ust have been extrem ely sparse by the exiguity o f
the places o f w orship and the rep eated lam ents o f ecclesiastical w riters about the
inattention, th e noise, and the constant babbling d u rin g m ass .74 As C helini points
out, th e laym en w ere hardly to blam e: "Spectators o f a d ra m a in which they have
no role, witnesses of a banquet o f which they are not guests, th eir interest w ears o ff

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 T H E S AB BA TH IN S CR I P T U R E AND HI STORY

quickly ."75 T h e re was practically no participation o f the people. T h ey could

hardly follow th e serv ice since it was held in a foreign tongue an d even the practice
o f b ringing offerings had been lost. Very few people took com m union. Bonifacius
advised them to participate "p er tem pora" (from tim e to tim e).7* E gbert in
E ngland noted th e difference betw een the Eastern C hurch, w here everyone had
to c o m m u n e o n Sunday u n d e r penalty o f excom m unication, and the ch u rch in the
West, w here no effo rt was m ade to enforce participation .77
T o enfo rce S undaykeeping am ong the barbarians, the church used d iffe ren t
m ethods. It enacted ecclesiastical legislation derived from the Mosaic laws,
enlisted state su p p o rt o f its efforts, an d even appealed to th e superstition and
credulity o f th e flock. It is interesting to note that as a result th ere developed
gradually a new perspective that em phasized outw ard in terru p tio n o f physical
activities ra th e r th an the prim itive spiritual rest from sin. T h e m ajor Sabbath
d evelopm ent d u rin g the M iddle Ages is that the sh arp distinction betw een the
Sabbath and L o rd s day faded away, an d S unday becam e the C hristian Sabbath to
be kept according to the fo u rth co m m an d m en t.7*
T h e connection betw een S undaykeeping and the D ecalogue rest was clearly
established at th e Second C ouncil o f M acon in 585, which justified by th e Old
T estam en t a strong call for com plete ceasing o f work on the L o rd s day. In the
canons o f that council, S unday was exalted as the day when the L ord freed us from
all sins, as the etern al day o f rest foreshadow ed by the rest o f the seventh day o f the
law an d the p rophets. F or that reason, C hristians should in te rru p t all th eir
activities an d sp end the day in prayer an d tears at the nearest ch u rch .7*
A few years later the prohibition o f w ork was ex ten d ed to all, C hristians and
non-C hristians. At the C ouncil o f N arbonne (589) it was decided th at all, w hether
child o r slave, G oth o r Rom an o r Syrian o r G reek o r Jew , m ust cease from all work
on th e Day o f th e L ord. O nly one exception was contem plated: an em ergency
trip th at req u ired the hitching o f the oxen; but otherw ise, anyone caught
transgressing th e law would be p u n ish ed the freeborn by a fine o f six solidi, the
slave by o ne h u n d re d blows.*' T h u s S undaybreaking becam e a punishable
offense.
It is in teresting to note th at civil su p p o rt fo r the S abbatarian S unday cam e
quickly. T h e canons o f th e C ouncil o f Macon w ere upheld by an edict o f King
G u n th ram (Nov. 10, 585), which stated clearly that those who did not heed the
priestly ex h o rtations would have to face th e severity o f the ju d g e s ."1 T h e decisions
o f N arb o n n e w ere soon backed by a law o f C hildebert II that also prohibited any
Sunday work u n d e r th rea t o f heavy fines."*
Along with these ecclesiastical an d civil effo rts to enforce S unday observance,
we m ust not fo rget th e effect upon the b arbarian tribes o f the tales o f m iraculous
punishm ents for transgression o f S unday rest. M any o f those stories w ere already
reco rd ed by G regory o f T o u rs (540-594). H e tells us, for instance, th at in
Lim ousin a large g ro u p o f people w orking in the fields on Sunday w ere consum ed
by fire .*5T h e re was also a m an w ho insolently started to plow on S unday but whose
h an d s were set solidly to the handle o f the plow w hen he touched it to m ake an
ad ju stm en t .*4 A n o th er m an who n eith er respected n o r feared the day o f the
R esurrection w ent to a grain mill. A fter grin d in g his wheat, he tried to take his
han d o ff the h an dle o f the mill but found that his han d was stuck to it .*5 A nd the
sam e p u n ish m en t cam e to that sam e m an again the following year. Sim ilar

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m isfortunes fell on one who tried to set u p a post, to a w om an who was p u ttin g
b read in th e oven, even to a girl who was com bing h e r hair.
Som e were crippled in the attem p t to break Sunday, G regory o f T o u rs tells
us. T h e fingers o f a w orker who was m aking a key contracted to g eth er a n d never
o p en ed ag ain .*7 T h e limbs o f a wom an who was baking bread afte r sunset on
S aturday night w ithered away. At B ourges th ere was som eone whose hands
becam e com pletely d efo rm ed because he had tried to fence his field on S unday.
Even em ergencies failed to protect the transgressors. A m an o f B ourges who
feared th at rain would spoil his hay went to load it on his cart, bu t he felt fire
b u rn in g his leg. A fter re tu rn in g hom e, he tried to resum e his labor a fte r mass,
only to feel his eyes hit by sh a rp th o rn s.1 It is by such tales that the sanctity o f
S unday was im pressed upon the com m on people.
Sundaykeeping Casuistry and Extreme Sabbatarianism
In the following centuries th ere developed an ever-increasing casuistry
concerning Sundaykeeping. T h e prohibitions becam e m ore and m ore encom
passing. T h e acts th at were prohibited an d those that were allowed were defined
with g re ater a n d g re ater detail. T h e tren d was greatly accelerated by the
generalization o f private confession, which led to the use o f penitential books in
which sins an d penances w ere carefully catalogued.*
By now S unday had becom e an institution in its own right, a duty req u ired
from all, since transgression would b rin g the d a n g e r o f divine punishm ent
individually a n d collectively. In d eed , Sunday legislation took an increasingly
im p o rtan t place in th e statutes o f the barbarian states. T h e right o f all persons to
have S unday rest was solem nly affirm ed and su p p o rted by severe punishm ents
for those who in terfe red with it. Even the tasks req u ired from the serfs had to stop
on th at day. F eudal lords could not require them to work in th eir fields o r to use
th eir anim als fo r th e cartage o f goods .'1 As fo r the freem en who persistently
transgressed S unday, in som e places they eventually lost th eir freedom an d
becam e serfs, fo r as the Bavarian Laws (744) state: "Let him lose his freedom and
becom e a servant, since he did not want to be free on the holy day ."91
T h e appeal to the Sabbath co m m an d m en t o f the Decalogue becam e m ore
and m o re definite. In the Laws o f the Alemani (725), we are told th at abstention from
physical labor is co m m anded by h u m an an d divine law. In the Bavarian Laws the
p ro p e r way o f keep ing th e first day o f the week was, for the first tim e perhaps,
derived direcdy fro m the Decalogue. O ne m ust not harvest on S unday n o r travel
by chariot o r by boat, they declare, because the L ord has said, You shall not do
any work, you o r y our m an serv an t o r your m aidservant, o r your ox, o r your
donkey o r any o f those u n d e r your co m m and ."*4 At the Rom an C ouncil o f 826,
over which Pope E ugene II presided, it was agreed that it is im p o rtan t to secure
S unday rest th ro u g h g reat threats lest th e people, forgetting the w ord o f God,
m ight engage in secular activities, since G od m ade the heavens an d the ea rth an d
all th at th erein is .95
T h e Letter from Heaven enjoyed an im m ense influence at th at lim e an d was
circulated widely. New an d m ore striking stories o f heavenly punishm ents for
S undaybreakers w ere told. Lists o f S unday hallowings show ing the glory of
S unday grew lo n g er a n d longer, not now to persu ad e the Jew s, but to instill in
C hristians the d u ty to rest on th at day. Pirm in, the fo u n d e r o f the m onastery of

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R eichenau, saw S unday in all the great events o f salvation history: T h e day o f the
L ord was created first. It was th en th at darkness was dispelled an d light shone. O n
th at day th e elem ents o f th e world an d the angels w ere created. T h e people o f
Israel left Egypt on S unday as if it had gone th ro u g h a baptism th ro u g h the Red
Sea. O n the sam e day th e m anna, the food from heaven, was given for the first
time. It is co n cerning that day th at th e p ro p h e t exclaims, T his is the day that the
L ord has m ade, let us rejoice in it.' It is also on that day that C hrist was raised from
th e d ead ; that the Holy Spirit cam e from heaven u p o n the apostles. It is called
th ere fo re Day o f the L ord th at we m ight abstain from earthly activities an d the
indecencies o f the world, devoting ourselves to the divine offices."*
T h e ex trem e limit o f Sabbatarianism was reached, perhaps, in Ireland,
w here, as we have seen, th e re was a long tradition o f veneration for the Mosaic
teachings. A feeling o f the unique im portance o f Sunday observance am o n g the
Irish is reflected in the list o f the fo u r laws o f the Irish in the Felire o f O engus
(eighth century), w here th e rule of the L ord's day is included with Patricks rule
n o t to kill clerics, A dam ans rule not to slay w om en, a n d D aires rule not to steal
o x e n . It is also interesting to observe that the Liber ex Lege Moysi, a collection o f
Mosaic com m ands, which may be d ated perh ap s as early as the seventh century,
includes several passages on the im portance and m an n er o f Sabbathkeeping.**" I n
Irelan d we find also an extraordinary' n u m b er o f accounts o f m iraculous
p un ish m en ts o f S undaybreakers.
N o d o cu m ent expresses b etter the Irish Sabbatarian ideal than the Cain
Domnaig, o r Law o f S unday, w here are found to g eth er a Letter from Christ on
S undaykeeping, a g ro u p o f m iraculous punishm ents against the contem ptors o f
th e day o f rest, and the Cain Domnaig itself , a Sunday legislation."1" T h e o p en in g o f
th e Letter from Jesus sets the tone. It is the dram atic account o f the sending o f the
letter, an event that caused th e whole ea rth to trem ble from the rising to the setting
o f th e sun. Stones and trees w ere throw n u p into the air, and the tom b o f P eter was
o p en ed at that tim e. Obviously the au th o r w anted the re a d e r to place that event on
th e sam e ran k as the R esurrection. For him w hatsoever plague an d trouble has
com e into th e w orld, it is th ro u g h the transgression o f Sunday that it has com e . 101
With such a beginning we m ust not be surprised by the su p ern atu ral woes
that, according to the letter, befall S undavbreakers. In the East, m onstrous
bruchae, whose h air is m ade o f pins o f iron, have been known to go out into the
vineyards, cu t the branches, an d roll over the fruit. Iron-w inged locusts eat
th ro u g h the w heat they en co u n ter. If that exam ple is not enough, it is ad d ed that
tears o f blood will fill the eyes o f those who have forced o th ers to desecrate the holy
day. W hat the su p e rn a tu ra l anim als have left will be destroyed by terrible
tem pests, hailstorm s, an d flying serpents. Pagan invaders will com e an d enslave
th e w retched sinners and o ffe r them as sacrifices to th eir gods.
T h e day m ust be kept holy not only because it is com m anded by Jesu s C hrist
b u t also for all th e w onderful things that have h a p p e n e d on it. T h e n in the Irish
Letter from Heaven com es the longest list o f Sunday hallowings found anyw here:
th e beginning o f C reation, th e resting o f the ark on M ount A rarat, the appearan ce
o f th e rainbow a fte r the Flood, the crossing o f the Red Sea, the gift o f the m anna,
th e conception of Jesus in th e womb o f Mary, the birth o f Jesus, the adoration o f
th e Magi, the baptism o f Jesu s, the feeding o f the m ultitude, the T ra n sfig u ratio n ,
th e triu m p h al entry, the victory o f C hrist at the T em p tatio n , the first teaching o f

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 I HE S A B B A TH AND LORD S DAY D UR IN G T H E MIDDLE AGES

Jesu s in the T em p le, the changing of w ater into wine, J o h n s vision that is reco rd ed
in the book o f R evelation, the R esurrection, and Pentecost. Sunday w onders have
not ceased, fo r the day o f ju d g m e n t an d the renew al o f all things will com e on
Sunday.
T h e list o f prohibited activities rem inds the re ad er o f the detailed Jew ish
Sabbath regulations. "T his is what I forbid," saith the Lord. O n S unday th ere
shall be no d isp u te, o r lawsuit, o r assembly, o r strife, o r bargain, o r horse-driving,
o r sw eeping th e floor o f a house, o r shaving, o r washing, o r bathing, o r washing
clothes, o r g rin d in g in mill o r q u ern , o r cooking, o r ch u rn in g , o r yarn-w eaving, or
adultery, o r jo u rn e y in g by anyone beyond the b o rd e r o f his own territory, o r
racing, o r shooting with sp ear o r arrow , o r riding on horse o r ass, o r boiling food,
o r swim m ing, o r horse-riding, o r splitting firewood, o r [going on a boat] coracle
on w ater, o r any th ing involving w rong. ">2
Very severe punishm ents are th rea ten ed against S undaybreakers by the
a u th o r o f the letter, usually heavy fines, with the loss o f the anim al o r the serf
involved on th e occasion, o r the destruction o f the tool used for the transgression.
A few dispensations are given: fleeing before pagans, w arning th e people o f the
com ing o f raiders, going to th e help o f som eone but on the condition o f not
re tu rn in g befo re the en d o f Sunday. It is lawful to seek som eone to give
C om m union, but not to baptize. Anim als can be helped, fires fought, cattle
protected from th e w olves, crops saved from p lu n d er, and o f course, the sick may
be assisted.'
However, th e S abbatarian tren d was not welcome everyw here. T h e C ouncil
o f Les Estinnes (c. 743) took a strong stand against a Jewish u n d ersta n d in g o f
Sunday: W e who are C hristians m ust not observe the Sabbath according to the
letter. C hristians m ust observe the Sabbath in this m anner: by abstaining from
dishonesty, frau d , perjuries, blasphem ies, and all illicit things. "* T h e sam e
a ttitu d e a p p e are d at the C ouncil o f C loveshore (747), w here the cultic significance
o f the holy day was em phasized.'
T h a t latent theological conflict may also have been at the root o f the very
hostile reception given at that tim e by the leaders o f the Franks to the preaching o f
the Letterfrom Heaven. In the Admomtio generalis (789), the letter is called "worst and
m ost false, not to be believed o r read but to be b u rn e d , lest by such w ritings the
people m ight be led into e r r o r .'06 It was co n d em n ed also at a synod at Rom e in
745.""
Civil Enforcem ent o f the Sabbatarian Sunday
T h e C arolingian rulers w ere, ju st the sam e, zealous d efen d ers o f S unday
keeping. Pepin th e S hort, C harlem agne, an d th eir successors attem p ted to
enforce Sunday rest. Strangely, the Admonitio generalis, which co n d em n ed the
Letter from Heaven, may well m ark the triu m p h o f the Sabbatarian Sunday. In that
do cu m en t we find detailed instructions given in c h a p te r 81: We o rd e r, what the
L ord has also prescribed in his law, that no physical work be p erfo rm ed on th e day
o f th e L ord as my fa th e r o f good m em ory prescribed in his synodal edicts, that is,
that m en should n o t work in the fields, that they should not cultivate the
vineyards, o r plow in the fields, o r harvest the grain o r m ake hay, o r erect fences,
o r clear forest lands o r fell trees. T h ey m ust not break stones on roads, build
houses o r d o g ard en work. O nly th ree uses o f the wagons are perm issible on

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Sunday: to drive to war, to fetch fo o d stu ff o r take a body to the cem etery in an
em ergency---- W om en shall not do th eir weaving eith er o r cut garm ents, o r sew o r
em b ro id er. It is n o t allowed fo r them to card wool, o r beat hem p o r wash g arm ents
publicly o r sh ea r sheep, so that the h o n o r an d the rest o f the Day o f the L ord may
be preserved in every way. Let all go to ch u rch fo r the m ystery o f the masses and
let them praise G od fo r all his blessings on that day."
T h e missi dominici, C h arlem ag n es representatives, w ere instructed to pay
close atten tio n to the m an n er in which Sunday was kept everyw here they w ent ,109
and th e effo rt only increased d u rin g the d ark years tow ard the e n d o f his reign. In
813, for instance, the prohibition o f servile labor was re p eated at th e five
re fo rm in g synods o f Arles, Reims, Mainz, Chalon su r Saone, and T o u rs. T h e
holding o f public m arkets on that day was especially decried because so m any
people loafed th ro u g h them ra th e r than going to c h u rc h .110
T h e sam e zeal tow ard stopping all servile w ork on S unday was m anifested by
the newly converted rulers. W hen King S tephan o f H ungary attem p ted to
C hristianize his realm in 1016, he issued Sunday edicts. If a priest, o r a noblem an,
o r anyone else finds one w orking on Sunday, let him drive him away from his
work. If th at m an works with oxen, [the official] may take the ox an d give it to the
people fo r food. If he works with a horse, let the horse be confiscated, which the
ow ner may redeem with an ox, that shall be also given to the people fo r food. If he
works with tools, let those an d the garm ents be confiscated, which he may redeem
with his skin [a Hogging ]."111 H arsh Sunday legislation was also enacted by King
K nud (died 1035) in D enm ark, w here C hristianity had now triu m p h ed .
Sunday as the Christian Substitute for the Sabbath
From a theological standpoint, it is interesting to com pare a few passages on
the Sabbath from the C arolingian period: c h a p te r 51 in the Education o f the Clergy
(819) by R abanus M aurus, th e learned abbot o f Fulda; canon 50 o f the Synod o f
Paris (829); T h e o d u lf o f O rleans' Capitula; an d ch ap ter 26 o f the Capitula o f
R udolf o f B ourges, which reveals clearly T h e o d u lf s influence ."5T his will help us
to evaluate som e o f the changes th at took place betw een Isidores tim e an d that o f
Rabanus.
All these w ritings g ro u n d the origin o f S unday in the resurrection o f C hrist;
all ju stify its keeping by the tradition o r the custom o f the apostles, although the
canon o f the Parisian synod reveals som e d o u b t concerning this by saying "ut
creditur" ("as generally believed"), a n d by adding, but very certainly by the
au th o rity o f th e c h u rch . All fo u r docum ents bolster the claims o f S unday
sacredness by references to essentially the sam e Sunday hallowings (the creation
o f light, the resu rrectio n o f C hrist, the com ing o f the Floly Spirit, an d the gift o f
the m anna). All fo u r u rg e cessation from secular activities, and they insist on the
superiority o f the C hristian institution over the Jew ish one. A lthough the
references to S unday hallowings are taken from Isidore, the u rg in g to stop secular
activities on that day is new. O f special interest is that for the first tim e we begin to
sense a clear consciousness o f a substitution o f Sunday for Sabbatha change
justified by the authority o f tradition ra th e r than scriptural com m and.
B eyond these essential agreem ents, we discover som e interesting differences
o f em phasis. T h e passage in R abanus, copied verbatim from Isidore, presents the
m ain ideas o f th e patristic S undaykeeping, the im portance o f spiritual rest, the

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glory o f the first day that is also the eighth day, an d the radical difference betw een
the sinful idleness o f the Jew s an d the festal spirit o f the C hristian day.
T h e canon o f the Synod o f Paris is preoccupied with the general desecration
o f the L ord's day. It is clearly a pastoral utterance th at uses both religion and
superstition, containing especially n u m erous stories o f m iraculous punishm ents
o f S unday desecrators. It appeals to all priests, rulers, an d lay people to show
reverence for th e L o rd s day.
W e find a stro n g Sabbatizing spirit in the passages o f T h e o d u lf o f O rleans
and R u d o lf o f B ourges. T h e o d u lf provides for som e travel o r navigation on the
L o rd s day if it does not in terfe re with church attendance. R udolf expands that to
a long list o f twenty-five specific Sabbath activities on the farm o r in the hom e that
are totally p rohibited on Sunday. Both au th o rs em phasize that the day m ust be
spent in holy activities with family an d friends.
T h e ecclesiastical origin o f S unday is unequivocally staled by H enry o f
A u x erre (died c. 880): T h e Sabbath day was held very sacred a n d solem n indeed
by th e ancient ritual; all work stopped an d all devoted them selves to p ray er an d to
meals. T h a t observation has been tran sferre d m ost fittingly by C hristian custom to
Sunday because o f reverence fo r the resurrection o f the L o rd .""5

Sunset-to-Sunset Celebration o f Sunday

D uring th e C arolingian p erio d th ere was also a strong effo rt to enforce a
sunset-to-sunset keeping o f Sunday. T h e Synod o f Frioul (796 o r 797), presided
ov er by th e p atriarch o f A quileia, the friend an d the theological adviser o f
C harlem agne, specified in canon 13 th at the L ord's day began at nightfall ."4At the
Synod o f R ouen, held in the m iddle o f the ninth century, it was slated very clearly
that holy days had to be celebrated from evening until evening.11' Practically the
sam e w ording is fo u n d in the fam ous Semio Synodalis, about whose au th o rsh ip
th ere is m uch d eb ate bu t which ap p ears to date from the m iddle o f the ninth
century: Let th e priest teach th at Sundays and o th e r holidays m ust be celebrated
from evening until ev ening .116In the homily o f R abanus M aurus already cited, we
read , Let us keep th e Day o f th e L ord an d let us hallow it, as the lawgiver form erly
co m m anded o f th e Sabbath day: From evening un to evening shall ye keep the
S abbath. Let us th e re fo re be careful that o u r rest shall not be vain, bu t from
Sabbath evening u n to S unday evening let us stay away from o u r w ork in the fields
an d from all business and let us devote ourselves to divine w orship .117
It is to th at practice o f S aturday vespers that we owe a beautiful C hristian
hym n. Hymn fo r Saturday Vespers, by P eter A belard, the fam ous scholastic doctor:

O what th e ir jo y and th eir glory m ust be.

T h o se endless Sabbaths the blessed ones see!
C row n fo r th e valiant; to weary ones rest;
God shall be all, and in all ever blest.

W hat are th e M onarch, his co u rt, an d his throne?

W hat are th e peace a n d the joy that they own?
T ell us, ye blest ones, that in it have share.
If w hat ye feel ye can fully declare.

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T ru ly Je ru sa le m nam e we that shore,

Vision o f peace," that brings joy everm ore!
Wish and fulfillm ent can severed be n e er.
N o r th e th ing prayed for com e short o f the prayer.

We, w here no trouble distraction can bring,

Safely th e an th em s o f Zion shall sing;
W hile for thy grace. L ord, th eir voices o f praise
T h y blessed people shall everm ore raise.

T h e re daw ns no Sabbath, no Sabbath is o er.

T h o se Sabbath keepers have one an d no m ore;
O n e an d u n en d in g is that triu m p h song
W hich to th e angels an d us shall belong.

Now in the m eanw hile, with hearts raised on high.

We fo r th at country m ust yearn an d m ust sigh.
Seeking Jeru salem , d e a r native land.
T h ro u g h o u r long exile on Babylons strand.

Low befo re H im with o u r praises we fall,

O f whom , and in whom , and th ro u g h whom are all;
O f w hom , th e F ather; an d th ro u g h whom , the Son;
In whom , th e Spirit, with these ever O ne.

Sunday an Ecclesiastical Institution

By th e twelfth century, Sunday had becom e quite fully the church substitute
for th e seventh day. T h e rest began at sunset and lasted until the next sunset. All
secular w ork was strictly prohibited u n d e r stern ecclesiastical an d civil penalties,
fo r n o th in g except very strin g en t necessity was allowed to in terfe re with church
atten d an ce (though dispensations could be g ran ted by ecclesiastical authority).
T his concept o f S undaykeeping was spelled o u t clearly by the great decretalists. In
his collection o f 1234, G regory IX. for instance, collated a d ecree from the Synod
o f M ayence from the early p art o f the ninth century and a letter from Pope
A lexander III to the A rchbishop o f T ro n d h e im in Norway teaching how Sunday
m ust be kept. A lthough those w ere local docum ents, they acquired a m uch g re ater
au th o rity w hen they w ere included in a m ajor canonic collection.
T h e lines th at follow from the canon law sum m arize the final stage o f
S undaykeeping in the M iddle Ages: We com m and that all Sundays m ust be
observed with th e greatest veneration from sunset until sunset and that all m ust
abstain from any unlaw ful w ork___A lthough the seventh day has been devoted in
a very special way to hu m an rest by the pages o f the Old an d the New T estam ents
an d th e chu rch has com m anded to observe it and the days devoted to the S uprem e
Majesty as well as the birthdays o f the holy m artyrs by refrain in g from all secular
work, we to whom has been en tru sted the rule o f the church by the ru le r o f all
m ust m ake for the faithful a fair application to those things which necessity
requires. T h u s, the Apostolic See com es with its usual mercy to the relief o f those

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who d o not look for an excuse for servile works, that is to say, sinful works, bu t for
the possibility to provide th e necessities o f food and garm ent. Knowing by the
rep o rts o f m any th at your region does not abound in fruits an d th at the sea which
traditionally provided your people with m uch o f th eir food has been less g enerous
th an usual, by P eters and o u r own authority we g ran t that except on the great
feasts o f the years, your parishioners may devote them selves to fishing on Sundays
o r o th e r holidays, when the h errin g s com e tow ard the land because o f the u rg en t
necessity o f the catch o f those fish. T his is g ran ted , however, with the re q u irem en t
that a fair p o rtio n o f the catch be given to nearby churches and to the p o o r o f the
L o rd .
T h e theology o f the m edieval C hristian Sunday received its final elaboration
in the works o f th e great scholastic theologians o f the th irteen th century. T h e
change from th e seventh to the first day was authorized by m aking the Sabbath a
Jew ish cerem ony an d the fo u rth com m andm ent a cerem onial law. This, however,
raised th e problem o f a cerem onial com m and in the m idst o f the m oral law. It was
A lexander o f Hales (died 1245) who attem p ted to solve that problem by finding
the com m on g ro u n d o f Sabbath a n d S unday in n atu ral law. A lthough m an should
be free fo r com m union with G od at all times (since he is His creature), this is
im possible because o f tem poral necessities. T h u s God claims a specific am o u n t o f
time. God in th e law o f Sinai ap p o in ted the seventh day, and the church chose the
day o f the L o rd s resurrection. T h e com m and to rest is a com m and o f n atu re,
hence a m oral com m and th at all C hristians m ust obey, while the seventh day was a
Jew ish an d a cerem onial law th at is no longer binding upon C hristians."9
T his new ap p ro ach to the fo u rth com m andm ent reflects a d eep change in
C hristian th o u g h t that m arks w hat has been called the second feudal age.
T h ro u g h th e C rusades, th e increase o f trade, the discovery o f A ristotle, an d the
study o f R om an law sp u rre d by th e long struggle betw een papacy an d em pire, the
horizon o f m edieval m an was greatly broadened. A new ap p ro ach to know ledge
was developed, based on tru st in th e rational capacity o f m an to discover the
secrets o f th e universe. T h e w orld is a w orld o f o rd e r, ruled by secondary n atu ral
cause, o rd a in e d by th e g reat first cause, God. T his o rd e r is the lex aetema th at can
be discovered in all branches o f learning. T h ro u g h reason pagans, Moslems, and
C hristians can equally well discover th at divine o rd e r in the m oral m ak eu p o f m an.
It is that natu ral law that provides the foundation fo r all m oral systems, all judicial
codes, all social institutions. T h a t n atu ral law is th e essence o f the Decalogue, and
th erefo re, o f th e Sabbath co m m an d m en t.120 Sunday is the practical application,
th e positive C hristian in terp retatio n , o f the natural duty to have com m union with
G od, which is recognized by all m en.
T h u s, we have now arrived at the concept o f S unday as a purely ecclesiastical
institution. It is a cultic institution prim arily, an d the church may d eterm in e what
is perm issible an d what may not be d o n e on that day. T hom as A quinas expressed
th at th o u g h t very clearly:
In th e New Law the keeping o f the S unday supplants th at o f the Sabbath, not
in virtue o f th e p recept o f the law, but th ro u g h determ in atio n by the ch u rch and
the custom o f th e C hristian people. F u rth erm o re this practice does no t stand as a
figure as did th at o f the Sabbath in the O ld Law, a n d so the prohibition o f w ork on
S unday is not as strict as it was on the sabbath; som e works are allowed on S unday
which w ere fo rb id d en on the sabbath, cooking an d the like, fo r exam ple. Even

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with re g a rd to works th at are forbidden, dispensation by reason o f necessity is

easier in th e New Law th an in th e O ld Law, th e reason being th at a figure belongs
to th e proclaim ing o f a tru th , no detail o f which may be set aside. B ut observances
considered absolutely can be changed according to circum stances o f tim e a n d
place. 1!l
T h o m as is preoccupied with the problem o f eith er why w hat ap p ears to be a
cerem onial co m m and is included in the D ecalogue o r why G od did no t enunciate
also o th e r p rescriptions concerning w orship such as p ray er a n d devotion. H e
answers: T a k e n in its literal sense the co m m andm ent to keep the sabbath is partly
m oral, partly cerem onial. It is m oral in that m an should set aside som e tim e in his
life fo r co n cen tration u p o n the things o f God. For m an is connaturally
predisposed to set aside a portion o f his tim e for every affair o f necessity for
bodily refresh m en t, for exam ple. . . . W herefore it is in accord with a dictate o f
n atu ra l reason th at a m an reserve som e tim e for spiritual n o u rish m en t___B ut it is
a cerem onial p re cep t on the g ro u n d s th at in this com m andm ent a p articu lar tim e
is d eterm in e d in o rd e r to signify creation. It is also cerem onial in its allegorical
sense, i.e., as it was a sign o f C hrist's repose in the tom b on the seventh day; likewise
in its m oral sense, i.e., as sym bolizing desisting from every act o f sin an d resting in
God; in this sense, too, it is in a way a general precept. It is also cerem onial in its
anagogical sense, i.e., as it prefigures rest in the enjoym ent o f G od in heaven. 122
In T h o m as, A ugustines ideas had becom e jo in ed with the subsequent
d ev elopm ent o f S unday observance. T h e spiritual value o f Sabbath was linked
with th e absolute re q u irem en t o f rest fo r the w orshiper. By th e use o f the typically
m edieval four-senses in terp re tatio n o f S criptures, the literal historical m eaning
o f th e fo u rth co m m an d m en t was replaced by the allegorical, the m oral, an d the
anagogical m ean ings.' Sabbath, it was asserted, should lead the C hristian to think
o f C h rists rest in the tom b, o f the m oral duty to desist from sin, an d o f the fu tu re
blessedness in heaven. T h e bond with C reation had been totally lost.
By his distinction betw een th e way Mosaic judicial and cerem onial com m ands
had becom e void, T hom as m ade the literal keeping o f the Sabbath co m m andm ent
a very grievous sin. T h eju d icial provisions are dead, he claim ed, but n o t deadly. A
ru le r could very p ro p erly revive them in his territories. C erem onial prescriptions,
on th e o th e r h an d , are d ead a n d deadly fo r those who keep them afte r C hrist has
com e, fo r they are a rejection o f C hrist's sacrifice on the cross.124
It is in teresting to observe th at this new theological u n d ersta n d in g o f Sunday
was soon reflected in Jew ish-C hristian controversies over the Sabbath co m m an d
m ent. In his Scrutinium Scripturarum, o n e o f the m ost com prehensive a n d learned
m anuals o f C hristian apologetics against the Jews, Paul o f B urgos (1350-1435), a
converted Jew ish rabbi, justifies the C hristian discarding o f the Sabbath rest by
reasoning th at the S abbaths b ein g a m oral com m and, it is not tied to any day o f the
week. Since th e original Sabbath was ju st as m uch a sign o f red em p tio n and
freed o m as a m em orial o f C reation, he indicates, it is perfectly p ro p e r for
C hristians to com m em orate the great red em p tio n that they find in Jesu s.125
W ith S unday considered as an ecclesiastical institution, it was u p to the church
to define th e p ro p e r way o f keeping it; an d the last step in the m edieval theological
developm ent o f S unday was m ade by th e casuists, am ong w hom w ere R aym ond de
P en n efo rt (died 1275) an d G uillaum e de R ennes (13th century). Such casuists
attem p ted to define for the faithful what w ere m ortal an d what w ere venial sins in

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the transgression o f Sunday. W hat, for instance, if a person should go to a m arket

on Sunday? T h is was not a m ortal sin if it was not d o n e regularly o r if o n e w ent to
take care o f necessities. It was a m ortal sin if one went because o f greed o r if the
m arket h ad been fo rbidden by th e bishop. A n o th er exam ple o f a m ortal sin was
for stu d en ts to w rite th eir iessons on S unday unless they could not learn
otherw ise.1
Such casuistry this effo rt to classify and distinguish what is right and
w rong is reflected in Jo h n H usss com m entaries on the fo u rth c o m m an d m en t.127
As he does with all th e o th e r com m ands, H uss considers the Sabbath p recep t from
th ree d iffe re n t perspectives. First he shows the general significance o f th e day o f
rest, th en he p resen ts its special m eaning, and finally he concludes with a
discussion o f its deepest value.
T h e Sabbath co m m and o f the D ecalogue urges us first to rem em ber, an d
Huss hastens to show how vital it is to do so. A wom an, he tells us, who forgot and
jo in ed a procession on a day w hen she had had sexual relations with h er husband
was publicly d ra g g ed an d to rm en ted by the devil. H e proceeds to w arn us that
d ru n k s an d d an cers ru n a g reat risk o f transgressing that com m and, an d with the
casuists skill he defines for us w hen d ru n k e n n ess a n d dancing on Sundays are sins
and when they are not. T h e n he takes us to a hig h er level, the sanctification o f the
day o f rest. H e does so negatively, by pointing o u t how the com m and can be
broken in fo u r d iffe ren t ways: by m anual work, atten d in g m arkets, seeking
secular pleasure, an d pleading in ju stice. H e provides a list o f w orks that can be
justified on th e day o f the L ord.
T h e th ird level is the most m eaningful to Huss. T h e com m and, he declares,
tells us to con tem p late the spiritual realities, an experience that brings th ree goods
to th e co n tem p lato r: spiritual seeds, which norm ally would be crushed by the daily
ro u tin e, g erm in ate an d bloom ; secular thoughts becom e totally insipid and
worthless; and th e h ard flesh that holds us captive m elts away in th e light o f Him
who is th e tru e Sabbath.
As S unday becam e an ecclesiastical institution, its significance as the feast o f
the R esurrection was b lu rred . Instead, each S unday was individualized and
dedicated to som e p articu lar feast, m ost com m only with the T r i n i t y . O n the
o th e r h an d , S aturday becam e the day o f th e virgin M ary129Peter D am ian en d o rsed
warmly th e dedication o f S aturday to M ary.150At the Council o f C lerm ont in 1095
it was d ecreed th at all C hristians should "recite the office o f the Blessed V irgin
every Sabbath day. 151 Because the relationship with the Old T estam e n t was lost,
the sunset-to-sunset observance was slowly discarded. In the fifteenth cen tu ry
Nicholas Siculus (died 1445) expressed the view that all weekly holidays should
begin at sunset except Sunday, lest the people m ight Ju d a iz e .158B eginning S unday
at m id n ig h t becam e general in the sixteenth ce n tu ry .'
T he Saturday Sabbath
W hat was th e fate o f the Sabbath as a day o f rest d u rin g the late M iddle Ages?
In som e d o cu m en ts th ere are references to the ttuabbali, a p o p u lar nam e fo r th e
W aldenses, which som e have taken as evidence that they w ere a S abbathkeeping
sect.' T his in terp re tatio n ap p ears to be incorrect as far as th e sect in general is
concerned. T h e d o cu m ents reveal what th e m ain grievances against those people
were. T h ey took th e conversatio apostolica very seriously. T h ey believed th at

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Jesu s co m m an d ed His followers to give u p th eir possessions an d to go to preach

th e gospel. W hen ecclesiastical authorities d enied them the right o f preaching the
gospel, they felt it was a m atter o f obeying G od ra th e r than m en, an d they defied
the church.
In his attack against the W aldenses, Alan o f Lille says: 'T hey are called
W aldenses afte r th eir heresiarch. who was nam ed W aldcs. He, by the pro m p tin g
o f his own spirit, not sent by G od, invented a new sect in that, w ithout the authority
from a prelate, w ithout divine inspiration, w ithout knowledge, w ithout learning,
he p resu m ed to preach: a p h ilosopher w ithout th o u g h t, a p ro p h et w ithout vision,
an ap osde w ithout a mission, a teacher w ithout a t u t o r .. . . [His followers] d a re to
preach to fill th e ir bellies ra th e r than th eir m inds an d , because they d o not wish to
w ork with th eir own h ands to obtain food, they m ake the evil choice o f living
w ithout em ploym ent, p reaching falsities so that they may buy food. 1,1
Alan ad d ed th e grievance that wom en w ere allowed to preach also: "T hese
persons resist th e Apostle in that they have w om en with them and have them
preach in th e g atherings o f the faithful, although the Apostle says in the first
epistle to th e C orinthians, Let wom en keep silence in the c h u rc h e s.' 1
U n d a u n te d by the papal o rd e r to stop such practices, the W aldenses w ent into
clandestinity a n d spread th eir ideas u n d e r the garb o f pilgrim s, cobblers, barbers,
harvesters, et ce te ra.' T h e W aldenses m ajor crim e, in th e eyes o f their
co n tem poraries, was insubordination. S abbathkeeping was not an issue. E b rard o f
B ethune in his l.tber Antiherrsis indicates that they w ere in ag reem en t with the
ch u rch on th e reading o f the gospels, respect for Sunday, an d the practice o f
fasting an d p ra y e r.1
In his description o f the W aldenses. Peter o f V aux-de-C ernay adds a detail
that clarifies th e nam e insahbati: "B ut to pass over m any points o f th eir unbelief,
th eir e rro r consisted chieHy in fo u r things: to wit. in the w earing o f sandals after
the apostles: in th eir refusal, u n d e r any circum stances, to swear an oath; [their
refusal] to take life; and in th eir claim that any o ne o f them in case o f necessity, so
long as he is a sandal w earer, may p erfo rm the sacram ent o f th e Eucharist, even
th o u g h he may not have been o rd ain ed by a bishop."
I'he Latin w ord for sandal is sabbatum, th e root o f the Spanish zapato an d the
French sabot. T h e sandals w ere an outw ard sign o f their being im itators o f the
apostles in living th e vita apostohca an d the justification o f th eir preaching the
gospel. T h e w earing o f the sandals seem s to have indicated a certain standing in
th e sect, as is also shown by Anselm o f A lessandria: "Also the sandal-w earers
am ong them , whom they call priests, carry only one cloak and e ith e r go
b arefooted o r w ear shoes o r sandals cut away at the lop. 140
In view o f th e foregoing, o n e can u n d ersta n d why Pope Innocent 111 w rote to
D uran d o f H uesca, who had recanted his W aldensian faith, that he should stop
w earing sandals: " T h ere fo re, we adm onish, we advise, we ex h o rt those o f you who
have not yet ad o p ted this fashion o r those who shall be associated with you in the
fu tu re not to bind them selves to the custom o f w earing sandals o p en at th e to p n or
to w ear such footgear, so that thus the scandal may entirely d is a p p e a r." 1,1
T h e Sabbath was not totally forgotten as a day o f rest, however, an d it is
interesting to note that instances of S abbathkeeping occur w here the W aldenses
had p reach ed with the greatest success. In n o rth e rn Italy we find the sect o f the
Passagini in th e tw elfth an d the th irte e n th cen tu ries.1**T h e ir beliefs are described

208
 T H E S A B B A T H AND L O R D S DAY D UR IN G T H E MIDDLE AGES

and attacked in th e Summa contra Haereticos, the au th o rsh ip o f which is o ften

attrib u ted to P rae p o sitin u so f C rem o n a.1 W hile the W aldenses took Jesus as th eir
sole au th o rity a n d em phasized the S erm on on the M ount, the Passagini attem p ted
to up h o ld the whole o f the Old an d the New T estam ents. For that reason they
observed th e Mosaic precepts, even circum cision an d the distinction o f clean and
unclean m eats. Because the Sabbath was instituted long before the Law was
proclaim ed on Sinai, they observed that day as th eir day o f rest an d w orship.'
In n o rth e rn France, the secret m eetings o f a g ro u p o f S abbathkeepers w ere
d en o u n ced to th e au th orities in 14 2 0 .1,8Sixteen o r eighteen persons o f Douai w ere
arrested with the p reach er, a m an from the nearby town o f V alenciennes, and
ju d g e d by th e trib u n al o f the Inquisition for denying that the F ather, the Son, and
the Holy G host are one Person; fo r disrespect o f th e sacram ents; for denial o f the
p erp etu al virginity o f Mary; for keeping S aturday as th eir Sabbath; an d for stating
that the masses fo r th e dead have no value w hatsoever. T h e second folio o f that
collection o f ju d g m e n ts o f heresy records the d eath o f a priest, H en n eq u in o f
Langle, for k eeping his Sabbath on S aturday and o th e r reasons." O n the last folio
we are told th at th e p re ach e r o f the g ro u p , B ertoul T h u rin , was executed "for
keeping S atu rd ay as his Sabbath."
Was th ere any relationship betw een those people an d the B ohem ian
Picards" m en tio n ed in several late m edieval an d R eform ation era docum ents?'*
A ccording to th e Summanum nnpiae ft pharisatcae picardorum religionis, som e o f
them w ere Sabbathkeepers. W hile their real place within the heresies o f the late
M iddle Ages has n o t been fully d eterm in ed , it is clear that they stood very close to
the W aldenses, whose th irst fo r the conversation evangehca they sh a re d .1,7
A ccording to th e accounts o f th eir o p ponents, they showed little respect for
chu rch au th o rity , ex plained th e gospel at private m eetings, a n d gave the
sacram ents very d iffe ren d y from th e Catholics. T h ey condem ned prayers for the
dead and th e leaching o f purgatory , an d they scoffed at processions an d o th e r
traditional rituals. T h e Summanum explains also th at they om itted the festivities in
h o n o r o f M ary a n d the saints, keeping Sunday only. In fact, it ad ded, som e
celebrate Sabbath with the Jew s. '* T hev may well be the new kind o f Jew s" to
whom Erasm us alluded in his De Amabilt ecclesiae concordia in 1533.,w
In E ngland th e Lollards also insisted on the right o f lay people to possess and
preach th e W o rd .' T h ey w ere followers o f J o h n Wycliffe, who proclaim ed the
su p rem e au th o rity o f S criptures, far above that o f popes, C h u rch Fathers, o r
councils. His translation o f the Bible into the vernacular, op en in g the sacred
writings to the com m on people, was considered as a form o f blasphem y by the
clergy.1*' The Lollards did not m anifest the greatest veneration for Sunday. Sir
Lewis C lifford, a fo rm e r sym pathizer o f theirs, gave a re p o rt to A rchbishop
A rundel that they did not hold any day as hallowed o r holy, not even Sunday, but
that every day they w ere equally free to work, to eat an d to d rin k . 15! We even have
a reco rd o f the recantation in O ctober, 1402, o f a m an who had already abjured
several heresies but still m aintained that the Sabbath o f the O ld T estam en t was to
be observed until good reason should be shown him to the contrary.
Sabbathkeepers were re p o rted in the Scandinavian lands at that tim e. In
Norway Bishop Aslak Bolt, in the year 1435, called together a provincial council at
B ergen, in o rd e r to p u t a stop to S aturday observance," which, he said, was being
practiced in a n u m b er o f places in the la n d .1* Bishop Bang, a Danish prelate,

TSISAH-14 209
 T H E S AB BA TH IN S CR I P T U R E A N D HISTORY

believed th at th e revival o f S abbathkeeping may have been a result o f the w ording

o f th e two first catechism s w ritten in N ordic countries. In one o f them the
co m m an d m en t was w orded: R em em ber to keep th e seventh day holy," an d in
th e o th er, Do not forget to keep the seventh day h o ly ."155
T h e re arose a stro n g ju d a iz in g m ovem ent at N ovgorod in Russia. T h e origin
o f that g ro u p is com m only attrib u ted to the teachings o f L ithuanian Jew s betw een
1470 an d 1475. Because o f th eir im portance in political an d econom ic circles,
th e re was a large d eg ree o f tolerance for the Jew s in Muscovy. T h o se Ju d aizers
questioned th e T rinity, the efficacy o f the sacram ents, and the authority o f the
writings o f the early C h u rch Fathers. O n the o th e r hand, they asserted the
prim acy o f th e Mosaic law, the singleness o f the G odhead, an d the sanctity o f the
Sabbath. T h ese assertions b ro u g h t about a series o f harsh persecutions by the
O rth o d o x C h u rch and the e n d o f the era o f toleration for the Jew s in that
re g io n .15*

Conclusion
As we conclude this ch ap ter, we may say that the history o f the Sabbath and
th e L o rd s day d u rin g the M iddle Ages is extrem ely interesting an d significant. We
see the evolution o f the L o rd s day from a spiritual rest, totally in d ep en d e n t o f the
Mosaic p recept, to a day o f physical rest defined com pletely in term s o f the Old
T estam en t. Sunday, a day that in the beginning had relatively little im portance,
becam e an ecclesiastical institution protected by religious and civil sanctions. T o
that d eg ree th e Sabbatical rest survived d u rin g the M iddle Ages. But also, all
th ro u g h o u t th at period th e re w ere gro u p s o f people who, eith er th ro u g h the
exam ple o f the Jew s o r because o f th eir study o f the S criptures, attem p ted to keep
th e day that Jesu s and the apostles had kept. For obvious reasons we know little
ab out th eir n u m b er o r th eir nam es, bu t th eir presence shows that in every age
th ere w ere som e who attem p ted to place the W ord o f God above the traditions o f
m en.

NOTES
1 Tractate on tlu G asprl o f J o h n 2 0 (N P N F H 7 : 13 2 - 133).
I Exposition o f tlu Orthodox Faith 4 . 2 3 ( M S E '2 9 :96).
5 Q u o te d in A. L u k vn s W illiam s. A dversut Jtulaeos A Bird's Eyevtew o f C h m tia n Apologtae u n til the Renaissance
(C a m b rid g e. 1935). p. 2 9 1
A 2 2 . 3 0 ( N P S t f I 2 : 5 1 1 ). O n th e e ig h th day. se e H . D u m ain e. D im a m h e." D A C L 4 /1 :879*884; J. D a n illo u ,
Bible el L iturgte (Paris, 1958), p p. 349*354; J. (Jaillard, " D im ani he." Ih ctto n n a n e de la s p m tu a h t/ ( 195 7 ). 3 :9 5 2 * 9 5 9 ; S.
B a cch iocch i, From Sabbath to Sunday (R o m e. 1977). p p . 2 7 8 -3 0 0
5 M or ahum Itb n 2 5 . 8 (P L 7 6 :7 5 9 ).
De eeclesiastms offictis I. 2 5 . 3.
7 6 . 18 (P i. 8 2 :2 5 0 , 25 1 ); on th e m ed ie v a l u se o f Isid o r e o f S ev ille* S u n d a y sta tem en t, se e P. H ev lv n . H istory o f
the Sabbath. 2 d e d (L o n d o n . 1636). 2 :1 37*142.
8 Serm. 9. 3 (Corpus Christiarurrum 41 :1 1 0 ). T h e sham elessls" refers probably to b a refo o ted d a rn in g .
9 J o s e p h J u n g m a n n . D ie H e ilig u n g d e s S o n n ta g s im fru h ch risten tu m u n d im M ittelalter," in O er T agaes H e r m
(V ien n a , I9d 8), p . 6 2 .
10 E f u t IOft 2 0 (C S E L 5 5 :3 3 5 ).
II " id len ess is an e n e m y o f th e so u l. B ecau se th is is so, th e b reth ren o u g h t to be o c c u p ie d at sp ecified lim es in
m a n u al lab ou r, a n d at o th e r fix ed h o u r s in holy re a d in g . . . . O n S u n d a \ a lso , all. save th o se w h o are a ssig n e d to
v arious o ffic es, shall h ave tim e fo r r e a d in g If. h o w e v er, an v o n e be so n eg lig en t or so slo th fu l as to be u n w illin g or
u n a b le to read or m ed ita te, h e m u st h a v e s o m e w ork g iven h im . so as not to b e idle. For w eak b reth ren , or th o se o f
d elica te c o n stitu tio n s, so m e w ork o r craft shall be fo u n d to k e e p th em fro m id le n e ss, a n d yet n ot such as to c rush th em
by th e h eavy lab ou r o r to d riv e th em aw ay." R ule 4 8 in M arshall B a ld w in , e d .. Christianity Through the Thirteenth
C entury (N ew Y ork, 1970), p p. 9 0 , 9 1 . T he great o p p o s iu o n o f th e m ed iev a l ch u rch to id le n e ss, as o n e o f th e m ajor
vices, c o lo r e d sig n ifu a n d y th e attitu d e tow ard th e Sabbatic rest.
11 (I f on ly C h ristia n s w h en th ey d o n ot g o to ch u rch o n that d ay w o u ld d o so m eth in g u se fu l a n d n ot d a n c e! it

210
 T H E S A B B A T H AND L O R D S DAY D UR IN G T H E MIDDLE AGES

w ould b e m u ch b etlc r fo r a m an to d o so m e H ardening, to g o for a trip, an d for th e w o m a n to u se h er d is ta lf an d n o t.

as th ey ay. to ju m p a ro u n d and d a n c e an d sprain lim bs cr ea ted by G od a n d sh o u t lo u d ly o n e's lo n g in g fo r lust by
ch e a p songs!'*) Elp u t. . . . Contra ros tfut credebant eputolas de carlo ceadisse. R. Priebsch. e d .. in Letter fro m H ea ven on the
O bseriance o f the Lord's Day (O x fo r d . 1936), p. 2.
IS C a n o n 2 8 (M G H Concilia 1:82), trans. in J. N . A n d re w s an d L. R. C o n ra d i. History o f the Sabbath (W a sh in g to n .
D .C ., 1 912). p. 485
14 "W e. th e r e fo r e , accep t spiritu ally an d h old spiritu ally this w hich is w ritten ab out th e Sabbath. For th e Sabbath
m ea n s rest. Bui w e h ave th e tru e Sabbath in ou r R ed eem er H im se lf . . . W e in tro d u ce, th en , n o b u r d e n th r o u g h th e
gates o n th e Sabbath d ay if w e draw n o w eig h ts o f sin b rou gh t to m y k n o w le d g e , n a m elv . that it has b een p rea c h e d to
vou by p erv e rse m en that n o o n e o u g h t to w ash o n th e Lord's day. A n d in d e e d if any o n e craves to w ash fo r luxury
a n d p lea su re, n eith er o n any o th er d ay d o w e allow th is to be d one." E pist 13. 1 {PL 7 7 :1 2 5 3 . 1254).
15 L p ist ad J a n u a n u s 55. 23 (N P N F IX 1:310).
16 I n is was th e g e n e r a l attitu d e tow ard Jew ish laws. "In g en era l w e ca n say o f th e first c e n tu ries that o n the
w h o le C hristian ity d id not feel attracted tow ard s M osaic law * P. J. V crd a m . M osaic L a w in Practice a n d Study
throughout the Ages (K a m p en . 1959), p. 18.
'7 S ee K. S tran d , T h e E arly C hristian Sabbath Selected Essays and a Source Collection (W o rth in g to n . O h io . 1979);
idem, "Som e N o tes o n th e Sabbath Fast in Early C hristianity.'* A U S S 3 (1 9 6 5 ): 171*173; F. C abrol. J eu n es." D A C L
7 /2 :2 4 9 8 ; B acch iocch i. op cU., p p. 185-198.
,H Mac ioIh u s Saturnalia I. ll>. II (trails. B o rn ec q u e [ P a n s (n d .)]. 1: 1 53-155); D u m a in c . op. a t., p p. 9 4 7 ,9 4 8 . E.
D u b lan ch y, Dim anc lie .' D ictionane de thtologie t alhnhque {P an s, 1 9 1 1). 4 / 1: 13 1 1. 1 312. B io n d i B io n d i. / / d in tto romarw
crutiano (M ilan , 1952). 2 :1 6 2 -1 6 7 .
19 S ee n ote 16
* O n th e L o rd s d a y . h o w e v er, th ere sh o u ld b e a cessation o f e a r th h labor la labore terreno cessandum est), a n d
atten tio n g iv e n in every w ay to p rayers, so that if a n y th in g is d o n e n eg lig en tly d u r in g th e six d a y s, it m as b e ex p ia te d
by su p p lica tio n s on th e day o f th e I^ord's resu rrection * Epist. 13. I. n o te (P L 7 7 :1 2 5 4 . 1255).
Ibid , 9. 1 (P L 77:9^ 9).
12 In his article "Christ (lettre d u ) to m b te d u c ie l (D A C L 3' I 1 5 3 4 -1 5 4 6 ). E. R enoir g iv es an ex c e lle n t su rv ev o f
o u r k n o w le d g e o f th e m an u scrip ts an d th e w h erea b o u ts of that letter b oth in E astern a n a W estern C hristian ity, t h e
letter had an im m e n se su ccess in th e East. T h e r e are G reek . A rm en ia n . S y n a c , A rabic, a n d E thiopic tra n sla tio n s o f
th e letter. D iffere n t texts of th e letter can b e fo u n d in E tien n e B a lu /e . C a p itu la n a regum fra n co ru m (P a n s. 1780).
2 :1 3 6 9 -1 3 9 9 ); Jo h a n n A. Febricius, Codex A p o a y p h i N o v i Testament (H a m b u rg , 1 7 1 9 ) .p p 3 1 0 * 3 1 4 , P rieb sch , op a t..
p p. 3 6 -3 9 ; an d I G. O 'K ee fe, Gam D om naig I. T h e E pistle C o n c ern in g S unday." E n u . 2 ( 1905): 1 8 9 -2 1 1, w h o gives
th e tex t o f an Irish version . E n glish tran slation s o f th e letter are p r o s id e d in O 'K eefe's article. in A n d re w s a n d
C o n ra d i, op. a t., p. 4 9 7 , a n d in C M ervyn M axw ell's " C ollection o f Papers fo r th e C lass o n H istory o f Sabbath and
Sunday" (A n d re w s U n iv ersity . 1978). p p. 4 7 8 -4 8 1 . S ee also J. M ichl, TJriefe. ap ocrvp h e." le xico n fu r Theologie und
Kirche, 2d ed . (1 9 5 8 ), 2:6 8 9 ; R. K ottje. Studien zum E tnfluss des A lien Testamentes a u ) Recht u n d L itu rg te des friih en
M iltelalters (6-8 |a h r h u n d e n ), (B o n n . 1964), p p. 52 -5 6 ; A . d e S an to s O te ro . "Der a p o c r v p h c so g e n n a n te
S o n n ta g sb n e i," S tudia P atrutica (B erlin . 19 6 1 ). 3 2 W -2 9 6 . T h e text of L icin ian u s' letter to V a len tin iu s is fo u n d in PL
7 2 :6 9 9 -7 0 0 . O n that letter, se e m ore p articularly J . M a d o /, l.u tn u in o de C artagena y ta i cartas, E stud ios o n ic n s c s , 1/4
(M ad rid, 1948). R en oir te n d s to accep t C . S ch m id t's b elief in an Eastern orig in o f th e letter. "Fragm ent e in e r Schrift
d es M artvrer B ish o fs P etru s von A lex a n d rien ," Texte und I ntersuchungen (B er lin , 1920). 2 0 :4 -4 6 . Prieb sch is q uite
critical o f that view . H e b eliev es (p. 33) that B a lu /e 's text lies q u ite clo se to th e text c o n sid ere d at th e S y n o d o f R o m e m
7 4 5 K ottje claim s that th e text in c lu d e d in th e Irish C am D om naig. w hich can be d a ted fro m th e b e g in n in g o f the
e ig h th ce n tu ry , m ay w ell b e o u r earliest Latin tex t (p. 54).
23 I q u o te fro m M axw ell's tran slation .
N M axw ell, op a t., p p. 4 5 8 , 46 1 .
25 d e h ora n o n a u sq u e lu ce sc en te d ie lu n e fen a iis." m an u scrip ts /. a n d V, P rieb sch , op. a t., p p 7. 8.
26 H evlvn . op c i t . p p 115. 116. Prieb sch (p assim ) sh ow s that th e S a b b a ti/in g o f S u n d a y w en t fro m W est to East,
fro m th e V isigotm c realm s to th e Franks an d on .
27 E pist 13. 3 (P L 7 7 :1 2 5 3 . 1254; N P N F /2 13:92. 9 3 ).
w 7. 23 (Didascalia el constUutiones apostolorum. e d . by F. X. Funk (P a d erb o rn . 19051. p. 4 0 9 ; A N F 7 :4 6 9 ).
29 D e castigatione (P G 4 6 :3 1 0 ).
50 D e coenobiorum institutis 3. 2 (C S E L 17:34); c f. 3. 9 (C S E L 17:43. 4 4 ) C asstan a d d s c o n c e r n in g the
S atu rd a y -n igh t an d S u n d a y -n ig h t vigils. W e are c h a rg e d to g iv e b oth d ays that is. to th e sev en th an d eig h th
eq u a lly th e sam e sh a r e o f service, as it says, G ive a p o rtio n to tn e sev en th an d th e e ig h th eq u ally,' Ecc. 1 1:2." 1 he
a u th o r a d d s, h o w e v er. T h is d isp en sa tio n fro m fastin g m ust not be u n d er sto o d as a p a rticip a tio n in Jew ish festivals
bv th o se a b ove all w h o a re sh ow n to be free fro m alfjew rish su p er stitio n s.
51 E pist. 5 4 . 2 (C S E L 2 4 /2 :1 6 0 ; Fathers o f the Church 12:255).
52 D e semente (P G 2 3 :1 4 4 ).
55 Ecclesiastical H istory 5. 2 2 (P G 6 7 :6 3 5 ; N P N F l2 2 :1 3 2 ). S o zo m en states also in his history . T h e p e o p le o f
C o n sta n tin o p le an d several o th er cities assem b le to g e th e r o n th e Sabbath, as w ell as o n th e n ex t d a v , w hich cu sto m is
n ev er o b se rv ed at R o m e o r at A lexan d ria." H ist, eccles. 7. 19 (P G 6 7 :1 4 7 8 ). S ee M arcel S im o n . Verus Israel (Paris.
1964). p p 3 7 4 -3 7 6
u W. T . S k e n e (Celtic Scotland (E d in b u r g h . I876J, 2 :3 4 9 , 3 5 0 ) a sserted that th e C eltic C h u rch k ep t th e sev en th
d a v . a n d his a s s e n io n w as re p e a te d bv m an s later w riters. G . A . K e o u g h stu d ied th e e v id e n c e u sed oy S k e n e and
sh o w ed that it was a m isu n d e r sta n d in g o f th e texts. (A n Inquirv in to th e D a vs o f th e W eek O b serv ed as H oly D ays by
th e C e lu c C hu rch" (M .A . th esis. S D A T h e o lo g ic a l S em in ary . I946J. p p . 84 -8 8 ) In his Celtic Church in B rita in (L o n d o n .
1972). L eslie H a r d in g e p resen ts lim ited e v id e n c e for so m e reco g n itio n o f th e sev en th d ay in th e C eltic C h u rch .
35 Adom nan's L ife o f Colum ba. e d . by A . O . A n d er so n a n d M. O . A n d er so n (L o n d o n . 1961), p p. 5 2 3 .
36 Ibid.. p p 5 0 1 . 5 1 9 .
57 Sancti C.olumbani Opera, e d . by G. S. M W alker (D u b lin . 1957). p. 181; cf. p . 159.
M Second L ife o f Si. D aind in Ln-es o f Saints from the Book o f Lismore. e d . bv W S to k es (O x fo r d . 189 0 ), p. 4 3 0 .
39 S ee n ote 30.
40 L ife o f B rendon o f C lonfert in Vitae Sanctorum H ibem iae. e d . bv C h P lu m m er (O x fo r d , 1910), 1:117; Book o f Si.
D a iid in Councils a n d Ecclesiastical D o c u m e n t R e la tin g to G reat B ritain a n d Ireland, ed . by A. W. H a d d a n a n d W illiam
Stubbs. 3 vols. (O x fo r d . 1 8 6 9 -1 8 7 8 ). 1:113. T h e r e w ere also stories o f relea se from tn e p ain s o f h ell o n S aturday.

211
 T H E S A B BA T H IN S CR IP TUR E AND HIS TORY

T ripartite L ife o f Si. Patrick, cd . by W. S to k e s. 2 vols. (L o n d o n . 1887). 1:1 1 7 . D om L ouis G o u g a u d tales that "in th e
C eltic ch u rch es S aturday b o re s o m e th in g o f a festive ch aracter, w hich was ex p r e sse d by g rea ter le n g th a n d so lem n ity
in th e liturgy an d also in th e m o n a ste ries by a less rig o ro u s d iet " Christianity in Celtic Lands (L o n d o n . 193 2 ). p. 3 2 3 .
C f. W . P h in ip p . e d .. H istory o f the Church o f Ireland (L o n d o n . 1933).
41 A ncient L aw s o f Ireland, cd . by W . N. H an cock an d o th ers (D u b lin . 1 8 6 5 -1 9 0 1 ). 3 :4 1 .
42 Columbaru opera, p. 2 0 3 . O n th e text itself, see H a r d in g e . itp. cit.. p . 83.
45 M u irc h u s L a tin L ife o f Patrick, in th e Book o f A rm agh. I. 2 5 ; 2. 3. Q u oted in H a r d in g e . op a t., p p. 7 9 . 8 0 .
44 A dom nan s L ife o f Colum ba, p p . 2 7 1 . 53 5 . H ie ed ito r s o f that w ork co n clu d e: It seem s to fo llo w that the
sabbatical S u n d ay had not yet b een a cc ep te d by A d o m n a n or in Io n a at th e tim e w h en A d o m n a n w rote." P age 29.
T h e y d a te th e w riting o f A dom nan i I j f e b etw een 6 8 8 an d 6 9 2 . ab out a c e n tu r y a fter th e d e a th o f C o lu m b a (p. 96).
45 MLa p o lm iq u e an ti-ju ive d e Saint J ea n C h rv so sto m e et le m o u v em en t judatsant d 'A n tio ch e." in M arcel
S im o n , Recherches dnistoire judo-chrtienne (Paris, I9f>2), p. 144.
4+1 Horn. 1 (P G 4 8 :8 4 4 ). T h e s e h o m ilies h ave b een tran slated a n d stu d ie d by C. M ervvn M axw ell. C h ry so sto m 's
H o m ilie s against th e Jew s" (P h .D . d isse rta tio n . U n iversity o f C h ica g o . 1966). a n d a lso a p p e a r in Discourses against
J u d a m n g C hnstutns. trans. Paul W . H ark in s (W a sh in g to n . D .C .. 1979).
47 Horn I (P G 4 8 :8 4 7 ).
48 In Ezech 3 3 :3 3 (P L 2 5 :3 2 6 ). C f. A u g u s tin e s E fistl* 196. 4 A d Aselhcum de cavendo ju d a ism o (P L 3 3 :8 9 8 . 8 9 9 ).
M arcel S im on d iscu sses th e p o p u la rity o f tn e scv cn -n ra n ch cd ca n d lestick in early C hristian art a n d sees th e r e a
m a n ifesta tio n o f th e attraction o f J u d a ism . "Le c h a n d e lie r sep t b ran ch es," Recherches, p p. 181 -1 8 7 .
49 Quaes t a d v .J u d ., Praef. in Liber de iants quaestionibus. cd . by P. A . C. V eg a and A. E. A n sp a ch (E scu n a l. 1940),
q u o te d in B. B lu m en k ra n z. J utfs et chrtiens dans le monde occidental (Paris. I9 6 0 ), p. 6 2 . M uch o f th e in fo rm a tio n on
m ed iev a l J u d a izcr s is d raw n from that w ork.
50 J u lia n o f T o le d o . Insult, in tyr. gall. 2 (P L 9 6 :7 9 7 ).
41 T h e rubric o f th e law is De ludaizantibus chnstianis. Leges Visigothorum 12. 2. 16 <M G H I J 1:424)
w P L 9 8 :3 8 5 . S ec also P. A . C . V eg a . U n a h erejia ju d a iza n tc d e p rin cip io d el sig lo viii e n F-spana." C iu d a d de Dias
153 (19 4 1 ): 57.
M Id le an d restin g o n th e S abb ath , th ey d o n ot p low , harvest or d o any usu al w ork but cc leb ra tc a n d g o
b a n q u etin g , w h ile th eir servan ts a n d cattle re st. C ard. H u m b ert o f M o n tm o u tier, A d ie n u s calum m as G raecorum. 6
(P L 1 4 3 :9 3 6 ); see B lu m en k ra n z, op. a i., o p . 1 7 2-175.
54 It has reach ed th e p oin t w h e r e in e ig n o ra n t C hristian s say that th e J ew s p rea ch b etter to th em than o u r
p rie sts. A gob ard De insol. ju d . 5 (P L 104:74. 75). S o that th ey say that (th e j e w s j p reach b etter than o u r priests so
that th ey sabbatizc w ith th e m , th ey w ork o n th e L ord s d a y . A n io lo n L ib contra lu d 41 (P L 1 16:1 7 0 ). T h is m a tter is
d iscu ssed in B lu m en k ra n z, op. a t., p . 58. O n S p an ish lu d a ize rs. se e M arcelino M c n c n d ez -P ela y o . H isto n a de los
heierodoxos espaOoles. c d ir io n n a tio n a l d e las ob ras co m p l ta s (M a d n d . 1 946). 2 :4 6 2 -4 7 8 .
35 P se u d o -B ed e Q u a /, super D euter. 6 (f*/. 9 3 :4 1 1 ). B lu m en k ra n z, op. a t., p. 63, T h e sam e th in g h a p p e n e d in the
East, as th e fo llo w in g p assa g e illu strates. In his folly h e th in k s thus: I f C hristian ity is g o o d , b e h o ld ! am b aptized as a
C hristian . B ut if J u d a ism is also u se fu l. 1 will associate partly w ith J u d a ism that I m ight h o ld o n to th e Sabbath." The
D isputation o f Sergius the Stylite against a leu', 22. 15 (trans. by A. P. H a v m a n , Corpus S cn p to ru m chnstianorum oriental turn
3 3 , Scnptores S y n (L ou vain , 1973J. 1d 3:77). S e e also p. 2 .
* E x p . lerem lib. 6 . cap . 13 (P L 11 1 :9 1 2 ).
47 S ec B. B lu m en k ra n z, A p r o p o s d u (ou d es) Tractatus c. ludaeos d e Fulbert d e C h a r tres, R exu e d u moyen age
chrtien 8 ( I 9 5 2 ):5 1-53.
58 B lu m en k ra n z.J u i f s et chrtiens, p . 63; cf. p. 243.
59 M ansi 13 :8 5 2 . T h e co n d e m n a tio n o f th e literal S a b b a th k eep in g at th e C o u n cil o f L es E stin n cs m ay w ell stem
fro m th e sa m e p ro b lem . Ibid., 12:378.
60 E in s t 9 7 (9 9 ). 10 (P L 1 1 9 :984). In h is an sw er th e n o p e relied h ea v ily u p o n G r eg o ry s ep istle.
61 k a r l H e fc le . H istoire des conciles, trans. H . L eclercq (P a n s. 1 907-), 3 /2 . 1224. For it is n ot p ro p er fo r C h ristia n s
to Ju d a ize an d b e id le o n th e Sabbath but th ey sh o u ld rath er w ork o n that d a y . g iv in g g rea ter v en er a tio n to S u n d a y if
th ey w ant to rest, as C h ristian s d o.
63 S e e B lu m en k ra n z. J u ifs et chrtiens, p. 176, n . 6 6 . fo r several in stances.
63 S e e R. L. O d o m . T h e S abbath in in c G reat S ch ism o f 1 0 5 4 . A U S S 1 ( l9 6 .3 ):7 4 -8 0 .
w C f. L eo IX . Epist. 103 (P L 1 4 3 :7 7 7 -7 8 1 ).
65 C ard . H u m b ert o f M on tm o u tier. op. a t. (P L 1 4 3 :9 3 6 , 9 3 7 ).
F.pist. 1 24 (P G 1 2 0 :778).
67 J o h a n C h y e n u s ,M e d ie \> a llr u titu tw m a n d th e O ld T e sta m c n H H e lsin k i. 1965). p. 3 7 .C f .C - F. A tch lcv ..4 H istory
o f the Use o f Incense in D ivin e W orship (L o n d o n . 1909). p p. 160, 161; K oilje, op fit., p p. 1 1, 12.
68 The Bobbw M issal 5 5 9 , ed . by E. A. Low e. (L o n d o n . 1 9 1 7 -1 9 2 4 ). 2 : 1 70. T h e analogy b etw een E aster a n d ih e
P assover h ad b een ca r efu lly d raw n b y Isid o re o f S eville. De eccl. off. 1 (P L 8 3 :7 7 6 ).
69 In a I d le r . P o p e S te p h e n II w rites to Pcpp in : W hat else can 1 call y o u but N ew M oses a n d sp le n d id K ing
D avid ? M G H E p 3:M)5; h is su c cesso r Paul also called P cp p in N ew M oses a n d new D a v id . M G H E p 3 :5 5 2 ; see
C h y d c n iu s, op a t., p. 48
70 S ee E. K an torow icz. The K ing's T w o Bodies (P rin ceton , N .J .. 1 957), p . 77; K F M orrison . The T w o Kingdom s
Ecclesiology in C arolingian P olitical T h o u g h t (P r in ceto n , N .J., 1 9 6 4 ).p . 2 6 . n. 1 ; W U llm a n n , " T h e B ible a n d Prin cip les
o f G o v e rn m en t in th e M id d le A ges." in L a Bibbia nelTalto medioei'o (S p o lcto . 196 3 ), p p. 1 8 8 -19 6 ; Percy E. S ch ram . Das
A lle u n d d as N e u e T esta m en t in d e r S taatsleh re u n d Staatssym bolik d e s M ittclaltcrs." in ibid., p p. 2 2 9 -2 5 5 .
71 Verdam , op. a t., p. 19.
75 Serm 135, in C . M orin, E tudes, textes et dcouvertes. A n c cd o ia m a rcd so la n a 3 /2 (M a rcd so u s, 1897). O n the
p ro b lem s o f th e a u th o r sh ip o f th e se r m o n s o f C aesariu s, se c D u m a in c . op. a t., p . 9 4 0 , n. 6.
73 D e correctione rusitcorum , in M a rtin i eptscopi Bracarensis opera <mtma, e d . by C. W. v o n Barlow (L o n d o n . 195 0 ),
pp. 202. 203.
74 Jean C h lin i. La p ratiq u e d o m in ica le d an s l g lise franque." R ev u e d'histoire de lglise de France 4 2 (1 9 5 6 ): 165.
75 Ibid., p. 173. K M *
76 Ser. 5 (P L 8 9 :8 5 4 ); Ser. 15 ( P L 8 9 :8 7 0 ).
77 P en iten tial, art. 3 5 (P L 8 9 :4 1 0 ).
78 S ec M .-D . C h e n u , S a tu r e . M a n a n d Society in the Tw elfth C entury, sel an d trans. bv J . T a v lo r an d L. K. Little
(C h ica g o , 1968), p. 160.

212
 EHE S AB BA T H A ND L O R D S DAY D UR IN G T H E MIDDLE AGES

C a n o n 1 (M G H Cane. 1:165, 166).

80 C a n o n 4 (M ansi 9 :1 0 1 5 ).
81 M G H Cap 1:11, 12.
12 Ibid.. 17.
M Lib. H istor 10. 3 0 (M G H S S 1:525).
84 Lib dr vtrt. S. Iu lia n t 11 (M G H S S 1:569).
L ib dr u n . S. M a rtin i 3. 3 (M G H S S 1:633).
86 Ib id , 3:39; 3 :5 6 (M G H S S 1:633); Liber Vitae patrum 7. 5 (M G H S S 1:690).
87 Lib. dr vtrt. S. M a rtin i 3 . 7 (M G H S S 1:633).
88 Ib id . 3 . 4 5 (M G H S S 1:643).
89 Ibid.. 4 . 4 5 (M G H S S 1:660).
90 O n th o se b o o k s, see Ci. L eB ras, " P n iten liels," D ictionnaire d r theologie catholique 1 2 /1 :1 1 6 0 -1 1 7 9 ; H. L eciercq,
Pnitenliels,* D A C L 1 4 /1 :2 1 5 -2 5 1 ; C . V o g e l. L e pcheur et la pnitence a u moyen aee (Paris. 1969).
91 P L 9 7 :1 8 1 .
91 L ex Bauarurrum 7. 3 (M G H L 5 :3 5 0 ).
95 Leges alam annorum (M G H L 5:98).
94 Lex B auarutrum 7. 4 (M G H L 5 :3 5 0 , 3 5 1 ).
95 M G H Cone 2 /2 :5 5 7
96 Q u o te d by G. J ec k e r. Die H eim at des H L P trm tn. des Apostels der Alam a n n en (M t)nster in W estfa len . 1 9 2 7 ), p . 57.
S ee ). D a n ilo u . "La ty p o lo g ie b ib liq u e tra d itio n n elle d a n s la litu rgie d u m o y en ge." in La Bibbia nelia lto medioex o. pp.
154-160; R obert M cN ally. Dies dom im ca. T w o H ib e m o -L a tin T e x ts , M ed ieva l Studies 2 2 ( 1 9 6 0 ):3 5 5 -3 6 1 ; D u m a in e .
op. a t., p p. 9 8 5 -9 9 0 .
97 D. M ac L ean . The L a w of the Lord's Day in the Celtic Church (E d in b u rg h . 1926), p. 16. C f. K ottje. op. a t., p. 52.
98 A b r ie f su m m ary is fo u n d in H a r d in g e . op. a t., p p . 2 0 8 -2 1 6 ; S ee a lso P. F o u rn ier, *L e Liber ex lege Mtn/si,"
Rexrue celtique 30 ( 1 9 0 9 ):2 2 1 -2 3 4 .
99 K ottje, op. cit., p p. 49 -8 9 ; H a r d in g e . op. a t., p p . 8 8 . 89.
100 M acl<ean. op. a t., p p . 3-15; O 'K ee fe, loc cit.
101 O K e efe, op. cit., p . 193.
102 Ib id . p p . 2 0 1 -2 0 3 .
103 S ee Mat lx a n . op. cit., p p. 6 -9 . V ery sim ilar id eas are fo u n d in th e C a m D om naig, th e law o f S u n d a y . Even
S u n d a y w ash in g, b a th in g , o r sh a v in g a re strictly p ro h ib ited . S o m e d isp e n sa u o n s are g iv en in b oth d o cu m en ts. O n e
m a t travel to g o to C o m m u n io n o r to b ap tism , to se e th e sick an d d y in g . O n e ma> ru n to arrest a th ie f o r p u r su e a
p r iso n e r . For th e sake o f C hrist o n e m ay p rep a re fo o d for gu ests. A farm er m a y g o to ca p tu re a sw arm o f b ees and
firing a bull to a cow . C attle can be p ro tecte d fro m th e w olves. T h e law th rea ten s th e w itn ess o f S u n d ay d esecra to r w h o
rem ain s silent as m u ch as th e S un d avb reak er.
104 M a n s 13:378.
105 Ibid . 12:399. 4 0 0 .
106 C ap 7 8 (M G H C ap 1:60).
107 Boniface's Epist. 5 9 (M G H E p. sei. 1:1 1 5 , 116). T hese d ecisio n s d id n o t p u t an e n d to th e u se o f th e Letter fro m
H eaven in th e W est. In 1200 a certain E u stace from N o rm a n d y cam e to E n g la n d to a d v o ca te S u n d ay rest. H e rea d to
th e p e o p le a letter fro m h ea v en . S e e A. H. L ew is. A Critical History o f the Sabbath a n d the Su n d a y m the C hristian Church
(P lain field. N .I.. 1905), p p . 1 8 2 -184. H e also sp o k e o f p agan in vasion s o f m o n stro u s an im a ls w ith h ea d s o f lio n s, hair
o f w o m en , an d tails o f cam els that w ou ld d e v o u r th e d esecra to r s o f th e h o ly days. L ater in that centu ry th e fla g ella n ts
struck th e im agin ation o f th e c o m m o n p e o p le bv th eir self-in flicted laceration s and u sed a letter fro m h ea v en to call
fo r h a llo w in g th e L ord's d a y . S ee G o r d o n L eff. Heresy m the Later M iddle Ages. 2 vols. (M a n ch ester, 196 7 ), 2 :4 8 5 -4 8 8 .
108 Cap. 8 1 (M G H Cap. 1:61). S e e R osam u n d M. K itten ck , T he Frankish Church a n d the C arohngian Reform , 7 8 9 S 9 5
(L o n d o n , 1977).
109 Cap. 4 6 (M G H Cap. 1:105); C ap 11 (M G H C ap 1:146); C ap 13 M G H C ap 1:152).
1.0 M G H Cone. 2 :2 5 2 , 2 5 6 . 2 7 0 . 2 3 . 2 9 2
1.1 M a n s i 1 9 :370, 3 7 1 .
112 R hab an u s M aurus (P L 107:355); Sy n o d o f Paris (M G H Cane 4 2 : 6 4 3 ,6 4 4 ); T h e o d u lf o f O r lea n s (P L 1 0 5 :1 9 8 ,
199); R u d o lf of B o u rg es (M a n si 14:955).
' ,s Horn. 181 (P L 9 5 : 1424). T h e p assage is so m etim es attrib u ted to A lcu in . S ee H an s H u b er, G a st u n d Buchstabe
der Sonntagsruhe (S alzb u rg. 1958), p . 190, n. 2 6 6 , fo r th e ev id e n c e.
114 M G H Cone. 2 :1 9 4 . 195. P riebsch (op. cit.. p p . 7-9) sh ow s that th e em p h a sis o n su n set-to -su n set k e e p in g o f
S u n d a y ca m e d u r in g th e C arolin gian p eriod .
115 H e fele-L e cie rcq . 3 :2 8 7 . 2 8 8 .
116 M a n si 1 4 :889-898.
1.7 P L 11 0 :7 6 -7 8 . R u d o lf o f B o u rg es w rote: " C o n v en ie n d u m est sabbato d ie cu m lu m in a rib u s ad
ec clesia m ." M a n si 1 4 :955, 9 5 6 . P o p e N ich olas 1 also o r d e r e d su n set-to -su n set k eep in g o f th e L ord s d ay. Epist. 6 3
(P L 1 1 9 :1 0 0 4 ). S ee a lso K ottje. op. a t., p . 46; G aillard, op. cit., p p. 9 6 1 . 9 6 2
1.8 Corpus ju r is ca n o n ia . pars secunda. D ecretalium Collec hones, c u . by E. F ried b erg (L eip z ig . 1 8 8 1 ),c . 1, x d e fe n is , ii.
9 an d c. 3, x de fern s, ii, 9 .
1.9 3 .2 . 3, sect. 1 De tertwpreceifto. Sum m a thet>logica (A d C laras A qu as. 1 9 2 4 -1 9 4 8 ). 4 :4 9 0 -5 0 4 . O n th e p la ce o f th e
O ld T esta m en t in m ed iev a l ih e o fo g v . se e C h e n u , o a t., p p. 146-161.
120 T h e im p lication s o f th at p h ilo so p h ica l d e v e lo p m e n t for natural law a n d D eca lo g u e are d escrib e d in M ichel
V illey, L a form ation de la pense juridique moderne (Paris. 1968), p p. 114, 115.
'2I S um m a theoloiae$2i2de. 1 2 2 .4 a d 4 . In la 2 a e . 100.5 T h o m a s gives a feu d a l d im e n sio n to S u n d a y k ccp in g : T h e
first th ree c o m m a n d m e n ts (th e s e c o n d co m m a n d m en t is o m itted in C atholic ca tech ism s) d e fin e th e d u ties to th e
L ord: fid elity, re v eren ce , an d service.
122 Ibid.I 2 a2ae. 122. 4 a d I
125 O n th e fo u r fo ld sen se o f S crip tu res, see .Summa ihedogiae l a l a e . 10. S ee also H e n r i d e L u b d i. E xgsem diiule
(Paris. 1961 ), 2 d part. 1 :4 0 3 -4 15; B e n i S m allev. The Study o f die Bible in the M id d le Ages (1 9 5 2 reprin t ed .; N o tr e D a m e.
In d .. 1964). p p. 2 4 2 -2 6 3 .
124 .Summ/i theologuie la 2 a e . 104. 3.
125 S ee W illiam s, op. cit., p . 2 7 2 , 27 3 .

213
 T H E S A B B A TH IN S CR I P T U R E AND HI STORY

1.6 S i. T h o m a s h ad ca refu lly d istin g u ish e d b etw een d iffe r e n t ty p es o f opera sennlia. O n th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f
Sun d ay casuistry see D u b lan ch v. ob cit., cols. 1 3 2 0 -1 3 2 2 ; H u h er. op a i.. p p. 1 95-200; V in cen t J. Kelly. Forbidden
Sunday a n d Feast Day O ccupations ( W a sh in g to n . 1943).
Expositw Decalogi. e d . by W en zel Flaishaus. in Opera O m nui (1 9 0 3 ; rep rin t ed . O snabrck. 1 9 6 6 ). 1 /1 :1 4 -1 7 .
i n S ee G aillard, op. a t., co l. 9 6 2 b ; also idem, "Le d im a n c h e et le cu lte d e la S ain te T rinit,** in l.e H uitim e Jo u r, Vie
Spirituelle 7 6 ( 1 9 4 7 ):6 4 0 -6 5 2 .
1,9 O d o m . op. cit.. p p . 7 9 . 8 0 . n. 58a.
130 O pusculum 33. 3. 4 (P L 1 4 5 :5 6 4 -5 6 7 ).
151 M a n ti 2 0 :8 2 1 .
IS* D ublanchy . op. a t., col. 1321.
' Ibid
154 S everal ex c e lle n t stu d ie s o n th e W ald en ses h ave ap p e a red a b ro a d , but th ere is u n fo rtu n a tely n o recen t
sch olarly w ork in E n glish ; read esp ecially le a n ( o n n et a n o A m e d e o M olnar. Let V audou a u M oyen Age (T u rin .
( 1974)); A M olnar. S to n a dei Voidest, v ol. 1 ; D alle origini all'adesum e alla R ifo rm a ( T u n n . 197 4 ). K urt-V icto r S clg c . Die
ersten W aldenser (B er lin , 1967); R. M an selli. Studi sulle eresie del secolo X.l i (R om a. 1953); E. D u p r -T h e se id e r .
Introduzione aUe eresie medioex^ali (B o lo g n a . 1953). For co llectio n s o f so u rce m aterial: J. G o n n et. e d .. E nchiridion fo n tiu m
valdensium (T o rr e P ellice. 1958); W alter L. W ak efield an d A ustin P. Evans. Heresies o f the H ig h M iddle Ages Selected
Sources Translated a n d A nnotated (N ew Y ork . 1969).
133 De fid e catholua in W ak efield a n d Evans, op. a t., p p. 2 1 7 . 2 1 8 . Joach im o f Fiore m a d e th e sam e a ccu sa tio n in
th e De articulu f d e i. S e e G n n e t an d M olnar. op. a t., p. 5 1 .
1.6 W akefield an d Evans, op. cit., p . 2 1 9 . C f. S tep h e n o f B o u rb o n . Tractatus. in ib i d . p. 2 0 9 .
137 S tep h e n o f B o u rb o n . Iractatus. in ibid.. p. 21 0 .
138 "In re a d in g th e g o s p e l, in k e e p in g S u n d a y , in fastin g, in prayer you a re o n e w ith us." in G n n e t a n d M olnar.
op. / . p . 152.
119 H ystona albtgensis. in W ak efield an d Evans, o. a t., p p . 2 4 0 . 2 4 1. T h e y are called insabbati b eca u se ev er sin ce
th ey licgan th e W ald cn sian spiritu al p erfec ts h ave b e e n w earin g a sign in th e sh a p e o f a sh ield o n th e to p o f th eir
sand als. Akten der Inquisition zu C a n assorte. in Beitrge zu r Sektengeschichte des M ittela lien . voL 2 o f D okum ente, ed . by I.
v o n D o llin g cr (1 8 9 0 ; rep rin t e d . N ew Y ork , n .d .). p. / . O n th e u se o f th e n a m e insabbati ("sandal w ea rers*), see S clg c.
a t. fit., 1:139; 2 7 0 , n. 1 18; Cionnct a n d M olnar. op a t., p p. 140. 141; I. G n n e t. L e to n fe ssio m d ife d e w ld e si prim a della
R iform a (T o r in o . 1967), s.v. "sandaliati", W. Farle H ilgert. "R eligious P ractices o f th e W ald en ses a n d T h e ir D octrin al
Im plications,* (M .A . th esis. S D A T h e o lo g ic a l S em inary . 1964). p p. 4 9 -5 6 . T h e W a ld en ses w ere a lso ca lled xandahati
a n d sotulani (fro m otuians sh o e). T h e d o c u m e n ts show clearly th e sig n ifica n ce that w as a tta ch ed to th e w c a n n g o f
sandals. T h e m isu n d er sta n d in g o f th e weird insabbati was c o m p o u n a c d by th e fact that Puritan tran slators o f th e
W a ld cn sian c h ro n ic les tran slated th e l*atin dies dom im ca an d th e F ren ch dim anche by Sabbath. S ec H ilg ert, p p . 5 6 -5 8 .
140 Traclatus de her etuis, in W ak efield an d Evans, op. cit., p. 3 7 1 .
141 (July 8, 1209) in W ak efield a n d Evans, op a t., p. 22 8 . It is u n lik ely th at S a b b a th k cep in g w o u ld a p p e a r a m o n g
th e A lb igcn ses sin ce they te n d e d to d isp a ra g e tn c O ld T esta m en t a n d its law s. S ee A. S ch m id t. H istoire et doctnne de ta
secte des (.athares ou Albigeois (Paris. 1 8 49), 2 :2 9 4 . C h ristin e T h o u se b e r , C o n tr o v erses v a u d o iscs ca th a res iv: Loi
m osaq ue." in Hrsie ethrtiques (R o m e. 1969). p p 129 -1 5 2 T h e tex t o f D u ra n d o f H u csca w h ere h e attacks th e
C athars' view s o n th e M osaic law is fo u n d in Seg\ op a t.. 2 :1 6 1 -1 9 3 .
141 O n th e P assagin g sec C h. M olin ier. Les ra ssa g im . F tu d c sur u n e secte c o n tem p o ra in e d e s C a th a res et d e s
V a u d ois." M m oires de f Acadwue de T ouIo u m , 8 2 s * n c . I 0 :4 2 8 -4 5 8 ; Paul A lp h a n d r s.Z . ides men aies chez les htrodoxes
latins au dbut du X l l l e ucle (1 9 0 3 ; rep rin t cd . F rank fu rt a/M ain . 1976). p p 1 6 8-173; R aoul M anselli. I P a ssa g in i,
Bulletino d e lti stituto Sto rn o Italiani ber il Medu> F i o e Arc hw io M u r ato n a n o 7 5 ( 1963): 1 8 9 -2 1 0 T h eir n a m e a p p e a rs first
in th e ca n o n s o f th e C o u n cil o f \ e r o n a in 1 184 an d last in a list o f h ere sies bv P o p e N ich o la s IV in 1 291.
143 Ed. by J a m es A. G arvin a n d Jam es A. C orb ett (N o tre D a m e. In d .. I9 $ 8 ).
144 Ibid . p p . 130, 131
143 T h e fate o f that g r o u p is stu d ie d in Paul B cu zart. Les hrsies pen d a n t le M oyen Age et la rforme ju sq u' la mort de
P hilippe II. 1 ) 9 8 dans la rgion de D ouai. d 'A rm s et au pays de A lle u (Paris. 1912V I b ave u sed th e a rticle by D en is
R o m ain , t i o n d a m n s i m ort p ou r avoir fait le sabbat e n sam edv." R evu e adven tu te. M arch, 1976, p p. 7 -9 , w h e r e a
p ictu re o f th e fo lio o f th e origm .il d o i n in cn i is m< Iu d ed .
144 Little is k n ow n co n c e r n in g ih c Picards. S o m e d o cu m en ts, in clu d in g th e S u m m a n u m , are in clu d ed in th e
s eco n d v o lu m e o f D nllin gcr's Beitrge, see also Frederick G. H ey m ann.yoA n ZrJui and the H ussite R n -o lu tw n ( P rin ceto n .
N .J .). p p 2 0 9 -2 1 3 ; H ow ard K am m sk v. A History o f the H ussite R ei'o lu tw n (B er k e ley , C a lif., 1 9 6 7 ),p p 3 5 3 -3 5 9 .
*4* O n th e in flu e n c e o f th e Y au d m s in n orth ern F rance, se c Paul le u t r a t , Les V audou (Paris. 1966), ch a p s. 3-6.
L e ff re fe rs to th e p re se n c e o f th e V au d m s at D ou ai in Heresy. 2 4 8 1. T h e n a m e p trard was p ractically sy n o n y m o u s w ith
Waldenses in th e later M id d le A g es. M M artini. Pierre Yaldo (Paris, 1961), p. 132. O n th e W ald cn sian s' p resen ce in
C en tra l E u rop e, sec L eff, op. a t., p p. 4 5 2 -4 8 5 . esp . p. 4 7 7 , (b onn et an d M olnar. op a t., p p 1 54-158; K am insky, op. a t..
p p 17 3 -1 8 0 ; H c y m a n n . op. a t .. p . 2 1 0 , n. 19.
,4* D ollin gcr .o p . n i , p 6 6 2 . L e ff r e p o n s th e p resen ce o f W a ld en ses in P o la n d w h o h ad th eir day o f p ra y er o n th e
s ev en th d ay. O p cit., p 4 6 4
149 In Opera O m nia, c d by J L cclcrc. 10 vols. (1 7 0 3 -1 7 0 6 ; reprin t ed . H ild esch cim . 1 962), 5 :5 0 5 . L u th er a n d
C alvin knew also ab ou t th e tio h e m ia n Sabbatarians L u th er, le ctu res on Genesis, LW 2 :3 6 1 . C a lv in . D e vera
p articipation/ in sacra coena, corpus R eform atorum 9 :5 9 0 . O n th e activities o f th e Sabbatarians in H a p sb u rg la n d s, se e J.
K . Z em an . Anabaptists a n d the Czech Brethren in M o r a iw . (T h e H a g u e. 1969) passim .
130 O n th e L ollard s, se c la m e s G a r d n er . Lollardy a n d the Reform ation i n E n g la n d . 4 vols, ( la m d o n , 1908). J. A . T .
T h o m p s o n . The Later Lollards. U N - 1 5 2 0 (O x fo r d . 1965). L e if. <>p a t., p p . 5 5 9 -6 0 5 ; M. E. A ston , la illa rd v a n d
S ed itio n . 1381-1431,** P u l a n d Present. N o. 17 (A p ril, I 9 6 0 ) .1-44
l3^ For th e L ollard s a n d S crip tu res, sec G ard n er, op a t . 1:1 0 0 - 1 18.
132 W alsin g h a m s H istoria A nglicana, ed . bv H. T . R ile s . 2 sols. (L o n d o n . 18 6 9 ), 2 :2 5 2 -2 5 3 . q u o te d in G a r d n er , op
o f ., p . 48.
3 G ard n er, op. a t., p. 54.
134 A . C . B an g. Luther's Katekism us H istoria. 2 vols. (C hristian a. 1893 * 1 8 9 9 ). 2:87
133 Ibid
,3f* H en ry C. H u tten b a ch . 'T h e J u d a izin g H eresy an d th e O r ig in s o f th e M u scovite A n ti-S em itism , in Studies in
M edieval C ulture, IV /3 (K alam azoo. 19 7 4 ). p p 4 9 6 -5 0 6 .

214
 CHAPTER 11

Sabbath and Sunday in the

Reformation Era

Kenneth A . S trand

H E R efo rm atio n Era in h erited the religious traditions an d practices o f the

T M iddle Ages, but in certain respects the P rotestant R eform ers m ade
significant changes. W ith re g ard to the chief weekly day for C hristian w orship
services, such m ajor R eform ers as L u th er, Zwingli, and Calvin continued the
p attern o f S unday observance, th o u g h with changes in rationale fo r keeping the
day a n d in attitu d e tow ard abstinence from work. C ertain R eform ation groups,
however, m oved fu rth e r away from m edieval tradition by reverting to the ancient
p attern o f observing the seventh day o f the week (Saturday) as the Sabbath o f the
Lord. O n th e o th e r hand, som e R eform ers ten d ed to retain a good deal o f the
m edieval Sabbatarian" attitu d e tow ard Sunday.
T h e presen t ch a p te r will provide a b rief overview o f S abbath-Sunday
attitudes, discussions, a n d practices d u rin g the R eform ation Era. T re a tm e n t
h erein will be lim ited to the E u ro p ean continent, inasm uch as a later ch a p te r will
deal with the Sabbath an d S unday in connection with the English R eform ation.
Sabbath and Sunday in Germany and Northern Switzerland
As n o ted in the p receding ch ap ter, m edieval Rom an Catholicism had set
forth a twofold basis for weekly S unday observance; nam ely, (1) th at the Sabbath
co m m an d m en t o f the D ecalogue was still fully binding on C hristians, and (2) that
th e day o f the week for such observance (which included refrain in g from regular
work) had been tra n sfe rre d from S aturday to Sunday by the authority o f the
C atholic C h u rc h .1 (This line o f arg u m en t, incidentally, received significant
C atholic reaffirm ation d u rin g the R eform ation Era itself by the C o u n ter-R efo r
m ation C ouncil o f T re n t, which concluded its work in 1563.)2
In general, th e m ajor P rotestant R eform ers, including M artin L u th e r an d his
colleagues at W ittenberg, broke quite radically with this Rom an Catholic twofold
basis for S unday observance. In th eir em phasis on salvation th ro u g h faith an d in
th eir rejection o f religious legalism, the R eform ers quite naturally ten d ed to

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 T H E S A B BA T H IN S C RI P TU R E AND H IS TOR Y

rem ove th e m edieval Sabbatarian" restrictions that had becom e attached to

Sunday observance. T h ey also quite naturally rejected, o f course, the idea that
th eir own practice o f observing S unday for w orship services was in any way the
creation o f th e Rom an C atholic C h u rch .5
L u th er, as early as 1520 in his fam ous Address to the Christian Nobility of the
German Nation, explicitly encouraged a reduction in the n u m ero u s cerem onies
and festival days inherited from m edieval Catholicism , stating that all festivals
should be abolished, and S unday alone re tain ed ."* His m ention o f S unday as an
exception is significant, an d the G erm an R eform er continued th ro u g h o u t his
career to feel th at S unday was useful as th e m ain weekly day fo r C hristian w orship.
His attitu d e in this respect, how ever, was not based on any belief th at Sunday was
especially ap p o in ted by God as the day for this purpose. "A lthough all days are
free an d o p en , o n e like an o th er," he once declared, "it is nevertheless useful,
good, an d necessary to observe one, be it Sabbath, Sunday, o r any o th e r day,
because God wants to rule the world ord erly a n d peacefully." * Interestingly
en o u g h , he followed u p this statem ent with a reference to the Sabbath
co m m an d m en t in the Decalogue, indicating that G od gave six days over to labor"
but req u ired rest for servants an d even for w orking anim als on the seventh day."
In various o f his w ritings L u th er also had a good deal to say about th e Sabbath
o f the Old T estam en t a n d about the Sabbath com m andm ent itself.7 H e believed
that the day on which A dam and G ods children in O ld T estam ent times had
rested was th e seventh day o f th e week, the day now called Saturday. In E den,
A dam had kept the Sabbath as a day for reflection on the works o f G od a n d fo r
bestow ing h o n o r on the C reator; an d after th e Fall he continued to keep it.
A braham kept it too. In d e ed , the Decalogue itself was pre-M osaic. with only
those cerem onials th at pertain to definite persons" being Mosaic.* But curiously
en o u g h , in polem ical context L u th er could also classify both the ban on images
an d th e Sabbath com m andm ent as ceremonial.*
In ad d ition to believing that G od's children in Old T estam en t times had
literally observed the Sabbath on each seventh day o f the week, L u th er conceived
o f th e seventh-day Sabbath as a prfiguration o f eith er eternity itself o r an era o f
sleeping p rio r to th e etern al age (p a tte rn ed afte r C hrist's resting in the tom b on
the Sabbath a n d resurrection on Sunday). Prior to this were six ages that would
take the w orld from A dam to the second com ing o f C hrist.1" How ever, Isaiah
66:23 from one new m oon to an o th er, and from one sabbath to an o th er, shall
all flesh com e to w orship before me, saith the L o rd receives allegorization o f a
d iffe ren t sort. T h is m eans, says L uther, that th ere shall be a daily sabbath in the
New T estam en t, with no difference as to tim e .""
W ith respect to the Sabbath co m m an d m en t itself, it ap p ears th at L uther
looked u p o n it as having both m oral an d cerem onial aspects-G o d s com m and to
rest being m oral, a n d the specific day o f the week being cerem onial. In this way he
was able to justify his position that C hristians could keep any day, ju st so long as
they did keep one. Q u ite em phatically in a serm on at T o rg a u in 1544 L uther
explained, Since o u r L ord has com e, we have the liberty, if Sabbath o r S unday
does not please us, to lake M onday o r a n o th e r day o f the week an d m ake a Sunday
out o f it. 1* M oreover, L u th er felt that the observance m ust be in a totally
nonlegalistic m anner.
U ndoubtedly, L u th e rs position re g ard in g Sabbath and Sunday was also held

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 SAB BA T H AND SUNDAY IN T H E R E F O R M A T I O N ERA

by his W ittenberg followers generally. N evertheless, certain refinem ents o f that

position may be seen am ong them . L u th e rs close associate Philip M elanchthon,
for exam ple, stressed the concept that the Sabbath com m andm ent in the
D ecalogue was o rd a in e d o f G od to provide for preaching and public w orship; and
in this respect it was a com m andm ent binding on all m en .15 T his particular
pu rp o se o r in ten t o f the Sabbath com m andm ent, he felt, was still fully applicable
to C hristians; but th e specific day designated in the com m andm ent (the seventh day
o f th e week) p ertain ed , in his o pinion, only to ancient Israel, with C hristians now
observing S unday instead. T h u s, M elanchthon som ew hat heightened L u th e rs
treatm en t o f th e Sabbath com m andm ent.
L u th e rs o ld er colleague A ndreas C arlstadt o f B odenstein also heightened
L u th e rs em phasis on keeping the Sabbath co m m an d m en t.1* C arlstadts m ajor
treatise on th e subject, Concerning the Sabbath and Commanded Holy Days, a p p e are d
in 1524, two years afte r a breach had occurred betw een him and L uther. A m ajor
portion o f this treatise deals with the n a tu re o f th e Sabbath and the m an n er o f
Sabbath observance, an d includes a protest against such activities as personal
en tertain m en t, joy riding, norm al m enial tasks (for exam ple, a cooks lighting o f a
fire), an d m aking horses an d oxen work on the Sabbath. Finally, in the tenth
ch a p te r C arlstadt raises th e question o f the p ro p e r day to keep. He refers to
Sunday as a day which m en have established"; an d as for the seventh day o f the
week, S aturday, he sim ply indicates that this is a disputed qu estio n .11
Interestingly en o u g h . L u th er responded in the following way to C arlstadts
b rie f an d ra th e r noncom m ittal discussion o f the p ro p e r day: Yes, if K arlstadt
were to write m o re about the sabbath, even Sunday would have to give way, and
the sabbath, th at is, S aturday, w ould be celebrated. H e would truly m ake us Jew s in
all things, so th at we also would have to be circum cised, e tc ." 16
T h is type o f reaction was also displayed by L u th er tow ard real Sabbath-
keepers who a p p e are d in such places as M oravia and A ustria. H e said, for
exam ple, In o u r tim e th ere arose in Moravia a foolish kind o f people, the
Sabbatarians, who m aintain that the Sabbath m ust be observed a fte r the fashion of
the Jews. P erh ap s they will insist on circum cision too, for a like reason. 17
Somehow, the G erm an R eform er ten d ed to classify any C hristian em phasis on
Saturday observance as p art o f a reversion to a Judaistic way o f life, w h eth er this
was with respect to C hristian S abbathkeeping groups o f which he had h eard o r
w h eth er it was with reg ard to suspicions about his own fo rm er close colleague
C arlstadt.
In n o rth e rn Switzerland at Zurich, H uldreich Zwingli (1484-1531) fostered a
refo rm p ro g ram from 1519 onw ard. His attitu d e tow ard Sunday was quite sim ilar
to th at o f L u th e r.1" At approxim ately the sam e tim e M artin B ucer (1491-1551),
who advanced th e R eform ation cause in S trassburg in southw estern G erm any
with an a ttitu d e generally m ore tolerant than the o th e r contem porary R eform ers,
placed a stran g e em phasis on strict Sunday observancean em phasis that was
rem iniscent, in fact, o f R om an Catholic practice in this re g a rd .19
In d eed , B ucer went so fa r as to state, It m ust be a m atter o f special concern
for those who wish the K ingdom o f C hrist to be restored am ong them th at Sunday
religious observance be renew ed an d established."20As for the m an n er o f keeping
religious days singularly consecrated to G od" (Sunday was, o f course, prim arily
intended), B ucer declared th at n o one [is to] do unnecessary co rp o ral works with

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 T H E S A B BA T H IN S CR I P T U R E ANI) HISTORY

im punity on such d a y s ,. . . m uch less be absent from the sacred gatherings an d do

works o f the flesh. A m ong these "works o f the flesh were such activities as
m aking sham eful gains, distu rb in g the religious spirit o f b re th ren by d em an d in g
rep ay m en t o f d eb ts, et cetera. Sports and o th er personal pleasures w ere also to be
set aside.21
F u rth erm o re , in N ovem ber o f 1532, Bucer an d his colleagues went so far as
to request from the civil authorities in S trassburg that on Sundays an interdiction
be placed on all works beyond those strictly necessary for bodily needs. By 1534
the city ad o p ted an o rd in an ce in this reg ard , sanctioned by heavy financial
penalties.22
B efore concluding o u r discussion o f Bucer, we should ad d that in spile o f all
o f his em phasis on strict S unday observance, this R eform er had w ritten in his
com m entary on M atthew 12 that it was a superstition to condem n work on
Sunday as being sin a statem ent that seems puzzling in view o f his o th e r rem arks
and especially in view o f his efforts tow ard politically enforced S unday
"Sabbatarianism . w In any event, it ap p ears evident that am ong the various
Protestant R eform ers on the E uropean continent, B ucer's attitu d e was the most
akin to that o f th e later strict P uritan Sabbatarians in E ngland, who m ight well
have draw n from him in this respect.
T he Q uestion o f Sabbath and Sunday in Southwestern Switzerland
T h e P rotestant reform m ovem ent swept southw estern Sw itzerland within
two decades a fte r its ap p earan ce in W ittenberg, Zurich, an d Strassburg. T h e m ain
refo rm ce n te r in this region was Geneva, and the chief reform leader was J o h n
Calvin (1509-1564). Calvins refo rm ca ree r in G eneva spanned the years from
1536 to 1564, with an interim spent in S trassburg from 1538 to 154l.M
E arlier in th e 1530s the R eform ation had been carried to (lie southw est
regions o f Sw itzerland from the P rotestant canton o f B ern, with G uillaum e Farel
being am o n g th e first preachers to evangelize Geneva. By May o f 1536, the city
had declared itself P rotestant, an d it was but two m onths later that Farel urged
Calvin to help him organize the religious institutions there. Before tu rn in g to an
analysis o f Calvins own Sabbath-Sunday attitude, it will be well to notice certain
discussions involving Farel an d o th er Protestant preachers who had p receded
Calvin to G eneva, such as P ierre V iret and Jacques B ernard.
O n e o f th e m ethods utilized by the Protestant R eform ers in sp read in g the
gospel was th at o f public debate, called disputation." Interestingly en o u g h , in
several o f the d isputations in G eneva and neighboring Lausanne, the question was
raised as to w h eth er the P rotestants w ere consistent in w orshiping on Sunday an d
rejecting o th e r institutions claim ed by the Catholic C hurch, as has recently been
called to atten tio n by Daniel A u gsburger.25
In 1534, for exam ple, th ere was a disputation betw een Farel an d a Catholic
Dom inican m onk, G uy Furbity, a do cto r o f the Sorbonne.** W hen the P rotestant
representatives stated that m an could not introduce any o rdinance into the
chu rch , Furbity resp o n d ed that God o rd e re d the Jew s to keep S aturday, but the
chu rch th ro u g h the pow er given to h er has changed S aturday into Sunday
because o f the resurrection o f th e L o rd . H e ad d ed that "we celebrate S unday
because o f a co m m andm ent and law o f the ch u rch , not because o f the
co m m andm ent o f G od," an d that a person following G ods com m and literally

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 S AB BA TH AND SUNDAY IN T H E R E F O R M A T I O N ERA

sh ould rest on S aturday." v T h e P rotestant p re ach e r resp o n d ed th at all days are

equally sacred, a n d that C hristians rest on Sunday to h e a r G od's W ord a n d to give
rest to th eir neighbor. T o this, th e D om inican m onk replied that if the keeping o f
o ne day in seven w ere sufficient, a person could rest on any day o f the week, with
the result being d re ad fu l confusion. A nd once again he em phasized that the Bible
specifies th e keeping o f S aturday, with Sunday observance being based solely on
the au th o rity o f th e Catholic C h u rc h .28
D u rin g May an d J u n e o f 1535, a fu rth e r disputation was held in which the
Catholic representatives P ierre C aroli an d Je a n C happuis debated the P rotestant
leaders Farel, V iret, and B e r n a r d /'T h e line o f arg u m en tatio n relating to Sabbath
and S unday was basically sim ilar to that used in the earlier debate, but the
Protestants e n te re d a fu rth e r p oint to the effect th at resting on the seventh day (by
which in this instance they m eant Sunday) was, to use A u g sb u rg ers parap h rase,
no m o re a co m m and o f the church than a re the w ords o f som eone telling
som ebody else to help his n eig h b o r who is experiencing great necessity."5,11n both
cases, they claim ed, th ere was h u m an need; an d thus, in the sense o f ethical
concerns, both could be considered com m andm ents o f G od.51 Needless to say,
such an analogy h ad little w eight with the Catholic o p p o n en ts in view o f the
R eform ers' otherw ise strong appeal to Sola Scnptura.
A still fu rth e r disputation in which the Sabbath-Sunday question w'as raised
was held in th e city o f L ausanne in O ctober o f 1536, a fte r Calvin had jo in e d Farel
in refo rm atio n work in G eneva. Farel was again central in the debate from the
P rotestant side, a n d he was assisted by V iret. A Dom inican m onk, D om inique de
M onbouson, held fo rth for the Catholics. In a portion o f the d ebate d u rin g which
V iret was re p resen tin g the P rotestant side, the question arose as to why the
Protestants observed S unday ra th e r than the S aturday Sabbath, if it w ere not
because th e C atholic C hurch had authority to m ake an o rdinance beyond and
outside S cripture. Said D om inique d e M onbouson, If you refuse to m ake any
change in S crip tu re and m ust slop at the words and the letter [of S cripture], you
ou g h t to keep Sabbath like th e Jew s!
V iret resp o n d ed by end eav o rin g to prove that S unday observance was in the
final analysis d raw n from a Biblical base. But as A ugsburger has aptly pointed out,
"V iret had asserted that a spiritual observation was m ore im p o rtan t than a literal
observation an d that practical considerations (need o f tim e to assemble together,
duty to provide rest for the labors) could be taken into account in justifying a
practice that did not agree fully with the w ords o f the law ."M T h e re was
inconsistency in this kind o f an ap p ro ach , as A ugsburger has fu rth e r pointed out,
for w hen it cam e to images, fo r instance, which the d efen d ers o f Rom e arg u ed
w ere set u p only to facilitate a spiritual w orship an d provide a sim ple an d practical
m eans to com m unicate som e religious notions to the u n ed u cated people, o r even
w hen it involved th e fasts an d L ent which were in ten d ed to cu rb sensuality, they
objected. 55
T h e th ree d isputations d o not indicate any observance o f the seventh-day
Sabbath on e ith e r side, o f course; but they d o give evidence o f an interesting issue
raised by the Catholics as to w h eth er the Protestants w ere really being consistent
w hen they observed S unday a n d rejected o th er festivals claim ed on the authority
o f th e Catholic C h urch.
W e now com e directly to a consideration o f the attitu d e o f J o h n Calvin

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 T H E S AB BA TH IN S CR IP T UR E AND HI STOR Y

him self re g ard in g S aturday a n d S unday. B efore his arrival in G eneva. Calvin
had already clarified his basic position re g ard in g the two days in the first edition o f
his Institutes o f the Christian Religion, published in Basel in the sp rin g o f 1536. H ere
he set fo rth th ree basic considerations with reg ard to the Sabbath com m andm ent:
(1) the Sabbath is a m oral institution vitally significant for spiritual grow th; (2) it is
the an ch o r for public w orship; (3) it has great social value in g u aran teein g rest for
servants. As A u gsburger has pointed out, "these th ree ideas consutute th e
stru ctu re o f Calvins th o u g h t on the Sabbath. In later works we may find fuller
expositions, slight shifts in em phasis, efforts to m eet objections, but he never
altered these essential viewpoints."
In his early w ork Calvin, m uch like L uther, em phasized that the choice o f the
p articu lar day was ra th e r u n im p o rtan t. But even afte r Calvins close association
with B ucer in S trassburg from 1538 to 1541, he continued a sim ilar attitude. F or
exam ple, in his com m entary o n Colossians 2:16 (w ritten som e five o r six years
after his re tu rn from S trassburg to Geneva) he states that "we d o not by any m eans
observe days, as though th ere were any sacredness in holy days, o r as th o u g h it
were not lawful to work on th em , ad d in g that the observance is d o n e for
gov ern m en t and o rd e r, not for the days." "
A lthough Calvin had a good deal to say at various times th ro u g h o u t his career
about Sabbath (or Sunday) observance, we m ust com e quickly to w hat is to be
considered th e G enevan R efo rm ers definitive treatm en t o f th e question in his
1559 edition o f the Institutes. H ere he reiterates, though with slight shift in
em phasis, th e th re e basic considerations he first set forth in 1536.* H e clarifies,
however, that th ere is no connection betw een the Sabbath com m andm ent an d the
observance o f the C hristian Sunday. T h u s he rejected the views o f both the
Catholic scholastic theologians and L u th e r re g ard in g a m oral versus a cerem onial
distinction in th at co m m andm ent as laying the foundation for observance o f
an o th er day th an S aturday.41
Even th o u g h a S abbatarian type o f S unday observance was, in Calvins
opinion, going "thrice as far as the Jew s in the gross an d carnal superstition o f
sabbatism," th e G eneva R eform er nevertheless also indicated, as he had in his
com m entary on Colossians. th e need fo r observance o f discipline and o rd e r. H e
has aptly sum m ed u p his position as follows:
It was not, how ever, w ithout a reason that the early C hristians substituted
what we call th e L ord's day fo r the Sabbath. T h e resurrection o f o u r Lord being
the en d and accom plishm ent o f that tru e rest which the ancient Sabbath typified,
this day, by which types w ere abolished, serves to w arn C hristians against ad h e rin g
to a shadowy cerem ony. I do not cling so to the n u m b er seven as to bring the
chu rch u n d e r b ondage to it, n o r d o I condem n churches fo r holding th eir
m eetings on o th e r solem n days, provided they g u ard against superstition. T his
they will d o if they em ploy those days m erely for the observance o f discipline and
reg u lar o rd e r." 45
Anabaptists and the Sabbath
We now tu rn to the so-called Radical R eform ation, in contrast to the
m agisterial refo rm parties. O u r attention goes especially to the A nabaptists, who
for th e most p art used Sunday as th eir weekly day o f w orship, but am ong whom
were gro u p s observing the seventh day o f the week, Saturday. T h e basic study o f

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these S abbatarian A nabaptists o f the sixteenth century has been do n e by G e rh ard

F. H asel.44
T h e A nabaptists consisted o f m any groups scattered widely th ro u g h o u t the
E u ro p ean co n tinent, an d w ere given th eir nam e by th eir enem ies because o f th eir
belief in ad u lt baptism . Actually th e A nabaptists did no t consider them selves to be
rebaptizers" (as th e term "A nabaptists signifies), fo r they simply did not accept
in fan t baptism as being any baptism at all. As to th eir o th e r beliefs and practices,
these varied from g ro u p to g ro u p . For the most part, the A nabaptists seem ed to
have been pacifistic, but a few segm ents took u p the sword an d created violence
th at gave the A nabaptist nam e u n d u e an d generally ill-deserved notoriety.45
In several lists o f sects com piled both by Catholics an d by P rotestants in the
latter h alf o f th e sixteenth century, Sabbatarian A nabaptists (observers o f
S aturday) are m en tioned am o n g o th er groups. Such S abbatarians certainly were
not in the m ajority o f A nabaptists, but they were still sufficiently n u m ero u s and
well en o u g h know n to be noted by com pilers o f lists o f sects an d by w riters who
p ro d u ced polem ical works against them .46
A m ong th e early leaders o f S abbatarian A nabaptists, the nam es o f Oswald
Glait an d A ndreas Fischer stand out prom inendy. A bout 1527 a n d 1528 these two
individuals accepted S aturday as being the L o rd s Sabbath. T hey traveled about
considerably, b u t one o f th eir chief centers was at N ikolsburg in M oravia. Both
Glait an d Fischer w rote books re g ard in g the Sabbath, but u n fo rtu n ately their
books are no lo n g er extant. N evertheless, we are able to d eterm in e the basic
co n ten t o f those books from answ ers given by th eir opponents.
T h e most significant source for d eterm in in g G laits Sabbath d octrine is a
response w ritten by C asper Schw enkfeld.47 It seems from this response th at G laits
chief arg u m en t for the necessity o f keeping the seventh day as the Sabbath was the
D ecalogue itself. Says Schw enkfeld, T h e strongest a rg u m e n t o f Oswald [Glait] is
the n u m b er o f th e T e n C om m an d m en ts___H e holds irrevocable the th o u g h t that
God did not give eight o r nine but ten com m andm ents, which he wants everyone
to keep." M oreover, according to Schw enkfeld, Glait wants to m ake it
u n d ersto o d th at eith er the Sabbath m ust be kept too or. all the o th e r nine
com m an d m en ts m ust be re je c te d ."4"
T h e following are am ong several fu rth e r points o f interest that em erge in
Schw enkfelds response to Glait: (1) Glait believed th at the Sabbath had been
co m m anded an d kept from C reation, with G ods having com m anded A dam in
Paradise to celebrate the Sabbath; (2) Glait felt that although circum cision began
with A braham , th e Sabbath a n d o th e r laws existed from the beginning o f the
w orld; (3) Glait fu rth e r believed that the children o f Israel's keeping o f the
Sabbath earlier th an at Sinai, as evidenced in E xodus 16, was p ro o f th at the
Sabbath did not originate at Sinai.48
With re g ard to Fischer, know ledge o f his S abbatarian d octrine is derived
m ainly from a polem ical treatise against it w ritten by V alentine C rautw ald.50
C rautw ald, in fact, refers to som e sixteen points by Fischer th at he endeavors to
critique. Basically, the line o f Fischers arg u m e n t goes som ew hat like this: T h e
T e n C om m andm ents are ten covenant w ords that include the Sabbath, so that if
the Sabbath is n o t kept, one breaks the com m andm ents o f God. Moses, the
p ro p h ets, and th e New T estam e n t com m and the observance o f th e T en
C o m m andm ents, and th e re fo re the Sabbath is included. W hen the law is re fe rre d

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 T H E S A B B A TH IN S CR IP TUR E AND HISTORY

to by Jam es a n d Paul, it is th e law that includes the Sabbath. M oreover, faith

establishes th e law, an d th e re fo re it also establishes the Sabbath. Paul an d the
o th e r apostles held m eetings on the Sabbath; an d C hrist, the apostles, and all the
early C hurch F athers kept the Sabbath holy. Pope V ictor an d E m p ero r
C onstantine w ere the first to o rd e r that Sunday should be kept. T h e T e n
C o m m an d m en ts are eternal.
Fischers eleventh point is especially w orth noting because o f its personal
reflection on S cripture evidence: T h e S criptures speak so o ften about the
Sabbath; if 1 w ould have as m any texts and passages about S unday as th e re are
ab out Sabbath, I would keep Sunday instead o f Sabbath. 51
In concluding, it w ould be well to quote h ere Hasel's sum m ary p arag ra p h
re g a rd in g Glait an d Fischer: Because o f the n a tu re o f the sources, a com parison
o f th e S abbatarian teachings o f Glait an d Fischer is m ost difficult. It is certain,
how ever, th at both leaders o f S abbatarian A nabaptism based th eir teachings on
th e sola scriptura principle o f the R eform ers. It is, th erefo re, not surprising that
this R eform ation ap p ro ach provided them with a pow erful basis o f a rg u m e n ta
tion an d that th eir proclam ation o f Sabbatarianism m et with considerable success.
B oth m en re g ard e d the O ld an d New T estam ents as inseparable an d indivisible.
In this view they w ere fa r in advance o f th eir time. Biblical scholars have in recent
decades m o re a n d m ore recognized this in h eren t unity. T h e re is close proxim ity
o f th o u g h t a n d p resentation in the teachings o f Glait an d Fischer. T h is may be
ex p ected o f p ro p ag ato rs who associated together, u niting th eir efforts in com m on
m issionary activity, an d w ho th ro u g h circum stances were forced to d efen d
to g eth er th eir S abbatarianism . 5*
T h e Seventh-D ay Sabbath in Spain
R eform m ovem ents in Spain u n fo rtu n ately have received relatively little
atten tio n , taking a su b o rd in ate place to the m ore dram atic an d w idespread
R eform ation activities to th e no rth . H ow ever, in 1972 M ario Veloso b ro u g h t to
light som e truly in trig u in g aspects o f the R eform ation in Seville.55 A m ong the
R eform ers to w hom Veloso calls attention is C onstantino Ponce d e la F uente, who
atten d e d th e universities o f Alcala an d Seville an d subsequently becam e quite
fam ous as a p reach er. T o his preaching fam e, which he had achieved by 1536, he
ad d e d distinction as a w riter d u rin g the 1540s. In 1548 he was invited by Prince
Philip to serve as chaplain fo r a trip o f that prince th ro u g h o u t various lands o f
E urope. It was not until 1555 that C onstantino re tu rn e d to Seville, w here he was
alm ost im m ediately attacked by inquisitorial forces. H e finally died in prison in
February, 1560.
As Veloso points out, C onstantino was a representative o f an in d ep en d e n t
refo rm atio n , ra th e r than having connections with L utheranism . H e had actually
learn ed his d o ctrine from two earlier S paniards, Valer an d Egidio.M It is
interesting to note that even while C onstantino was on trial and d u rin g his
im p risonm ent, the staunchly an ti-L u th eran E m p ero r C harles V was sym pathetic
to him .55 T h e particular aspect o f C onstantinos d octrine that interests us h e re is
his attitu d e tow ard S abbathkeeping. T his falls within the fram ew ork o f his
d o ctrin e o f righteousness a n d perfection. H e states, for exam ple, You m ust keep
th e T e n C o m m andm ents if you do not wish to be an enem y o f G od. 5* M oreover,
as Veloso points ou t, to C onstantino perfection was possible fo r the C hristian

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only because his life lies in C hrist an d because C hrists works are d o n e in his life."
In C o n stan tin o s own words, "W orks are only pieces and leftovers o f the riches o f
Jesu s C hrist, an d all is attrib u ted to Him an d has value th ro u g h Him , an d in Him
do we p u t o u r tru st. 57
N ot only did C o nstantino declare the im portance o f obedience to the T e n
C o m m an d m en ts lest we be an enem y o f G od," but he specifically pointed o u t that
observance o f S aturday was p art o f that obedience to the Decalogue. A nd he also
explained the Sabbath com m andm ent and the m eaning o f servile w ork that
should not be d o n e on the Sabbath day. Servile work, he states, is the kind in which
"one works o r causes an o th e r to work corporally, w ithout being necessary o r for
charitable purposes." T h is work, he continues, was forbidden by G od on
S aturday, not th at at the tim e o f the giving o f the D ecalogue such work was evil in
itself, n o r that it should be so now; but that m an should find him self
u n en cu m b ered for the tru e spiritual sanctification o f the holy day."
R eg ard in g th e significance o f G od's instituting o f th e Sabbath, C onstantino
declares that God ap p o in ted a stated day to be o ffered to H im self as a tithe, on
which, u n en cu m b ered by o th e r cares m an should offer, inw ardly and outw ardly,
acknow ledgem ent to the Lord w ho created him, who sustains him in this world,
and w ho has prom ised him g reat an d etern al benefits." T h e day, says C onstantino,
is o n e in which according to G od's provision "m an should m eet with o th er
m em bers o f th e ch u rch w here h e should be as a living evidence th at he, together
with them , gives trib ute [to G od] with the sam e kind o f obedience as th eirs.
C onstantino's references specifically to the S aturday Sabbath are from two o f
his works re fe rre d to by Veloso. T h e references are b rief but nonetheless telltale.
It ap p ears th at C onstantino plan n ed to elaborate on the Sabbath in a later w ork, a
work th at ap p aren tly was never p roduced o r published.
In sum m arizing the th ru st o f C onstantinos rem arks on the S aturday
Sabbath, Veloso has aptly slated: T h ese references to Sabbath-keeping on the
seventh day seem to be unique am ong the m ajor theologians o f the R eform ation
and im ply a concept o f die Sabbath that did not develop to any great extent until
the rise o f the S abbatarian A nabaptists, the Seventh Day Baptists, and especially,
in the n in etee n th century, the Seventh-day A dventists. 81
O th e r S abbathkeepers in the R eform ation Era
A lthough space will not perm it a survey o f all E u ro p ean Sabbathkeeping
g ro u p s in evidence d u rin g the R eform ation Era. at least b rief notice should be
m ade o f th e fact th at observers o f S aturday sprang u p quite w idely th ro u g h o u t the
C o n tin en t, an d a few illustrations will be given relating to such gro u p s.
As one exam ple, in T ransylvania tow ard the en d o f the sixteenth century
A ndreas Eossi, a wealthy noblem an influenced by Judaistic teachings o f one
Francis David, in au g u ra ted a Sabbath m ovem ent.61 Eossi began intensive personal
study o f S cripture a fte r th e d ea th o f his wife an d two sons, a n d am ong convictions
that he gained from this study was that Saturday, the seventh day o f the week, was
G ods tru e Sabbath day. T hrough w riting an d o th er contacts he raised u p a sizable
n u m b er o f converts who w ere observing the S aturday Sabbath by the last decade
o f th e century.
A lthough Eossi him self died about 1600, some p ro m in en t colaborers,
including Sim on Pechi, an ad o p ted son, continued to prom ulgate the Sabbath

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d o ctrin e in th e early seventeenth century. D uring the first two decades o f that
century. Pechi him self advanced politically until he becam e chancellor o f state;
but loss o f favor led him to an im prisonm ent. D uring som e nine years in prison, he
devoted tim e to p re p ara tio n o f a com m entary on Genesis an d to com posing a
n u m b er o f hym ns, m any o f which specifically ho n o red the seventh-day Sabbath.
A pparently, a fte r severe p ressu re in 1638 an d 1639, he eventually re p u d ia ted his
Sabbath observance, at least outw ardly."'
In spite o f the fact th at various persecutions w ere inau g u rated against these
T ransylvanian S abbathkeepers (they u n d erw en t various severe persecutions
b eginning ab out the year 1595), their n u m b er at first increased. In 1618, w hen a
re fo rm ed bishop with 300 soldiers attacked the Sabbatarians an d arrested their
m inisters, som e twenty-two o f their ch u rch buildings w ere confiscated. T h e very
n u m b er o f ch u rch buildings thus confiscated is, as J. N. A ndrew s an d L. R.
C o n rad i aptly note, "an evidence o f the extent o f the Sabbath m ovem ent in that
region o f T ransylvania (the S /ekler district).
From ab out 1538 to 1540, stern m easures against the S abbathkeepers,
including confiscation o f personal pro p erty an d im prisonm ent until d eath ,
virtually destroyed th eir existence in T ransylvania, though som e rem nants o f
these Sabbath keeping C hristians con tin u ed on. In fact, o n e m ight (hink that
th ere had been som ew hat o f a resurgence o f Sabbath observance by 1668 in that
Prince Apafy at the Besztercze Diet in Ja n u a ry o f that year com plained that
th ro u g h secret devices, Ju d a ism (the reference was ap p aren tly to C hristian
Sabbatarianism ) was daily increasing. In any event, how ever, interrogations two
years later revealed only six S abbatarian towns a considerable reduction from
earlier tim es.7
T h e persecutions, especially those o f 1638-1640, had the effect o f spreading
the T ransylvanian Sabbatarian influence beyond T ransylvania itself, as some
Sabbatarians m anaged to escape an d carried th eir doctrines and practices to
distant places, including C onstantinople. M oreover, ihe Sabbatarian w ritings o f
such leaders as Eossi an d Pechi apparently spread far and wide. For instance, a
copy o f Pechis Genesis com m entary o f 1634 had reached M aros-V asarhely in
H ungary, w here it was personally seen by C onradi in the year 1890."
In Norway, Finland, an d Sweden th ere w ere also extensive gro u p s o f
observers o f th e S aturday S abbath.* Evidence is available o f such groups d u rin g
the late M iddle Ages th ro u g h the action o f Catholic councils against them ,
including the councils held in B ergen, Norway, in 1435 and in Oslo (C hristiania),
N orw ay, the following year. T hese councils lo rb ad e abstention from w ork on
S aturday.70 It ap p e ars that in the early years o f th e sixteenth century, before the
Protestant R eform ation reached Scandinavia, th ere w ere two kinds o f observance
o f the S aturday Sabbath in Norw ayo n e w herein Rom an Catholic priests caused
the com m on people to hallow S aturdays in a fashion sim ilar to Sundays u n d e r
penalty o f fine to the bishop, an d a n o th er kind that was outlaw ed by the C atholic
C h u rch .71 Possibly the differen ce involved varying ecclesiastical attitudes in
d ifferen t geographical locations m ore than it did any significant divergences in
practice, but this we cannot tell for certain from the docum ent that stipulates the
req u ired Sabbath observance. That docum ent un fo rtu n ately is only fragm entary
and obscure, but it at least alerts us to the curious fact that som ew here in Norway
in th e early sixteenth century th ere w ere Rom an Catholic authorities o rd e rin g

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th at S aturday be observed as well as S unday .72

F u rth e r evidence re g ard in g Sabbath observance in Norw ay com es from the
period after L utheranism reach ed Scandinavia. T h e re is, fo r exam ple, an edict o f
C h risto p h er H uitfeldt, lord o f B ergen, Stavanger, and V ardoe," d ated 1544,
which am ong o th e r things refers to the fact th at som e o f you, especially in A ardal,
in Sogn, con trary to the w arning given you last year, keep S aturday. His edict
im posed a fine o f ten m arks on anyone found keeping S aturday.
A decade later, in 1554, evidence o f S aturday observance in Finland is
affo rd ed th ro u g h a letter o f Swedish King G ustavus I Vasa, w ho had fostered the
L u th eran R eform ation in his lands, which included Finland as well as Sweden. In
this letter he earnestly com m ands that any o f these folk in F inland w ho have fallen
into w hat he calls such e rro r" should forsake it im m ediately .74
T h e m ain evidence re g ard in g observance o f the S aturday Sabbath in Sw eden
arises som ew hat later, tow ard th e en d o f the sixteenth century an d in the early
p a rt o f th e seventeenth century, with som e evidence at least as late as 1667.75T h e re
ap p ears to have been in Sw eden at this tim e two types o f Sabbath observance, as
had been the case in Norw ay about a century earlier. But w hereas th e specifics in
Norway are unclear, the types in Sweden are quite clearly distinguished as a
Judaistic S abbathkeeping (on th e part o f converts to Judaism ) and a genuinely
C hristian S aturday observance. T h e latter frequently, bu t not necessarily always,
entailed a con tin u in g observance o f Sunday as well.76 King G ustavus II A dolphus
(died 1632) was especially forceful in his activity against S abbathkeepers .77
In addition to T ransylvania an d the N ordic countries, th e re are evidences o f
observance o f th e S aturday Sabbath from the N etherlands, France, Russia, an d
elsew here in E urope, as A ndrew s an d C onradi point o u t .78 H owever, it should be
bo rn e in m ind th at in som e cases the S abbathkeeping may have been on the p art o f
Jew s o r C hristian converts to Ju d aism , ra th e r than by C hristians them selves.
N evertheless, that th ere was in d eed Christian observance o f S aturday by groups
sp read widely th ro u g h o u t all sections o f E urope seems clear from the sources.
A nd it may lie noted that in E ngland, as well as on the C ontinent, th ere w ere some
w ho observed this day d u rin g the sixteenth century, p rio r to the P uritan
Sabbathkeepers, who will be treated in the next c h a p te r .79
It m ust not be assum ed, how ever, that the people w ho kept S aturday w ere by
any m eans in th e m ajority o f the C hristians o r that they w ere even a large m inority
o f them . T h e m edieval trad itio n o f Sunday as the day for C hristian w orship
con tin u ed th ro u g h o u t C hristian E urope as the main one observed by P rotestant
gro u p s as well as by Rom an Catholics. However, it is interesting to note th at in
m any places, sizable com m unions o f sincere C hristians w ho had studied S cripture
faithfully did decide to h o n o r th e ir L ord on the seventh day o f the week because
they felt th at this was in harm ony with G od's com m and.
Sum m ary
W e have now very quickly traced the question o f Sabbath an d Sunday in the
R eform ation Era. Basically, the m ajor P rotestant R eform ers continued to utilize
th e day o f w orship hallow'ed by the Rom an Catholic C h u rch th ro u g h o u t the
M iddle Ages. H owever, in th eir effo rt to avoid legalism, an d with their strong
em phasis on justification by faith, the m ajor R eform ers ten d ed to shy away from
an y th in g like a S abbatarian ap p ro ach to Sunday observance. In fact, m ost o f

ts is a h -i 5 225
 T H E S AB BA T H IN S C R I P T U R E AND HIS TORY

them in G erm any an d Sw itzerland felt that S unday was not necessarily the day to
Ik- observed, ju st so long as one day in seven was set aside fo r special religious
purposes. M artin B ucer seems to have been an exception in that he ten d ed to give
a "Sabbatarian" em phasis to S undaykeeping. Such an em phasis did not com e into
vogue as a w idespread Protestant practice until taken up by certain P uritans in
E ngland d u rin g the seventeenth century, a m atter treated in ch a p te r 12.
T h e P rotestant R eform ers in southw estern Sw itzerland actually found
them selves in som ew hat o f a dilem m a when facing th eir Rom an Catholic
adversaries on the m atter o f Sunday observance. In several disputations in
G eneva and L ausanne the Rom an Catholic representatives chided the R eform ers
with inconsistency for rejecting Catholic cerem onies in general, while ad h e rin g to
S unday as a weekly day for w orship services.
How ever, th ere were certain R eform ation Era C hristians who en d eav o red to
go beyond the m ajor R eform ers in reform m easures taken. T h ese included the
A nabaptists, am ong whom w ere at least som e Saturday-observing groups.
A dh eren ts o f the S aturday Sabbath included also an im portant Spanish R eform er
o f Seville, C o nstantino Ponce de la F uente; an d Saturday-observing C hristians,
although always in the m inority d u rin g the R eform ation Era, w ere actually ra th e r
n u m ero u s am o n g various groups. M oreover, such Sabbathkeepers w ere quite
widely dispersed th ro u g h o u t E urope in the sixteenth and early seventeenth
centuries.

N OTES
1 S ee p p 2 0 4 -2 0 6 in ch a p ter 10. Especially n otew o rth y in th is co n n e c tio n is fh c line o l a rg u m en t o f I b o n u s
A qu in as. S'umiw Theologua. 2 2 . q u est 122. art. 4 (A m e n ta n e d by B en zigcr B ro th ers. 1947)
* For a discussion of The 1 rurd C.ommandment~ (fourth lommandment). tee T he (uU ethum o f the ( o u n a l of
T r m t (pp 352-362 in ihe Baltimore ed.. 1829)
3 A basic study of Luther s attitude toward the seventh-das Sabbath ha been pros ided bs William M l-indccn.
M artin l.uther'i Religious Thought (Mountain View. Calif., 1971), pp 191-199, in a chapter entitled "Sabbath "
4 T h is is hi p oin t 18 u n d er th e sectio n P roposal for R efo rm " The Addrew is available in a n u m b er o f F.nglish
translation* (as w ell as in G erm an e d itio n s, in clu d in g th e stan d ard W eim ar ed .). S ee. e g . mv Reform Appeal* o f l.uthrr
a n d C alxm (A n n A rb o r. M ich .. 19 7 4 ). col. 4 6 T h e tran slation h ere is that o f L W 4 4 :1 8 2
4 W eim ar c d .. 1 6 :4 7 8 -4 7 9 . F.ngl trans. in l-a n d c e n . op a t.. p. 196
See Landccn. op. f i t . pp 19b. 197
For a tum m an. see Landccn. op a t.. pp 191-197.
I L W 5 :2 0
Mil appraisal is found, e.g.. in both Von /w illin g u n d KarbiUidt and Wider die him m lu h ih en Propheten
10 S ec. e .g .. l.W 2 :1 2 9 -1 3 0 . 3 : 1 4 1 -1 4 2 . a n d 8 :6 7 . as w ell as th e d iscu ssio n in la n d c c n . op a t . p 194.
II l.W 4 0 :9 3
** Ihi tran slation fro m the F r la n se n c d of L u ther's w ork s is that o f J \ A n d rew s a n d L. R (x m r a d i. H u to n of
the Sabbath a n d T i n t Day ajf the lir e * . 4tn e d . (W a sh in g to n . D C .. 191 2 ). p. 6 0 5 In his L arger C atechism " o f 1529.
L u ther had voiced a sim ilar ty p e o f sen tim en t in a statem en t n o ted in /.IV 4 0 .9 3
19 M clant h th o n 's p o sitio n nas b een b ricfls but adequate!* su m m a rized by D aniel A u g sb u rg cr, "Calvin an d the
Mosaic Law" (T h D d issertation . U n iversity o f S traslxn irg, (9 7 6 ), 1:253. 254
14 Detail regarding Carlstadt arc given bv Augsburgcr. >tp a t., pp. 248. 249. See also Andrews and Conradi, op
f i t . op. 652-656 (iarlstadt s treatise mav be found m F.ricn licit/* h. KarL\tadb S ch n ften aus den Ja h ren 1 52J-25 (Halle
(SaaV). 1956). I 23-47 Discussions of Carlstadt's attitude toward the Sabbath commandment are giscn bv C*ordon
Rupp. P a iie m t of Reform ation iPhiladelphia. 1969). pp 123-130. and by R. Willard Wcntland. "The Teaching ol
Andreas Bodcnsicm von Carlstadt on the Sescnth Das Sal>bath" (M.A. thesis. SDA Theological Seminars. 1947)
15 T e x t in H e r U sc h , op a t., p 4 I R eg a rd in g S u n d ay, C arlstadt d ecla res that it is v y n h ey m lich " that m en have
in stitu ted ii W cn tlan d (op. a t . p. .13) tran slates this as " one is ala rm ed that m en h ave in stitu ted it." a n d A n d rew s and
C on rad i (trp f i t . p 6 0 4 ) ren d er th e clau se as "one feels u neasy b eca u se m en h ave in stitu ted it Yynheym luh m this
c o n te x t u n d ou b ted !* carries the id ea o f " open." "clear." "know n" (cf. H ertzsch . op fit., p 10 0 " w n h e v m lic h
bek ann t" ). th u s w e m igh t tran slate. " C on cern in g S u n d a y , it is k n o w n that m en h ave in stitu ted it
J L W 4 0 9 4
17 L W 2 :3 6 1 . C f. l-in t le e n a t., p. 198. A lso n otew orth v arc o th e r r e fe ren ce s bv L u ther to S a b b a th k eep ers as
p ro v id ed in A n d re w s a n d (U m rad i, op. a t., p. 6 4 0 .
18 Z w ingli's }Misition is briefly treated by A u g sb u rg cr. op. a t., p. 2 5 5
19 B u cer s p osition has b een carefu lly n o ted by A u g sb u rg cr, (rp fit., p p. 2 5 4 .2 5 5 , a n d th e d escrip tio n g iv e n ticlow
is a su m m ary of th e a ccou n t g iv e n th ere.
* Wilhelm Pauck. ed.. Melnnrhthon an d Rurer, LCC. 19:252

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 S AB BA T H AND SUNDAY IN T H E R E F O R M A T I O N ERA

n R eferr ed to bv A u g sb u rg er. up a t.. 2 :8 1 . n. 3 7 . an d also q u o te d in A nd rew a n d C o n ra d i. op. a t.. p. 6 0 6 . T h e

statem en t d im e s fro m B u eer's Commentary an M a tth eu . ch ap . 12. I n p resen tin g th is sta tem en t. A n d rew s a n d C o n ra d i
seem to h ave b een u n aw are o f B u cer's o th er sta tem en ts arid action s w ith regard to S u n d a t . T h e a p p a ren t co n flict o f
this statem en t by B u cer^ w itluh c o th er ev id e n c e re g a rd in g h im has n o t. to m s k n o w le d g e , b e e n a d eq u a tely e x p la in e d .

14 N u m e r o u s a cco u n ts o f th e h istorical b a ck g ro u n d are available. P erh aps th e best relatively brief su m m ary in
E nglish is that g iv en bv W Uliston W alker. J o h n C a h tn : T he O rganiser o f Reform ed Protestantism ( / 5 0 0 - 5 6 4 ) (N ew Y ork.
1906; now available in S h o t k en pb. e d .. 1969. w ith ex c e lle n t in trod u ctorv b ib liograph ical essay by J o h n T . M cN eill).

T h e first a d eq u a te treatm en t o f th ese d isp u ta tio n s fro m th e p oin t o f view o f th e S a b b ath -S un d ay issu es is the
ex c elle n t uitu Ir bv D aniel A u g sb u rg er. "Sundav in th e P re-R eform ation D isp u ta tio n s in F ren ch S w itzerla n d . A U S S

^ f y tn tm fntr ^ a cc o u n l **rsl d isp u ta tio n

"* Ibtd.. p p 2 7 0 -2 7 2 . g iv e s th e a c c o u n l o f th is s eco n d d isp u ta tio n .

/ W , p p . 2 7 3 -2 7 6 .j p v e s th e a cc o u n t o f th is th ird d isp u tation .

56 A u g sb u rg er, C alvin a n d th e M osaic Law." 1 :2 5 6 -2 8 4 . has g iv en a d eta iled trea tm en t o f ( a lv i n ' i p o sitio n
th ro u g h o u t th e R eform er' ca r eer, an a ly zin g th e various s ta te m e n ts fo u n d in ed itio n s o f th e Institutes of the Christian
Religion, in co m m en ta ries, an d in o th e r so u r ce m aterials. S pace lim its h ere forb id ev en a turn m ars o f th is ex te n siv e
a n d ex c e lle n t trea tm en t, an d o n ly a cu rsors o v erv iew o f C alvin's basic p o sitio n can he n o ted .

T h e q u o ta tio n is as g iv en in th e n ew E d in b u rgh ed itio n o f C alvin's Commentaries The Eputles *V P a u l the Apostle to

the (ia la tia m , F.f>hestan.s, PhUtbptans a n d Colosstans, trans. by T H. L Parker (E d in b u rg h . 1 965). p 357 Parker n o te s in
his in tro d u ctio n , p. v, that (lalvin had b e g u n his w ork o n th e se b ook s bv O cto b er o f 1 5 4 6 a n d that th e p refa ce was
dated February o f 1548 T h u s, il is ap p aren t that C alvin's com m en t* h ere n o ted m ust h ave b e e n w ritten
a p p ro x im ately five or six years after his retu rn to G e n e v a fro m S trassb u rg in S ep tem b er. 1541.
49 T h e Institutes, 1559 ed .. are available in several E n glish tran slation s, in clu d in g tw o v o lu m es o f L C C a n d a
tw o -v o lu m e E d in b u rgh ed W ith regard to th e r e fe ren ce s g iven h e r e in , v o lu m e a n d p age n u m b er s Mill b e th o se o f the
E d in b u rgh ed . as re p rin ted in (rand R apids. M ich igan , bv W illiam B E erd m a n s Pub. C o .. 1957. T h e F o u rth
C o m m a n d m en t'' is treated in th e Institutes 2 8 2 8 -3 4 (1 :3 3 9 -3 4 4 )
40 Prior to h is m o re d e ta ile d d iscu ssion o f th ese th r e e co n sid era tio n s. C a lsin stm plv su m m a rizes th em , in ib t d .
41 A lth o u g h h e d o c s refer in ibtd.. par. 31 (1 :3 4 1 ) to th e te r e m o n ia l part o f th e co m m a n d m en t" as b ein g
ab olish ed i\ th e ad ven t t ( h n s t. h e dec ries th e <U b o I th e r e b d n g t t w o n M part th at h a s b e e n a b r o g a te d a n d .
m oral part that rem ain s th e m oral part b ein g viz. th e o b se rv a n ce o f o n e d a v in seven" (p ar. 34 (1 34.11) T h is sort o f
d U w a b n ! <h a n a lertaes .iv b e in g n o tN n i cIm th a n t< inauit the le w s , f>\ ri f h i if day a n d p tt m m I i
attrib u tin g to it th e sa m e sanctity; th u s reta in in g th e sam e typical d istin ctio n o f d ays as n ad p la ce a m o n g th e Jews'*

44 C erh a rd F. H asel. Sabbatarian A nab ap tists o f th e S ix tee n th C en tu r y . A U S S 5 (1 9 6 7 ): 1 0 1 -1 2 1 . a n d 6

4* H istorical su r v ey s o f th e A nab aottsts are available in virtual!) all m ajor tex tb o o k s d e a lin g w ith th e history o f
th e R efo rm a tio n P eriod V ariou s valu aole w orks specifically o n th e A nab ap tists h ave b een p r o d u c e d in recen t years
by such sch olars as H arold S. B e n d e r . A b raham F riesen . H an s H illerb ran d, L eo n a rd V erd u in . a n d oth ers; th ese h a v e
ten d ed to p resen t th e A n ab ap tists in a m ore favorab le (an d accurate) way than has o fte n b een th e case. T he available
w orks b> th ese and o lh r t m m i w rh ers o n th e tu b j e i t a n too numerous i< n o te here, b u t attention n a y i* a f c d
e .g .. to V erd u in 's b ook . The Reformers and Their Stepchildren ((rand R apids. 1964). A lso, fro m th e sta n d p o in t o f
p resen tin g th e "Radical R eform ation " in a b road er p ersp ectiv e, th e e x c e lle n t stand ard w ork by G e o rg e H W illiam s.
I he R a d ical Reform ation (P h ila d elp h ia . 1962) is w orth c o n su ltin g . W illiam s has p ro v id ed , to o . an ex c e lle n t se le c u o n o f
d o cu m en ts in v o lu m e 2 5 o f LC C . en titled S b tn tu a l a n d Anabaptist Writers
* For treatm en t o f th e lists, n o te th e u iscu ssio n by H asel. op a t., 5 :1 0 1 -1 0 6 .

** Ibtd.. y 118 (tran slation is basically H asel's. w ith o ccasion al variation in w o rd in g ; th is w ill b e th e ca se

4 T h e s e a n d o th er im p ortan t p o in ts in Glait's b elief are treated in ib t d , p p. 1 17-121.

T h e d eta ils g iv e n h ere in are u ascd a g a in o n H asel's ex c elle n t p resen ta tio n . Fischer is trea ted in ibtd.. 6; 19-28.

M ario*V elo so . "The R efo rm a tio n m S eville. I530-I560*' (M .D iv. th esis, A n d rew s U n iv ersity , 1972). S ee
esp eciallv ch a p . 6 . T h e F am ou s Prcac her: C o n sta n tin o P on ce d e la Fu en te." p p . 8 8 - 1 17. a n d ch a p . 7. ^ in d ep en d e n t
T h e o lo g y o f C o n sta n tin o P on ce d e la Fuente.** p u 1 1 8 -157. T ra n sla tio n s g iv en h ere in w ill follow clo sely th o se g iv en
by V elo so . w ith p ossib le variation m exact w ord in g at tim es
M I b t d . p. 1 16. A c tu a lh . as stated by V elo so . th e lin e of in flu e n c e w as as follow s: T h r o u g h th e tea ch in g o f
D octor E g id io. C o n sta n tin o d e la F u en te re ceiv e d th e (osp el o f C h n st' preac h ed ea rlier bv R o d n g o V a ler in Seville."

M P 142. T h e q u otation c o m e s fro m (C onstantino's Primer Salwto

s Ib td T h e q u o ta tio n is from C o n sta n tin o 's Suma de U octnna Christiana.

227
 THF. S A B B A T H IN S CR I P T U R E AND HI STOR Y

58 /btd.. p. 144. T h e q u o ta tio n is fro m C o n sta n tin o 's Sum a

w Ibtd.. p. 145 T h e q u o ta tio n is fro m C o n sta n tin o 's Sum a
60 ib id ., p. 143. C on stan tin o's w ork s re fe r r in g specifically to th e Sabbath a re th e D o ttrin a C hristiana an ti th e Suma.
Ibid., p . 145.
62 T h e o r ie f su m m ary g iv e n h ere in is draw n largely fro m A n d re w s a n d C o n r a d i. op. a t., p p. 6 3 2 -6 8 4 ,
s u p p le m e n te d by several o th er so u r ces in d icated in th e n o tes below
65 Ibid., p p . 5 9 -6 6 3 . C o n sid er a b le fu rth er d etail is fu rn ish e d by J z s e f P o k o ly . A z trd flyi rrform dtus egyhz trlnrlt
(H istory1o f tn e T ra n sy lv a n ia n R efo rm ed C h u rc h ). 3 vols. (B u d a p est, 1904), csp ecia lly vol. 2. A lso o f so m e in terest is
L ad islau s M. P k ozd v, Der sitbenburgisfht Sabbatismus (T h e T ran sy lv a n ia n S abb atarian ism ) (S tu ttgart. 1973). T hese
w orks w ere called to m y a tten u o n by Lew is l- i s / lo S zerecz. w h o as a sem in a ria n at A n d rew s U n iv ersity p r e s e n te d to
P ro fessor D an iel A u g sb u rg er a research p a p e r en titled "Sabbatarians in 16th and 17th O n t u r y T ra n sslv a n ia "
(1 9 7 7 ). in w hich h e su rveys rath er ex ten siv e ly th e p ertin e n t m aterial p re se n te d by Pokolv.
64 Ibid., p p . 6 6 1 -6 6 3 .
61 S ee P o to lv . op. a t ., 2 :1 4 0 , q u o te d in S zerecz. op. a t., p. 15.
86 A n d rew s a n a C o n r a d i. op. cit., p. 6 6 0 .
87 D etails re g a rd in g th e B esztercze Diet an d su b seq u en t e v e n ts are g iv e n by P o k o ls. o p .n t., p p . 2 7 3 -2 7 6 .
68 A n d rew s a n d C o n r a d i. op. cit., p p . 6 6 1 . 6 6 2 .
89 S e e A n d rew s a n d C on rad i, op cit., p p . 6 7 2 -6 8 3 ; R oald M artin G u le n g . T h e M arian an d Sabbatarian
O b serv a n ce in N orw ay d u r in g th e 15th an d I o ih C en tu ries" (M .A . th esis. S D A T h e o lo g ic a l Sem inary . 1951); A rn e
SandstrO m . Du tem p s o . e n S u d e , les o b se rv a teu rs d u sabbat tien t ex cu t s," R e x u t adventiste, Ju illet- A oL 1976,
p p . 10, 1 1. SandstrO m q u o te s from th e u se fu l w orks by L. A. A n jou , S xtn sk a K yrkans H istoria ih A n i psala M o tt A t 1 5 9 3
till S lu t f t a j S ju tlo n d t A rh u n d ra d rt (S to ck h o lm . 1866), an d T h e o d o r N o rlin . S ie m k a Kytkans tin to r ia tltr r R e fo r m a tio n s
(L u n d . 1864), w h o se titles a n d sp ecific citation s are u n fo r tu n a tely lacking in th e a fo r e m e n tio n e d F ren ch v ersio n o f
S andstrrim 's m aterial.
70 A n d re w s a n d C o n r a d i. op. cit., p p . 6 7 2 . 6 7 3 .
71 S ee C u le n g . op. cit., p p . 4 8 . 4 9 . d2.
72 T h e p ertin e n t p arts o f th e d o c u m e n t a re q u o te d in ibid.. pp. 4 8 , 4 9 .
75 A n d re w s an d C o n r a d i, op. n t.. p . 6 7 5 (th e tran slation is th eirs).
74 Ibid., op. n t p p. 6 7 6 -6 7 9 .
71 S ee SandstrO m , lot a t.
78 S ee C u le n g , op. cit., p p . 56, 5 7 . an d SandstrO m . op. a t., p. 10, co l. 3.
77 S ee S a n d str m . <rp. a t., p. 11, c o l. 1.
78 S ee A n d rew s an d CUinradi. op. n t ., p p. 6 3 2 -6 7 2 . esp ecially p p. 6 4 9 , 6 5 0 (N e th e r la n d s an d France) a n d 6 6 3 -6 7 2
(R ussia). A lth o u g h n ot d e a lin g specifically w ith Sabbat h k e ep ers. a very u se lu l so u rce fro m w hich to ob ta in fu rth er
in sigh t as to historical d e v e lo p m e n ts as reflected in th e ch r o n ic le s w ith regard to trea tm en t o f h eretics" a n d
schism atics" in R ussia is N ed P M aletin , D issent an d R eform in R ussian O r th o d o x C h u rch H istory fro m th e I Ith
t h r o u g h th e 16th C en tu ries." A U S S 8 ( 19 7 0 ):5 1 -6 4 .
7 A n d re w s an d CUinradi. of, cit., p . 65 0 .
 CHAPTER 12

The Sabbath in Puritanism

Walter B. Douglas

HE controversies and discussions su rro u n d in g the Sabbath respecting the

T day, time, an d m a n n e r o f its observance in E ngland d u rin g the late sixteenth
and th ro u g h o u t th e seventeenth centuries arose m ore from doctrinal and
practical considerations than from theological o r philosophical ones. T h e term s
"Sabbath" an d "Sabbatarianism w ere descriptive o f the m ajority o f P uritans in
the seventeenth cen tu ry an d re fe rre d to the excessive and rigorous a d h e ren c e o f
Sunday as th e day o f rest and sanctification. As such, these P uritans felt that
Sunday as th e S ab b ath was obligatory on all C hristians and that it was never
intended to be set aside o r pro fan ed . T h e n th ere was the small g ro u p o f P uritans
who arg u ed for a co n trary position, basing th eir views entirely on the au th o rity o f
Scripture. T h ese believed that the seventh day o f the fo u rth co m m andm ent o f the
Decalogue was n ever changed and that obedience to G ods law requires the
p ro p e r observance o f S aturday as the Sabbath.
O n th e o th e r side o f the controversy was the established ch u rch , which
thro u g h its clergy a n d scholars argued against both positions that w ere held by the
Puritan o p p o n en ts. T h ese Anglicans, with royal sanction, provided w hat they
tho u g h t to be reasoned arg u m en ts based on ch u rch history for not accepting the
P uritan teaching ab out the Sabbath. T hey believed that the P uritans were
l.inatical in th eir insistence on p ro p e r observance o f the Sabbath, irrespective o f
the day, and a rg u e d against them from the point o f view o f an im position on
religious freedom . T h ey m aintained that in observing Sunday in a m ore liberal"
vein, they w ere in th e tradition o f the ancient church and the practice o f the
Fathers.
It should be n o ted that am ong the A nglicans and the Puritans w ere m en o f
sincerity an d integrity who believed truly in the rightness o f their positions. T h ese
were usually individuals o f d eep learning, acuteness, and piety who w ere seeking
the tru th o f God as revealed in Holy S cripture.
A lthough this c h a p te r is principally interested in the P uritans an d the
Sabbath in th e sev enteenth century, it is w orth rem em bering that the events o f this
century, in som e respects, had th eir antecedents in the sixteenth century an d that
the Sabbath was o n e o f several critical issues th at the R eform ation left vague.

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 I 111-. SAKHA I I I IN SCKII l l ' K I ANI> I l l s I <>KY

From th e tim e o f Elizabeth's refusal to su p p o rt a th o ro u g h R eform ation on

the m odel o f th e continental re fo rm ed churches, th ere was a w idening gap in the
C h u rch o f E ngland betw een those w ho strove for an Elizabethan settlem ent (that
is, an Erastian ecclesiastical setd em en t with a theology th at was substantially
refo rm ed an d a liturgy that was substantially C atholic) an d those who insisted on
reform s beyond those that the q u een an d h er successors w ere willing to initiate.
D uring Elizabeth's reign, as A. H. Lewis points out, those P uritans who based
th eir observance o f S unday on the fo u rth com m andm ent pleaded at first for a
better observance o f S unday as a p art o f the general work o f civil an d religious
refo rm . As they co ntinued to seek for h ig h er life and g re ater purity, the Sabbath
[Sunday) question grew in im portance. T his was not fortuitous. Men never com e
into closer relations with G od w ithout feeling the sacredness o f the claims which
his law im poses; an d no part o f that law stands out m ore p rom inently th an the
F ourth C o m m an d m en t. . . . As these m en threw o ff the shackles o f ch u rch
authority, a n d stood face to face with G od, recognizing him as th eir only lawgiver,
they w ere com pelled to take h ig h er g ro u n d concerning the S abbath ." 1
T h e g eneral attitu d e tow ard the Sabbath d u rin g the tim e o f Elizabeth, and
one that was o f d ee p concern to the S abbatarian P uritan, was sum m arized in an
adm onition issued in 1580 by the governm ent an d enjoined to be read as a homily
d u rin g divine service. A po rtio n o f the homily describes the conditions concerning
the Sabbath in th e following w ords: T h e Sabbath days and holy-days, ordain ed
for the h ea rin g o f G ods w ord to the refo rm atio n o f o u r lives, . . . are spent full
heathenishly in taverning, tippling, gam ing, playing, and beholding o f bearbait-
ing an d stage-plays; to the u tte r d ish o n o r o f G od, im peachm ent o f all godliness,
and unnecessary consum ing o f m en s substances, which ou g h t to be better
em ployed. T h e want o f o rd erly discipline and catechising h ath cith er sent great
num bers, both old and young, back again into papistry, o r let them ru n lose into
godless ath eism .
As the controversy raged over the strictness o r laxity o f S abbathkceping, the
P uritans grew increasingly ap p reh en siv e about what they described as the
"spiritual well-being o f the nation." T h is feeling o f ap p reh en sio n a n d concern
was, o f course, consistent with their belief that England was to becom e G od's holy
com m onw ealth, a n d that they w ere G od's chosen people.
But at this lim e, th e late sixteenth century, the covenanted people o f G od
lacked the political as well as ecclesiastical influence an d au th o rity to force the
issue o f th e Sabbath to the fo re fro n t o f national consciousness. Such pow er and
au th o rity was to com e years later, as we shall soon see. In the m eantim e, despite
the o pposition an d protest o f the Sabbatarians, Sunday was still th e favorite tim e
for theatrical p resentations an d sports. In fact, w hen in 1585 Parliam ent
attem p ted to pass a law for b etter an d m ore reverend observance o f the Sabbath,"
the q u een used h er veto pow er against it because she would su ffe r noth in g to be
altered in m atters o f religion o r ecclesiastical governm ent."
T h e rap id m arch o f events in both ch u rch and state soon found the P uritans
gaining stren g th and su p p o rt in the p o p u lar m ind for th eir S abbatarianism . ( )n r
o f th e m ost rem arkable influences in p re p a rin g the way was Nicholas B ownd's The
Doctrine o f the Sabbath, platncly layde forth and soundly proved. . . , which a p p e a re d in
1595. B ow nd's presupposition was that England was to Ik- G ods holy
com m onw ealth an d Englishm en w ere to I- I lis <hosen people; but unless society

ui
 I HE S AB BA T H IN P UR IT ANI SM

was lo b e th o ro u g h ly dem oralized (largely th ro u g h the abuse o f its day of rest), the
m ode o f observing th e Sabbath m ust be radically changed.
In th e d ev elopm ent o f his ideas on the Sabbath, Bownd arg u ed that although
the L ord's day (m eaning S aturday) had been changed, its m an n er o f observance
was still to be seen in the O ld T estam en t. T h e m oral arid p erp etu al n a tu re o f the
Sabbath puts beyond d o u b t the total sovereignly o f God that extends to the whole
of life. C onsequently, not only labor, but every form o f recreation should be given
up on the C hristian Sabbath (Sunday ).4
T h e fo u n d atio n o f his arg u m e n t was laid in S cripture, the F athers, an d the
R eform ers. He provoked the ecclesiastical w rath o f both the m onarch an d bishops
ly stating that the Sabbath was n eith er a bare o rdinance o f m an n o r m erely a civil
or ecclesiastical constitution ap p o in ted only for polity, but that it was an im m ortal
co m m an d m en t o f G od and th e re fo re binding on m en's consciences. Bownd first
argues the antiquity o f the Sabbath, that it ap p ears in the story o f Genesis, that it
was from the beginning, an d that the seventh day was sanctified at the first, so soon
.is it was m ade"; th en he concludes that "as the first seventh day was sanctified so
m ust the last be, an d as God bestowed this blessing upon it in the m ost perfect
state o f m an, so m ust it be reserved with it till we be restored to his perfection
.igain ."5
U pon this prem ise Bownd proceeds to prove that while the cerem onies o f the
law, which m ade a d ifference betw een Jew an d G entile, are taken away by the
gospel, the Sabbath co m m andm ent rem ains still in full force and is bin d in g fo r all
n.iiionsand sorts o f m en as before. T h e m ost im portant principle en sh rin e d in the
stipulation o f th e rest day was that G od should be w orshiped. T h e people were
.idm onished to atten d public services w here the W ord o f God was plainly read and
I>11rely preach ed , th e sacram ents rightly adm inistered, an d p ra y er m ade in a
known to n g u e to the edifying o f the people, and in attending upon these things
I m m the beg in n in g to the ending.*
W hen B ow nd's first volum e a p p e are d , it created an ex tra o rd in ary sensation.
<>ne historian, T h o m as Fuller, points out that " th ro u g h o u t E ngland, began the
m ore solem n a n d strict observation o f the Lord's day an d that it is alm ost
incredible how taking this d o ctrin e was, partly because o f its own purity, and
partly for th e em in en t piety o f such persons as m aintained it; so that the L o rd s
lay, especially in co rp o rations, began to be precisely kept, people becom ing a law
io them selves, fo rb earin g such sports as yet by statute p erm itted; yea, m any
i -juicing at th eir own restraint herein." Fuller goes on to state that learned m en
were nevertheless m uch divided in their ju d g m en ts about these Sabbatarian
lo trines," som e em bracing them an d others opposing th em .
It should be n o ted that the opposition to the publication an d to the reading o f
Bownds book cam e largely from the established church party. Many o f the
bishops took a firm stand against what they th o u g h t to be a "Jewish yoke" and the
irstrictio n o f th e liberty o f C h ristia n s."' M any o th e r Anglican m inisters seem ed
convinced that if the teachings enunciated in the book were ad opted, th e results
w o u l d be distasteful to Anglicans, who would not relinquish their in h erited form s
>| worship. They fo u n d su p p o rt for th eir view from Parliam ent an d the queen.
I hese Anglican m inisters den o u n ced the d octrine as tending to w eaken the
n i i l i o i i t y o l th e c h u rch in ap p o in tin g o th e r holy days and o f giving an unequal
In sin to S unday, and an attem pt was m ade to suppress the book. In IfiW .
 I HE S A B B A T H IN S C R I P T U R E ANI) H I S T O R Y

A rchbishop W hitgift issued o rd e rs fo r all persons having copies o f the book lo

give them up, an d , in 1600, C h ief Justice P opham reissued these o rd e rs from the
bench."' But the suppression o f the book was not to be; in 1606, afte r W hitgifts
d eath , a new edition was published, and th en cefo rth the P uritans were
distinguished by th eir rigid observance o f the Sabbath (Sunday).
James I and the Puritans
W hen Elizabeth's successor, Jam es I, becam e king o f England in 1603, the
problem o f dissenters and the p ro liferatio n o f sectarianism w ere already evident.
Am ong the d iffe ren t religious gro u p s, th ree only w ere at th at time pow erful
en o u g h to contend for Ja m e ss su p p o rt: the R om an C atholics, Erastians, anti
Puritans. T h e P uritans, who already had a re p u ta tio n for advocating renew al and
refo rm in w orship, subm itted to th e king the M illenary Petition, which em bodied
the essentials o f th eir most im m ediate reform m easures. For m ore than thirty
years befo re this, th e P uritans had been agitating for a renew al o f ch u rch life both
in w orship an d discipline. T h ey expressed th eir grievances over the laxity in
Sabbath observance an d the strictness with which cerem onials w ere enforced.
T h ey vigorously u rg e d m ore a n d b etter preaching by co m p ete n t m inisters and
insisted on a sim plification o f ritual and vestm ents.
T h e re was no lack o f m en o f sufficient b read th to articulate a n d d e fe n d the
P uritans' position on the Sabbath against the established church. B ut th eir
rep resen tatio n s and expectations did not bring the king to th eir side. Indeed,
Jam es him self had no d eep affection for the P uritans, m ainly because o f his
speculations as to th eir political persuasion and the harsh trea tm e n t that he and
his m o th er had received from th e Scottish Presbyterians, with w hom , he assum ed,
the P uritans now sh ared a sim ilar political philosophy.
But n eith er did the R om an Catholics fare any b elter wiih the king th an did
th eir P uritan rivals. T hey, o f course, looked forw ard to a change in attitudes.
How ever, they were soon to discover that once the king was able to rule from a
position o f stren g th , he no longer n eeded "the Papists ." 18
T h e n th ere was the g ro u p who cam e into royal favor by show ing their
willingness to su p p o rt the crow n. T h is g ro u p represents virtually the whole
official class in E ngland, who acknow ledged Jam es I's indefeasible hereditary
right to th e th ro n e o f E ngland. It was to these persons that the king looked, and
along with them he reaffirm ed his intention to m aintain the Elizabethan
settlem en t."
At th e H a m p to n C ourt C o n feren ce (1604), the king dealt very cautiously with
the P uritans. J o h n Reynolds, a m em ber o f the P uritan party, expressed on behall
of his colleagues th eir d isap p o in tm en t in the kings proclam ation m ade for the
refo rm atio n o f the abuses an d p ro fan atio n o f the S abbath. T h ey earnestly
pleaded fo r a th o ro u g h refo rm o f Sunday observance that would reflect the
practice o f the prim itive C hristian church and the harm ony o f the scriptural
injunctions en joined upon all C hristians.
In opposition to this stro n g P uritan plea for a th o ro u g h refo rm atio n of
S unday observance, Jam es in 1618 published the fam ous, o r infam ous, Hunk <>/
Sports." The d o cum ent claim ed i> be an explanation re n d e re d necessary by the
i aliim nious m isrepresentations <>t papists and I'm it.ins in I .in olnshire, Iml in its
iiilc p-ig' ii is addressed to .ill Ins m ajestys suhjei ts
 I I IK S AB BA TH IN P UR I TA NI S M

The Book o f Sports was, in fact, a co n dem nation o f Sabbatarianism and gave
lull legal sanction to th e continental S unday in E ngland. MT h is view is confirm ed
l>y ihe Anglican clergym an P eter Heylyn. A ccording to Heylyn, the Book o f Sports
"was the first blow, in effect, which had been given, in all his tim e, to the new
l ords-day-S abbath, th en so m uch a p p la u d e d ." 15 W ith the d eath o f Jam es I and
ac cession o f C harles I in 1625, the P uritans becam e even m ore apprehensive o f
iI lairs in both ch u rch an d state. A rchbishop G eorge A bbots rival and successor to
the See o f C an terb u ry , William L aud, d em an d e d absolute conform ity; and he
rigorously pro secu ted those who for reasons o f te n d e r consciences, both public
and private, chose not to conform . L aud d em o n strate d in his personal life and
through legislation a m arked preferen ce for a sacram ental ra th e r than a doctrinal
.ipproach in religious m atters. His rule is described by som e as notorious and
hig h h an d ed , but R. H. T aw ney does no t fully agree and presents L aud as a m an
who was possessed by a fundam ental conviction that the oneness o f the church
ind state m ust not be sacrificed to any personal m otive o r divergent religious o r
social m o v em en t .16
T h e P u ritan s advocacy o f the Sabbath (Sunday) and o f cessation o f all labor
ind recreational activity on th at day grew in im portance an d eventually took on
i eligious as well as political significance. T his was certainly o n e o f the ch ief reasons
why so m any P u ritans w ere persecuted u n d e r L audian prelacy. So severe was the
persecution th at it is not surp risin g that several o f the bishops declared their
opinions against it. L aud had succeeded in getting C harles I to renew the
i In la ration o f the Book o f Sports. T h u s, it was the studied plan o f the archbishop to
subdue as far as possible the influence o f the P uritan teachings on the Sabbath. But
within five years into his reign, the P uritans had greatly increased th eir n u m b er
ind influence; an d side by side with this grow th were the persecutions against
Ihem . Thus, th e separation and eventual ejection o f the P uritans from the
\nglican C h u rch d u rin g the reigns o f C harles I (1625-1649) an d o f his son
< li.irles II (1660-1685), w ere inevitable.
The Puritan Concept o f the Covenant and the Sabbath Controversy
T h e vigor o f th e P uritan position that b ro u g h t them into conflict was rooted
mi i heir concept o f th e covenant and th eir self-estim ation as the chosen people o f
<.od. O n e p ro m in e n t scholar has pointed out that the C ovenant was not, for the
Puritans, o n e idea o r concept am ong others. It was the fu n d am en tal m otif
'm in in g th ro u g h o u t the whole o f th eir life to shape their u n d ersta n d in g , and
iheir feeling for existence. It pervaded an d held to g eth er their views o f religion,
politics, and ethics; it shaped th eir whole approach to m arriage, ch u rch , and
si k iely . 17
1 he system atic articulation o f this fu n d am en tal condition o f C hristian
xprrience was in th e law o f God. T h a t law, declared R ichard B axter, is a
signification o f G o d s will and constitutes the subjects due. O bedience to G ods
law, th erefo re, is not an option but a duty that w hen done reflects His glory and
gi .k lousness."1
I he point to whir h we must draw attention, and o n e that carries considerable
weight, is (hat not only is the Sabbath m o led in the law o f G od but it is based on a
<i ivcti.ii it betw een ( oil and m an, an d it sell has the n atu re of a covenant. Precisely
lor (his reason, th e Pin it.ins opposed those set t.n i.ms who advocated the "hellish"
 I I IK SAKHA I 11 IN SCRUM URI AND HI S TO R Y

d o ctrin e that the law o f C od was no longer binding on C hristians.

T h e essential claim m ade by the P uritans was that the law re n d e re d
intelligible all o f th eir experience, even those aspects not m anifestly religious. T h e
law was as m uch binding a fte r Calvary as it had been before. T h eo p h ilu s
B rab o u rn e, an able d e fe n d e r o f the Sabbath, although d iffe rin g from his
colleagues respecting the seventh day (as will be noted shortly), was in full
ag reem en t with m ainstream P uritan th o u g h t when he arg u ed that the New
T estam en t revelation reinforces the continuing relevance an d the necessity o f
obedience to the law ." Both he an d his colleagues readily agreed that this
obedience was not intended and should not become a slavish conformity to
authority. T h ey und ersto o d th e relation betw een law and grace, and insisted that
th e sinful h eart cannot delight in G od's law; but w hen that h eart is reg en erated ,
then the works o f the law are ca rried out in perfect fre e d o m .*1 T his helps to
p in p o in t for us the p rom inence the P uritans gave to the concept o f the covenant.
Strictly speaking, the law was not th e covenant. W hen G od h an d ed dow n the law at
Sinai, H e did not give a list o f stipulations whose successful accom plishm ent by
m an would b ring m an into relationship with Him . W hat G od d id do, the P uritans
were quick to point out, was to p re p a re the law with a statem ent o f th e covenant
relation H e already had with His people because o f His m ighty acts: I am the
Lord thy G od, which have b ro u g h t thee o u t o f the land o f Egypt, out o f th e house
o f b o n d ag e (Ex. 20:2). T h u s, the sovereignty o f God was clearly established, and
the a p p ro p ria te response to such graciousness was an unconditional obedience to
the term s o f the covenant.
A n o th er point m ust be no ted re g ard in g the P uritans' u n d ersta n d in g o f the
covenant a n d its relationship to the Sabbath: O ne who th ro u g h justification in
C hrist Jesus com es into relationship with God will necessarily be inclined tow ard
the Sabbath, since it is th e m ost visible sign o f G ods creative authority an d rule by
law.
T h e C o n tro v ersy R especting the C hange o f the Sabbath
T h u s far, o u r discussion o f the history o f the Sabbath in seventeenth-century
E ngland has been confined to the question o f its sanctification and observance,
and the divergence o f opinions betw een the Sabbatarians an d the established
ch u rch p arty, the latter being s u p p o rte d in large m easure by the Crow'n.
W hen it com es to the question o f the precise day and tim e for observance, we
begin to witness a disintegration in the otherw ise cohesive P uritan m ovem ent. By
far, the largest n u m b er o f P uritans co n tended for the change o f the day from
S aturday to Sunday; and it will be useful to trace, very briefly, the historical
dev elo p m en t o f what cam e to be know n as the "tran sfer th eo ry as it pertains to
E ngland.
Historically, the discussion in England about the change o f the Sabbath came
into prominence through the influence o f Thom as Cranmer (1485-1556). When
the church in England rejected the authority o f the Roman Church, it became
necessary for English Christianity to develop a liturgy that would reflect its own
teachings and practices. Cranmer, Archbishop o f Canterbury from 1533 to 1556,
produced the official service book (1549 anil 1552) and included in its litany the
T en (kim m andm cnis. The fourth <omniandmcnt h i p.n l i t ul.tr was the nub n! the
problem, for when the minister repealed it, I I k - p e o p l e tcsponded with the words:

11*1
 II I ! SAB BA TH IN 1*11KI I AN ISM

"Incline o u r h earts to keep this law." 'Ihe question of the observance o f the
Sabbath then becam e o n e o f crucial im portance. Did the peoples response m ean
(hat the ch u rch was obligated to keep the Sabbath o f the T e n C om m andm ents?
There were those o f evangelical spirit who arg u ed in the affirm ative and
insisted that to deny the tru th o f the seventh-day Sabbath (Saturday) was to m ake
mockery o f th e plain W ord o f G od." O th ers m aintained that this statem en t was a
general recognition o f G ods authority an d a call to w orship Him an d to set aside a
poi tion o f o n es tim e to His glory. P eter Heylyn, the H igh C hurch historian, gives
notice o f th e fact th at n eith er the archbishop n o r any o f the o th e r re fo rm ers had
any intention o f in tro d u cin g the Jewish Sabbath w hen they included it in the
litany. P erhaps he is right. T h e fact still rem ains, how ever, that fo r m any
Anglicans the question as to w h eth er they w ere really following the teaching o f the
Bible o r the au th o rity o f the C hurch o f Rom e still provoked th eir consciences.
I n the scram ble for the control o f ch u rch authority, the Catholics claim ed that
since th e Rom an C h u rch "had displaced w ithout question the Sabbath day,
th erefo re its au th o rity was su p rem e, an d it could m ake o th er laws. As a
i joinder to this challenge, C ra n m e r pointed out that the Sabbath co m m an d m en t
11 insists o f two parts, a physical and a spiritual, an d that the spiritual aspect o f the
Sabbath cannot be ch a n g e d .16T his gave rise to the concept o f a " tra n sfe r theory,"
whit h m eant th at th e Sabbath as a sacred institution was not necessarily related to
.i particular day.
But it was not C ra n m e rs influence that led the Puritans to their acceptance
.uul advocacy o f S unday as the Sabbath rest. U ndoubtedly, the decisive influence
upon them cam e from Nicholas B ow nd, to whom we have already m ade
reference. We deem it necessary to re in tro d u c e him at this point in o u r discussion,
hccause his p ro p ag atio n o f the tra n sfe r theory was o f decisive im p o rtan ce for
ihs( ussion o f th e Sabbath in the 1630s and the 1640s. In this connection, Bownd
advocated that "as it [the Sabbath] cam e in with the first m an, so it m ust not go out
bin with the last m an," that o u r L ord an d all the apostles established it by their
pi .k lice, th at if "A dam n eeded th e Sabbath before the Fall, the w orld lost in sin
needs it m uch m o re.
I le builds what seem s to be a convincing an d solid arg u m e n t for the Biblical
S.ibbath (Saturday), stating, "Now, as we have h ith erto seen, that th ere o u g h t to be
.i Sabbath-day, so it rem ain eth that we should h ea r upon what day this Sabbath
should lie kept, an d which is that very day sanctified for that purpose. For I know
it is not ag reed u p o n am ong them th at d o truly hold that th ere o u g h t to be a
Sabbath, which is th at very day upon which the Sabbath should always be." Bownd
ihen goes on to show that the Lord in His m ercy did not leave m an in any doubt
icg ard in g the specific day on which the Sabbath is to be kept. It is clear both in
.cnesis 2:3, w here G od blessed the seventh day. and sanctified it," and in E xodus
.'0 : 10, w here H e declares th at "the seventh day is the sabbath o f the L ord thy
( .0(1." So then, "it m ust needs be u p o n th at day, and upon none o th er; fo r the L ord
him self sanctified th at day, an d ap p o in ted it for that purpose, and n o n e but it."
In the light o f such plain leaching on the Sabbath, Bownd concludes th at it is
m u (Msonahle for anyone lo keep any o th e r day and still expect to receive lhai
blessing from G od th at He bestows by virtue o f His special prom ise to those who
icverence His Sabbath.
A lter dec rying th e endless controversies su rro u n d in g the issue o f the day that

23!>
 I' HE S AB BA TH IN S C R I P T U R E AND HI S TO R Y

is to be kept, Bownd exclaims fu rth e r, T h e re fo re we m ust needs acknow ledge it

to be the sin g u lar wisdom an d m ercy o f God tow ard his church, th u s by sanctifying
the seventh day, to en d the strife. For, as we in G ods service, w hen m en go away
from his W ord, th e re is no e n d o f devising that which he alloweih not; an d they fall
u p o n everything, saving u p o n that they should; so in ap p o in tin g the day if we Ix*
not ruled by the W ord, we shall find by experience that every day will seem m ore
convenient to us than that, at leastwise we shall seem to have as good reason to
keep any o th e r as the sev en th .
It is quite clear that for Bownd, the W ord o f God was the only authoritative
source fo r any ch ange o r tra n sfe r o f the Sabbath to any o th e r day o f the week. And
since, as he explains, to deviate from the sure W ord could lead to m ishandling of
the Sabbath, it is both safe an d right to rem ain faithful to w hat God Himself has
o rd ain ed . He concludes that "thus we learn that G od did no t only bless it, but bless
it for this cause a n d so we see th at the Sabbath m ust needs still be upon the seventh
day, as it always hath b ee n .51
N evertheless, in spite o f such statem ents as the foregoing, Bownd sincerely
advocated a n d tau g h t that S unday was the seventh-day Sabbath ra th e r than
S atu rd ay . H ere is his decisive statem ent in this reg ard : "B ui now concerning this
very special seventh day that we now keep in the tim e o f th e gospel, that is well
known, th at it is not the same it was from the beginning, which God him self did
sanctify, an d w h ereof he speaketh in this com m andm ent, for it was the day going
before own, which in Latin retain eth its ancient nam e, an d is called the Sabbath,
which we also g ran t, bul so th at we confess it m ust always rem ain, never to Ix-
changed any m ore, and that all m en m ust keep holy thu seventh day, an d none
o th er, which was u n to them not the seventh, but the first day o f ihe week, an d it is so
called m any lim es in the New T estam e n t, an d so it still stan d eth in force, that w e
are b o u n d u n to the seventh day, th o u g h not u n to that very seventh. C oncerning the
time, a n d persons by whom , an d w hen the day was changed, il a p p e a re th in the
New T estam e n t, that it was d o n e in the tim e o f the aposdes, a n d by the apostles
them selves, an d that to g eth er with the day, the nam e was ch an g ed , an d was in die
beginning called the first day of the week, afterw ards ihe Lord's-Day. M
T h e fo reg o ing is a very crucial statem ent, because it shows th e sincerity widi
which Bow nd articulated his convictions about the change o f the Sabhadi
N otw ithstanding his piety, one cannot avoid noticing how fa r he himself had
m oved away from his own norm , nam ely, the W ord o f G od; an d it is ol
considerable in terest to note that in his com plete arg u m en t for the change (ton
lengthy to in co rp o rate here) he relied m ore on church history than on S cripture
O nly two scrip tu ral references a p p e a r in su p p o rt for his S unday advocacy,
w hereas he cites copiously from the doctors o f the ch u rch an d early C hristian
sources to substantiate his position.
Despite w hat one says o r how one wishes to judge Bownd's w ork, it is beyond
d ispute that his treatise on th e Sabbath rep resen ts an entirely new position in the
history o f th e Sabbath in E ngland an d that it colored the whole question ol
Sabbaih refo rm for m ore th an th ree h u n d re d years. T h e Ixiok was ad o p ted by the
m ajority o f ihe P uritans an d becam e a source fo r their arg u m e n ts againsi those o I
th eir n u m b e r who believed in an d advocated the sevenih-d.iv Sabbaih.
A m ong p ro m in en t sixteenth- a n d seventeenth -entiiry advocates o f S unday
S abbatarianism in Fngl.tiid w ere Ki< h ard G re en h o rn . R ichard B axter, R ichard
 IIII- S AB BA I II IN 1*1: KI I ANISM

B ern ard , and J o h n Wallis. These an d o th ers proclaim ed the tra n sfe r th eo ry
p ro p o sed by Bownd. O n the whole, they w ere sincere individuals w ho took it to be
their d uty not only to g uide an d instruct in the p ro p e r w orship o f the tru e G od but
also to rebuke a n d discipline persons who, in their opinion, failed in this
respectas, for instance, by not properly observing Sunday as the Sabbath. T h e ir
determ in atio n led th em at times to ex trem e m easures that op en ed them to severe
criticism from th eir co ntem poraries. It should also be noted that like Bow nd, these
later advocates o f a S unday Sabbatarianism ten d ed to use history, ra th e r than
S cripture alone, in th eir efforts to su p p o rt the tran sfer th eo ry . Si
Some Representative Puritan Advocates o f Saturday as the True Sabbath
We m ust now tu rn o u r attention to the o th e r g ro u p o f P uritans w ho believed
and kept th e seventh-day Sabbath (Saturday). T h is g ro u p , as we have already
noted, re p resen te d a m inority am ong the Puritans. N evertheless, they held firmly
to th eir position th at the D ecalogue was still obligatory for all m en, an d th at the
d ifferen ce betw een th e O ld and New C ovenants did not effect any change in the
original day o f rest.
O ne o f the earliest P uritan advocates o f the S aturday Sabbath was J o h n T rask
(c. 1583-c. 1636). W hen he applied for o rd e rs in the C h u rch o f E ngland, he was
refused because o f his advanced evangelical views. T ra sk left the established
church and began p reach in g as a P uritan m inister. A long with H am let Jackson, he
studied the Bible an d becam e convinced th at the fo u rth com m andm ent refers to
the tru e an d lasting Sabbath o f God. T ra sk was successful in attractin g a small
g ro u p o f followers who accepted the S aturday Sabbath. Because o f im prisonm ent
bro u g h t about as a result o f his acceptance and preaching o f the S abbath, T rask
for a sh o rt perio d forsook his S abbathkeeping practices. B ut so firmly g ro u n d e d
were his ch u rch m em bers th at his d e p a rtu re did not affect th eir belief in the
Sabbath.
A radical an sw er to the divisiveness within the P uritan cam p cam e from
T h eo p h ilu s B rab o u rn e, who has been called an able ex p o n en t o f Sabbath tru th .
W hen in 1628 the P uritans w ere being forced away from the established church
th ro u g h th e influence o f William L aud, there ap p eared in p rin t a definitive
defense o f the seventh-day Sabbath (Saturday) by B rab o u rn e. T his was the
beginning o f alm ost a lifew o rk o f study an d w riting on the Sabbath. In the space o f
thirty years, he p ro d u ced fo u r volum es d e fen d in g the Sabbath o f the fo u rth
co m m andm ent. His second volum e, which was dedicated to C harles I, was entitled
A Defence of that most Ancient, and Sacred Ordinance of Gods, the Sabbath Day.
In his Church History of Britain, T h o m as Fuller assigns the beginning o f the
revival o f the S abbatarian controversy to 1632 and represents B rab o u rn e as
having so u n d ed th e first tru m p et to this fight. Jam es Gilfillan declares that this
publication blew a blast in the ea r o f royalty itself, which com pelled a tten tio n , and
provoked im m ediate as well as lasting hostilities." w A fter establishing that the
fo u rth co m m an d m en t is simply an d entirely m oral, containing n o thing legally
cerem onial in w hole o r in part, B rab o u rn e d efen d s the position that S aturday, the
seventh day o f th e week, m ust be an everlasting holy day in the C hristian church,
and that C hristians are obliged to observe it. " I am tied in conscience," he delcares,
"ra th e r to d e p a rt with my life th an with ibis tru th ; so captivated is my conscience
and en th ra lle d to th e law o f my G o d .""

237
 I IIK S A B B A T H IN S C R I P T U R E AND HIS I ORY

Shorily a fte r this expression o f confidence in his view of the Sabbalh,

B rab o u rn e was b ro u g h t before the C o u rt o f H igh C om m ission, an d th e re w.i*
asked to recant. A ccording to B ishop Francis W hite, who w rote against B raboui lie
at the co m m and o f L aud, "th e re was yielded u n to him a d elib erate patient and lull
hearing, to g eth er with a satisfactory answ er to all his m ain objections ."11 A lthou^lt
it ap p ears th at at that tim e B rab o u rn e personally re tu rn e d to the orthodox
A nglican position (though all o f his followers did not accom pany him in th is),o n r
thing stands o u t clearly: W hatever may have h ap p en ed at the h ea rin g before t.hr
court, B rab o u rn e believed an d p reach ed th at if the Sabbath is indeed m o r a l.....I
perpetually b inding, the seventh day o u g h t to be sacredly kept. From his lu it
publication in 1628 to the a p p e ara n ce o f his last volum e d u rin g the negotiation
for the resto ration o f C harles 11(1660), B rab o u rn e was always, at least in heal i .
firm and consistent cham pion o f the S aturday Sabbath. His last book attested i<>
this fact by th e very title th at it bore: O f the Sabbath day, which is now the highe\t
controversy in the Church of England, for o f this controversy dependeth the gaining or losing
one o f Gods Ten Commandments, by the name o f the Fourth Command fo r the Sabbath <la\
A n o th er o u tstan d in g spokesm an for the seventh-day Sabbath was Thotn.i*
B am pfield. He cites New T estam e n t passages such as M atthew 5:17 an d M aik | J
28-30 to prove that these passages shed light on the tru th o f th eO ld T estam en t teat li
in g ab o u t the fo u rth com m andm ent. T h ese texts provided th e herm eneutical pi hi
ciples th at enabled him and his colleagues to in te rp re t the vaguely w orded set
lions re fe rrin g to the first day o f the week. Bam pfield also cites Acts 20:7, and ,u
gues th at ra th e r than proving the sanctity o f Sunday, it clarifies the fact that Paul
started p reach ing on S aturday evening and continued into the early part of'Stiud.iv
In dealing with such passages as Colossians 2:14 and Ephesians 2:15, 16, It*
en d eav o red to show that these re fe r not to the Sabbath o f the Decalogue, but to
cerem onial Levitical Sabbaths. For Revelation 1:9, 10, th ree alternative in te rp n
tations w ere provided. H e re L ord's day" could re fer e ith e r to an annual day
observed by th e early ch u rch in com m em oration o f C h rists birth, or to an annti.il
rem em b ran ce o f His resu rrectio n , o r to an eschatological day o f religion
observance. If the last w ere tru e , th ere w ere two alternatives: e ith e r Sunday, being
s u p p o rte d by tradition, o r S aturday, being su p p o rted by S crip tu re.
B am pfield cast d o u b t u p o n the com m on assum ption that tradition is veritably
u n an im o u s in favoring S unday observance. T o su p p o rt his reservations and to
show th at S atu rday was observed by m any d u rin g the early C hristian centuries, hr
quotes from such authorities as A m brose, Chrysostom , Ischius (Presbytei ol
Jeru salem ), an d Lucius Ecclesiastical History
T h e critical and decisive point in B am pfields arg u m e n t, an d the one dial
created fu rth e r alienation betw een the two parties, is found in his draw ing
atten tio n to th e fact that the belief in the Sabbath should be based on two I>.im<
P uritan doctrines: first, th at C hristians should obey the will o f C hrist; and second,
th at th e will o f C hrist is revealed in the Bible. T h e re fo re , the conclusion reg ard mg
the p ro p e r day for the Sabbath m ust be decided on the basis of the Bible only, ,in<l
not on tradition.**
T h e logic in this arg u m e n t caused m ainstream believers som e difficulties, loi
they relied mainly, although no t exclusively, on tradition fo r any concrete proof,
and th eir theological a rg u m e n ts w ere mostly secondary nnpli<ations taken Iroin
th eir basic beliefs .45

238
 I III SABBA'I II IN PURI I ANISM

As o n e m ight have already g ath ered , the Sunday advocates, by sheer

m ajority, won th e su p p o rt lo r the S unday Sabbath. T h e m inority who d efen d ed
the S aturday S abbath were b ra n d ed as radicals and reactionaries, an d many
.inum g them w ere treated as heretics, even though som e o f th eir accusers
confessed that "the words o f the law . . . seem to favour th eir o p in io n ." ,6
In this b rie f survey we have been able to take only a quick glance at a few o f the
m ore o u tstan d in g p ro p o n en ts o f the seventh-day Sabbath in P uritan England.
Recent research by B ryan W. Ball has uncovered the fact that observers and
advocates o f S atu rd ay as the weekly day fo r C hristian rest an d w orship were m uch
m ore n u m ero u s and w idespread in seventeenth-century E ngland than has
com m only been assu m ed ." A nd thus it may be said that although these S aturday
Sabbathkeepers w ere a m inority, they were nonetheless a significant m inority.
T he Sunday Sabbath in the New World
We m ust now proceed to a consideration o f the developm ents reg ard in g the
Sabbath, an d the su rro u n d in g controversies, in the New W orld. T h e religious and
political situation in E ngland in the seventeenth century forced m any P uritans
away from the established ch u rch a n d their hom eland. Many o f them first sought
.1 new hom e in th e N eth erlands, but they soon found it difficult th ere to advocate
their views with th e freedom they w ere seeking an d for which they had left
Kngland. At th e sam e tim e they becam e fearful o f the a p p a re n t laxity in Sabbath
(Sunday) observance that was creeping into th eir ranks. D eterm ined to seek a
hom e in the New W orld, a g ro u p reached A m erica in 1620 and settled at New
Plymouth. In 1629 an o th e r large g ro u p o f these "persecuted saints cam e to
Am erica to jo in those who w ere now settled at New Plym outh. W ith these
m igrations cam e th e beginnings o f New England and the planting o f P uritanism
.iiul the Sabbath (Sunday) in Am erica. T h u s, recalling the place o f the P uritan in
the establishm ent an d developm ent o f this R epublic rem inds us that the keeping
o f th e Sabbath Day holy is one o f its m ighty co rn er stones. **
O n e o f the d eep est concerns o f th e Pilgrim Fathers and the P uritan dissenters
who followed them afte r 1620 was th at a strict S undaykecping w ould becom e a
vital p art o f th eir New W orld experience. T h u s, according to H erb ert R ichardson,
"It is o ne o f th e peculiarities o f C hristian history that the A m erican P uritans
attem pted to reestablish an institution which the C hurch, in its continuing
opposition to Ju d aism , had rejected."* For them , the sanctification o f the L o rd s
day an d its p ro p e r observance w ere not negotiables. With an attractive eagerness
of interest they looked to the tim e w hen S unday Sabbatarianism would flourish in
its new en v iro n m en t. In d eed , in o n e o f the earliest accounts by the D utch colonists
in New York, th e re are several notices re g ard in g the stringent regulations
em ployed by these P uritans to g u ard the infant com m unity against the
dem oralizing tendencies o f Sabbath [Sunday] p ro fa n a tio n s."
W h erever th e S abbatarian P uritans established them selves in the New W orld,
i heir observance o f S unday was indubitable. But despite th eir great effort, th ere
arose th e unsettled state o f affairs am ong some o f the early settlers who were
o pposing th e strictness an d regularity o f this observance. "T hese w ere libertines,
Familists, A ntinom ians, and enthusiasts, who had b rought these wicked opinions
out o f O ld E ngland with them , w here they grew u n d e r prelacy."*'
From the 1630s, we find several P uritan m inisters in co rresp o n d en ce with

239
 I 111' S AII BA I I I IN SCRIP I 11RI AND IMS I ORY

one a n o th e r over the questions of th e day and the m an n er of keeping Sunday

O n e o f the leading d efen d ers of th e S unday position in A m erica was Ih o in .i'
S h ep ard , who arrived in 1635, afte r suffering u n d e r A rchbishop L aud. In Ins
Theses Sabbatica, he presen ted his views on the m orality, the ch ange, th e beginning,
and th e sanctification o f the S unday Sabbath. His activities b rought him in
H arv ard College in 1649, w here he preached a series o f serm ons on th e subjet I
By a consensus in 1648, the circuit o f churches in the New England a n .t
accepted the W estm inster C onfession o f Faith as th eir modus operandi and h i
harm ony with its principles co n tin u ed to m aintain its Sabbath leaching. I Ini*
J o h n Eliot, th e apostle to the Indians, tau g h t his converts that they m utt
"rem em b er th e Sabbath day [m eaning Sunday] to keep it holy as long as th\
lived.
Sunday Sabbatarianism and the Seventh-Day Sabbath in the New World
In the C olonies th ere was S unday legislation against the desecration of tin
Lord's day, a n d the penalties for the violations o f S unday laws w ere q u ite often
heavy a n d severe. For exam ple, M assachusetts in 1629 decreed that all laboi
should cease at th ree o clock on S aturday so that p re p ara tio n for the Lord's-day
observance would be duly c arried out. In 1650, C onnecticut passed a code ol law
relative to S unday observance an d the prohibitions o f certain activities that weit
considered to be out o f harm o n y with gen u in e S abbatarianism , and in IliMi
instituted th e d eath penalty fo r certain violations. In 1658, the Plym outh
legislators ru led against the ca rry in g o f any load on Sunday an d attached a penalty
o f tw enty shillings fo r such violation. In 1665, they declared th at those w ho slept in
ch u rch should be adm onished, a n d if they persisted should be punished by being
placed in stocks.
But as in E ngland, so also in the New W orld the P uritan cam p was divided not
so m uch on th e question o f th e m an n er o f sanctification an d observance of the
Sabbath as on the question o f w h eth er it should be kept on S unday o r on S aturday
W h eth er o r not the stringency o f S unday legislation forced the m ajority of the
A m erican P u ritans to accept an d h o n o r S unday as the Sabbath is a m atter ol
dispute. It is clear, how ever, that those who d efen d ed S atu rd ay rep resen ted a
m inority view point a n d w ere q u ite o ften considered as radicals an d heretics. Ihey
nevertheless held firmly to th e belief th at th eir course o f action was based on the
W ord o f G od and was the logical outcom e o f its teaching. T h e re fo re , for them to
agree th at th e Sabbath was m oral an d etern al but that it was changed from the
seventh day to the first was to constitute a willful disobedience to G o d s law.
H istorically, the Seventh Day Baptists a p p e a r to have been the first g ro u p ol
English P u ritans w ho m aintained the S aturday Sabbath position in Am erica
Som e o f th em had com e to A m erica on the Mayflower. In d e ed , for m ore than a
cen tu ry an d a half, both in E ngland an d in the C olonies, Baptists played an
im p o rtan t role in the developm ent o f A m erican C hristianity an d the teaching ol
the Sabbath. Inasm uch as th e ir story will be given in the next c h a p te r (pp. 244
263), only a b rief outline will be p resen ted here.
In 1664, S tep h en M um ford arrived in N ew port, R hode Island, from
E ngland an d b ro u g h t with him th e opinion that tin- Fen C o m m an d m en ts as they
w ere delivered from M ount Sinai w ere m oral an d im m utable, and tli.it it was an
anti-C hristian |owcr whit I t h an g ed the S abbath Ironi th e seventh to th e first day

210
 I III S AB BA I II IN P UR I TA NI S M

o f th e week." M u m fo rd soon found response to the propagation o f his Sabbath

views am ong th e B aptist congregation at N ew port. Many m em bers o f this church
accepted his teaching, an d this led to som e d eg ree o f divisiveness. Finally th ere
was a split in th e co n g regation, as followers o f M um ford separated them selves in
1671 to establish th e first Seventh Day Baptist C h u rch in A m erica .54
For m any years afte r its organization, this Seventh Day Baptist C h u rch at
N ew port was th e ce n te r for nearly all those who kept the Sabbath in R hode Island
and C onnecticut; an d the ch u rch grew both by the com ing o f Seventh Day Baptists
from E ngland a n d by conversions to the Sabbath in the R hode Island colony .55
Am ong its m em bers were several p ro m in en t public figures, o n e o f whom was
Richard W ard, g o v ern o r o f R hode Island.
T h e Seventh Day Baptists becam e the m ain early cham pions o f the S aturday
Sabbath in the New W orld. T h e second branch o f that church W'as also planted by
em igration from E ngland. In 1684, Abel Noble, a Seventh Day Baptist m inister
from L ondon, settled in Philadelphia, becom ing the chief advocate o f seventh-day
Sabbatarianism in Pennsylvania .56
S um m ary
T h e attitu d e o f the A m erican P uritans tow ard the Sabbath is instructive for
the present day, fo r it pinpoints clearly the grave d an g ers in h e re n t in civil
au th o rity s attem p tin g to legislate laws fo r the protection and p ro p e r observance
of Sunday. The h arsh n ess an d severity with which the P uritans sought to enforce
Sunday observance w ere rem iniscent o f the religious intolerance that they
them selves had su ffe red u n d e r L audian prelacy. Life was uncom fortable not only
for those who did not believe in any Sabbath but also for those who, because o f
"ten d er conscience, felt obliged to keep S aturday as the tru e Sabbath. T h e
controversy an d th e sharpness with which the P uritans battled fo r the sanctity o f
Sunday has a special value even beyond th eir dm e, since it gives to us a
spontaneous and unconscious revelation o f the P uritan m ind as it wrestles with its
problem s practical a n d theoretical, in an effo rt not m erely to justify a policy an d
battle dow n o p position, bu t to arrive at tru th a n d agreem ent. T o the P uritan
m ind, th ere was a direct relationship betw een p ro p e r Sabbath observance an d civil
obedience. T h e sanctification o f the S unday, they arg u ed , acted as a corrective
against th e w orldliness o f the masses while at the sam e time p ro d u cin g an able
m inistry that en co u rag ed families to bring u p th eir children in a C hristian way. A
m ultitude o f gross sins would be p revented and the discipline th at Sunday
observance req u ired would help to p ro d u ce not only good C hristians but also
exem plary citizens.
In sum m arizing o u r discussion, one central point m ust be noted re g ard in g
the P uritans' a ttitu d e tow ard an u n d ersta n d in g o f the Sabbath. Both in England
and the early A m erican colonies, the essential claim m ade by the P uritans was that
ihey kept the Sabbath not to earn salvation but to honor and please God and
experience th e blessings that a covenant relationship with Him gave. We have
tried to show th at for them their basic beliefs found th eir focus in their
u n d ersta n d in g o f th e covenant, law, the authority o f the W ord o f G od, and
[ersonal piety. All ol these according to the P uritans held a direct relationship to
the Sabbath
We may not .i^ i with .ill Iheir teachings and prat Iices about the Sabbath (we

IMNAII In 241
 T H E S A B B A T H IN S C RI P TU R E AND I I I S H> K\

have seen that they did not agree am ong them selves on these m atters), hut tin n
sincerity o f p u rp o se an d th e ir determ in atio n to m ake relevant the com m and <>l
G od to keep the Sabbath should be taken with great seriousness. It was to them .t
m atter o f su p re m e practical im portance, and not a subject for m ere philosophy il
o r theological debate.
N O TES
1 A. H. A Critical History of the Sabbath and ihe Sunday m the Christian Church, 2d cd.(V\A\i\\xe\d. N | . I'MHi
p. 273
2 Jo h n Strype. .Annals oj the Reformation (O xford. 1824), 2:666
5 Ibid . p. 296. Il should be noted that Parliament was driven to pass this law because of a disaster lhai ih h iii*
on a Sunday in 1583 in which many were killed This was interpretea as an act of God against ihc willlul d%i ation
of His day o f rest.
4 Bownd and two to three hundred other ministers were suspended by the Anglican Church. ihiough
instigation of the queen and some em inent bishops, for their views on the Sabbath T heir license to prea Iiw jiiI>
a wav and they were prohibited from conducting religious services in any other congre|fation In addition in hit
Sabbatarian teaching, he also refused to subscribe to Archbishop Whitgift's three articles. These w eir I I hul I hr
Q ueen was suprem e head of the C hurch; 2. That the O rdinal and the Book of Com mon Prayer contained noilnng
contrary to ihe W ord of God; and. 3 T hat the Thirty-N ine Articles of the Church of England were to lie admm* *l
agreeable to the Holy Scriptures.* lame Gilfilian, The Sabbath Viewed in the Light of Reason. Revelation, ami //.* ,
(New York [1862]). p. 66.
5 N ich o la s B o w n d . The Doctrine of the Sabbath, plaineh lined forth, and soundly prox+d (L o n d o n . I V'*| |*|* ' *
6 Ibtd., pp. 2, 3.
I Ihom as Fuller. The Church History of Britain (London. 1868). 3 158-160. Some o f the more I r jin r d in wit.
endorsed Bownd's position were Babmgion. Perkins, and Dod. These writers maintained their views on ihr S^Mmilt
which before the publication of Bownd s T reatise they had published, and which in their essentials w rrr in Imhmi.h,
with his. See Gervase Babington. Works (1596); William Perkins, A (olden Chain ( 1597); and John Dod. An t /.../..m
the Ten Commandments (16(H).
# This is language used in Fuller's description, summarized above. Sec note 7.
9 Douglas Campbell. The Huntan rn Holland, England, and America, 4th ed. (New York. 1892). 2 IV*
10 Maurice Ashley. The Seventeenth Century (I.ondon, 1958). p. 25.
II In 1603 and even as late as 1625. we still find clear evidence of the perform ance of plays ami iMtifi piM .
entertainm ent on Sundays
,f Peter Heylyn records thai on the seventh of May. 1603. lames so far yielded to the Puritan* a* io ...........
proclamation; not that the king's purpose was to debar himself ol lawful Pleasures on that day; but to proliilm i.
disordered and unlawful Pastimes, whereby the Common people were withdrawn from the Congregation It
lleylyn. The History of the Sabbath. 2d ed. (London. 1636). p 257, Heritage Room, Jam es White lib ra ry , And*
University, B ernen Springs. Mich
15 Perhaps it is not too well known that the Bishop of Durham . Thomas Morton, had a consider able h i.........In
drafting and eventual execution of this docum ent According to John Barwick. M orion's biographri, lln
consulted with the bishop over the profanity and licentiousness that were done on the Sabbath lln l.t.l .,
thereupon, retiring from the court at H aughton Tower to his own lodging at Preston, considered o f six Hunt......... mi
restrictions, by way of conditions, to be imposed upon e v e n man that should enjoy the benefit of that lllieilj * In
he presented io the King in writing the next day. and which the King did very well approve of, and added a u m mil
saying only, he would alter them from the words o f a bishop to ihe words o f a King.' See John Batwi k. / if* >/
Morton, p 80, quoted in Gilfilian. op at., p. 84
14 A H. Lewis. Spiritual Sabbathism (Plainfield. N.J.. 1910). p. 171.
15 Heylyn. op. at., p . 261.
** R H. Tawney. Religion and the Rise of Capitalism (New York. 1926). pp. 145. 146.
17 G ordon H arland. "American Protestantism Its Genius and Its Problem. The Drew Cateway 34 (W mlrt |*nt
73. 74.
** Richard Baxter. A Holy Commonuealth (1 nnd o n . 1659). p. 320. rare book collection. University ol I n t.....
A rch ives.
19 Jo h n Owen. Exeratations Concerning the Same. Original Sature. Use and Continuance of a Dm 4 ft#
(London. 1671), p 221. H eritage Room, James W'hite Library. Andrew's University
20 Theophilus Brabourne. A Defence of that most Ancient, and Sacred Ordinance of Cods, the Sabbath Day ( IftV/) p|i
** Richard Baxter. L ifeoftailhi London. 1649). p. 388; T hom as Shepard. Theses Sabbatuae (l.ond h i . I tkMh p "
rare book collection. University of T oronto Archives.
n Shepard, op a t . p 87
n lames D. Packer agrees with this point of view and claims that it was most noticeable in Baster's leailimn
the redem ption and restoration of man See lames D Packer. T h e Redemption and Restoration ol Mn In
Thought of Richard Baxter" (D Phil thesis. O xford University, 1954), op 332. 333 Used by itn in iu to n
** Heylyn, op cit., pp. 239-241
** A hva Joh n C la ren ce B o n d . Sabbath History I Before ihe B eginning t*f Ifinletn D enom ination\ (1l.nnln 1*1 N |
1922). p. 42
_ Irw u , Sabbath a n d Sunday, p 257
21 Bond, op a t . p 43
w Bownd. */ a t . |p 1, 9
Irw ii, Vfinhnth a ml Sunday, p 1*71
 Mi l SAMIA'I II IN PURI I AN ISM

30 Ibid.. p. 277.
31 Ibid . p. 278
52 Ibid., p. 279
M li is believed that Bownd and several others advocated the change from Saturday to Sunday because of their
prejudices against what thev called Judaism .
34 Bownd, op. a t., pp. 35, 36.
^ Richard Baxter, T he D ivine A ppointm ent o f the Lords Day Proved: ai n Separated Day fo r H oly W orship ; Especially in
the Church Assemblies. A n d consequently the cessation o f the seventh day sabbath (London, 1671), Richard B arnard. A
Threefold Treatise o f the Sabbath (London, 1641), rare oook collection. University of Toronto Archives; Jo h n Wallis, A
Defense o f the C hristian Sabbath: In A nsw er to a Treatise o f M r. Thomas Bam pheld, Pleading fo r Saturday-Sabbath 2d ed.
(Oxford; 1693).
56 J. Lee Gamble and Charles H. Greene, "The Sabbath in the British Isles," in Seventh Day Baptists in E urope a n d
America (Plainfield. N.J.. 1910), 1:107-109.
57 Tlieophilus Brabourne. A Discourse upon the Sabbath Day (London. 1628).
58 Fuller, op. a t., p. 419.
59 Gilfillan, op. a t., p. 125.
40 Brabourne, A D efence o f that most Ancient, a n d Sacred O rdinance o f Gods, the Sabbath Day, p. (ij.
41 Francis W h ite, A Treatise o f the Sabbath-Day C o n ta m m g a Defence o f the O rthudoxall D octrine of the Church o j E n g la n d
Against S abbatarian-Soveliy (L o n d o n . 1636). p. fx x iv ], H e rita g e R oom . J a m es W hite Library, A n d re w s U n iv ersity ,
B errien S p rin gs. M ich igan .
42 Thomas Bampheld. p. 29.
43 Ibid., p. 85.
44 Ibid., p. 2.
45 Lawrence Allen T u rn e r, "T he Puritan Sabbath," pp. 75, 14, personal filers of author. Used by permission.
46 George Walker. The D octrine o f the H oly Weekly Sabbath (London: 1651), rare book collection, T hom as Fisher
Library, University of Toronto.
47 B W. Ball. The E nglish Connection (Cambridge, 1981), pp. 138-158.
48 J.C . Broomfield. "T he Day T hrough the Ages," in The Day o f W orship, ed. by W. W. Davis (New York 1932), p.
140.
49 Herbert W. Richardson. Tow ard an Am erican Theology (New York. 1967). pp. 112. 113.
50 Gilfillan. op. a t., p. 150.
51 Ibid
52 John Eliot source.
S3 Lewis, Sp iritu a l Sabbathism , pp. 177, 178; T he First Code o f Laws, 1650, and T he New Haven Code, 1655, in
The T rue-B lue Laws o f Connecticut ana S ew H aven, ed. by I. Ham m ond T rum bull (H artford, Conn., 1876); Records o f the
Colony a t S e w Plym outh in S e w E n g la n d Laws: 1623-1682, ed. by David Pulsifer (Boston, 1861).
^ Lewis, Sabbath and Sunday, p. 364.
w L. A. Platts, "Seventh-dav Baptists in America Previous to 1802," in Seventh Day Baptists in E u ro p e a n d America
(Plainfield. N.J.: 1910), 1:126.
56 A rthur E. Main. "T he Seventh-day Baptist General Conference. 1802 to 1902." in Seventh Day Baptists tn
Europe a n d Am erica (Plainfield. N.J.. 1910), 1:149. 150.
 CHAPTER 13

The Sabbath in the New World

Raym ond F . C o ttre ll

IR ST to observe the seventh-day S abbath in the New W orld w ere Jew s who
F had been com pelled by the Inquisition in the Old W orld to convert to
C hristianity. T h ese New C hristians, who w ere still Jew s at h e a rt and who
co n tin u ed to practice ih eir own religion in secret, sailed with C olum bus an d o th er
ex p lo rers on th eir voyages o f discovery to the New W orld m o re th an a century
before th e first C hristian Sabbath keepers arrived. In 1502 o n e g ro u p ol
C rypto-Jew s, fugitives from th e Inquisition in Portugal, applied fo r a com m ission
to m igrate to Brazil a n d becam e th e first Jew ish settlers in the W estern
H em isphere. In 1521 others accom panied C ortes on his conquest o f M exico, and
it is said th at by 1550 th ere w ere m o re Spanish C rypto-Jew s in M exico City than
Spanish C atholics. Jew ish im m igrants e n te re d A rgentina soon a fte r 1580.1 T h e
first Jew ish co n g regation in the New W orld, Mikveh Israel, was fo rm ed in
C urasao, N e th e rlan d Antilles, in 1651.2 In Mexico, Brazil, an d elsew here in Latin
A m erica, C rypto-Jew s who had rev erted to Judaism o r who w ere u n d e r suspicion
o f practicing th eir own religion in secret were b u rn e d at the stak e .3
W hen th e P ortuguese took Brazil from the Dutch, in 1654, tw enty-three
Jewish refu g ees fled the country an d found refuge in New A m sterdam (latei
ren am ed New York), w here they established the first congregation in N orth
Am erica, S h erith Israel .1 Erelong synagogue com m unities w ere fo u n d e d in such
cities as N ew port, R hode Island; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; C harleston, South
C arolina; an d Savannah, G eorgia. At th e tim e o f the A m erican R evolution about
2,500 Jew s resid ed in the th irteen Colonies. By 1850 seventy-seven congregations
had b een fo rm ed in tw enty-one States." P erm an en t settlem ents w ere established
in H alifax ab o u t 1750 an d in F rench C anada in 1759.
T h e total Jew ish population o f the Am ericas in 1967 was approxim ately
6,952,000. Eighty-five percent o f these lived in the U nited States, h alf o f them in
New York City. In 1978 th ere w ere 6,115,000 A m erican Jew s .7
T h e re are th ree m ain bran ch es o f A m erican Judaism O rth o d o x . R eform ,
and C onservative. O rth o d o x Jews preserve th e theology and traditions of Old
W orld Jewry. A d h erin g sit i dy to the T o ra h an d l.m lilully obsrt ving the dietary
l.iws an d th e t i aditional holy days .tinI festivals, uu hiding ilir Sabbath, they are the
 I III SAItBA I 11 IN N i l NEW WORLD

fundam entalists ol |ti<laism. K eloim Judaism , Ill><-ial in belief an d practice,

recognizes only th e I or ah as norm ative, but is ready to ad a p t ii to m odern
requirem ents: lo r exam ple, sh o rter synagogue services and use o f th e vernacular
instead o f H ebrew in the ritual. R eform Jews no longer believe in a personal
Messiah b u t still look forw ard to a Messianic Age. In belief and practice
C onservative J udaism is midway betw een O rth o d o x and R eform Judaism .
Many m o d ern Jew s are practicing o r crypto-atheists o r -agnostics. For them
being a Jew is m o re a m atter o f race, cu ltu re, and ethics than religion. Many atten d
synagogue fo r th e m ajor religious festivals, and perhaps on Friday night or
Sunday m o rn in g ra th e r than the Sabbath. In som e synagogues such as T em p le
Beth Im m an u el in New York City, largest in the U nited States, S unday services
are m uch b etter atten d e d than those on the Sabbath. With approxim ately 3,000
congregations, O rth o d o x Judaism is the largest o f the three groups. C onservative
and R eform Ju d aism have about h a lf th at n u m b er, alm ost evenly divided betw een
th em .'
F irst C h ristia n S abbatarians in the New W orld
As n o ted in th e preceding c h a p te r (p. 240), C hristian observance o f the
seventh day o f th e week as the Sabbath cam e to the New W orld with the arrival irt
N ew port, R hode Island, o f S tephen M um ford, o f the Bell Lane Seventh Day
Baptist ch u rch o f L o ndon, in about 1664. F inding none o f his own faith, he united
with the N ew port B aptist church, a n d soon o th er m em bers o f th e congregation
jo in ed him in observing the Sabbath. C h u rch leaders preached against the
practice an d d en o u n c ed those who observed Saturday as "heretics and
schismatics." T w o families gave u p the Sabbath as the controversy waxed sh arp
and bitter, an d eventually those who persisted in its observance w ere sum m oned
before th e ch u rch in an o p en trial an d c h arg ed with teaching an d practicing e rro r.
C onvinced at last that they could no t keep the Sabbath if they rem ained m em bers
o f the B aptist C h u rch , seven w ithdrew an d , a few days later D ecem ber 23,
1671en tered into solem n covenant with o n e a n o th e r as the First Seventh Day
Baptist ch u rch o f N ew port. William Hiscox, one o f M um fords first converts, was
th eir first pastor.*
In 1684 a n o th e r English im m igrant, Abel Nobel, settled in Bucks C ounty,
Pennsylvania, twenty-five miles n o rth o f Philadelphia. C om ing in contact with a
Seventh Day B aptist from C onnecticut, he accepted the Sabbath an d p ersu ad ed a
nu m b er o f his n eighbors to join him in observing it. In 1702 E d m u n d D unham , a
deacon an d licensed Baptist p re ach e r o f Piscataway, New Jersey, discovered the
Sabbath an d was influential in leading several o th ers to acknow ledge its claims. In
1705 this g ro u p established the First Seventh Day Baptist ch u rch o f Piscataway,
with seventeen m em bers.
About th e sam e tim e still o th er Seventh Day B aptist com m unities grew u p in
the vicinity o f P hiladelphia. Pennsylvania. In 1708 a S abbathkeeping g ro u p
m igrated from N ew port to W esterly (later H opkinton), on the m ainland, and
form ed a new co n g regation there. T h e first Seventh Day Baptist congregation in
New York S tate was organized in R enselaer C ounty, in 1780, by folk from Rhode
Island, an d th e first in C onnecticut in 1784, at New London. It was from these
early cen ters in R hode Island, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey that the Sabbath
followed die tide of A m erican m igration westward."'

245
 I H E S A B B A T H IN S C R I P T U R E AND HI STORY

As in E ngland, Seventh Day Baptists in the New W orld suffered the

displeasure o f m ost o th er C hristians because o f the seventh-day Sabbath, an d
were subjected to fines and im prisonm ent fo r th eir faith." T h is was tru e to some
ex ten t even in R hode Island, w here freed om o f belief presum ably prevailed.'*
D uring th e R evolutionary W ar, on the o th e r hand, loyalty to the Sabbath
protected th e sanctuary o f th e m o th e r congregation in N ew port when British
troops w ere being billeted in ch u rch buildings. U pon e n te rin g the N ew port
Seventh Day B aptist church with this objective in m ind, the British com m ander
noticed th e T e n C om m andm ents on the wall o f the sanctuary and o rd e re d his
m en to retire. H e would not desecrate a house in which the sacred laws o f God
were w ritten and h o n o red , he ex p lain e d .'5
T h e G eneral C o n feren ce o f S eventh Day B aptists
A yearly m eeting o f Seventh Day B aptist churches, convened first at N ew port
as early as 1696, was later tra n sfe rre d to W esterly. D elegates atten d in g the annual
m eeting o f S eptem ber 11, 18 0 1, at H opkinton (W esterly), R hode Island, re p o rted
seven congregations and a dozen settlem ents o f Sabbath keepers in fo u r States,
and a m em bership o f 1,031. T h is session ad o p ted the designation G eneral
C onference and issued an u rg en t invitation to all o f the "churches, branches am i
people o f th e sam e faith and o rd e r in the States o f A m erica" to m eet with them one
year later. T h e nam e Seventh Day Baptist was ad o p ted in 1818.H
T h e prim ary objective m otivating organization o f the G eneral C onference
was "the grow ing conviction am o n g the active m em bership o f the churches that
the tim e had com e w hen all Seventh-day [sic] Baptist churches should be united in
active and aggressive m issionary w ork," m eaning, specifically, propagation o f the
Sabbath m essage .15 It was not until th e sessions o f 1817 an d 1818, how ever, that
definite steps were taken to im plem ent concerted evangelism . A B oard o f
T ru stees an d D irectors o f Missions was ap pointed, and local congregations were
en co u rag ed to constitute them selves m issionary societies in o rd e r to witness m ore
effectively to the Sabbath, each in its own vicinity. By this tim e th ere were 2,173
m em bers in 14 ch u rch es .16In 1821 The Seventh-day Baptist Missionary Magazine v/na
launched, with the objective o f dissem inating inform ation about the Bible
Sabbath, an d in 1830 the Protestant Sentinel. In 1844 these w ere replaced by The
Sabbath Recorder, which has co n tin u ed publication to the present time. In 1824 the
G eneral C o n ference voted to publish a series o f tracts, and in 1828 established the
A m erican Seventh Day B aptist M issionary Society. T h e result o f these missionary
activities was an increase o f m em bership to 3,400 in 27 churches by the close o f the
d ec ad e.
In 1835 the Seventh Day B aptist G eneral T ract Society was organized, and
the following year a th ree-m an com m ittee was com m issioned to w rite and procure
m anuscripts for a series o f m issionary tracts on the Sabbath. In 1838 six o f these
tracts w ere issued, in an edition o f 2,000 each. In 1843 the nam e was ch an g ed to
G eneral Sabbath T ra c t Society, a n d in 1844 to A m erican S abbath T ra ct Society,
which has co ntinued to the present. In 1843 approval was given for a special
appeal to Baptists, u rg in g them to accept the Sabbath. Tw enty th o u san d copies of
the appeal were p rin te d , and the little tract was later in co rp o rated into the
Sabbath tract series. By 1850 th e re w ere seventeen titles in the sei ies, an d six books
o n the subject had been p u b lish ed ."
 I I IK SAB 11A I II IN I UK NKW WORLD

F irst S abbatarian A dventists

T h e 1843 session o f the G eneral C onference o f Seventh Day Baptists
appointed N ovem ber 1 o f that year as a day o f fasting and p ra y er for the
proclam ation o f th e Sabbath tru th . A year later the 1844 session (S eptem ber 11 to
15) rejoiced in an u n p re ced e n te d , "d e e p e r a n d w ider-spread interest in the
Sabbath an d in th e accession o f converts to the Sabbath, including several
m inisters .-19 A m ong these converts were F rederick W heeler, a M ethodist
Adventist m inister whose circuit included the W ashington, New H am pshire,
C hristian ch u rch , a n d several m em bers o f his congregation. Tw o editorials in the
Millerite p a p e r The Midnight Cry (S eptem ber 5 an d 12, 1844) noted th at m any
persons have th e ir m inds deeply exercised respecting a supposed obligation to
observe th e seventh d ay, an d m entioned the Seventh Day B aptist agitation o f the
issue. We love th e seventh-day b re th re n and sisters," the ed ito r said, "but we
think they are trying to m end the old broken Jew ish yoke, an d p u ttin g it on their
necks ."20 N o thing was to be perm itted to distract attention from the anticipated
re tu rn o f C hrist in only a few weeks.
C o n d u ctin g th e com m union service one S unday m orning early in 1844,
Frederick W heeler, the M ethodist-A dventist m inister o f the W ashington, New
H am pshire, C hristian church, stressed the im portance o f obeying G ods
com m andm ents. P resent was a m iddle-aged wom an, Mrs. Rachel O akes, a
Seventh Day B aptist, who later m arried N athan Preston. In a subsequent
conversation with Pastor W heeler she witnessed to h er belief in the seventh day o f
the week as th e Bible Sabbath, with the result th at a few weeks later, in M arch, he
kept his first Sabbath an d preached a serm on on the subject. By early 1845 m any
o f his W ashington parishioners, including several m em bers o f the F arnsw orth
family, had begun keeping the Sabbath, a n d eventually Rachel Preston becam e an
A dventist .*1 F red erick W heeler was thus the first A dventist to observe the Sabbath,
and she th e first S ab b athkeeper to becom e an Adventist. T hese S abbathkeeping
Adventists in W ashington becam e the first S abbatarian A dventist congregation,
an d eventually p u rch ased the church building.
D uring th e years p rio r to 1844, m any Seventh Day Baptists had listened
approvingly to th e M illerite proclam ation o f an im m inent A dvent, and sought to
share with the A dventists th eir own conviction with respect to the Sabbath. O ne
such Seventh Day B aptist, w ho had listened to the A dvent Message in 1844 but did
not accept it until O ctober, 1851, was Roswell F. C ottrell, o f Mill G rove in w estern
New York. H e had always believed in the personal ap p earin g o f C h rist, which he
believed was n e a r, as he later w rote Jam es W hite, a fo u n d e r o f the Seventh-day
A dventist C h u rch . But being deeply com m itted to the seventh-day Sabbath,
C ottrell saw th e proclaim ers o f the A dvent in darkness in re g ard to the
com m andm ents o f G od, an d bowing to an institution o f Papacy." It was the
discovery o f a g ro u p o f S abbathkeeping A dventists, th ro u g h The Second Advent
Review and Sabbath Herald qarly in its first year o f publication (1850-1851), that led
him to un ite with the A dventists. M any o th e r Seventh Day Baptists, such as W. A.
Spicer, later followed his exam ple, often doubtless for the sam e re aso n .24
Seventh Day Baptists could not conscientiously unite with S undaykeepers,
and the M illerite leaders, on their part, resen ted any diversion o f atten tio n from
the Advent lo die Sabbath, which to them was an u n im p o rtan t side issue. T h u s
relatively few Seventh Day Baptists becam e M illerite Adventists, o r vice versa.

217
 T H E S A B B A T H IN S C R I P T U R E AND H I S T O R Y

E m ergence o f S abbatarian A dventism

A cceptance o f the seventh-day Sabbath in 1844-1845 by A dventists such as
F rederick W heeler an d m any o f his fellow parishioners in W ashington, New
H am pshire, proved to be a local p h en o m en o n . S abbathkeeping did not spread
thence to o th e r A dventist individuals o r groups, at least to any ex ten t sufficient to
become a m atter o f record. A cceptance o f the Sabbath by a significant n u m b e r of
the early Adventists, scattered an d w ithout com m unication w'ith one an o th er,
came gradually over the next fo u r o r five years. It was not until 1849 th at a small
but identifiable g ro u p o f S abbatarian Adventists began to em erge. T h e Sabbath
cause did not advance with us b u t little u p to 1849. At that tim e it began to rise, and
its progress has been steady an d firm till the p re sen t, Jam es W hite w rote in 1853."
T h e second M illerite A dventist m inister to ad o p t the seventh-day Sabbath
was T h o m as M. Preble, in the su m m er o f 1844. Publication o f his article on the
Sabbath in The Hope of Israel as A Tract Showing that the Seventh Day Should Hr
Observed as the Sabbath in M arch, 1845, was o f m ajor im portance in bringing the
Sabbath to A dventists generally. A few weeks later Jo se p h Bates read both the
article and th e tract, studied the m atter carefully him self, an d then visited
Frederick W heeler specifically to learn m ore about the Sabbath. It proved to be
largely th ro u g h Batess ded icated witness am ong his fellow Adventists that they
ad o p ted th e Sabbath. Asked What is the news?" by a friend the day following his
visit to the hom e o f F rederick W heeler, Bates replied, T h e news is that the
seventh day is the Sabbath o f th e L ord o u r G od. Bates devoted the re m a in d er of
his life to proclaim ing th at news. A year later, in A ugust, 1846, he published his
own tract, The Seventh-day Sabbath a Perpetual Sign." Also th at year he called the
Sabbath to th e attention o f H iram Edson, Jam es W hite, an d Ellen H arm o n (soon
to becom e Ellen W hite), thereby p re p a rin g the way fo r the crystallization of
S abbatarian A dventism .*
T his, Ellen H a rm o n s first en c o u n te r with the seventh-day Sabbath, took
place d u rin g th e course o f a visit to New B edford, M assachusetts, in the su m m er of
1846 for th e p u rp o se o f en co u rag in g A dvent believers in th at city. Bates u rg ed t In
Sabbath u p o n her, but she d id not at that time see its im portance, thinking that he
e rre d in dw elling u p o n the fo u rth co m m an d m en t m ore th an the others. A few
days later, o n A ugust 30, she a n d Jam es W hite w ere m arried , a n d soon th ereaftei
they stu d ied B atess pam phlet together, and in the au tu m n began to observe the
S abbath.
In a vision late the following w inter, a few m onths" after th eir m arriage, slu-
saw Jesu s raise the cover o f the ark in th e sanctuary in heaven, an d within the at k
she saw the tables o f stone inscribed with the T en C om m andm ents. She w.is
su rp rised to see a soft halo o f light encircling" the fo u rth com m and, an d was
show n th at if the tru e Sabbath had been kept, there would never have been .in
infidel o r an atheist." In response to the proclam ation o f the m essage o f the third
angel o f Revelation 14, m any would em brace the Sabbath o f the L ord." T his
vision, em p h asizing the perp etu ity o f the law o f God, including the Sabbath,
confirm ed h e r an d h e r husband in its observance.5" The prediction that "m any
would em brace th e S abbath was soon to becom e a reality.
* |(Mri)h Bates* |mi 1 in the eailieti lm niiilaltnn <>| Adventism'* (IlM liu livr S.iliit.nli ilim li^ v wan r\|w i i.tllv
mi In 11.it ti I l n u r . Ins spe i.il i mu ihutiom , plm an overview I la in iirm U , j i r givrn lu n tiri .iiirniion in a|>|irit
itix C.
 I III S AB BA T H IN T H U NEW WOR1.I)

T h e Sabbath C o n feren ce s
In response to invitations, Jam es an d Ellen W hite atten d ed six (or seven,
according to som e reckonings) im p o rtan t general m eetings in C onnecticut, New
York, Maine, an d M assachusetts betw een A pril 20 and N ovem ber 18-19, 1848.
Participants spoke o f them as general m eetings" in view o f the fact that A dvent
In-lievers and in terested friends in the general vicinity o f each m eeting were
invited to atten d . They w ere also re fe rre d to as "conferences" (later "Sabbath
conferences"), but they w ere not conferences in the usual sense o f the term . T h e ir
purpose was to in stru ct those who atten d e d on m ajor points o f d o ctrin e already
determ in ed , not to co n fer in o rd e r to d eterm in e doctrine. T hose in atten d an ce
were not all fully in the tru th '; hardly two ag re e d ; "som e w ere holding
serious erro rs, a n d each strenuously urg ed his own views"; o th ers "loved the
tru th , but w ere listening to an d cherishing e r r o r ." 51
Jam es and Ellen W hite an d Jo sep h Bates w ere the principal speakers, their
main subjects being the Sabbath, th e th ird angels message (Rev. 14:9-12) in
relation to th e S abbath, an d last-day events in prophecy. T his was the "present
tru th " in which these m eetings established the scattered A dvent believers. " T ru th
gained the victory," Ellen W hite wrote. " O u r b re th re n renounced th eir e rro rs and
united u p o n the th ird angel's m essage, an d G od greatly blessed them and ad d ed
to th eir n u m b e rs ." It was in the setting o f the th ird angels m essage that the
Sabbath becam e relevant to m any Adventists and began to take hold o f them as a
group.
At each o f th e m eetings differences o f opinion an d discord gave way to
harm ony, an d these scattered believers in New England and New York began to
feel a bond o f unity an d fellowship. S abbathkeeping Adventists, Jam es W hite
wrote in 1853, had com e from various denom inations "holding d iffe ren t views on
som e subjects; yet, th an k H eaven, the Sabbath is a m ighty platform on which we
can all stand u n ited . A nd while standing h ere . . . all party feelings are lost.
A rth u r S palding estim ates that th ere were at that time, all told, no m ore than one
h u n d re d o f these S abbathkeeping A dventists, who form ed the nucleus o f what
later becam e th e Seventh-day A dventist C h u rc h .
The Present Truth an d The Advent Review
In N ovem ber, 1848, Ellen W hite told h er husband that he should begin
publishing a sm all p a p e r to advance the cause o f present tru th . In response, Jam es
W hite b ro u g h t o u t th e first issue o f The Present Truth in July, 1849. H e later wrote
diat it had not been his intention to issue m ore than two or th ree n u m b ers, but
eventually th ere w ere eleven, the Iasi d ated N ovem ber, 1850.
Articles on th e Sabbath, filling nearly iwo th ird s o f the space in th e eleven
issues (865 o f 1408 colum n inches), traced the Sabbath back to C reation and
presen ted its im m utability. It had not been changed, could not be ch an g ed , and
was th ere fo re still binding. T h e first two issues dealt exclusively with the Sabbath;
later issues touched also on C hrist's m inistry in the heavenly sanctuary, th e third
angel's m essage, a n d th e shut door." The article on the sanctuary p re sen ted the
Sabbath o f the fo u rth com m andm ent in that setting, while that on the th ird angels
message p resen ted th e Sabbath as the great test that would signify G od's loyal
people p rio r to th e re tu rn o f Jesus, which was considered very im m in en t. T his
p a n ul.n .n in |r w.is addressed .specifically lo first-day Adventists. T w o years later

i in
 THE S A B BA T H IN S C R I P T U R E AND H IS T O R Y

Jam es W hite w rote that in the fulfillm ent o f the prophecy o f Rev. xiv, 6-14, in the
Second A dvent m ovem ent, the co m m an d m en ts o f G od' hold a place, as the last
great testing tru th , just before the Son o f m an lakes His place on the white cloud to
reap th e harvest o f the e a r th ."
In tro d u cin g the first n u m b er o f The Present Truth, Jam es W hile said that lo r
several m onths he had been "b u rd e n e d with the duty o f w riting, and publishing
the present truth for the scattered flock" o f A dvent believers. H e identified "the
keeping o f th e fo u rth co m m an d m en t" as all-important present truth." In the sam e
sentence he h astened to ad d th at "this alone, will not save an y o n e ." T h e title o f
the little jo u rn a l, to g eth er with the fact that it was devoted prim arily an d in its
first two issues exclusively to the seventh-day Sabbath, tacitly identifies the
Sabbath as u p p erm o st in the m inds o f Jam es and Ellen W hile as present tru th
for that time. T h e Sabbath was still "news," as Jo sep h Bates had described it three
years before.
T h e influence o f the Sabbath conferences and The Present Truth in uniting the
A dvent believers is also evident in letters from readers. Som e o f these letters were
from persons m inistering to th e "little flock scattered abroad." O th ers w ere from
som e who h ad accepted present tru th the Sabbath and the th ird angel's message.
T h e re w ere also ann o u n cem en ts o f fu rth e r "conferences," in 1849 an d 1850, in
various parts o f New England an d New York.
In a letter from N orth Paris. M aine, d ated O ctober 16, 1849, an d published in
The Present Truth in D ecem ber o f that year, J. N. A ndrew s w rote that "the
C o n feren ce recently held in this place, resulted in m uch good." "E rroneous" an d
painful" views had long separated the b re th re n " in that vicinity, bu t the
conference had u nited them in the great an d im portant tru th s o f G od." He
concludes: How im p o rtan t it is, beloved b re th re n , in this, o u r final struggle with
the d ra g o n , that we be fo u n d U N IT E D in 'the commandments o f God and the testimony
o f Jesus Christ."'
O n th e sam e page o f th at issue, a n o th e r co rresp o n d en t in V erm ont writes o f
being very m uch en co u rag ed in view o f what is being d o n e by the late
publications": he tells o f neighbors em bracing the Sabbath as a result o f reading
"your little p ap e r." A n o th er re a d e r re p o rted that "the p resen t state o f the cause
in this p art o f th e State is cheering. O u r last conference, held A pril 20 an d 21, was
o ne o f th e best I ever atten d ed . T h e b re th re n all seem ed to be very firm on the
tru th . A n o th er g ro u p in C am den, M aine, he says, "have lately em braced the
Sabbath." T h ey h ad been scattered a n d to rn " by various erro rs, but recent efforts
have p ro d u c ed a stro n g union" am ong th e m .40
I he S abbath d o ctrin e proved to be the catalyst needed to unite the scattered
A dvent believers an d to weld them to g eth er as a coherent, cohesive g ro u p . P rior
to 1848 Sabbath observance am ong them had been a m atter o f personal conviction
an d practice on the part o f a few individuals. By late 1849 it had becom e the
accepted n o rm am ong those A dventists who later ad opted the nam e Seventh-day
Adventist." In 1851 Ellen W hite wrote: G ods people are com ing into the unity of
the faith. Those who observe the Sabbath o f the Bible are united in th eir views o f
Bible tru th . But those who o p pose the Sabbath am ong the A dvent people are
d isu n ited an d strangely divided." In the final issue of The Present Truth she spoke
o f that as being the gath erin g tim e" in which God pui|HM*d to recovei die
rem n an t of 11 is people." Foi this reason they should he "united and zealous in the
 I III. SABBA'I II IN I HE NEW WORLD

work" o f sp read in g th e tru th . Also fo r this reason i t . . . [was] necessary that the
tru th should be published in a p aper, as [it had been] p re a c h e d ."44 This
"gathering" and unification was largely accom plished th ro u g h th e Sabbath
conferences o f 1848 to 1850 and publication o f The Present Truth.
T h e Sabbath was thus, in a very real sense, the unifying factor a ro u n d which
the Seventh-day A dventist C hurch cam e into being, and it is still a p o ten t force
that binds to g eth er the A dventist people a ro u n d the world, tran scen d in g all
barriers o f nationality, race, language, political ideology, and econom ic status. It
levels all b arriers an d m akes the m ost diverse people one in C hrist as has nothing
else in the history o f th e world.
C uriously, betw een N um bers 10 and 11 o f The Present Truth 44Jam es W hite
brought out th e five reg u lar issues and two extras o f an o th er periodical, The
Advent Review. T h e fact that he did not in corporate its articles into fu rth e r issues o f
The Present Truth points to the unique role he conceived for each jo u rn a l, one as a
harb in g er o f the Sabbath an d the o th e r o f the fact that these a rd e n t Sabbatarians
w ere still dedicated Adventists. T hey w ere now carrying forw ard the torch o f
prophetic tru th once held aloft by the en tire body o f A dventists p rio r to and
im m ediately following the great disappointm ent," he w rote. T h u s, publication
of The Advent Review at th isju n c tu re b ro u g h t these two m ajor facets o f S abbatarian
Adventist belief back into balance.
T h is was the p re lu d e to W hites publication o f volum e 1, N um ber 1, o f the
Second Advent Review and Sabbath Herald (now the Adventist Review), in N ovem ber,
1850, th e sam e m o n th in which the final num bers o f both The Present Truth and The
Advent /J m tw a p p e a re d . T h at m ust have been a busy m onth fo rja m e s W hite. T his
m erg er o f th e Sabbath an d the A dvent in one publication m ade seventh-day
A dventism a p erm a n en t entity on the religious scene. It fo u n d expression also,
eleven years later, in the choice o f the nam e "Seventh-day A dventist." Prior to
1861 those who ad o p ted the nam e identified them selves, and w ere spoken o f by
others, variously as the little flock, "Second A dvent Sabbath K eepers."
"Seventh-day A dvent people," and S abbath-keeping A dventists ."46
D eserving o f special m ention am ong the multiplicity o f A dventist publica
tions on the Sabbath was J. N. A ndrew s classic History of the Sabbath, first published
in 1861 and revised an d re p rin te d repeatedly for m ore than h alf a century (the
fo u rth edition was co au th o red by L. R. C onradi). T his volum e re p resen te d the
m ore m atu re d ev elopm ent o f his series o f articles in the Review in A pril an d May,
1853.4 In Ja n u a ry , 1854, Jam es W hile an n o u n c ed his intention to publish a series
o f twelve to fifteen Sabbath an d A dvent tracts o f 32 to 100 pages each. T h e first
fou r o f these w ere ready in A ugust .48
D e term in in g W hen to B egin the Sabbath
S abbathkeeping Adventists w ere ag reed on the binding force o f the Sabbath
com m and and the p ro p e r m ode o f Sabbath observance. Exam ining the S criptures
for them selves, they concluded that the Seventh Day Baptists were right on these
m atters and followed th eir exam ple in everything except the point o f when to
begin th e Sabbath. T h e latter observed the Sabbath from "even to even," which
they defined as from sunset to sunset.4* W ith the Seventh Day Baptists," w rote
|atn es W hite, "we ag ree on the institution, design, and perpetuity o f the
S ab b ath ."' But a m ajority ol Adventists, in accepting the Sabbath from the

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 I III-. S ABBAI II IN S< K11* I I ' KI AND H l X I O R N

Seventh Day Baptists, had evidently missed the definition of ev en as "sunset.

Thus it had been with Jo sep h Bates, th ro u g h whom the Sabhath cam e to most
Adventists an d who began th e Sabbath at six o clock Friday night. O th e r
Adventists w ere beginning it at sunset, an d still others at m idnight o r at sunrise
S aturday m o rn in g .
Obviously this diversity o f practice on so im p o rtan t a m atter could not
continue indefinitely w ithout affecting the unity o f the fledgling ch u rch , which,
mirabile dictu, the Sabbath had b ro u g h t about. Fearing such a division unless the
issue could be settled by good testim ony, in A ugust, 1855, Jam es W hite asked
J . N. A ndrew s to m ake a th o ro u g h investigation o f the m atter and p re p are an
article on th e subject for the Review. A ndrew s was already recognized as a careful
Bible scholar.4
A ndrew s review o f the evidence a p p e are d at length (72 colum n inches) in the
Review for D ecem b er4 , 1855. In the Review for Ju n e 2, 1 8 5 1 ,he had advocated a
six o'clock S abbath, but now, following a detailed exam ination o f the Biblical
evidence for sunset as m arking the beginning an d end o f each day, an d thus also of
the Sabbath, he concluded th at th e re is no Biblical evidence w hatever for six
o'clock as "even," in the expression from even u n to even, shall ye celebrate your
sabbath." C iting Putnam's H and Book o f Useful Arts that clocks and watches were
invented in 1658, he com m ented with typical New England logic th at if six o cloc k
were in d eed the p ro p e r tim e to begin the Sabbath, then fo r nearly the whole
space o f 6,000 years the people o f G od have been w ithout th e m eans o f telling
w hen th e Sabbath co m m en ced . Im peccable logic!
In an accom panying note A ndrew s announced that for him the result o f the
investigation is the firm conviction th at the com m encem ent an d close o f each day
[and th u s o f the Sabbath] is m arked by the setting o f the sun." T h e Seventh Day
Baptists have always held to this d o ctrin e , he explained, "but I have never
h ap p e n ed to m eet with th eir views. H ad I done so, 1 should not have rem ained in
e rro r on this subject." "Besides this, as I now learn, a considerable n u m b er o f o u r
b re th re n have long been convinced that the Sabbath com m ences at su n set."
L ater C ontacts W ith the Seventh Day B aptists
D uring the thirty-five years from 1844 to 1879 a m ore o r less friendly
relationship prevailed betw een Seventh-day Adventists and Seventh Day Baptists.
The first official contact betw een the two groups cam e with a letter from J. C
R o g ers, " c o r r e s p o n d in g s e c r e ta r y o f th e S ev en th Day B ap tist C e n tra l
Association," to ja m e s W hite as e d ito r o f the Review dated Ju ly 28, 1853. H e had
been com m issioned "to co rresp o n d with the Seventh-day A dvent people, and
learn th eir faith." Jam es W hite published his response to R ogers' letter in the
Review two weeks later.
In 1869 a friendly o v ertu re from the Seventh-day A dventist G eneral
C onference, then in its sixth year, elicited "a fratern al reply" from its Seventh Day
Baptist c o u n te rp a rt, which in tu rn ap p o in ted one o f its n u m b er as a delegate lo
the next m eeting o f that body. In 1870 Roswell F. C ottrell re p o rte d in the R n iew
that he a tte n d e d th eir G eneral C onference session in Little G e n e s e e , New York,
and had been "courteously invited by vote to take part in their deliberations." At
the sam e session they voted co-operation with th e Seventh-lav Adventists, bin
without com prom ising distinctive principles," but i.ihled "a m otion to send a

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 I III S AB BA TH IN ITIF. NKW WORLD

delegate to the A dventist C o n fe re n c e ." O ver the next ten years Seventh-day
Adventist leaders such as J o h n Nevins A ndrew s, U riah Sm ith, Jam es W hite, and J.
H W aggoner w ere com m issioned as representatives to the annual Seventh Day
baptist G eneral C o n feren ce sessions, w here they were always cordially welcomed
and seated as delegates. T h e Seventh Day Baptists reciprocated, an d th eir
delegates w ere as cordially received a n d welcomed by the Adventists. R eports o f
the "pro sp erity atten d in g the work o f the Adventists were m et with Baptist
resolutions "expressing fraternal jo y ." 46 T h is interchange o f delegates has
continued in term itten tly to the present lime.
C ertain u n fo rtu n a te incidents, how ever, involving a few overzealous
Adventists acting on th eir own initiative, gradually drove a wedge o f sorts betw een
Seventh Day Baptists an d Seventh-day Adventists. T he years 1850 to 1880
witnessed relatively ra p id grow th o f Seventh-day Adventists, an d an occasional
loss o f Seventh Day B aptist m em bers to the Adventists. T his loss m ight have been
sustained with a m inim um o f m isu n d erstan d in g except for several instances o f
the traum atic b re ak u p o f a Seventh Day B aptist congregation by A dventists whose
i ru d e tactics aro u sed distrust and re sen tm en t th at lingered for m any years.
T h e most blatant such episode occu rred o n e w inter day in 1855 when an
Adventist, D. P. Hall, ap p e are d at the Hayfield, Pennsylvania, Seventh Day
baptist ch u rch an d challenged all com ers to a rousing debate. T h e result was a
split in the Hayfield ch u rch that left b itter feelings on both sides. Several Seventh
Day Baptist congregations w ere thus w eakened by a loss o f m em bers to the
Adventists, and som e disbanded altogether. It was often the case, how ever, th at a
<hu rch was alread y weak as the result o f internal strife o r a lack o f leadership o r
doctrinal cohesiveness. Articles about sheep stealing" ap p e are d in the jo u rn als
on both sides.
A n u m b er o f years later, Jam es W hite included the following reflection: We
deeply reg retted th e havoc m ade in som e o f the S. D. Baptist churches in
Pennsylvania, m o re th an twenty years since, by m en who d o not now stand with us.
For while that w ork w eakened the S. D. Baptists, it brought but very little strength
to o u r cause.'"**
W hite ex pressed the sentim ent o f responsible A dventists w hen he wrote:
" ' Both bodies have a specific work to do. G od bless them both in all th eir effo rts for
its accom plishm ent. T h e field is a wide one. A nd we fu rth e r recom m end that
Seventh-day A dventists in th eir aggressive work avoid laboring to build up
Seventh-day A dventist churches w here Seventh Day Baptist churches are already
established. If m in isterso r m em bers from the Seventh Day Baptists reg ard it their
du ty to com e to us, u n d e r the im pression that they can serve the cause o f God
lietter, we shall give them a place with us. B ut we see no reason why th ere should be
.tny effort p u t fo rth on the p art o f o u r people to weaken the hands o f o u r Seventh
Day Baptist b re th re n , in o rd e r to add to o u r n um bers from those who w ere before
us in revering th e ancient Sabbath o f th e L o rd ."
T h e S eventh Day B aptists in L ater Years
D uring th e second h alf o f the n in eteen th century the Seventh Day Baptists
i o n tin u ed to expei cnee a g radual increase in m em bership until, by th e centenary
<>l their G eneral C o n feren ce, in 1901, it stood at 9,257; since th en it has slowly
declined, am i in 1978 stood at 5,139. D uring the nineteenth cen tu ry they

.r>3
 I H E S A B B A T H IN S C R I P T U R E AND HIS TORY

o p e r a te d a n u m b e r o f s e m in a rie s , c o lleg e s, a n d o n e u n iv e rs ity A llre d

University but these educational institutions have been e ith er discontinued or
secularized.6*
T h e Sabbath is the only significant point o f belief on which Baptists and
Seventh Day Baptists d iffer. O ne co n tem p o rary Seventh Day B aptist a u th o r
refers to it as th e only ju s t reason fo r o u r denom inational existence, separate
from o th er B aptists .65 T h e ir zealous endeavor, especially over the past century
and a half, to inspire am ong fellow C hristians o f o th e r faiths an appreciation of the
seventh-day Sabbath is w orthy o f com m endation. But th eir dw indling m em b er
ship over the past eight decades suggests th at the Sabbath alone does not provide
sufficient incentive to attract m em bers a n d to m aintain a separate d enom inational
existence. O nly as one im p o rtan t facet o f Bible tru th along with o th e r tru th s can
the Sabbath be u n d ersto o d a n d ap p reciated in its tru e perspective an d so win
m inds and hearts on any significant scale .64 T h e ir 1801 m em bership o f slightly
m ore th an 1,130 peaked a little m ore than a century later at som ething m ore than
9,30065 an average gain o f approxim ately eighty m em bers p e r year, fa r below
the grow th rate o f e ith e r the U nited States o r tbe world. Since the tu rn o f the
cen tu ry th eir m em bership has decreased back to approxim ately its 1840 level .66
P erhaps th e m ajor success o f th eir th ree centuries an d m o re o f dedicated
d en o m in atio n al witness in the New W orld was the acceptance o f the Sabbath by a
few M illerite Adventists d u rin g the 1840s.
O th e r S abbathkeeping Sects
Distinct both historically an d adm inistratively from re g u la r Seventh Day
Baptists are ab o u t 150 G erm an Seventh Day Baptists, the re m n a n t o f a g ro u p
organized in 1728 (they established them selves in E p h rata, Pennsylvania, in
1732), with roots in the O ld W orld. In belief they are sim ilar to the D unkards, with
w hom th eir fo u n d e r was associated p rio r to th at time. T h ey practice com m unism
and celibacy .67
A n u m b e r o f small C hristian denom inations o r gro u p s observe the seventh
day o f th e week as the Sabbath. T w o o f these grew ou t o f the Second A dvent
M ovem ent o f 1844 the Seventh Day C h u rch o f God (D enver), with about 8,000
m em bers, an d th e C h u rch o f G od (Salem, W est Virginia), with ab o u t 2,000. T h e
fo rm er o rig in ated about 1900 an d the latter in 1933. Related to the West Virginia
g ro u p is the so-called W orld H e ad q u arte rs o f the C hurch o f G od in Jeru salem ,
Israel, led by th e late A. N. D ugger. Based in P ortsm outh, V irginia, is the C hurch
o f G od an d Saints in C hrist, which was established in 1896 an d in 1980 had a
m em b ersh ip o f ab o u t SS.OOO.68
A m o re recent g ro u p th at observes the seventh day o f the week as the Sabbaih
is H erb ert W. A rm stro n g s W orldw ide C h u rch o f God. O riginally a Q u ak er, he
u nited with the C h u rch o f G od in O reg o n , a n d in 1934 began a radiobroadcast,
later in co rp o ratin g u n d e r th e nam e Radio C h u rch o f God. In 1968 the nam e was
changed to W orldw ide C h u rch o f G od. With h ead q u arters in Pasadena,
C alifornia, m em bership has been re p o rte d variously as betw een 30,000 and
100,000. (In 1978 A rm stro n g s son, G a rn er T ed , broke away to found the C hurch
o f G od, In te rn a tio n a l .)69
T h e S tran g ite C h u rch o f Jesu s C hrist o f la tte r-d a y Saints, organized in
W isconsin in 1844, i n i 980 had p erh ap s 300 m em bers. 11 claims to lie the o n e and

254
 M i l SA BBA I I I IN I III NFW WORI I)

original Chur h ol Jesus C hrist ol Latter-D ay Saints an d that its fo u n d e r. Jam es

|. Strang, is the oidy legitim ate successor to Jo sep h Sm ith. In several respects,
including observance o f the seventh-day S abbath, Strangites d iffe r from o th er
M orm ons .70A ccording to the Book o f Mormon the seventh day is the Sabbath, but
the M orm on C h u rch explains that it is im practical to observe S aturday in the
m odern world.
Finally, th ere is a seventh-day Pentecostal g ro u p o f about 25,000 with
head q u arters in Brazil known as the A dventist C h u rch o f Prom ise, organized in
1932 an d consisting o f som e 500 congregations in various countries o f South
Am erica.7'
A d v en tist In d e b te d n ess to the Seventh Day B aptists
T h e ex ten t o f Adventist indebtedness to the Seventh Day Baptists for an
u n d ersta n d in g o f the Sabbath is evident from the constant use m ade o f Seventh
Day B aptist publications, especially th eir Sabbath T ra ct Series, d u rin g the early
years o f th e ch u rch . "T h e w ritings o f the Seventh Day Baptists have been a great
com fort an d stren g th to us," w rote Jam es W hile in 1853.7!
O n page 7 o f volum e 1, N um ber 1, o f The Second Advent Review and Sabbath
Herald (N ovem ber, 1850) ap p eared the editorial note: We call special atten tio n o f
the b re th re n to th e articles, in this n u m b er from the publications o f the
Seventh-day Baptists [sic]. T hey are clear, com prehensive, and irrefu tab le. We
intend to enrich th e colum ns o f the Review and Herald, with extracts from their
excellent works on the Sabbath.
We also design to get out a large p am phlet, containing the sam e m aterial
from th eir publications, that we publish in this p aper. Such a work, judiciously
circulated, will certainly do a great am o u n t o f g o o d ." 7
T h e first n u m b e ro f th e /to 'tru /co n tain s four such reprints, which fill 124 o f its
166 colum n inches, fully th ree fo u rth s o f the space. T h e second issue, in
D ecem ber, contains o n e Seventh Day B aptist article on the Sabbath, a n d one each
by J. N. A ndrew s a n d Jo sep h B ates .74 T h e twelve issues o f volum e 1 devoted 769
colum n inches to th e Sabbath, o r 38.5 percent o f the space. O f this, 399 colum n
inches w ere from S eventh Day Baptist sources and 370 by A dventist au th o rs, o r 20
and 18.5 p ercen t o f th e total, respectively. I his clearly reflects the ex ten t to which
pio n eer A dventists w ere indebted to the Seventh Day Baptists for their
u n d ersta n d in g o f th e Sabbath.
O n th e fro n t page o f N u m b er 6 is a poem o f seven stanzas, " It's J e w ish ,'" in
defense o f th e Sabbath, by fo rm er Seventh Day Baptist Roswell F enner C o ttrell .74
At the sam e tim e C ottrell had sent Review ed ito r Jam es W hite a copy o f an
eight-page tract he had w ritten about the Sabbath A Letter to the Disciples of the
Lord. O f this tract Jam es W hite w rote in the sam e issue o f the Review: We think it
is very good, an d h o p e to be able to publish it entire, soon." It a p p e are d two weeks
later in N u m b er 8 , six m onths before the a u th o r becam e an A dventist .76O ver the
next forty years C ottrell contributed 1,692 articles and o th er items to th e p ap e r
and was listed as a m em ber o f the original "Publishing C om m ittee," with J. N.
Andrews a n d U riah Sm ith, and later as a "corresponding e d ito r ."77 Many of his
articles dealt with the Sabbath, which ever rem ained a precious trea su re to him.
R epeatedly, th ro u g h the colum ns o f the Review, he appealed to his "d ear" fo rm er
Seventh Day B aptist b re th re n to espouse the Advent hope, as he had done

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 I III SAI t l l A I II I N S C R I M I ' RI ANI H IS T O R Y

The Sabbath in Adventist Theology

C o n sideration o f possible alternatives to the events o f historya contrast
between what actually h ap p e n ed an d w hat m ight have h a p p e n e d is o n e useful
way by which to estim ate the m eaning an d im portance o f those events. W ithout
the Sabbath th e re obviously would not be a Seventh-day A dventist C hurch. What
would have becom e o f the m id-n in eteen th -cen tu ry M illerite A dventists who
becam e S abbatarians had they not accepted the Sabbath? A nd w hat would have
becom e o f th e Seventh Day Baptists had they, as a body, accepted the hope o f an
im m inent A dvent? A nswers to these hypothetical questions can be in ferred from
the relative success, over the years, o f S abbatarian A dventism , non-S abbatarian
Adventism , and non-A dventist S abbatarianism that is, from a theological
perspective, o f th e A dvent an d the Sabbath in a symbiotic relationship, an d of
each ap a rt from the o th er. M ore im p o rtan t than eith er o f these questions,
how ever, is the m eaning an d im portance o f the A dvent and the Sabbath to each
o th e r in Seventh-day A dventist theology, an d thus to the ch u rch in its life, mission,
and witness.
S abbatarian A dventists em erged as a discrete, identifiable g ro u p in 1849, and
the relative stren g th o f the th re e religious g ro u p s in that year is taken as a basis foi
co m paring th eir relative viability over the intervening years, as d eterm in e d by
m em bership grow th. O th e r significant factors have, o f course, been involved,
especially (!) p ro p h etic guidance in the life an d w ork o f the ch u rch an d (2 ) the
Adventist concept o f world mission.
P ost-1844 M illerite A dventists who did not accept the Sabbath eventually
coalesced into th ree groups extant in 1980T h e A dvent C hristian C hurch,
with ap proxim ately 30,000 m em bers; the C hurch o f God (A braham ic Faith),
with about 6,500; a n d the Prim itive A dvent C hristian C hurch, with 600 or so
a total o f som e 37,000 m em bers.'' T h is total represents slightly m ore than one
percent o f th e 3-m illion-plus w orldw ide m em bership o f Seventh-day A dventists."
From this we m ight conclude that A dventism unth the Sabbath has been ap p ro x i
mately one h u n d re d times m ore effective than it has proved to be without the
Sabbath.
T h e significant theological d ifferen ce betw een Seventh-day Adventists and
Seventh Day Baptists is, o f course, em phasis on the im m inence o f the A dvent. T h e
1849 Seventh Day B aptist m em bership o f 5,949 far o u tn u m b ere d that ol
Sabbatarian A dventists, o f whom th ere w ere about 100 a ratio o f b etter than 5 9
to 1. O r we m ight say that th ere w ere 0 .0 17 tim es as m any S abbatarian A dventists
as th ere w ere Seventh Day Baptists. In 1978 Seventh Day Baptist m em bership
stood at 5,139 (810 less than in 1849), an d that o f Seventh-day A dventists at m ore
than 3 million, a ratio o f 584 to 1. A ccordingly, the Sabbath with the A dvent has
proved to be 30,647 times m ore effective than it has been without th e A dvent.
T h u s on a strictly em pirical, historical basis, the Sabbath an d the A dvent have
proved to be o f significant im portance to each other. Evidently the m erging o f the
Sabbath with the h o p e o f an im m inent A dvent d u rin g the form ative years 184i to
1849 was a theological and religious event o f the first m agnitude, an d a brief
resum e o f th e interrelatio n sh ip betw een the two in the form ulation ol
Seventh-day A dventist theology d u rin g those years is ol m ajor im p o rtan ce in a
study o f th e history ol the Sabbath. Ii may. as well, point the way to an even m ore

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 I 111 S A U N A ! II IN I 111 N E W W O R L D

effective witness to the Sabbath in years to com e.

T o begin with, d u rin g those form ative years Adventists tested the Seventh
Day Baptist concept o f the Sabbath by the Bible an d ad opted it as th eir own. In
historic Seventh Day Baptist th o u g h t, the fo u rth precept o f the Decalogue
m em orializes th e C rea to r-creatu re relationship, which is o f ultim ate im portance
to o u r very existence. At first glance the Sabbath ap p ears to be an arbitrary
com m and, th at is, an expression o f the au th o rity o f the O ne who gave it an d not
one whose in h e re n t m oral quality is obvious, as with the prohibitions against
m u rd er, ad u ltery , and theft. Recognition o f the Sabbath is th e re fo re an
acknow ledgm ent o f G ods au th o rity as C reator, on an even h ig h er level than
com pliance with th e o th er nine. It is a test o f a p erso n s recognition o f his C reato r
and his attitu d e tow ard Him . With this p u rpose in view, G od in ten d ed the Sabbath
for all m ankind, for all time. God has never altered the Sabbath com m and, an d it
is, in fact, in h eren tly unalterable. Any attem pt to change it constitutes an overt
challenge to th e au th o rity o f the C reator. In Seventh Day Baptist th o u g h t the
Sabbath is also d estin ed to play a key role in the great fu tu re eschatological crisis
when tru th will be in the balance. Finally, "the rest o f the holy Sabbath" is an
"earnest to G ods people, o f the eternal rest, which is reserved for them in
heaven, an earthly "type" o f that heavenly "an tity p e ."*5
A dventist ap p reciatio n of, and reliance o n , the extensive Seventh Day B aptist
literatu re about th e Sabbath available to them d u rin g the years 1846 to 1849 has
already been d o cu m en ted . T hose pio n eer Adventists ad o p ted the S eventh Day
Baptist exposition o f the Sabbath in toto and gratefully acknow leged th eir
indebtedness to th e Seventh Day Baptists. But the Sabbatarian A dventist concept
o f an im m inent A dvent m eant th at they could not be content to let m atters rest
there. In effect. Seventh Day Baptist theology o f the Sabbath devoted m ost o f its
time to looking intently into the rearview m irro r o f history, while the A dvent hope
kept A dventist eyes fixed on the road ahead. Adventist conviction with respect to
the fu n d am en tal validity o f the 1844 experience despite the d isappointm ent, a
conviction that cam e as a result o f th eir study o f C hrists m inistry in the heavenly
sanctuary, led to a com prehensive an d coherent theology o f the Sabbath in
relation to th e A dvent. T h ey in co rp o rated this theological stance at once into the
title chosen fo r th eir publication, The Second Advent Review and Sabbath Herald, and
a decade later into th e nam e Seventh-day Adventist.
T h e first step in the theological d e p a rtu re o f w hat w ere to becom e
Seventh-day A dventists from the rest o f th eir disappointed A dvent b re th re n took
place the m o rn in g following the b itter d isappointm ent o f O ctober 22, 1844. Like a
flash o f light it cam e to H iram E dsons m ind that the "sanctuary" to be "cleansed"
on that m em orable day was not this earth , as the Millerites had supposed, but the
sanctuary in heaven in which C hrist, since His ascension, has been m inistering to
I lis people h ere on ea rth the benefits o f His infinite sacrifice o f love.MFor several
years after 1844 th e o th e r A dventists w orked on the basis o f the idea that the event
they had an ticip ated the literal a p p e arin g o f C hrist in the clouds of heaven was
correct, but th at they had been m istaken in figuring the tim e aspect o f the
prophecies. As a result they set one d ate after an o th er for C hrist to com e. W ith
C rosier an d those w ho accepted his explanation reg ard in g the sanctuary in
heaven. Millet itc A dventists had been right with respect to the tune but w rong as to
IMSAII I f !?
 I'lIF. S A B B A T H IN S C R I P T U R E AND H IS T O R Y

th e nature o f th e event, specifically wilh respect to the identity ol the sanctuary"

that was to be cleansed." N ow here in the Bible could they find evidence
suggesting th at the sanctuary o f Daniel 8:14 is this ea rth , w hereas the New
T estam en t, an d most particularly the book o f Hebrew s, is replete with the concept
o f a heavenly sanctuary o p eratin g since C h rists ascension.
T h is concept o f the sanctuary protected those w ho accepted it against fu rth e r
time setting, an d drew a sh a rp line o f distinction betw een them and o th er
Adventists. B ut even m ore im p o rtan t, it directed their attention to the law o f C od
an d the Sabbath. In Ellen W hite's vision in the late w inter o r early spring o f 1847,
m entioned earlier, she saw Jesu s stan d in g by the ark in the heavenly sanctuary.
B efore h er eyes He o p en ed the folded tables o f stone on which the T en
C o m m an d m en ts w ere inscribed, a n d a halo o f light encircled the fo u rth . She
u n d ersto o d this em phasis on the fo u rth com m andm ent as divine confirm ation o f
the seventh-day Sabbath and was confirm ed in h er own acceptance o f it. T h e
Sabbath was th u s linked to the sanctuary in heaven. In an editorial in the Ju ly 25,
1854, Rexnew entitled T h e R elation which the Sabbath sustains to o th e r Points o f
Present T r u th , U riah Sm ith wrote:
T h e sanctuary an d the Sabbath are inseparably connected. W hoever adm its
the tru th o f th e first m ust adm it it also o f the second: the sanctuary contains the
ark, the ark contains the law, an d the law contains the fo u rth com m andm ent
unabolished an d u n ch an g ed ." "N o tru th need be m ore clearly d em o n strated than
that th e Sabbath o f the L ord, instituted and given to m an at C reation, is still
binding u p o n th e whole h u m an family. P erhaps no tru th can be m ore clearly
d em o n strate d . Especial atten tio n should be called to this point in these last
days.
T h e im m inence o f the A dvent gave point and urgency to the Sabbath as
"p resen t tr u th , which had been lacking in the Seventh Day B aptist witness to it. In
1850 Ellen W hite wrote: I saw that the tim e for Jesus to be in th e most holy place
was nearly finished an d that tim e can last but a very little lo n g e r .. . . T h e sealing
tim e is very sh o rt, an d will soon be over.......T im e is alm ost finished. . . . Said the
angel. 'Get ready, get ready, get re a d y .' It was this concept o f a very imminent
A dvent th at gave particular point an d urgency to the Sabbath, an d this was
intensified by th e discovery, a little later, o f its relationship to the th ird angel's
m essage o f Revelation 14:9-12.
A dventists had already identified the proclam ation o f C hrist's com ing in 1844
with th e fulfillm ent o f the first angel's m essage o f Revelation 14:6, 7, and the
"m idnight cry" d u rin g the su m m er o f 1844 as the historical c o u n te rp a rt o f the
second angel's m essage in verse 8. T h e first angel sum m ons all m en everyw here to
w orship th e C rea to r, whose w ork o f creation th e Sabbath m em orializes, and the
second w arns against p o p u la r rejection o f th at message. But th ere was a third
angel with a w arning against the m ark o f the beast, which they u n d ersto o d to be
the satanic c o u n te rp a rt o f the seal o f G od. Identifying th e seal o f G od with the
Sabbath, they concluded th at the m ark o f the beast m ust be Satan's counterfeit
Sabbath. F u rth erm o re , inasm uch as the first angel an n o u n ced th e h o u r o f divine
ju d g m e n t, a n d inasm uch as Jo h n presen ted the com ing o f C hrist as following
im m ediately u p on the proclam ation o f the m essage l>v th e tliird angel, they
concluded that the Sabbath was to lx* the great final lesi ol loyalty to C od
im m ediately preceding C hrist's com ing, w4ii<h they to o k l o lie very imminent.**

2 58
 I I IK S AB BA TH IN T H E NEW WORLD

T h o se who accept these messages are said in verse 12 o f the c h a p te r to be keeping

the com m an d m en ts o f God along with th eir faith in Jesus C hrist as m an's Saviour
from sin. T h e S abbath, they concluded, was thus implicit in both the first an d third
messages.
A few years later Ellen W hite w rote: S eparate the Sabbath from the [three
angels'] m essages, an d it loses its pow er; but when connected with the m essage o f
the th ird angel, a pow er atten d s it which convicts unbelievers an d infidels, and
brings them out with stren g th to stand, to live, grow, and flourish in the Lord."
Substitution o f the laws o f m en fo r the law o f G od, she w rote, is to be the very last
act in th e d ra m a o f th e g reat controversy betw een good and evil.'9 With the issue
thus clearly draw n, all who sincerely love God will have received His seal o f
approval, an d those w ho subm it to hum an req u irem en ts opposed to the divine law
will receive the m ark o f the beast foretold in Revelation 13 and 14. Eventually
th ere will be a universal decree im posing the death penalty on those who persist in
observing the Bible Sabbath instead o f h o n o rin g the first day o f the week.TO
As indicated in th e foregoing, the second advent o f Christ and the Sabbath
were b o nded to g e th e r in A dventist theology in an inseparable, symbiotic union in
which each was d e p e n d e n t on the oth er. T h is union o f the A dvent an d the
Sabbath in th e settin g o f the everlasting gospel (Rev. 14:6) and the im m inent h o u r
o f divine ju d g m e n t (verse 7) is the constitutive dynam ic o f Seventh-day A dventist
theology. A dventists o ften re fe r to those who convert to the church as accepting
the th ird angel's m essage" o r as accepting the Sabbath"; both expressions are
com m only used fo r becom ing a Seventh-day Adventist. T his u n d e rsta n d in g o f
S cripture m ade th e Sabbath "present tru th " d u rin g the years 1846 to 1849 in a
suprem ely im p o rtan t sense, and gave it an ultim ate im portance it never had for
Seventh Day B aptists. It is also an im p o rtan t factor in the phenom enal grow th o f
Seventh-day A dventists and for th eir high level o f dedication.
T h is em phasis on the eschatological significance o f the seventh-day Sabbath
explains its m ajor role in A dventist theology. It was the catalyst that b ro u g h t the
scattered A dvent believers o f p io n eer days to g eth er and that still today transcends
all social, econom ic, racial, an d national b arriers, uniting A dventists a ro u n d the
world in a b o n d o f loyalty to C hrist an d to o n e an o th er. T h e nam e "Seventh-day
A dventist aptly expresses the raison d'etre o f th e church and the reason fo r being a
m em ber o f th e chu rch .
Relevance o f the Sabbath: a Positive Perspective
T raditionally, and alm ost exclusively until recent years, it has been custom ary
to em phasize observance o f the Sabbath as m an's p ro p e r response to a divine
com m and, as an obligation. God com m ands; it is o u r d uty to obey. C o n tem p o rary
literatu re on th e S abbath, how ever, em phasizes its positive aspect, as a gracious
provision by a wise C rea to r designed to m eet an in h eren t need o f created beings,
even in a p erfect world. From this perspective the Sabbath is the sam e, and m an's
duty with respect to it is the sam e. But instead o f m ore o r less rote com pliance, o f
keeping it only, o r prim arily, because God requires it, th ere is em phasis on the
C reator's p u rp o se in giving m an the Sabbath, on its intrinsic th erap eu tic value,
.md on an intelligent, appreciative observance o f it. T h e balance in this new
perspei live has been aptly an d tersely expressed by Ahva J. C. B ond: It is G o d s
Sabbath; H e m ade it. . . It is m an's Sabbath; he needs it . 1

>r, u
 I' HE S A B B A T H IN S C R I P ! I! RE AND H IS TOR Y

O verem phasis on the traditional perspective o f the Sabbath tends to reflect a

disto rted view o f God as an arb itrary being who is pleased to b u rd e n created
beings with restrictive req u irem en ts designed to im press them with the fact that
H e is G od. T h u s conceived, Sabbath observance tends to d eterio rate into a
w orks-righteousness device by which the S abbathkeeper hopes to ea rn m erit by
im pressing G od with his d u tifu l obedience. Such observance thw arts the very
p u rp o se it was designed to serve. T h e new perspective o f the Sabbath conceives ol
God as a gracious person infinitely co ncerned with the happiness and well-being
o f His creatu res. M ature Sabbath observance requires an u n d ersta n d in g o f the
C reato r's p u rp o se in consecrating it as holy time, an d a choice to keep it, not only
because m a n s creatureliness obliges him to do so but even m ore because as a
rational, responsible being he pu rp o ses to e n te r fully into th e C re a to rs beneficent
p u rp o se in giving him existence a n d being. T h is point o f view m akes the Sabbath
even m ore im p o rtan t today because it provides an ideal th erap eu tic that enables
m o d ern m an to cope with the frenetic rush o f the m aterialistically orien ted
m o d ern world.
A lthough m ore detail on this subject will be furnished in th e th ree ch ap ters in
Part 111 o f this volum e, b rie f m ention may be m ade h ere o f several au th o rs who in
recent years have ably p resen ted this new perspective o f the Sabbatha
perspective whose new ness consists m ore in em phasis th an content.
Jew ish rabbi A braham Jo sh u a Heschel has had considerable im pact on
C hristian as well as Jew ish thin k in g th ro u g h his book The Sabbath: Its Meaning fo i
Modem M an. Inasm uch as Heschel will be discussed in great detail in a later
c h a p te r (see B ranson, pp. 15-21), it will suffice here to say that his treatm ent
stresses th e Sabbath as holiness in time "a n d th at he also refers to the Sabbath as a
sanctuary which we build, a sanctuary m time.
A second w riter deserving b rie f m ention here, th o u g h he too will receive
some fu rth e r atten tio n in a later c h a p te r (see La Rondelle, pp. 25-27), is Seventh
Day B aptist H e rb ert E. S aunders. T h is a u th o r, in his book The Sabbath: Symbol o/
Creation and R e - C r e a tio n refers to th e Sabbath as a "perfect link betw een God and
o u r race, a constant re m in d e r o f the C re a to rs interest in us an d o f o u r
creatureliness in relation to H im as o u r F ather. For S aunders, the Sabbath stands
at th e apex not only o f G o d s creative activity but also o f His red eem in g pow er,
being a symbol o f both.* In d eed , the Sabbath highlights the personal identity and
w orth o f m an, an d frees him from the tyranny o f the w orld.
A th ird w riter, whose recent work on the theology o f both the Sabbath and
Second A dvent deserves som ew hat m ore ex ten d ed treatm en t here, inasm uch as
he is not treated elsew here in the p resen t volum e, is Seventh-day A dventist Sakae
Kubo. In his God Meets M an: A Theology of the Sabbath and Second A d v e n t K u ! m >
discusses th e Sabbath u n d e r th re e m ain headings: T h e Sabbath an d C reation,"
T h e Sabbath as R edem ption, an d "T h e Sabbath as F u tu re Rest. 9* He
highlights, as does Heschel, the concept o f holiness in tim e.1 But particularly
in terestin g is Kubo's trea tm e n t o f the Sabbath in relationship to redem ption. He
tells us, for exam ple, in connection with a c h a p te r on T h e Sabbath and
Justification, that "w hen m an ceases from his works, lie m ust com e to reali/e that
they are not so iin|M>rtunt am i that even though he stops them , the world still
moves on w ithout him o r his works": that "it is C od an d what He does that are
vital. K uhn adds tltai "the Sabbath u n d ersto o d as lhal wliii h strips u so l ihii wen ks
 T H E S A B B A T H IN T H E NEW WORLD

and o u r autonom y b efo re G od provides no o p p o rtu n ity for self-justification" and

is truly the sign o f G ods grace a n d sovereignty, an d o f m ans reception and
dep e n d en ce . 101
W hen dealing with the Sabbath as T h e Sign o f R edem ption," Kubo states
that "the Sabbath has no m eaning at all unless creative pow er accom plishes its
results in the life o f th e one who observes the day. Holiness o f being m ust m atch
holiness o f tim e. IOT And in dealing with the Sabbath in connection with
sanctification, K ubo points out that in o u r p re sen t world the Sabbath confronts
us as G ods challenge to o u r seriousness in accepting Christ. Since a large part o f
the world stru ctu re s its life a n d business a ro u n d S unday as its rest day, observance
o f the seventh-day Sabbath today dem an d s a radical, conscious, deliberate
decision to follow C hrist. Some such d em an d is always p resen t in C hristian
conversion. IM
Kubo recognizes th at the priority o f justification is fu n d am en tal, stating
that we "m ust ever keep in m ind that m an alone and in his own stren g th cannot do
anything for his salvation. No am ount o f good works on his p art can p ro d u ce it.
Yet it is ju st as im p o rtan t th at we d o not think o f the C hristian sim ply as lifeless
m atter on whom an d for whom God does everything. G ods initiative is basic, but
unless m an resp o n d s in faith, he has no salvation. A nd the life o f loving obedience
m ust follow th e resp o n se. 101

N OTES
1 E n c yclo p e d ia Ju d m ta . 2 :8 0 8 ; 4 :1 3 2 2 ; 11:1454; 3 :4 0 9
I Ibid., 12:99.1 M ikveh Israel m e a n t "the H o p e o f I sr a e l'
I b id , 2 :8 0 8
4 S h e riih Israel m ea n s "the R em n a n l o f Israel." I b i d . 1 2 :1 0 6 2 . 1063; 15:1586.
s Ibid., 1 5 :1 5 8 6 . 1596; Frank S. H andbook o f D enom inations in the U n ited S la in (N a sh v ille. 1 9 7 0 ). p. 102.
6 Encyclopedia Ju d a ica , 5 :102 .
Ibid.. 1 3 :895. 8 9 6 ; 1 5 :1 6 3 6 ; Header s Digest 1 9 7 8 A lm anac a n d Yearbook (P leasam villc. N .Y .. 1 9 7 8 ). p . 7 0 5 .
M ead. op. cil., p p . 105, 106.
9 Lew is A . P lans, 'S ev e n th D ay B aptists in A m erica P reviou s to 1802," in Seventh Day Baptists in E urope a n d
A m e n ta (P la in field . N .J .. 1 9 1 0 ). p p 1 2 2-126. (H e r e in a fte r ab b reviated SD B .)
' Ibid., p p. 1 2 4 -1 2 8 , 133.
II [S ev en th D ay B ap tist] M issionary M agazine. May. 1822, p p 122. 123.
IS Platts, op. cil., p 12 2 .
15 M issionary M a g a zin e, M ay, 1 8 22, p. 124.
14 A rth u r . M ain. " T h e S ev en th Day Baptist G e n e ra l C o n fe r e n c e . 1 8 0 2 -1 9 0 2 ." in S D B . p p. 1 2 7 ,1 5 0 .1 5 3 .1 6 9 ;
M issionary M agazine, M ay, 1 8 22, p 128
15 S tep h e n B u rd ick . "L esson s o f th e Past." in S D B , p 1289.
16 I b u t . O scar U . W h itfo rd , " T h e S ev en th Day Baptist M issionary Society." in SD B , p p. 3 2 7 -3 3 1 ; M ain, op. a t . p.
168.
17 A rth u r L. T itsw o rth , T h e A m erica n Sabbath T ract S ociety," in S D B , p 4 2 2 ; L dw in S haw , C a ta lo g o f
Publications," in S D B . p p . 3 2 8 -1 3 3 0 ; W h ilfo rd , op a t., p p . 3 3 5 , 3 3 7 .
18 T ilsw o r th , op a L . p. 4 2 9 ; M ain, op cil., p p. 2 3 3 , 2 * 4 , 185; B u rd ick , op cil.. p . 1291; S haw , op. a t., p p . 1 3 4 1,
1342 For a list o f th e titles, se e G o r d o n O M a rn n b o ro u g h , " T h e B e g in n in g s o l a T h e o lo g y o f th e Sabbath A m o n g
A m erican S abbatarian A d v e n tists, 1 842-1850" (M .A . th esis. Lorna la n d a C n iv ersily , l9 7 o ) , p p. 169, 170.
19 M ain, op CH., p p . 1 8 5 -1 8 7 .
w The M id n ig h t Cry, S cp l 5 a n d 12, 1844. q u o te d in A rth u r W S p a ld in g , Origin a n d H istory o f Seventh-day
Adventists. 4 vols. (W a sh in g to n , D C .. 1961), 1:116, 117.
S p a ld in g , op. cil.. p p . 1 16, 3 9 7 -4 0 0 .
n Ibid., p p . I (5 . 116. 3 9 9 . 4 0 0 ; S. N . H ask ell, "Our First M e etin g -H o u se," G eneral C onference B u lletin , J u n e 2.
1909. p 2 9 0
" R osw ell F. C ottrell letter to th e ed ito r , A dvent Kevtew a n d Sabbath H erald, N o v . 2 5 ,1 8 5 1 , p. 54; J u ly 2 1, 1853, p.
38; D ec. 5 , 1854. p. 125 (h e r e a fte r cited as R eview ); S p a ld in g , op a t., p. 400.
w D on F N e u fe td . e d . Seventh-day A d v e n tu t Encyclopedia (W ash in g to n , D C.., 197 6 ), s.v. "Spicer, W illiam
A m brose."
^ S p a ld in g, op n l . p I 17, see H n m v , A u g 11, 1853, p. 52.
*** la m es W h ile reply in letter fro m | ( R overs, R eview , A u g 1 1, 1853, ii. 52.
77 S p a ld in g , up I II . itp 117 1 1'I A n a n il Ic in I lope o f Israel, February 2 8 , 1845, was revised a n d p rin ted as a tract
in M an h. IK4r> A n r s i r llrn t | .m i li> |><ilill c o ttiiia iiso n o l P reble's n acl wills e x la n l S ev en th D ay B ap tisl litera tu re
a m i w iih I'tscplt B a le s I Hit* iia u in lilrl Is g iven lv M ailin tw H ou gh , up a t., p p 179-184.
'* S p a ld in g , op i l l , p p I III 12 1 . IV I |2'>

L'I.I
 I'HE S A B B A T H IN SCRIP I I' Kl AND IMS IOKN

19 E llen C . W h ite. L ife Sketches (M o u n ta in V iew , C alif., 1 915), p. 95; idem, 'Testimonies fo r the Church, I v o b
(M ou n tain V iew , C alif.. 148). 1:76; idem. S p iritu a l G ifts, 4 vols. (B attle C reek , M ich ., I 8 6 0 ), 2 :8 3 .
V) F.llen C . W h ite, E arly W ritings (W a sh in g to n . D .C ., 1882), p p. 3 2 , 33; idem, L ife Sketches, p p. 9 5 , 'Jti. 100
*' S p a ld in g , op a t., p p 190-195; W h ite, L ife Sketches, p p. \& f, 108, 1 10*112.
** S p a ld in g , op a t., p 191; W hite. L ife Sketches, p. 111.
** Review . A u g 11, 1 8 5 3 ,p 52.
w S p a ld in g , op a t , p. 197
M I fnd . p T95. W h ite. L ife Sketches, p. 125; The Present T ru th , D ecem b er, 1 8 4 9 .p . 4 7 . M a r tin b o r o u g h . op n / . p | i
18 5-189, list th e fo cu s o f ea ch article in b oth T he Present T ruth a n d T he A d ven t R evieur
T he Present T ruth. A u g u st. 1849, p p . 2 1 -2 3 ; A p ril. 185 0 , p p. 6 5 -6 9 .
,7 Review . A u g_ 1 1, 18 5 3 , p. 53.
M The Present Truth, J u ly . 1849. p p . I. 6 . (Italics su p p lie d .)
99 Ibid , D ecem b er . 184$. p 39.
40 I b id , M ay. 1 8 50. p 80
41 C f. R eview , A u g 11. 1853, p. 52.
4* W h ite. E arly \V n tin e s. p 6 8
45 The Present T ruth. N o v e m b e r . 18 5 0 . p p . 8 6 . 87.
44 May an d N o v em b er. 1850.
45 "H istorical S ettin g o f T h e s e D ocum ents.'* Facsimile Reproductions o f The Present T ru th a n d T he A d v en t R e v u u
(W a sh in g to n . D .C .. 11946]). p. 8.
46 R eview , |a n 24. 1 8 54. p 4; A u g 11. 1853. p 52; D ec 5. 185 4 . p. 125, The Present Truth. A o n l. 185 0 . p 71
47 J o h n N . A n d rew s. History o f the Sabbath a n d First Day o f the W eek (B a ttle C reek . M ich .. 1861).
" R e v i e w . J a n 2 4 . 1854. P *4; A u g 2 9 . 1 8 54. p . 2 1 . Oct. 17. 1 854. p 8 0
49 Ibid . D ec. 9 . 1852, p 1 13. re p r in ted fro m The Sabbath Recorder
* R eview , A u g 11. 1853. p 52.
51 Ibid , May 2 6 . 1853, p 4 . D ec 4 , 1 8 55, p 76.
Ibid , D ec. 4 . 1855. p. 78
M Ibid., J u n e 2 . 1851. p 9 2 . D ec 4. 1 8 55. p p 7 6 -7 8
44 Ibid., A u g I I . 1853. d. 52
55 M ain, op a t . pp. 198. 199. R eview . Sep. 2 0 . 1870, p 109.
56 M ain, op. a t., p p . 2 0 0 -2 0 5 , 2 0 7 -2 0 9
57 R ussel J T h o m se n . Seventh Day Baptists T heir Legacy to Adi<entuts (M o u n ta in Vriew . C a lif.. 1 9 7 1 ). p 4M
Ibid , p 4 9 .
w J a m es W h ite, " Seven th Day B aptists an d S ev en th -d a y A dvenu sts." R e in eu . D ec 4 . 1 879. p. 181.
I b i d . , p . 180.
61 J e s s e t H u tch in s. "Statistics," in S D B , p 1313; C on sta n t H J a cq u et. Yearbook of Am erican Churches. 1 9 7tt
(N a sh v ille, 1978). p 41
62 la m e s L. (am b le et a!.. " D e n o m in a tio n a l S ch o o ls. A lfred U n iv ersity , in S D B . p p . 4 8 7 -5 2 8
M H e rb ert E. S a u n d ers. The Sabbath Symbol o f Creation a n d Re-C reation. (P la in field . N .J .. 197 0 ). p. 10. q u o tin g A
H. Lew is. The Sabbath Recorder, J u ly 3. I 8 W . p. 4 2 3 .
64 W h ite, Testimonies, 1:337
65 M ain. op. cit., p. 2 33n
66 H u tch in s, op a t., p 1312; cf. M ead , op. a t., p. 38.
67 M ead. op. a t., p 3 9
69 Ibid . p p 5 6 . 5 / . J a co u et. op. a t., p 2 1 9 . 4 4 . 4 0 , 21 8 .
69 W illiam C . M artin. "Father. S o n . an d M am m on ." The A tla n tu M onthly. M arch, 1980. p p 5 8 , 6 1 .
70 M ead, op a t., p p 1 1 1 ,1 1 2 .
71 F u g e n e L in coln , in T he Sabbath Sentinel, A p ril. 1978. p. 6. O fficia l m o n th ly p u b lica tio n o f th e B ib le S a M u ili
A ssociation . C lev e la n d . T e n n e s se e
17 Reinew, A u g 11. 1 8 53. p 53; M a r tin b o r o u g h . op. a I . p p . 179*184; see n o te 52.
75 Reinew. N o v em b er. 1850. p 7
74 Ibid., D ecem b er, 1 8 50. p. 10
74 I b i d . February-. 1851. p. 4 1 . r e p r in te d O ct. 2 1 , 1851, p. 41
19 I b i d , February. 1851. p. 4 8 . A p r il. 1 8 51. p p 59-61
77 F rom a card c o u n t in th e R e v u u in d e x .
79 For e x a m p le . R e vtm , J u n e 10. 1 8 52. p. 22.
79 J a cq u et. op a t., p p. 22. 4 0 . 41
90 Seventh-day A d ie n tu t Yearbook. I 9 6 0 (W a sh in g to n . D C ., 1980). p. 4
91 H u tch in s, op a t . p. 13 1 2 . S p a ld in g , op a t., p. 197.
91 J a cq u et. o f a t., p. 8 9
95 S e v e n th D a \ Baptist (General C o n fe r e n c e . A n A ppeal for the Restoration o f the Bible Sabbath, re p r in ted in S />
A d ven t Library (B attle C reek . M ich . 1860) vol 4 .p p 9 - 1 1. 2 1 . 3 4 . M issionary M agazine. A u g u st. 182 1 . p. 18; F ebruary,
1823. p p 2 2 4 * 2 2 7 . M ay. 1 8 23. d o 2 4 9 2 5 5 .
M S p a ld in g , ob. a t., p 101 M artin b o ro u g h . op a t., p p . 9 5 -1 2 1 , p ro v id es a g o o d d iscu ssio n o f th e fo rm a tio n o l
the A d v e n u st t n e o lo g \ o l th e Sabbath
is W'hite. E arly W n tin e s . p p 3 2 . 3 3 . idem, l ife Sketches, p p . 9 5 . 9 6 .
86 R eview , J u ly 2 5 , 1854. p 196
17 W h ite, Early W n tm g i. p p 5 8 . 64
M Ibid . p. 64
89 Idem , Testimonies, 1:337.
90 Idem , T he G reat Controversy (M o u n ta in V iew . C alif . 1 9 1 1), p p 6 1 5 . 6 1 6
91 A hva J C B o n d . " The S abbath t o d '\ am i M ans. The Sabbtith R eturde*. Ian i*. I*H7, p 1
97 A b raham J o sh u a H e sc h e l. 'The Sabbath lt% M eaning for M odern M a n (Nr** S o i l . I'lM )
95 Ibid , p p 10. 2 9
94 S ee n o te 6 2

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Sabbath Theology

PART III
 CHAPTER 14

The Sabbath in Modern Jewish

Theology*

Roy Branson

FEW P rotestant groups, m ost notably the Seventh-day Adventists, observe

the Sabbath on the seventh day o f the week, as do Jew s .1 B ut because m ost
C hristians celebrate th eir Sabbath, o r weekly day o f w orship, on Sunday, they
often d o not recognize o r explore the theological resources within Ju d aism for
d ee p en in g C hristianitys appreciation o f the weekly Sabbath. T h e p resen t ch a p te r
surveys various o f the m ore significant o f these resources.
Divergence
W h e th e r they stress law, reason, o r history, Jew ish thinkers are increasingly
in ag reem en t on the unique im portance o f the Sabbath experience; a n d it may
safely be said th at today the jo y o f the Sabbath suffuses all o f Ju d a ism .2 B ut d u rin g
the past 150 years it has not always been so. Ever since the end o f th e eig h teen th
century, an d that g radual securing o f civil liberties by E u ro p e an Jew s called
Em ancipation, disputes within Ju d aism have ex tended to the Sabbath. If it is
G erm any th at m ust be credited with being the birthplace o f m o d ern Judaism ,"
differences over the Sabbath m ust be considered p art o f the b irth p an g s. In the
com plex interrelationships am ong p ro m in en t Jew ish thinkers in G erm any d u rin g
the n in eteen th an d tw entieth centuries, the Sabbath rem ained enm eshed in
controversy.
O n e o f the fo u n d e rs o f w hat cam e to be called R eform Ju d a ism ,! Sam uel
H oldheim , established a tem ple in B erlin th at w orshiped on S unday instead o f the
seventh day o f the week. No d o u b t H oldheim was stating an ex trem e position
when he said th at Jew s had an obligation to violate the Sabbath in o rd e r to show
th eir com m itm ent to w ork fo r the com m on good o f the state, but H oldheim was

A d a p ted From "Sabbath H eart o f J ew ish U nity." J o u r n a l o f E cu m rm ca l Studies 15 (Fall, 1 9 7 8 ):7 16-7 3 6 . U sed
by p erm ission .
t For an e x p la n a tio n o f th e th ree m ain b ran ch es o f Judaism O r th o d o x , R eform , a n d C o n serv a tiv e see p p.
2 4 4 . 245.

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 T H E S AB BA T H IN MODERN J E WI S H T H E O L O G Y

p ro m in en t in initiating the th ree great R eform rabbinical conferences held

d u rin g 1844 an d 1845 in the G erm an cities o f Brunswick, F ran k fu rt, and
Breslau.* How could the essential qualities o f the Sabbath lie saved in the m o d ern
en v iro n m en t? A ccording to one o f its historians, "this was the question to which
R eform add ressed itself, a question which was extensively discussed at the th ird
conference in B reslau in 1846."5
Som e rabbis who had broken with m any o f the requirem ents o f O rthodoxy
w ere nevertheless o u trag ed at the general tren d o f discussion at the conferences.
Zechariah Frankel walked out o f the second conference at F ran k fu rt an d refused
to atten d the th ird at Breslau. By fo u n d in g and editing tw ojournals and becom ing
th e first head o f th e Rabbinical Sem inary in Breslau in 1845, Frankel assum ed
lead ersh ip o f those who advocated what cam e to be called C onservauve Judaism .
W hile Conservatives did not insist on p erform ance o f m inor ritual requirem ents,
they sustained a respect for th e central symbol o f Jew ish faith an d practice and
w ere d istu rb ed by the tre n d on the p art o f the radical R eform leaders in the 1870s
to tran sfer th e Sabbath to S unday .6
Shortly afte r th e last o f the R eform conferences and ju s t before Frankel
becam e head o f th e Breslau Sem inary, Sam son Raphael H irsch went in 1851 to
F ran k fu rt, o ne o f the centers o f G erm an Judaism . H e started a pro g ram o f
preaching, teaching, an d w riting that was to give traditional Ju d aism (what others
called O rthodoxy) its first carefully w orked ou t rationale since E m ancipation and
the com ing o f th e E nlightenm ent. His insistence that observingjew s should not be
forced to co n trib u te to R eform -dom inated institutions that ignored req u irem en ts
o f Jew ish law, such as Sabbath regulations, led to the first state-recognized split in
what had always been in G erm an cities a single Jew ish com m unity.
Conflicts begun in G erm any continued in the U nited States. Radicals from
G erm any cam e to d o m inate R eform Judaism in the U nited States, culm inating in
the Pittsburgh Platform o f 1885. It said that R eform Jew s accept only such
cerem onies as elevate and sanctify o u r lives, but reject all such as are not ad ap ted
to the views a n d habits o f m o d ern civilization." T h is position was p ro p ag ated by
young rabbis g ra d u atin g from H ebrew U nion College, fo u n d ed a decade earlier
in C incinnati by R eform leaders. T o w ard the tu rn o f the cen tu ry som e fifty
Am erican R eform congregations had in troduced Sunday services, an d th e whole
issue was fervently debated at several conferences.""
T h o se A m erican rabbis m ore in tu n e with Frankel and the historical school o f
the B reslau Sem inary founded th eir own jo u rn al, American Hebrew (1879), which
called fo r th e en co u rag em en t o f Sabbath observance. T h e ir reaction to the
Pittsburgh Platform was so stro n g th at within two years they had organized a new
sem inary. A historian m akes the ju d g m e n t that the com ing o f age o f
Conservatism may be d ated from the beginning o f instruction in the Jew ish
T heological Sem inary o f A m erica .9 T h e re the im portance o f the Sabbath was
never do u b led .
For ten years, despite the massive influx to the U nited States d u rin g the 1880s
o f E astern E u ro p ean Jew s practicing an encom passing piety not seen by even
G erm an O rth o d o x y , no separate A m erican O rth o d o x m ovem ent was begun. T h e
established co n g reg adons consisting o f O rth o d o x Jew s from G erm any continued
to find th e g rad u ates o f Jew ish Theological Sem inary acceptable. Finally,
however, in 1896 th e Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Sem inary was fo u n d ed to

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 T H E S A B BA T H IN S CRIPTURK AND HI STOR Y

provide E astern E u ro p e an O rth o d o x synagogues with rabbis trained in that

tradition. As it becam e assim ilated into Yeshiva University in 1915, its teachers
becam e com m itted to the p ro g ram Sam son R aphael Hirsch and n in eteen th -cen
tury G erm an O rth o d o x y had advanced, nam ely, traditional Rabbinic instruction
com bined with m o d ern secular studies. T h e most revered teach er at Yeshiva
epitom izes m o d e rn orthodoxy. Dr. Jo sep h B. Soloveitchik, acknow ledged by
m any to be th e forem ost T alm udic scholar in the world, was tu to red in his
g ra n d fa th e rs B risker m ethod o f T alm udic in terp re tatio n and then e a rn ed a
d o cto rate in philosophy from th e University o f Berlin.
W ill an d Law
From Sam son R aphael Hirsch in nineteenth-century G erm any to Jo sep h
Soloveitchik an d his co n tem p o rary followers in A m erica, thinkers in O rthodoxy
have seen the Sabbath as a witness to the authority an d freedom o f G od's will. T h e
Sabbath is also a tim e w hen m an realizes th at his will is m ost free w hen it conform s
with G o d s. O bserving the Sabbath becom es the epitom e o f O rth o d o x existence:
acting as God acts. In H irschs characteristically volitional fram ew ork, th e Sabbath
is th e symbol o f G od's rule and m an s destiny . 10
In trying to will a n d act as G od does, the Jew has been given an advantage. T o
him has been revealed the law. By learning the basic principles guiding how the
Jew should act on the Sabbath, he finds the m eaning o f the Sabbath. For exam ple.
O rth o d o x discussion o f the Sabbath develops the historic, T alm udic concept o f
melakhah, "an act that shows m an's m astery over the world by the constructive
exercise o f his intelligence a n d skill. 11 Such acts, encouraged d u rin g six days o f
th e week, are prohibited on the seventh. T h e law clarifies by saying th at eith er
en h an cem en t o r exploitation o f the external creation is melakhah. H ow ever,
because th ere is no m aterial p roduction o f m an's skills, n eith er consum ption o f
n atu re n o r ex ertion in cultivation o f internal sentim ents o r ideas is melakhah.12Says
H irsch, Even if you tired yourself ou t the whole day, as long as you have produced
n o th in g . . . you have p e rfo rm ed no melakhah." 15
T o sh ap e an d form creation on Sabbath is to presum e to a d d to what G od has
already com pleted. Even the smallest work d o n e on the Sabbath is a denial o f the
fact th at G od is the C rea to r and M aster o f the world. It is an arro g an t setting-up o f
m an as his own m aster ." 11 R esting from w ork acknow ledges that G od is com pletely
the M aker o f creation. By conform ing to G ods rest after C reation, m an also
reveals his G odlikeness. Isidor G runfeld, the English tran slato r o f H irschs works,
explains th at as G od d em o n strated His freedom by ceasing from His work o f
C reation, "freely controlling and lim iting th e creation H e b ro u g h t into being
according to His will, so by keeping Sabbath th e Jew becom es, like G od, w orks
m aster, not its slave . 15 E m anuel R ackm an, o ne o f Soloveitchiks disciples, agrees.
Man, by resting from su b d u in g n atu re , m ight, in a kind o f im itation o f G od, catch
a glim pse o f th at freedom which is the essence o f G ods n a tu re ." 16
T h e Jew is not left by th e law with only a negative u n d ersta n d in g o f the
Sabbath n o t p erfo rm in g melakhah. T h e re is also the concept o f menuhah, o r rest.
W hile negative u n d ersta n d in g s o f this w ord are possible, N orm an Lam m , an o th e r
o f Soloveitchiks students and p resident o f Yeshiva U niversity, stresses th at in
relation to th e Sabbath, menuhah has a positive m eaning in n e r re-creation or
self-transform ation. O n the Sabbath the Jew is involved with G od in creating "a

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 T H E S A B BA T H IN MODERN J E WI S H T H E O L O G Y

new an d b etter identity." T his is w hat tradition m eans w hen it says th at on

Shabbat we receive a neshamah yeterah, an additional soul . " 17
O rth o d o x y s discussion o f the Sabbath em phasizes how conform ity to the law'
brings m an s actions into line with the will o f the C reator. B ut conform ity to G ods
will does not result in dreariness. O n th e contrary, fo r the O rth o d o x , as for all
Jews, the Sabbath brings a sense o f freedom an d joyfulness. Because in the
Sabbath God com es to all observing m en, w hatever th eir rank, no Jew has to think
that he is ultim ately in G o d s eyes in ferio r to any o th e r m an. O bservance o f the
Sabbath frees th e Jew from all hierarchies: O n the Sabbath servant an d m aster
m eet as equals, as free h u m an personalities___Sabbath is thus a w eekly-recurring
divine protest against slavery an d oppression. Lifting u p his K iddush-cup on
Friday night, th e Jew links the creation o f the w orld with m ans freedom , so
declaring slavery a n d oppression deadly sins against the very foun d atio n o f the
universe." "
M oreover, assured th at following G ods will has b ro u g h t him equally into
G o d s favor, H irsch says that the feeling o f ecstasy which fills a Jew on a Friday
night, when a fte r a week o f h a rd a n d honest labour he greets the Sabbath am idst
his family with his cup raised un to G od no lips have yet fo u n d words for it ." 19
Reason and Ethics
For all the ex p erim entation o f nineteenth-century R eform rabbis with
Sabbath services on the first day o f the week, H erm ann C ohen, who provided the
fo u n d atio n for R eform thinking in the early tw entieth century, revered the
Sabbath. W hereas O rthodoxy's u n d ersta n d in g o f th e Sabbath em phasizes will and
Jew ish law, th e R eform trad itio n stresses the relation o f th e Sabbath to intellect
an d a universal ethics.
A ccording to C ohen, at least two aspects o f Judaism d em o n strate its
ad h eren ce to a universal, rational ethics: first, the concern o f the p ro p h e ts in
proclaim ing th at th e love o f a m onotheistic God m ust be reflected in m an s "social
love fo r the fellow m an;Nan d second, the p ro p h e ts proclam ation o f the Sabbath.
T h e p ro p h e ts' work for m oral refo rm centers on the idea o f the Sabbath
which becom es th e symbol o f social m orality, he states. All m en are equal, fo r all
have been called u p o n to lead a m oral life-----A nd it is his (Jerem iahs] concept o f
social justice th at m otivates him to advocate the sanctification o f the S abbath. !l
F or th e p ro p h ets th e Sabbath becom es the expression o f m orality itself.
As m uch as Hirsch o r any o f the O rth o d o x w riters, C ohen shares in th e jo y o f
the Sabbath, b u t fo r d iffe ren t reasons. R ather than praising the Sabbath as G od's
gracious way to form Jew ish character, C ohen delights in the way the Sabbath has
ex ten d ed m onotheism . T h e Sabbath is given first to Israel. B ut the w orld has
accepted it.
C ohen believes th at the Sabbath has preserved Judaism to fulfill its mission
o f sp read in g m onotheism over the earth . . . . In the Sabbath the G od o f love
showed him self as th e unique G od o f love for m ankind. Indeed, C ohen refers to
the law o f th e Sabbath" as the quintessence o f the m onotheistic m oral teaching,"
and he also d ares to hope th at in universality o f its celebration the Messianic Age
has already daw ned. Ifju d a is m had given only the Sabbath to the w'orld, it would
by this alone be identified as the m essenger o f joy an d as the fo u n d e r o f peace
am ong m ankind. T h e Sabbath took the first step which led to the abolition o f

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 T H E S AB BA TH IN S CR IP T UR E AND HI STORY

slavery, an d th e Sabbath also took the first step in showing the way to the abolition
o f th e division o f labor into m anual an d intellectual labor. T h e Sabbath is the sign
o f joy which will rise over m en w hen all m en are equally free a n d liable to service,
an d have an equal share in the teaching, in science, its inquiry and its know ledge,
as well as in the labor fo r th eir daily bread. T h e conquest o f the world which has
been achieved by the Sabbath, does not perm it one to abandon the hope, the
confidence, th at this joy is no em pty illusion, an d that the peace which radiates in
this joy is, a n d will rem ain, a fu n d am en tal pow er o f the h u m an race .*4
T h e sam e year th at C ohen retired from his University o f M arburg
philosophy professorship, 1912, an d went to Berlin to teach in the A cadem y for
the Scientific Study o f Ju d aism , Leo Baeck arrived to take the place o f Berlin's
ailing senior rabbi. Baeck, like C ohen m ore than thirty years before, received a
do cto rate in philosophy from the University o f Berlin (for a dissertation on
Spinoza), and C ohen assum ed that Baeck would be his intellectual successor.
Baecks theology o f the Sabbath does echo som e o f C ohen's them es. In spite o f
living th ro u g h two w orld wars, Baeck sustained C o h en s faith in a universal m oral
o rd e r an d re g a rd e d the Sabbath as its symbol. H e considered the Sabbath one o f
Ju d a ism s greatest contributions to m ankind because from this people the
Sabbath m ade its way th ro u g h m any lands an d times. As this people was blessed by
it an d is to rem ain blessed, so did it bless the peoples to w hom it cam e." T h e
Sabbath points a n d reaches tow ard a world o f harm ony, tow ard a great peace. ,J
For Baeck, as fo r C ohen, the Sabbath is the im age o f the m essianic. **
B ut Baecks description o f the Sabbath and Judaism rem oves him , m ore than
C ohen, from his contem porary society. T h e Jew lives in the world, "yet is
d ifferen t." Ju d aism contributes to th e good o f society, and yet it may well be its
historic task to o ffer this im age o f the dissenter, who dissents for h um anitys
sake .*7
W hat Baeck calls the Jew ish capacity to lie differen t" is the result o f the
Sabbaths ed u cating m ans capacity to explore the d ep th o f life." In language that
reaches beyond C o h en s identification o f religion with rationality an d ethics,
Baeck also says that the Sabbath rest is essentially religious, p art o f the
atm o sp h ere o f th e divine: it leads us to the m ystery, to the d ep th ." H e says that "a
life w ithout Sabbath w ould lack the spring o f renew al, that which opens the well o f
the d ep th again an d again. An essential an d fruitful aspect o f Judaism would dry
u p in such a life; it could still be an ethical life, but it would lack that which defines
the Jew ish life."1* Baeck does not restrict Judaism to the d ep th s o f religion, but he
does say that what is unique about Ju d aism lies in that area, a n d the experience o f
the Sabbath draw s us into ju st such realm s o f revivifying mystery.
E xistence and H istory
By th e tim e Baeck an d C ohen cam e to B erlin, an o th e r philosopher, M artin
B uber, had already em erged from the University o f V ienna an d from an intense
study o f Hasidism with ideas th at w ould take Jew ish theology even fu rth e r in the
d irection that Baecks com m ents on mystery an d d ep th indicated. Interestingly,
however. B uber's w ritings specifically on the Sabbath carry o n som e o f the them es
Baeck co n tin u ed from C ohen, nam ely, the universality o f the Sabbath a n d the
S abbath's ethical im portance.
T h e Sabbath does not burst into view at Sinai, declares B uber; ra th e r, the

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 T H E S AB BA T H IN MODERN J E WI S H T H E O L O G Y

Sabbath is ro o ted in the very beginnings of the w orld itself. T h e creation o f the
world . . . flow[s] into such a S abbath. W ith such an origin, the Sabbath week is
really to articulate universal lim e." T h e Sabbath, fo r B uber, does not rep resen t
th e unique, but th e quotidian. T h e Sabbath represents the equal m easure, the
re g u lar articulation o f th e y e a r .. . . [It represents] th at which is valid at all times."
H aving ro o ted th e Sabbath in som ething as universal as C reation, B uber
em phasizes, like C ohen, that th e Sabbath is the com m on p ro p erty o f all, a n d all
o u g h t to enjoy it w ithout restriction .*9
For B uber, as for C ohen, G ods Sabbath is a ju st peace. W ith the Sabbath in
the Decalogue com ing betw een initial com m andm ents re g ard in g w'orship o f
Yahweh and those respecting ethical obligations to fellow hum ans, it is clear that
fo r Moses th e reign o f his C od an d a ju s t o rd e r betw een m en are o n e an d the
sam e. In th e com ing o f the weekly Sabbath to servants as m uch as to m asters, and
the restoration o f d ebtors an d slaves to full status d u rin g the Sabbatical y ear, one
can see that th e idea o f the equality o f all creatu res is certainly characteristic o f
the Sabbatical year, as it is o f th e Sabbath itself." w
In spite o f th e fact that Franz Rosenzweig w ould, like B uber, take Jew ish
theology in a direction very d iffe re n t from C ohens, it is not astonishing that he
sh ared som e o f th e sam e ideas about the Sabbath B uber held in com m on with
C ohen. A fter all, Rosenzweig was H e rm an n C o h en s adm iring stu d en t. T h e sam e
year that Baeck a n d C ohen converged on B erlin, Rosenzweig finished his doctoral
dissertation on H egel at Freiberg. A few m onths later, in a small o rth o d o x
synagogue in B erlin, he m ade a dram atic recom m itm ent to Ju d aism and
im m ediately en rolled in C ohen's courses at the Berlin Academ y for the Scientific
Study o f Ju d aism . H e rem ain ed in touch with C ohen to the en d o f his life, and
afte r C ohen's d ea th he w rote an ex ten d ed introduction to the great m an's
collected works. A few' m onths afte r e n terin g C o h en s classes, Rosenzweig m et
M artin B uber. T h e latter p ro m p d y asked Rosenzweig to contribute to a collection
o f essays he was editing, establishing a personal an d prof essional relationship that
was to result in B u b ers replacing the ailing Rosenzweig (the U niversity o f
F ran k fu rt's first choice) as the first p rofessor o f Ju d aism in a G erm an university.
Rosenzweig also jo in ed B uber in translating the H ebrew Bible into G erm an.
Rosenzweig begins his discussion of the Sabbath by relating it to C reation in
term s that read ers o f C ohen an d B uber would find fam iliar. T h e Sabbath
rep resen ts that which is fu n d am en tal an d en d u rin g : T h e very regularity in the
sequence o f Sabbaths, the very fact t h a t . .. one Sabbath isjust like the o th er, m akes
them th e corn ersto n es o f the y ear___ In the Sabbath the year is created, an d thus
the m ain significance o f the Sabbath lies in the symbolic m eaning o f its liturgy: it is
a holiday th at com m em orates creatio n ." 51
H ow ever, Rosenzweig's discussion o f the Sabbath differs from his teachers'
and frien d s' at points w here his theology generally parts com pany with theirs.
W hile C ohen, Baeck, and B uber stress the im portance o f the Sabbath for m ankind
an d its significance for a universal ethics, Rosenzweig organizes his reflections on
the Sabbath a ro u n d the liturgical practice o f the Jew ish com m unity. H e begins his
rem ark s on th e Sabbath by discussing C reation because he believes the beginning
o f th e Jew ish Sabbath, the Friday evening celebration in the hom e, with its
traditional use o f th e bread a n d wine, "the ennobled gifts o f ea rth ," particularly
com m em orates C reation.s*

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 T H E S A B B A T H IN S C RI P TU R E AND HI STORY

W hile Friday evening particularly honors C reation, the m orning celebrates

revelation." In the m orning, with the extensive reading from the Bible, we find
u tteran ce o f th e people's aw areness o f being elect th ro u g h the gift o f th e T o ra h ."
W ith th e A fternoon P rayer o f the Sabbath and the songs and dances o f the th ird
meal," Jew s reel with th e tran sp o rt o f certainty that the Messiah will com e an d will
com e soon." For Rosenzweig, who sees C reation, revelation, an d especially
red em p tio n as the central them es o f Judaism , the Sabbath is its epitom e. C om ing
at th e climax o f the week, th e Sabbath com m em orates the goal o f C reation
redem ption. "In celebrating it we go, in the m idst o f creation, beyond creation an d
revelation." In fact, "on th e Sabbath the congregation feels as if it w ere already
re d e e m e d ."
But the greatest im pact o f both Rosenzweig an d B uber on u n d ersta n d in g the
Sabbath was not in th eir explicit statem ents on the Sabbath. It was in shifting the
basis o f Jew ish theology from universal reason to personal existence. "T h e
th inker," said Rosenzweig, as he launched his relentless attack on G erm an
idealism, "m ust proceed boldly from his own subjective situation. MT h e year that
Rosenzweig asked B uber to take his place lecturing at the University o f F ran k fu rt,
B ubers I and Thou ap p eared . Its im pact was such th at rational idealism in Jewish
theology has n ever fully recovered.
W?hile Rosenzweig a n d B ubers developm ent o f the existentialist insights o f
m en such as K ierkegaard an d Nietzsche was notable, th eir appreciation o f
Hasidism was also significant for th eir Sabbath theology. Rosenzweig, afte r
jo in in g a congregation o f W arsaw H asidim in th e ir celebration o f the Sabbath
'third m ean," was furious at slurs against them . I d o n 't believe in all th at talk
about d ecadence: those w ho now find all this d ecad en t would have seen noth in g
but decadence even a h u n d re d and fifty years ago," he exclaim ed, later ad d in g
that "o u r craven chim ing in with the chorus o f obloquy against the Polish Jew s is
the most sham eful o f th e m any sham eful things that m ake u p Jew ish life in
G erm any." *
It was B uber, o f course, who had studied at the University o f Berlin u n d e r
professors such as W ilhelm Dilthey an d G eorg Sim m el and w ritten his dissertation
in V ienna on G erm an mysticism, who fo u n d in the Hasidic tradition within
Ju d aism those subjective, personal qualities o f existence treasu red by his teachers
and favorite w riters. It is tru e that the Sabbath played a prom inent part in som e o f
the Hasidic tales he retold, but m ore significant fo r the place o f the S abbath in
Ju d aism was his identifying his own ideas o f dialogue and relationship with the
H asidim s religious experience. A fter B uber's discovery o f the Hasidim , educated
n o n -O rth o d o x Jew s o f W estern E urope an d th e U nited States had options o th er
than eith er Halachic observance o f th e law o r espousal o f som e rational, universal
m orality. Jew s could identify with a personal, com m unal enjoym ent o f a caring,
responsive G od. It was inevitable that acceptance o f the em otional aspects o f
existence as a part o f g enuine Judaism would lead to renew ed attraction for what
Jew s had always identified with jo y the Sabbath.
Passion and Symbol
In 1937, w hen he finally left G erm any, B uber selected, as his successor to
head both the Jew ish Academ y in F ran k fu rt established by Rosenzweig an d the
C entral Office for Jew ish A dult E ducation in G erm any, a young Polish rabbi

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 T H E S A B B A TH I N MODERN J E W I S H T H E O L O G Y

ro o ted in Hasidism an d edu cated at the University o f B erlin, A braham Jo sh u a

Heschel. Heschel was to provide co n tem p o rary Ju d aism with a theology th at drew
from th e full ran g e o f Jew ish thin k in g a n d in the process was to write the m ost
im p o rtan t book on the Sabbath since Em ancipation.
H eschel's biography m akes him a p p e a r destined to play his m ediating role.
His p aren ts descended from early, illustrious Hasidic rebbes; his fa th e r from the
M aggid o f M ezhirech, the successor o f the Baal Shem Tov, H asidim s founder.
A fter grow ing u p im m ersed in the H asidic in terp re tatio n o f the T alm u d and
K abbalah, H eschel broke away at 20 to enroll in the University o f B erlins
philosophy d e p a rtm e n t, w here he studied phenom enology an d w rote a
dissertation on th e p h en o m en o n o f prophetism . Im m ediately upon g rad u atio n
he jo in ed th e faculty o f the sam e Berlin academ y for Jew ish studies w here C ohen
an d Rosenzweig h ad m et a n d w here Baeck was still teaching. A fter him self
escaping Nazi G erm any, H eschel first taught at the R eform H ebrew U nion
College in C incinnati, th en m oved to New York an d th e C onservative Jew ish
T heological S em inary.Vl
Heschel took Jew ish theology fu rth e r in th e direction that B uber and
Rosenzweig had already started. His w riting on the Sabbath was p art o f his
lifelong preo ccu p atio n with religious experience, particularly the em otive aspects
o f characteristically Jew ish experience. He insisted th at the em ploym ent o f
reason is indispensable to the u n d e rsta n d in g and w orship o f G od." He also knew
the im p o rtan ce o f th e will, stressing the significance o f mitzvoh, o r req u ired deeds,
saying th at it was characteristic o f Ju d aism to dem an d the leap o f action .57 But
m ore th an his teachers o r colleagues, Heschel drew Ju d aism beyond disputes over
the law o r reason to an appreciation o f the passions, w here m an responds to g eth er
with his o th e r faculties to "the ineffable with am azem ent, fascination, and awe.**
As he looked at the tu rb u le n t experience o f the Biblical w riters, particularly
the p ro p h ets, he found the p ro p h e ts' sym pathy resp o n d in g to G ods pathos. In
th e Biblical outlook, m ovem ents o f feeling are no less spiritual th an acts o f
th o u g h t. For th e Biblical w riters, pathos, em otional involvem ent, passionate
participation, is a p a rt o f religious existence." H e was convinced th at the notion
th at G od can be intim ately affected, th at H e possesses not m erely intelligence and
will b u t also pathos, basically defines the prophetic consciousness o f G od."
Heschel went so far as to say th a t events an d hu m an actions arouse in H im jo y o r
sorrow , pleasure o r w rath. C onversely, hu m an sym pathy fo r G od is a feeling
which feels th e feeling to w hich it reacts___In p roph etic sym pathy, m an is op en to
the presence a n d em otion o f th e tran scen d en t Subject. H e carries within him self
th e aw areness o f what is h ap p e n in g to G od." T h e phenom enologist from Berlin
finds in religious exp erience all the passion and boldness o f Hasidic piety.
Heschel does not abandon his reason w hen discussing the Sabbath. Far from
it. In term s rem iniscent o f th e idealism C ohen adm ired, H eschel distinguishes the
spiritual and m aterial by em phasizing a parallel distinction betw een m an s
exp erien ce o f tim e and space. Space is external to us, lim ited, m anipulatable. Six
days o f th e week we work an d m old it. T im e is internal, tran scen d en t, sovereign:
It is both n ea r a n d far, intrinsic to all experience an d transcending all experience.
It belongs exclusively to G o d .40T o w orship in tim e is to w orship th e G od beyond
us.
H eschel also associated the Sabbath with universality, a universality in time:
T SISA H -18 070
 THF. S A B BA T H IN S CR I PT UR E AND H IS TOR Y

Every o ne o f us occupies a portion o f space. H e takes it u p exclusively. T h e

portio n o f space which my body occupies is taken up by m yself in exclusion o f
anyone else. Yet, no o n e possesses time. T h e re is no m om ent which I possess
exclusively. T h is very m om ent belongs to all living m en as it belongs to m e. We
share time, we own space. T h ro u g h my ow nership o f space. I am a rival o f all o th e r
beings; th ro u g h my living in time. 1 am a co n tem p o rary o f all o th e r beings.*
T h u s, H eschels view o f the universality o f th e Sabbath differs from the
em phasis o f o th e r Jew ish writers. N ot th ro u g h its w idespread practice (C ohen,
Baeck), n o r because o f the recurringness it shares with all days (B uber,
Rosenzweig), but from the ch aracter o f o u r experience o f tim e itself, H eschel
recognizes in the Sabbath a fellowship encom passing all hum anity.
Heschel also sees an aspect d e a r to the R eform Jews: the ethical im portance o f
the Sabbath. A symbol in which one shares a day with all m ankind is a day to
rem em b er o n es com m on hum anity. "T h e Sabbath is an em bodim ent o f th e belief
that all m en are equal and that equality o f m en m eans the nobility o f m en."
Heschel saw the relevance o f the Sabbath experience to general experience. He
acknow ledged the Sabbath as "a day o f arm istice in the economic struggle with o u r
fellow m en an d the forces o f n atu re is th e re any institution that holds out a
g re ater ho p e for m an's progress than the Sabbath?
H owever, Heschel did not so distinguish tim e and space as to oppose them .
"T h e faith o f th e Jew is not a way out o f this world, but a way o f being within and
above this w orld; not to reject but to surpass civilization. T h e Sabbath is the day on

But Heschel does not see the Sabbath as prim arily a symbol o f universal
C reation. Like Rosenzweig, H eschel looks upon the tem poral symbol o f the
Sabbath as ultim ately a m em orial o f red em p tio n : T h e Bible is m o re concerned
with tim e th a n with space. . . . It is m ore concerned with history than with
g e o g ra p h y .. . . T o Israel the unique events o f historic lim e w ere spiritually m ore
significant lh an the repetitive processes in the cycle o f n a tu re . For Ju d aism , the
Sabbath is a tim e to rem em b er w hen it was chosen by C o d s m ighty acts: We
rem em b er th e day o f th e exodus from Egypi. the day when Israel stood at Sinai;
an d o u r M essianic hope is the expectation o f a dav. o f the e n d o f davs. u
M ore than his acknow ledgm ent that the Sabbath rem ains a concrete fact, a
legal institution," an d his defen se o f the rabbinic system o f laws an d rules o f
observance" as a logical extension o f single-m inded devotion o f total love," it is
H eschels identification o f the Sabbath with the particular, redem ptive history o f
the Jew s th at m akes his theology o f the Sabbath, in some im p o rtan t sense o f the

How ever, it is not halachic orthodoxy ; Heschels w ork on the Sabbath is

traditional, but it is the tradition o f uggadah. Ualachah is the rationalism o f the
O rth o d o x , th e codification o f how the m ind guides the will. Heschel respects and
h o n o rs halachah, but "m ust halachah continue to ignore the voice of aggadah?
Must esoteric disputes over how the intellect can control the will ignore the
em otions by which all may ap p ro ach God? Heschel th o u g h t that "the utterances o f
th e psalm ist are charged with em otion," that in "reading the p ro p h ets we are
stirred by th eir passion an d enlivened im agination, an d th at fo r both, th eir
prim ary aim is to move the soul, to engage the attention by bold an d striking
im ages .'7 It is no w o n d er that his book. The Sabbalh, with its m etaphors, tales.
 T H E SABBATH IN MODERN JEWISH THEOLOGY

personifications, and poetry, is a w ork o f aggadah.

For som eone descended from both the Maggid o f M ezhirech and Levi Isaac
o f B erdichev, how else could Heschel talk o f the Sabbath but as the exodus from
tension, a sanctuary in time," a palace in tim e with a kingdom for all"? How else
could he describe observance o f th e Sabbath but as celebrating the coronation o f
a day in the spiritual w onderland o f time"?*' And how could Heschel help but
draw his read ers into the very sense and atm osphere o f the Sabbath he
knows into an aw areness o f the redem ption that he and they know- together?
People assem ble to welcome the w onder o f the seventh day, he declares,
while th e Sabbath sends out its presence over the fields, into o u r bom es, into o u r
hearts. It is a m om ent o f resu rrectio n o f the d o rm an t spirit in o u r s o u ls.. . . Some
o f us are overcom e with a feeling, as if alm ost all they would say would be like a veil.
T h e re is not en o u g h g ra n d e u r in o u r souls to be able to unravel in w ords the knot
o f tim e an d eternity. . . . A th o u g h t has blown the m arket place away. T h e re is a
song in the wind a n d jov in the trees. T h e Sabbath arrives in the w orld, scattering a
song in the silence o f the night: eternity u tters a day. . . . W hen the Sabbath is
en terin g the w orld, m an is touched by a m om ent o f actual redem ption; as if for a
m om ent the spirit o f the Messiah m oved over the face o f the e a rth ." 49
B etter than arg u e, Heschel will recreate within us those m om ents o f yearning
an d sym pathy for God that stirred the psalmist, the prophets, the pious ones o f
Israel. T h e ex p erien ce o f th e Sabbath will reenact G ods acts o f revelation and
red em p tio n . In d e ed , for Heschel, the Sabbath was a lim e w hen disputes over
concepts and deed s could be transcended by the experience o f feeling with God
the joy that G od feels.
C onvergence
T h e re is evidence th at H eschel's hopes for the experience o f the Sabbath are
being fulfilled both in observance and theology. A m ong Ref orm Jew s the issue o f
Sunday observance died a fte r ihe tu rn o f the century. Friday evening becam e the
tim e for w orship. Now, traditional liturgy is increasingly being in troduced into the
service. T h e re has even been a call by one o f R eform Ju d a ism s best-know n
figures, W. G u n th e r Plaui, fo r a re fo rm ed halachah o f the Sabbaih, since o u r
m ental h ealth ap p ro ach to the Sabbath is a failure. T h e fact is that the rabbi's
o pinion o f Sabbath observance as desirable and good for th e Je w has not been
convincing. 50
T h e most d ram atic evidence o f g re ater appreciation within R eform Ju d aism
for a m o re historic u n d ersta n d in g o f ihe Sabbath is the publication in 1975 o f Gates
of Prayer The New Union Prayerbook, providing m aterials for Sabbath w orship.
N oting th at th e new p ray er book contains an im pressive am o u n t o f traditional
liturgical m aterial, never before included in an A m erican R eform ritual o r in
m any a E u ro p ean Liberal o r R eform prayerbook," Jacob J. Petuchowski, a
professor o f theology at H ebrew U nion College, declares that "the publication o f
Gates of Prayer m ust be seen as a m ilestone not only in the history o f R eform liturgy,
b u t also in th e history o f A m erican R eform Judaism itself."11
T h e accelerating tre n d tow ard traditional observance o f the Sabbath
coincides with renew ed adm iration for Heschel on the p art of R eform Ju d aism 's
m ost respected theologians. W ith Emil L. Fackenheim having said o f H eschel's
theology in its most fully developed form , "It is perhaps the most p ro fo u n d

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 T H E SABBATH IN SCRIPTURE AND HISTORY

religious th in k in g that has been o ffe re d to A m erican Judaism in o u r tim e," and
E ugene B. B orowitzs concluding an overview o f contem porary Ju d aism with the
statem ent th at n o person o f o u r tim e has so well epitom ized the ro u n d e d n ess o f
C ovenantal existence as did A braham H eschel," it is certain th at H eschels
invocation o f th e splendors o f the Sabbath will m eet with increasing response
from R eform Ju d aism .52
W hile R eform Ju d aism w avered in its com m itm ent to th e Sabbath,
O rth o d o x y s strict observance o f the Sabbath has continued u n in te rru p te d by
E m ancipation. But th e re is virtually no public acknow ledgm ent from its
theologians o f H eschels em phasis on passionate experience o f the Sabbath.
How ever, o n e cannot help but think that even the few w ritings published in
English by O rth o d o x y s greatest living representative in Am erica, Jo se p h R.
Soloveitchik, reflects acquaintance with H eschels theology.
In conclusion, it m ust be stated th at H eschels greatness as a Jew ish theologian
m ust be m easu red by the boldness o f his vision. His concerns reached beyond
interfaith d ialogue betw een Jew s an d C hristians. His last book, com pleted the
Friday afte rn o o n he died, was a tribute to the Hasidic m aster m ost like the G aon o f
Vilna, Reb M enahem M endl o f Kotzk. It ends wilh the w ords T ru th is alive,
dw elling som ew here, never weary. A nd all o f m ankind is n eeded to liberate it." M
M oreover, H eschels book on the Sabbath was surely not haphazardly titled:
The Sabbath: Its Meaning fo r Modem Man. Was th e re ever a rebbe m ore daring? M ore
than any th in k e r since E m ancipation, Heschel launched Ju d aism on the v en tu re
o f p u rsu in g its m ost obvious particularity in the point o f universality. At a tim e
when theories d o not convince n o r laws elicit reverence, Heschel has appealed to
m an s passions. Heschel has plunged to the very core o f Jew ish religious
experience, certain that the radiance o f Sabbath joy will inflam e all m en. From the
h eart o f Ju d aism he will be a tzaddik to th e world. As he says, in the final w ords o f
The Sabbath:
T h e re a re few ideas in the w orld o f th o u g h t which contain so m uch spiritual
pow er as th e idea o f the Sabbath. A eons hence, when o f m any o f o u r cherished
theories only shreds will rem ain, that cosmic tapestry will continue to shine.

NOTES
1 For inform ation on prcsent-dav Sabbathkoeping groups, see chapter 13, pp. 255-255.
2 B ecau se th is essay fo cu ses o n th e o lo g y . it d o e s n ot an alyze rabbinic re sp o n se re g a rd in g p ro p er o b se rv a n ce of
th e Sabb ath . A lso , th e essav d o c s n ot d iscu ss c o n tem p o ra ry E astern E u ro p ea n o r Israeli w riting. It c o n ce n tra te s,
rath er, o n m ajor w riters o f J e w is h ih e o lo g y in th e W est.
5 S im on N ov eck . e d .. G reat Jew ish Personalities of M odern Times (N ew Y ork, I9 6 0 ), p. 7.
4 M ordecai M. K aplan, T he (renter J udaism in the M a tin # ( N ew Y ork. 1960), p p . 2 2 7 - 2 3 1, q u o te d in N o v eck . op
n t.. p. 6 3 .
s W. G u n th er Plaut. T hr Rise o f R eform Ju d a ism (N ew Y ork. 196 3 ). p. 185.
6 N ov eck . op. cit., d. 130.
7 J o s e p h L. B lau . M o d em Varieties o f Ju d a ism (N e * York a n d l.o n d o n . 1966). p. 58.
K *V. u u n t h e r Plaut, The Growth o f Reform Judaism (N ew Y ork, 1965), p. 2 69.
9 B lau , op. cit., p. 107.
10 S a m so n R ap h ael H irsch , Horeb A Philosophy o f Je w ish Laws a n d Obser\>ances. 2 vols. (L o n d o n . 1 962), 1:62.
11 I. (ir u n fc ld . T he Sabbath: A G uide to Its I 'nderstanding a n d O bservante. 3 d ed . (J eru sa lem a n d N ew Y ork , 1972). p.

12 H irsch . ob. n t . p . 65; cf. E m an u el Rat k m an. "Sabbath a n d Festivals in th e M o d e m A ge." in Studies in Torah
Judaism , ed . by l x o n D. Stitskin, (N ew Y ork. 1969), p . 52.
13 H irsch . op. n t .. p. 6 4 .
14 Ibid.. p (>3.
15 G r u n fe ld , op. n t.. p p . 4 . 5.
16 R ack m an. <>p a t ., p. 54.
17 N orm an L am m . F aith a n d Doubt: Studies in T raditional J e u is h T hought (N ew Y ork . 1 971). p. 2 0 4 .

276
 T H E SABBATH IN MODERN JEWISH THEOLOGY

18 G r u n fe ld . op. ext., p p . 9 , 10.

,f S a m son R ap h ael H irsch . " T h e J ew ish Sabbath.** in Judaism E tern a l (L o n d o n . 1 9 3 6 ). p. 152.
10 H e rm a n n C o h e n . Religion of Reason (N ew Y ork . 1 9 /2 ). p . 161.
11 H e rm a n n C o h e n . Reason a n d H ope: Selections fr o m the Jew ish W ritings o f H erm a n n C ohen (N ew Y ork . 197 1 ), pp.

** Cohen, op. at., p. 157.

n lbuL
M Ibid.. p p . 15. 155. 4 5 8 .
23 L eo B aeck. This People Israel. T he M ea n in g o f Jew ish Existence (N ew Y ork. 1964). p p . 1 37. 138.
26 Idem . M ystery a n d ( io m n u n d m c n l." in Contemporary Jew ish Thought, e d . bv S im o n N o v e c k ([W a sh in g to n ],
1963K p. 20 2 .
27 B aeck . M ystery a n d ('.om m andm ent.** p. 2 0 3 .
28 Ibid.. p p . 2 0 3 . '202
29 M artin B u b er. Moses (O x fo r d . 1946). p p . 8 5 . 132. 133. 8 4 .
30 Ibid.. p p 8 4 . 8 5 . 178.
51 Franz R osen zw eig . T he Star o f Redem ption (N ew Y ork. 1971). p p . 3 1 0 . 3 11.
/ W . . p. 3 1 2 .
M Ibid.. p p . 3 1 2 -3 1 5 .
34 N a h u m G latzer, E ranz R o se n zu n g : H is L ife a n d T hought (N e w Y ork. 1 953), p. 179.
33 G latzer. op. tit., p p. 7 5 , 78.
36 Rabbi S ey m o u r a ie g e l, w h o su c c e e d e d to th e sem in ary's S im on P ro fesso rsh ip in Jew ish th eo lo g y p rev io u sly
o cc u p ie d by H e sc h e l, an d w h o h as h im s e lf w ritten o n th e Sabbath (T h e M eaning o f th e Sabbath.** u n p u b lish ed
m a n u scrip t), p ro v id ed valu ab le criticism o f th e essay at this a n d o th e r p oin ts.
37 A braham J o s h u a H e sc h e l. G od in Search o f S ia n A Philosophy o f J u d a ism (N ew Y ork. 1 955). p p. 2 0 . 2 8 3 .
M Ibid., p. 20. rr
19 A braham J o sh u a H e sc h e l. T he Prophets (N ew Y ork an d F.vanston. 1 962). p p. 2 5 9 .2 6 0 . 2 2 4 . 3 0 9 . C o m m en ta ry
o n H esch el's th eo lo g y sh ow s n o sign o f sla ck en in g . S o m e o f th e m ost h e lp fu l, in ch ro n o lo g ica l o rd er: F. La B
C h e rb o n m e r, A. I. H e sc h e l an d th e P h ilo so p h y o f th e Bible." Commentary 2 7 (January, 1 9 5 9 ):2 3 -2 9 ; Zalrnan M.
S ch ch ter. T w o Facets o f Ju d aism ." T radition 3 (S p rin g . 1961 ).T 9 1 -2 0 2 ; E liezer B erk o v its. D r A. I. H e sc h e ls
T h e o lo g y o f Pathos." T radition 6 (S p r in g /S u m m er. 1 9 6 4 ):6 7 -1 0 4 ; Fritz A. R otsch ild . T h e R elig io u s t h o u g h t o f
A b raham H e sc h e l. C o n serva tn r Ju d a ism 2 4 (Fall. 1968): 1 2 -14; Franklin S h e rm a n . T he Promise o f Heschel (N ew York.
1970): Sol T a n e n z a p f. A b raham H e sc h e l an d his C ritics," Judaism 23 (S u m m e r. 1 9 7 4 ):2 7 6 -2 8 6
A braham J o sn u a H e sc h e l. T he Sabbath (N ew Y ork. 1951), p. 9 9 .
41 Ibid
42 H e sc h e l. G od in Search o f S la n . p. 4 1 7 .
43 H e sc h e l, Sabbath, p . 28.
44 Ibid.. p. 27.
45 Ibid., p p . 6 -8 .
46 Ibid.. p p . 16. 17.
47 H e sc h e l. Prophets, p. 2 5 8
48 H e sc h e l. Sabbath, p p. 2 9 . 2 1 ,1 8 .
49 llnd.. p p . 6 6 -6 8 .
30 W. G u n th e r Plaut, " T h e Sabbath in th e R efo rm M ovem ent." in Reform Judaism : A H istorical Perspective, e d . bv
J o s e p h L. B lau (N ew Y ork . 1973). 244
J a cob I. P etu ch ow sk i. B o o k b in d e r to th e R escue!" Consen>ative Ju d a ism 91 (Fall. 1975): 12. 14.
32 E m il L. F a c k c n h cim , Review o f G od in Search o f S ia n ." C onservative J u d a u m 16 (F ail. 1 9 6 0 ):5 3 ; E u g e n e B.
B orow itz. G o d a n d M an in J u d a ism T o d a y : A R efo rm Perspective.** Ju d a ism 2 3 (S u m m e r, 1 9 7 4 ):3 0 8 .
33 S ee J o s e p h B S oloveitch ik . T h e L on ely M an o f Faith." Tradition 7 (S u m m e r. l9 6 5 ):5 -6 7 . S o lo v eitch ik . u n lik e
H esch el has w ritten relatively little for th e p u b lic, but n e v e r th e le ss has b e c o m e highlv re v ered fo r his k n o w le d g e and
tea ch in g o f th e T a lm u d . H is a fo r e m e n tio n e d essay is su b jective, th e tale o f a p erso n a l dilem m a " ; in o th e r w o rd s, it is
aggadah O n th e m atter o f Sabbath th eology h e is. like H e sc h e l. in ter este d in m an's d irect e x p e r ie n c e o f lim e, n ot in
abstract co n ce p ts. B ut h e w ou ld u n d o u b te d ly d iffe r co n sid era b ly in to n e fro m H esch el in a m d escrip tio n h e m igh t
g ive re g a rd in g m an's a w a ren ess o f re d e m p tio n in th e Sabb ath " con ven an tal tim e e x p e r ie n c e . For fu rth er d eta ils o n
S o lo v eitch ik . see p a g es 7 3 3 -7 3 5 in m y o rig in a l article in th e J o u r n a l of Ecum enical Studies. It se e m s to m e that
Soloveitchik** th eo lo g ica l ou tlo o k has th e p oten tial for fu rth er d e v e lo p in g certain cr ea tiv e a sp e cts o f Sabbath
th e o lo g y , an d 1 w ou ld h o p e that h e w ill allow h im se lf to p u b lish m o re ex ten siv ely .
34 A b raham J o sh u a H e sc h e l. .A Passion fo r T ruth (N ew Y ork . 1973), p. 3 2 3 .
33 S ee B orow itz. op. cit.. p p 3 0 6 -3 0 8 .
** H e sc h e l. Sabbath, p . l 6 f .

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 CHAPTER 15

Contemporary Theologies
of the Sabbath

H ans K. LaRondelle

HF. present ch a p te r surveys som e contem porary theologies of the Sabbath

T (frequently used is a designation for Sunday), as held by four particular
groups: th e radical-critical school, neo-orthodoxy, evangelicals, a n d certain small
d en om inations a n d sects. Space lim itations necessitate that o u r treatm en t include
only a few o u tstan d in g representatives o f each g ro u p an d that the Sabbath
theologies o f such individuals be sum m arized ra th e r briefly.
Radical-Critical Concepts o f the Sabbath
Radical-critical scholarship starts from the presupposition that the origin o f
the Sabbath rem ains a m ystery a n d cannot be solved by any scientific verification.
Several conflicting hypotheses o f a possible origin have been proposed, such as the
gloomy B abylonian-Assyrian taboo days, o r the rest day o f the Kenites (a tribe o f
sm iths), o r a feast day o f the full m oon, o r an ancient m arket day. an d various
o th e r theories.* 1 Several conservative scholars have indicated the inconclusive
ness an d unlikeliness o f such extra-Biblical origins o f the S abbath.2 Especially the
careful study o f J . H. Nleesters has shown conclusively that all effo rts to explain
the origin o f th e Sabbath from extra-Israelite institutions o r custom s m ust be
co u n ted as a failure," so th at only o n e conclusion rem ains: the Sabbath, ju st as the
seven-day week, cannot be anything but a unique, Israelite creation, w ithout a
c o u n te rp a rt elsew here at any tim e. T h e sam e conclusion has been draw n bv many
o th er scholars, including E d u ard Lohse, who states that the m eaning an d content
o f th e O ld T estam ent Sabbath are exclusively controlled by Israel's faith in
Yahweh."*
It is generally felt am ong critical scholars that th e seventh-day Sabbath dates
back to Mosaic times, but th at the fo u rth com m andm ent as found in the
D ecalogue o f Exodus 20 o r D euteronom y 5 is the product o f later redactors.

* For d etails, v c c h a p ter 1. p p . 2 1 . 2 2 .

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 CONTEMPORARY THEOLOGIES OF TH E SABBATH

While it is acknow ledged lhai th e Sabbath is connected with Yahwism fro m the
beginning, th e m otivation fo r th e Sabbath celebration because o f the C reation
m otif in Exodus 20:11 is th o u g h t to be a later addition a ro u n d 500 B . C . by a
red acto r who was in spired by read in g the priestly n arrative o f C reation in Genesis
1-2. T h e E xodus m otif as m otivation fo r the Sabbath co m m an d m en t in
D euteronom y 5 is also taken as a later addition by the redactor o f th e book o f
D euteronom y a ro u n d 650 b . c .
Many have tried to reconstruct the so-called original Sabbath com m andm ent,
an d a com m on conclusion is that it probably was form ulated negatively: "You shall
p erfo rm no w ork on the seventh day." Since 1930 the tren d has been to date this
so-called original Sabbath co m m an d m en t early, d u rin g Israel's d esert jo u rn ey , o r
even to let it orig in ate with Moses him self.' T h e C reation narrative with m ention
o f th e Sabbath, in Genesis 2 :2 ,3 , how ever, is usually postulated as being w ritten by
priests after th e codification o f the D euteronom ic Decalogue, d u rin g th e
B abylonian exile. T h a t is, on the basis o f Genesis 2:2, 3, a n o th er re d acto r created
th e fo u rth co m m an d m en t o f E xodus 20:8-11 with its C reation motif.
In th e field o f New T estam en t studies Rudolf B ultm ann an d his followers
have expressed som e radical-critical concepts re g ard in g the Sabbath that have
been ad o p ted also by som e o f the m ore conservative evangelical scholars.
B ultm ann considers th e Sabbath story o f Jesus a n d His disciples in the grainfield
o f M ark 2:23-28 (cf. M atthew 12:1-8) as a construction o f the prim itive ch u rch ,
m olded by the post-R esurrection faith o f the early C hristians. He holds th at the
story re p resen ts th e later theology by which the C hristian ch u rch ascribed the
justification o f h er Sabbath custom s to Jesus. Also, he regards th e expression Son
o f m an" (Christ) as com ing from a later translator o f the Aram aic, an d concludes
that every m an is a lord o f th e Sabbath" a n d th ere fo re receives the liberty to
d isreg ard the Sabbath co m m an d m en t.6
E rnst K asem ann agrees basically with B ultm ann. b u t feels that the prim itive
ch u rch sh ran k back from so m uch freedom re g ard in g the Sabbath, an d th ere fo re
coined th e p h rase in M ark 2:28 th at it was ra th e r the Son o f m an who was the
L ord o f the Sabbath. A nd E. Lohse's position is sim ilar.7
In a m ore historical study, Willy R ordorf, in Sunday; The History of the Day of
Rest and Worship in the Earliest Centuries of the Christian Church, states: It is a
m isu n d erstan d in g to hold th at Jesus did not attack the sabbath co m m an d m en t
itself, but only th e casuistical refinem ents o f the Pharisees." He goes so far as to say
th at the Sabbath had failed in its divine purpose, a n d as a consequence rebellion
against it o r d isreg ard o f it was no sin. H e even states o f the Sabbath
co m m an d m en t th at "this com m andm ent enslaved hum an beings : For this
reason he [Jesus] was no t afraid o f calling in question th e co m m andm ent
contained in th e priesdy tradition o f the Old T estam ent." O n this assum ption
R o rd o rf concludes th at all o f Jesu s healings on the Sabbath days w ere
provocations to serve the express intention o f show ing that fo r him the sabbath
co m m an d m en t h ad no binding force. "
Jesu s' declaration th at " the sabbath was m ade for m an, not m an fo r the
sabbath (M ark 2:27, R.S.V.) was th ere fo re throw ing overboard th e en tire
sabbath theology established by post-exilic Ju d aism ." T h is is R ordorF s u n d e r
standing o f Jesu s' M essianic consciousness "which knew no bounds," so th at even
the S abbath co m m an d m en t o f th e O ld T estam en t was sim ply a n n u lle d " before

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 T H E SABBATH IN SCRIP PURE AND HISTORY

th e ceaseless activity o f Jesus. T h e w ord o f Jesu s as transm itted in M atthew 24:20,

'P ray th at y o u r flight may not be . . . on a sabbath"' (R.S.V.), is dism issed with the
sim ple rem ark th at this text "is a secondary, ex p a n d ed version o f M ark 13:18,
w here th e re is no m ention o f the sabbath . . . it is usually said that this expansion
derives from Jew ish C hristian circles strict in th eir observance o f the law. 10
R o rd o rf sharply separates the C hristian S unday from the Jew ish" Sabbath,
d eriving from th re e New T estam en t verses (1 C or. 16:2; Acts 20:7; Rev. 1:10)
th at S unday clearly played an im p o rtan t role even in the Pauline c h u rc h e s." 11 He
acknow ledges th a t the New T estam en t now here announces the origin o f the
C hristian observance o f Sunday, but nevertheless concludes from the a p p e a r
ances o f the risen L ord o n Sunday evenings that (he C hristian w orship a ro u n d the
L o rd s S u p p er on S unday reaches back to the apostles o f C hrist an d even to the
in tention o f th e risen L ord him self. 11
In sum m ary, radical-critical concepts concerning the Sabbath show n eith er
trust in the historical reliability o f the Biblical accounts an d stories n o r d u e respect
for th e tran sm itted text o f S cripture.
N eo-O rthodox T heologies o f the Sabbath
U ndoubtedly the m ost p ro fo u n d theology on th e Sabbath ever w ritten is that
by neo-o rth o d o x theologian Karl B arth in his Church Dogmatics." B arth is in basic
ag reem en t with J o h n Calvin, who h ad stressed that the Sabbath co m m andm ent
was re g ard e d o f su p rem e significance in the O ld T estam ent. Calvin had noticed
th at the Sabbath was held in singular estim ation above all com m andm ents o f
the law" because it is the distinctive sign o f G ods covenant o f grace with Israel, as
well as a foreshadow ing o f the spiritual a n d heavenly rest. B arth's Christological
theology develops especially Calvins concept that the Sabbath is a C reation
o rd in an ce an d that the C rea to r aroused m an's zeal to observe the Sabbath with
g re ater piety by His own exem plary d eed o f resting on the seventh day o f the
C reation w eek."
T ak in g th e work o f C reation in Genesis 1 theologically as the external basis
o f G od's covenant o f grace, B arth in terp rets G od's resting on the seventh day in
Genesis 2:2 as the "secret" beginning o f G ods covenant o f red eem in g m an,
because G od's resting m eans th at H e has com m itted H im self to belong to m an and
this world. B arth is convinced that G ods resting on the seventh day o f the
C reation week, in Genesis 2:2, signifies a specific C readon ord in an ce as a blessed
gift for all m ankind. C reation, with m an at its head, w ould find its com pletion only
in fellowship with God H im self an d participation in His divine rest, joy, and
freed o m : "W hat is concretely revealed in the first and divine observance o f the
Sabbath, an d in the im plied invitation to the creation to observe it as well, is no
m ore an d no less than the m eaning an d intention o f the covenant betw een God
an d m an. 11
B arth in terp re ts this covenant betw een G od an d m an, rep resen ted in Sabbath
fellowship, as a covenant o f grace an d redem ption to be fulfilled in C hrist. T h u s
th e C reation Sabbath speaks prophetically o f C hrist and m ust be u n d ersto o d
Christologically from the beginning in Genesis 2. T h e Sabbath as the sign o f the
prom ised rest o f grace really cam e not at the en d but at the beginning o f m an's
w orking week, since m an was created on the sixth day. Man could th e re fo re
celebrate on th e Sabbath only G ods own works an d m erits.

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 C O N T E M P O R A R Y T H E O L O G I E S O F T H E S AB BA TH

T h e fo u rth co m m andm ent, declares B arth, com m ands Israel to e n te r into

the rest o f divine grace an d not to have the slightest tru st in th eir own work o r
righteousness b efo re G o d . 16Israel was thus rem in d ed weekly th at the C rea to r was
th eir R edeem er, th eir Ju stih e r, a n d th eir Sanctifier. M oreover, B arth considers
th e Sabbath co m m an d m en t as the com prehensive a n d fu n d am en tal com m and o f
all G o d s co m m andm ents, as the sum total o f G ods covenant o f red eem in g grace,
because only in this co m m andm ent are law and gospel fully united!
F u rth erm o re , he recognizes not only the Christologtcal saving significance o f
the Sabbath but also an eschatological ju d g in g aspect. A ppealing to Isaiah 58:13,
14, a n d Jerem ia h 17:24-27, B arth observes a hid d en relationship o f the Sabbath
with th e day o f th e L ord a sju d g m e n t day. T h a t day will be, how ever, also the day
o f resto red blessing, the day o f the ultim ate fulfillm ent o f the prom ise given in the
first Sabbath. C onsequently, B arth is convinced not w ithout a certain awe, [of] the
radical im portance, the alm ost m onstrous range o f the Sabbath co m m and
m en t.
In B arth s theology o f the Sabbath th ere can be sensed an unbearable tension
betw een his idea that the Sabbath is a C reation ord in an ce a n d the sign o f
red eem in g grace, on the one han d , and his conclusion that the resu rrectio n o f
C hrist has terminated the history o f G ods covenant o f grace to g eth er with its sign,
the Sabbath day, on the o th e r hand. B arth tries to justify theologically the historic
change o f rest day from the seventh-day Sabbath to Sunday by the C hristian
church. He states surprisingly that the first advent o f C hrist, culm inating in
His resu rrectio n from the d ead on the first day o f the week, m eant the conclusion
o r term in atio n o f th e history o f the covenant and salvation . 18T h e re fo re th e first
day h ad to becom e the day o f rest o f the new time. B arth seems to realize th at the
necessity" o f this switch o f rest days is not obvious in such reasoning w ithout
scriptural legitim ization. H e p resents two arg u m en ts for his S unday theology that
he feels m ust serve to solve "this a p p a re n t revolution against its divine o rd e r in
creatio n . 19
His first arg u m e n t is an appeal to th re e controversial texts 1 C orinthians
16:2; Acts 20:7; Revelation 1:10w ithout any attem p t at exegesis. H e states only
that early C hristianity began to keep the first day o f the week instead o f the
seventh as a day o f rest . . . as a d eb t o f obedience. w O n e w onders where in
S crip tu re B arth has read such a com m and, w hen n eith er L u th er n o r Calvin could
find it!
But B arth th en prom ises also a direct proof." T his consists in the C hristian
discovery th at th e original o rd e r set by God for m an at C reation was the rest day
first (on G o d s seventh day), followed by six w orking days: T h e L ord's Day was
really his first day. H ence it o u g h t always to have been his first day an d not his
seventh an d last." T h u s B arth tries to solve his dilem m a by explaining that the
"first d ay rest was not really an innovation but the discovery o f the calculation
which was already hidden in the calculation o f Genesis 1.11
B arth adm its th at his so-called "direct p r o o f for the "Sunday Sabbath" is only
an inference, since his p ro o f is h id d e n in the calculation o f the Genesis C reation
account. B ut o ne may well ask: I f the seventh-day Sabbath as the L o rd s day really
had been A d am s first day, thus sym bolizing that m an lives by G ods initiating and
m aintaining grace, why the need for the church to change this "divine o rd e r in
creatio n ?

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 T H E S A B B A TH IN S CR I PT UR E AND HISTORY

In th e final analysis, B arth's attem pt to prove a Sunday Sabbath shows th at he

can n o t accept an actual term in atio n o f the Sabbath an d the Sabbath com m and
m en t in the new covenant o f C hrist. H e even defen d s a basic continuity o f the
S abbath when he concludes: New T estam en t C hristianity did not proclaim a
p articu lar an n u lm en t but, as it w ould ap p e a r from 1 C orinthians 16:2 and Acts
20:7 qu ite naturally began to celebrate this holy day on the first day o f the week, it
was not rebelling against the o rd e r o f creation but was acting in p ro fo u n d
ag reem en t with what is said in Exodus 20:8f. an d Genesis 2: If. on the basis o f the
Sabbath c o m m an d m en t ."1
It finally becom es d e a r how B arth can see the hallow ing o f S unday in
p ro fo u n d ag reem en t" with the C reation Sabbath o f Genesis 2 an d with the
Sabbath co m m an d m en t o f Exodus 20: nam ely, by dissecting the Sabbath from the
seventh day a n d by considering the Sabbath exclusively as the rest o f grace. T h en
the Sabbath only hovers over the seventh day but is not the seventh day. T his
Docetic philosophical Sabbath concept is obviously a non-Biblical assum ption.
Also, B arth h ere reaps w hat he has sown in his position to accept th e C reation
account o f Genesis 1 as a saga" only, th at is, no t as historically real an d authentic,
but tru e in its k e rn e l." .
In his spiritualizing in terp re tatio n o f the Sabbath, B arth re tu rn s som ew hat to
Calvin, w ho had already detached G od's rest from the seventh day in his
com m entary o n Genesis 2:3. Calvin had stated: First, th erefo re, God rested; then
he blessed this rest, that in all ages it m ight be held sacred am ong m en .4 In this
respect Calvin a n d B arth do not allow S cripture to say what it actually says in
Genesis 2:3: So God blessed the seventh day an d hallowed it. because on it God rested
from all his w ork which he h ad do n e in creation" (R.S.V.). S cripture does not state
th at God blessed His rest, bu t that G od blessed and hallowed "the seventh day,"
because H e had rested on th at day a fte r six days o f creative work. It is not the rest,
but th e rest day, that God blessed. T h is is em phatically rep eated in the Decalogue,
E xodus 20:11, with its pointed com m ission that the red eem ed Israel should
" rem em b er th e sabbath day, to keep it holy. . . . The seventh day is a sabbath to the
LORD your God" (Ex. 20:8-10, R.S.V.).
B arth's dogm atic Sabbath theology would have becom e m ore consistently
Biblical a n d less speculatively philosophical if he, as a Biblical theologian, could
have seen th at the resu rrectio n o f C hrist and the seventh-day Sabbath are not in
tension with each o th er, because the resu rrected C hrist remains the faithful
C rea to r (1 P eter 4:19). Probably m ore than any theologian in recent C hristian
history, B arth has em phasized the gospel o f G ods free grace in th e seventh-day
Sabbath as th e o rd a in e d sacram ent o f salvation. It is th ere fo re h a rd to u n d ersta n d
why he can conclude that C h rists resu rrectio n was to terminate the very sign o f
G ods everlasting covenant that H e gave in the beginning to m ankind, not ju st to
Israel later.
Following in the footsteps of B arth, the G erm an O ld T estam ent scholar Ernst
J e n n i in 1956 developed his theological foundations o f the Sabbath co m m an d
m ent in the O ld T estam en t" in a challenging study. Jen n i observes basically two
kinds o f fo u n d ations fo r the Sabbath com m andm ent; one is in the D ecalogue o f
Exodus 20 (verse 11), poin tin g back to G ods rest in C reation, the o th e r in the
D ecalogue o f D euteronom y 5 (verses 14, 15) pointing back to Israel's deliverance
from Egypt. In Exodus 2 0 Je n n i sees the typical priestly" foundation rep resen ted

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 C O N T E M P O R A R Y T H E O L O G I E S O F T H E S AB BA T H

an d in D euteronom y 5 the "D euteronom ic" one. although he thinks th at both

kinds o f theological foundation w ere "certainly ad d e d to th e com m andm ent
later. H e even declares: "T h e original Sabbath co m m andm ent m ust have been
fo rm u lated in sh o rter form an d have contained no fo u n d a tio n .*6 T h a t is, o f
course, a typical radical-critical concept.
In D euteronom y Je n n i sees a redemptwe-histoncal foundation o f the Sabbath
established. T h e Sabbath is consecrated to Yahweh as th e gracious L ord and
L ib erato r o f Israel. T h is counts for the cheerful ch aracter o f the Sabbath in Israel
b efo re th e B abylonian exile (Isa. 58:13).
T h e so-called priestly foundation o f the Sabbath in Exodus 2 0 :1 1 an d 31:17,
an d G enesis 2:2, 3, tran sfers the Sabbath back to the creation o f the world.
Because th e Sabbath is called a p erp etu al covenant" (Ex. 31:16), th e abiding
obligation is stressed to g eth er with the grace ch aracter o f Israel's redem ptive
institutions. Thus th e holiness o f the Sabbath is m ade in d ep en d e n t from hu m an
achievem ent a n d astrological m agic .*1
In Genesis 2, Je n n i distinguishes a th reefo ld p u rp o se o f the C reation
Sabbath. First, th e Sabbath is th e goal o f C reation," in the sense that th e w orld is
not created for itself o r left to itself, but that on the Sabbath the w hole cosm os, led
by m an, would praise Cod in w orship. Second, th e C reation Sabbath is the open
d o o r to m ake th e history o f G od's covenant possible.*" G od's hallowing o f the
Sabbath m akes room for cultic w orship, separated from secular life. T h ird , the
Sabbath rest o f Genesis 2 im plies a prom ise that points forw ard to the perfect goal
o f creation, th e p erfect realization o f th e covenant. T h e sign becom es the presage
o f what is to come."**
T h e New T estam en t, Je n n i says, teaches us that the O ld T estam ent Sabbath,
as a typological witness o f C hrist," has been fulfilled in the com ing o f Jesus C hrist
(M att. 11:28; 2 C or. 1:20), although, according to H ebrew s 4:9, C hrist fu rth e r
g u aran tees a perfect rest that rem ains. In this rest the prom ise o f th e earthly
Sabbath will lie fulfilled."
J e n n i's Sabbath theology allows the radical-critical concept o f the origin o f the
Sabbath to deny th e trustw orthiness an d historical reliability o f the C reation
n arrative in G enesis 1-2. T h e Sabbath was in reality not in au g u rated at the
creation o f th e w orld, reasons Je n n i, but later by Moses; an d priests o f Israel then
projected the Sabbath o f Israel back to the creation o f the world in Holy S cripture.
C onsequently, th e Sabbath becom es exclusively the sign o f G ods covenant o f
grace with Israel, im plying the prom ise o f a perfect rest as the goal o f C reation at
the en d o f history.
A lthough B arth and Je n n i both em phatically unfold the redem ptive and
eschatological significance o f the seventh-day Sabbath in the O ld Testam ent, each
theologian has a radically d iffe ren t in terp retatio n o f the C reation Sabbath in
Genesis 2. W hile B arth stresses th e Sabbath o f Genesis 2 as an ordinance of C reation
for m ankind in th e beginning, Je n n i firmly rejects the Sabbath as a C reation
ord in an ce. A ccepting th e periodic "m arket-day" o f the heath en nations as the
hypothetical origin o f the Sabbath, Je n n i believes that the religious seventh-day
Sabbath is only an institution o f Moses for the nation o f Israel.
C onsequently th e justification o f S unday observance by the C hristian church
also diverges substantially with these two neo-orthodox theologians. B arth can see
S unday only as a shifted Sabbath. Je n n i, on the o th e r hand, believes in an abrogated

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Sabbath, based on the presupposition that the Sabbath is only a Jew ish institution.
D iverging Evangelical T heologies o f the Sabbath
T h e existing disunity a n d u ncertainty in P rotestant liberalism and n eo -o rth o
doxy co n cerning a Biblical Sabbath theology are only aggravated by the confusion
o f conflicting Sabbath in terp retatio n s in evangelical circles. Tw o m ain stream s o f
diverging Sabbath theologies can be discerned in contem porary evangelicalism .
T h e first stream accepts the seventh-day Sabbath as a divine C reation
ordinance, based on G enesis 2:2, 3 an d Exodus 20:8-11. It develops, how ever, a
Sunday-Sabbath theology on the assum ption that the resu rrectio n o f C hrist
actually shifted o r tra n sfe rre d the Sabbath co m m andm ent to S unday, th e first day
o f th e week. T h e final appeal is always to a trio o f texts Acts 20:7; 1 C orinthians
16:2; an d Revelation 1: 10 usually with little o r no effort at real exegesis. Sunday
is re g ard e d as th e L o rd s day" o r the C hristian Sabbath."
T h e second stream rejects the Sabbath as a C reation ordinance, on the basis o f
a radical-liberal evaluation, an d accepts th e Sabbath m erely as an Israelite and
Jew ish Sabbath intended as a covenant gift o f G od fo r the Jew ish nation only. A
Sunday theology is th en developed on the assum ption th at C hrist radically
abolished th e S abbath as a holy day. S unday observance by the ch u rch is often
readily acknow ledged as a postapostolic ecclesiastical institution, created for
chu rch o rd e r an d in rem em brance o f th e resurrection o f C hrist on the first day o f
the week. Yet f requently too. S unday as a religious day o f w orship is piously
re g ard e d as au thorized by the guidance o f the Holy Spirit, possibly instituted by
C hrist o r the apostles. But S unday is not conceived as a S unday Sabbath.
Not every evangelical theologian o r w riter can be classified clearly in o n e o f
these two m ain stream s. Som e interm ingle various elem ents o f both views o r give
in terp retatio n s o f their own.
Evangelical T heology o f the Transferred Sabbath. The view th at S unday is
the C hristian Sabbath an d that C hristian Sunday observance really fulfills the
fo u rth co m m andm ent o f th e D ecalogue is basically the theological position o f (1)
th e Rom an Catholic C hurch as developed by Thomas A quinas an d explained in
th e C atechism us R om anus ( a . d . 1567); (2) the English P uritans; an d (3) the party
o f Jaco b u s Koelm an in the R eform ed State C hurch o f the N eth erlan d s in the
so-called battle fo r the S abbath in the second half o f the seventeenth cen tu ry .5'
T h e concern is not w h eth er S aturday o r Sunday should be kept as the day o f
w orship, but ra th e r on what g ro u n d s S unday is to be kept as a holy day, how
Sunday is to be related theologically to the Sabbath com m andm ent in the
Decalogue, an d w h eth er C hrist o r the apostles o r the postapostolic ch u rch had
initiated S unday observance in short, w hether S unday observance is o f divine
origin o r based on m ere ecclesiastical authority.
T h e P uritans an d th e Koelm an party m aintained that Sunday was th e tru e
Sabbath by divine nght an d the m oral fulfillm ent o f the Sabbath com m andm ent.
T h e ir a rg u m e n t was based on the philosophical distinction o f a separate m oral
an d cerem onial precept within the fo u rth com m andm ent, a concept in troduced
into C hristian theology by T hom as A quinas. T o them , as to A quinas, the
perp etu al moral p recept would d em an d only o n e day chosen arbitrarily ou t o f the
week fo r w orship, bu t the transitory ceremonial precept would d em and th e specific
seventh day o f the week, in com m em oration o f the creation o f the world. Koelm an

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insisted th at C hrist o r the apostles by divine authority changed th e Sabbath into

S unday rest, but th at this change left the m oral essence o f the com m andm ent
u n to u ch ed , since th e change p ertain ed only to the cerem onial aspect, the
additional idea o f th e seventh" day o f the week.
Several p ro m in en t D utch scholars, G. Voetius, A braham K uyper, W.
Geesink, and G. Vos, have carried on in the K oelm an tradition, with various
refinem ents.
A. H. S trong, a Baptist, calls S unday th e C hristian S abbath, which
"co m m em o rates. . . the new creation o f the world in C hrist, in which G od's work in
h um anity first becom es com plete." A ppealing to Revelation 1:10, Acts 20:7, an d 1
C orinthians 16:1, 2 (all w ithout exegesis). S trong claims th at "C hrists exam ple
and apostolic sanction have tra n sfe rre d the Sabbath from the seventh day to the
first, for the reason th at this last is the day o f C hrists resurrection, and so the day
when G ods spiritual creation becam e in C hrist com plete.
S trong im m ediately m odifies this absolute statem ent by declaring, som ew hat
less assuredly, th at the change seems to have been d u e to the resurrection o f
C h rist, thus acknow ledging that the change" is a m atter o f a theological
inference.
John M urray o f W estm inster Theological Sem inary in Philadelphia has
shown concern, in his The Sabbath Institution, to establish the perpetuity o f the
principle em bodied in th e F ourth C om m andm ent, namely, the divinely instituted
sanctity o f every re c u rrin g seventh day. In d eed , for M urray, S unday observance
stands o r falls with th e question o f divine institution. Expediency can never carry
the sanction o f law and it cannot bind the conscience o f m en .34
H e affirm s th e Sabbath in Genesis 2 as a C reation ordinance, instituted before
the Fall o f m an, and acknow ledges clearly: Sin does not abrogate creation
o rdinances an d red em p tio n does not m ake superfluous th eir obligation and
fulfillm ent.
R eg ard in g th e fo u rth com m andm ent, M urray argues that "it would require
the m ost conclusive evidence to establish the thesis that the fo u rth com m and is in a
d iffe ren t category from the o th e r nine. T h a t it finds its place am ong the ten words
w ritten by th e finger o f G od u p o n tables o f stone establishes fo r this
co m m an d m en t an d for the labour a n d rest it enjoins a position equal to th at o f the
th ird o r th e fifth o r the seventh o r the te n th . A nd Je su s words in M ark 2:27, 28,
co n cerning His lo rdship over the Sabbath, do no t m ean any abrogation o f the
Sabbath b u t ra th e r His sealing to m an that which the Sabbath institution involves:
O u r L ord Him self confirm s its p erm a n en t relevance ." 56
H ow ever, M urray re g ard s Sunday as the C hristian Sabbath by the device o f
dissecting th e S abbath" from the seventh day o f the week an d tra n sfe rrin g that
S abbath to th e first day o f the week. Recognizing that the Sabbath as a C reation
o rd in an ce com m em orated the com pletion o f C reation, he says: In the C hristian
econom y the Sabbath is the L ord's Day and th ere fo re the m em orial o f the
com pletion o f a work o f G od g re ater than that o f creatio n .57 H e re an illegitim ate
contrast is in tro d u ced , which is utterly foreign to the Bible, nam ely that C hrist as
R edeem er would destroy a good m em orial o f a perfect work d o n e by H im self as
C reato r. It contradicts also M urray's own statem ent that "sin does not abrogate
creation o rd in an ces an d red em p tio n does not m ake superfluous th eir obligation
an d fulfillm ent.

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H e rb ert W. R ichardson has tried to elevate Sunday as the Sabbatical

sacram ent fo r th e A m erican vision o f holy worldliness, the sanctification o f all
things by th e Holy Spirit." R ichardson rejects the traditional theology that argues
that the Sabbath com m andm ent is not like the o th e r nine but only a cerem onial
shadow that C hrist later abolished. H e characterizes this arg u m en t as m otivated
by anti-Jew ish polem ics." O pting basically for the position o f the P uritans, he
fu rth e r acknow ledges th e fo u rth co m m andm ent as constituting "a universal
m oral law, an d accepts the priority o f the creation in te rp re ta tio n o f G enesis 2
above th e "red em p tio n in terp re tatio n " o f D euteronom y 5 .59
H arold Lindsell has placed a som ew hat unusual twist to Sunday-Sabbath
theology in his article T h e L o rd s Day and N atural R esources. A fter simply
eq u atin g S unday with the Sabbath o f Holy S criptures, he suggests that C hristians
should press for social S unday legislation in o rd e r to enforce outw ard Sabbath
observance for unbelievers." As the reason for this objective, he offers the idea
that only the ch u rch knows what is good fo r the world, because G ods special
revelation (Scripture) gives the insight into G od's natural revelation (natural laws),
which m eans in this respect that every m an should obey "G ods n atu ral law o f one
day o f rest in seven .*0
O n the basis o f this philosophical abstraction Lindsell favors state legislation
or political coercion o f all th e non-C hristians in o rd e r to accom plish the objective
o f th e p ro p e r use o f the Lord's Day, wholly apart from any religious
im plications, to bring u n re d eem ed m en to the place w here they will keep it
also b u t for d iffe ren t reasons.
But we may well ask, Is it conceivable to keep the Sabbath "p ro p erly w ithout
religion, w ithout keeping the day holy? A nd is not this kind o f externalizing
com pliance with re g ard to the Sabbath com m andm ent a form o f secularization,
which Lindsell detests so m uch within the church? In an editorial o f N ovem ber 5,
1976, in Christianity Today, Lindsell surprisingly proposes, however, "that Saturday
be set aside as the day o f rest for all people," in o rd e r to help solve the national
energy crisis. T h is arg u m e n t includes an interesting adm ission: "Jews a n d o th er
Sabbatarians w ould be well served by this decision. For Protestants an d Catholics it
should prove no theological hardship: ap a rt from the fact that o u r L ord rose from
the d ead on th e first day o f the week, th ere is nothing in S cripture that requires us
to keep S unday ra th e r than S aturday as a holy d a y ."
Jam es P. W esberry. e d ito r o f Sunday m agazine o f the Lord's Day A lliance o f
the U nited States, presents an o th e r interesting variation by stating: Jesu s did not
abolish the old Sabbath, bu t he enlarged an d ennobled it a n d m erged it into the
L ord's Day an d "T h e old Jew ish Sabbath was buried in the grave with Jesus and
when he arose it took on new dim ensions ."45 "It is p erp etu ated by being
tra n sfig u re d ."
E ditor W esberry thus defen d s a shifted Sabbath, which was tra n sfo rm e d by
C hrist into S unday as the L o rd s Day. N evertheless, he frankly acknowledges:
There is no record o f a statem ent on the part o f Jesu s authorizing such a change,
n o r is th ere recorded such a statem ent on the p art o f the apostles."
Evangelical T heology o f the Abrogated Sabbath.A basically d ifferen t
school o f Sabbath in terp re tatio n , which enjoys the favor o f contem porary
evangelical scholarship, was d efen d ed by the Dutch theology professor Jo h a n n e s
Coccejus d u rin g the Sabbath controversy in H olland in the seventeenth century.

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He took th e position th at the seventh-day Sabbath was not a C reation o rdinance

b u t only a cerem onial. Mosaic institution that was abrogated by C hrist. H e f u rth e r
held th at S undaykeeping was a purely ecclesiastical institution. Focusing on the
m ost serious {joint o f debate, the origin an d authority o f Sunday as the day o f the
L ord, Coccejus shocked the S undaykeeping churches with this p en e tratin g
question: I f it is m oral to rest because G od has rested, then it is also m oral to rest
on th e day on which God rested. If we tran sfer the rem em bering o f G ods rest to
a n o th e r day o f th e week, we rem ove what God has given an d instituted. I f it has
been cerem onial to keep the seventh day, w hy then is the keeping o f o ne o f the
seven days m o ral ?" 46
T h e R eform ed Evangelical Old T estam en t scholar, J. L. Koole, has
stressed an inescapable theological consequence if the Sabbath m ust be accepted
as a C reation ord in ance. His point may be p arap h rased thus: Ju s t as we are
presently n o t p erm itted to m u rd e r because the sixth com m andm ent was already
in force p rio r to th e law o f Moses, so we would not be free now to reject the Sabbath
o f the fo u rth co m m andm ent if the Sabbath was already in force p rio r to Moses
law .47 In o th e r w ords, if the Sabbath was actually instituted in the beginning
in Paradise, th en C hristians also are u n d e r the obligation to observe the C reation
Sabbath.
Defying th e long R eform ation an d P uritan tradition, as well as the position o f
K uyper, Geesink, and Bavinck, Koole urges the re ad er to think this th ro u g h
logically and consistently b efo re accepting the Sabbath as a C reation ordinance.
Koole does not hesitate to conclude that those who view Sunday rest as a renew ed
Sabbath, re q u ired by the fo u rth com m andm ent, m ust, in the n a tu re o f the case,
tran sfer that rest day back to Saturday. But because the Sabbath cannot be
scientifically verified o r proved to have been historically instituted in Paradise,
Koole does not accept the C reation Sabbath as a fact.
Basically following Je n n i, Koole regards Genesis 2:2, 3 m erely as a vision o f
Moses co n cern in g a heavenly reality o f G ods rest, o f which Israel's Sabbath was
the symbol an d sign. Israels Sabbath th ere fo re had the n a tu re o f a sacram ent, a
real e n c o u n te r betw een h u m an an d divine resting. T h e Sabbath rest was to Israel
both a sign o f th e rest o f grace, provided already in G od's covenant with A braham ,
and a m em orial o f th eir deliverance from Egypt (Deut. 5:15), and th ere fo re a sign
o f red em p tio n also.
Ig n o rin g th e fo u n d atio n o f the Sabbath in the fo u rth com m andm ent in
E xodus 20:8-11, Koole considers the Sabbath exclusively as the m em orial o f
Israel's gracious deliverance from Egypt (Deut. 5:15), instituted for the first time
d u rin g Israels jo u rn e y in the w ilderness (Exodus 16). T h e n , by com paring
C h rists resu rrectio n from the d ead with Israel's redem ption from Egypt, he
concludes th at G o d s redem ptive act in C hrist is g reater than that which He
p erfo rm ed for Israel. O n th at basis he infers that Sunday should have precedence
over th e Sabbath fo r C hristians. S unday th ere fo re is not and cannot be the
Sabbath o r a f ulfillm ent o f the fo u rth com m andm ent.
In basic ag reem en t with Koole's Sabbath an d S unday theology are the
publications o f P. Visser, a pastor o f the R eform ed C hurches in the N etherlands.
A nd a n o th e r D utch scholar, R. J. V anD erV een, has gone so far as to deny even the
legitimacy o f any S unday theology.4"
A lthough O scar C ullm ann is not to lie classified am ong the evangelicals.

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his influence on them has been such that b rief notice o f som e o f his
exegetical com m ents o n Jesus an d the Sabbath is in o rd e r here. In his The
Chrtstology o f the New Testament C ullm ann in terp rets Jesus' saying in M ark 2:28,
R.S. V. ( So th e Son o f m an is lord even o f the sabbath") to m ean that Jesu s had
com e to set m an free from Sabbath observance. C ullm ann accepts the possibility,
based on the A ram aic expression bamasha behind both M ark 2:27 and 28, that
Jesu s may have an n o u n ced th at m an in general has now received the authority to
be lord o f th e Sabbath. I n case Jesus did m ean exclusively Himself by the
expression Son o f m an, as M ark clearly u n d erstood it, Jesu s proclaim ed that
H e had com e with divine authority to abrogate all Sabbath observance. C ullm ann
sees th e sam e sense expressed m o re explicitly in Jesu s w ords o f J o h n 5:17, in
which Jesu s does give a Christological foundation for non-observance o f the
Sabbath."
In fact, h e even goes so far as to d eclare that Jesus' words until now" in J o h n
5:17 are "an allusion to th e new day o f rest o f the com m unity, the dav o f C hrist's
r e s u r r e c t io n r||i p a t o u x u q io u [hemera tou huriou] (d ay o f th e L o r d ) .
T h e designation day o f the L ord in Revelation 1:10 he simply identifies with
Sunday, a n d declares the following w ithout any historical evidence: In fact, in his
time, th e day o f C h rists resurrection, called in Rev. 1:10 Kugiaxi) rm epa [kuriake
hemera], was already universally celebrated in Christian C hurches.5"
How ever, C ullm ann does not claim, as B arth does, that S unday celebration is
basically an obedience to the fo u rth com m andm ent. H e blundy proclaim s th at the
idea o f je s u s w ords until now in Jo h n 5:17 justifies the disobedience '1 to the
O ld T estam e n t Sabbath com m andm ent.
Paul K. Jew ett, professor o f system atic theology at Fuller T heological
Sem inary in Pasadena, C alifornia, has presen ted a full-scale Sabbath theology in
his The Lord's Day: A Theological Guide to the Christian Day o f Worship. Jew ett basically
develops the position o f R ordorf, Je n n i, and C ullm ann, but modifies it by his own
in terp retatio n . T h e Sabbath o riginated with Moses in Exodus 16, he declares, and
th ere fo re is not a C reation o rdinance, only a Jew ish Sabbath." "Jesus, as a devout
Jew . observed the Sabbath" an d "did not reject the institution o f the Sabbath as
such, but only the tradition o f the elders re g ard in g S abbathkeeping." N everthe
less, Jew ett surprisingly draw s from this the conclusion that Je su s attitu d e tow ard
the Sabbath convinced His disciples that th eir M aster did not req u ire them any
lo n g er to observe the Sabbath. H e also com m ents: It cannot be supposed th at the
fact o f th e resu rrectio n as such could have b ro u g h t about this change [to Sunday],
ap a rt from th e au th o rity an d teaching o f Jesu s him self."M
In co n sid ering the apostolic writings, Jew ett dismisses the idea that the
apostle Paul w ould have innovated S unday w orship am ong (he G entile C hristians.
However, re g ard in g Revelation 1: 10, he states: In all subsequent Patristic usage
th e term L o rd s Day refers to S unday, a n d th e re is no reason to suppose
Revelation 1:10 is an exception to this rule. O n this crucial point it becom es
evident th at Jew ett ignores the Sola Scriptura principle, which Protestantism since
L u th er, Calvin, an d Zwingli has established as the sine qua non o f P rotestant faith.
Second, he ignores also the recognized principle o f historical m ethod, that an
expression is to be in te rp re te d only in term s o f evidence that is p rio r to it o r
co n tem p o rary with it, not by historical data from a later p e rio d .' T h ese two
principles th e theological h erm en eu tic and the historical-scientific m ethod

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m ust be responsibly applied b efo re o n e in terp rets the unique expression the
L ord's day" in Revelation 1:10 .*55
In his effo rt to reconstruct the origin o f Sunday worship, Jew ett opts fo r w hat
he calls th e likely hypothesis that S unday w orship o riginated in the custom o f
celebrating th e L o rd s S u p p er on th e first day o f the week right from the first
E aster S unday on. H e appeals to a com bination o f texts Acts 20:7, Luke
24:33-43, and J o h n 20:19-23.
Because Jew ett h asjo in ed those w ho reject the Sabbath as a C reau o n Sabbath,
he cannot m aintain th at th e C hristian Sunday is, in principle, obedience to the
C reation rh y th m o f six days o f labor followed by one rest day. B ut nevertheless, he
seeks to g ro u n d S unday w orship on som e divine fou n d atio n o r scriptural su p p o rt,
doing so th ro u g h a philosophical rationalism by which he can say Sic (Yes) and
Non (N o") at th e sam e tim e to the fo u rth com m andm ent: IVi to the Jew ish weekly
cycle, a n d No to th e Jew ish S abbath .57
Basic to Jew ett's S unday theology is the assum ption W e can only suppose
th at th e early C hristians, both Jew s an d G entiles, accepted the weekly cycle o f tim e
as a divinely given in stitu tio n ."511 C onsequently, not in the seventh-day Sabbath,
but in th e week as such the cycle o f seven daysJew ett views the unity o f
redem ptive history betw een Israel an d the church, betw een the O ld T estam en t
an d th e New T estam ent.
Jew ett even asserts th at the apostles taught the G entile C hristians to observe
the Jew ish w eek, th e sabbatical sequence o f time, but rejected the Sabbath Day.
T his im plies th at C hristians who g ath er fo r w orship on the first day o f th e week
stand u n d e r th e sign o f the Sabbath in that they g ath er every seventh day.
F u rth erm o re , according to Jew ett, by the nonobservance o f the seventh-day
Sabbath, C hristians indicate the fulfillm ent o f their redem ptive rest in the C hrist
who has com e, an d by th eir observance o f the first day they indicate th eir n eed and
ho p e fo r th e fu tu re , eternal rest w hen C hrist will re tu rn . T his is Jew e tts theology
o f "the dialectic o f fulfillm ent in h o p e ."59
Jew ett accuses the R eform ers L u th er an d Calvin for th eir radical No to the
fo u rth co m m an d m en t and th eir equalizing o f all days o f the week fo r C hristians.
But he proceeds to condem n likewise all C hristian S abbathkeepers who say
w holeheartedly Yes to the fo u rth co m m an d m en t because o f th eir presu p p o sed
Ju d aism .
Jew ett disagrees, too, with those R eform ed Evangelicals who try to identify
S unday as L o rd s day" with S unday as a civil institution. S unday rest is not
obligatory for unbelievers. T h e re simply cannot be a real L o rd s day w ithout faith,
because th e L o rd s Day rest is preem inently a soul rest, a spiritual experience."
N evertheless, th e civil Sunday law is a fruit o f the gospel in society a n d a genuine
boon to m a n k in d ."61
O n e step beyond Jewrett we arrive in the circle o f the D ispensationalists, such
as L. S. C h afer. W hile Jew ett still contends for continuity, w ithout identity o f
Sabbath and S unday, D ispensational theology' radically opposes every continuity
o f Sabbath and Sunday. It reg ard s the two rest days as the symbols par excellence o f
two absolutely u n re la ted a n d opposing dispensations o f p u re law a n d p u re
grace .62 D ispensational theology is p ro m o ted with m odifications by the

* Regarding Revelation 1:10, see chapter 6, pp. 125-127.

 T H E S AB BA TH IN S CR I PT UR E AND HI STOR Y

radiobroadcasts an d literatu re o f R ichard W. D eH aan o f G ra n d Rapids, M ichigan

(Why Christians Worship on Sunday), an d o f the M oody Bible Institute in Chicago,

Sabbath Interpretations o f Some Small Denom inations and Sects

W. T . Purkiser, o f the C h u rch o f the N azarene, in his article T h e Sabbath
Q uestion, m akes the challenging assertion: First off, let it be said that the
Sabbath belongs to the New T estam en t as well as to the O ld T e sta m e n t." T aking
Jesu s' words in M ark 2:27, 28, as the most basic statem ent o f the New T estam en t
re g ard in g th e Sabbath," he concludes that th e Sabbath belongs not only to Moses,
Isaiah, an d N ehem iah, but it belongs to every person w ho acknow ledges Jesus
C hrist as L ord an d Saviour." P urkiser hastens to declare, how ever, that the
eq u atio n o f Sabbath with S aturday o r the seventh day o f the week is a false
assum ption: "N o o n e has ever been authorized to add to the fo u rth co m m an d
m ent afte r the w ords the seventh day th e fu rth e r words 'o f a traditional weekly
cycle, o r S atu rday. W hile calendars are o f m an's contriving, G od has only
ap p o in ted th e Sabbath principle," an d th at principle is always a n d simply,
EVERY SE V E N T H DAY BELONGS T O GOD! M
P urkiser incorrectly calls the identification o f the seventh-day Sabbath with
o u r S aturday a m ere Jew ish tradition. O f S unday he states: It is the perpetual
m em orial o f the resu rrectio n o f the L ord Jesu s C hrist from the d e a d an d tries to
elevate S unday into a new Sabbath by illegitimately translating M ark 16:2, "A nd
very early th e first o f the Sabbaths" (cf. also Malt. 28:1). H e declares that these
texts at least h in t that one series o f Sabbaths was en ded, and a new series was
b eg inning. T h is is, o f course, an irresponsible m anipulating o f the G reek text,
and it defies the com bined New T estam e n t scholarship re p resen te d in the
A uthorized. Revised, an d o th er stan d ard translations.
In the Sabbath theology o f the Seventh Day Baptists we com e into contact
with a basically d iffe ren t approach in contem porary thought. T h e w ritings o f A.
H. Lewis, A. J. C. B ond, an d H. E. S aunders, published by the A m erican Sabbath
T ra c t Society in Plainfield, New Jersey, re p resen t a P rotestant Sabbath reform
m ovem ent that tries to lead C hristians back to the Biblical Sabbath by bringing

Basing him self on the Holy S criptures as G ods special revelation, a n d guided
by a Christological u n d ersta n d in g o f the O ld T estam ent, S aunders develops a
concise theology o f the seventh-day Sabbath in his book The Sabbath: Symbol of
Creation and Re-Creation (1970). His fu n d am en tal thesis is that the Sabbath stands
not only as a m em orial o f C reation but also as a m em orial o f re-creation,
red em p tio n , an d re su rre c tio n .67 S aunders quotes Lewis, who states: T h e Day o f
God leads to the H ouse o f G od, to the Book o f G od, an d to the Son o f G od. 6*
H ow ever, in th eir enthusiasm for a C hristo-centric theology o f the Sabbath, Lewis
and S au n d ers u n fo rtu n ately shift the resurrection o f C hrist from the first day o f

A cknow ledging th e o rd in an ce o f baptism as the symbol o f re-creation a

once-in-a-lifetim e experience S aunders extols the Sabbath as the symbol o f the
co n tin u in g baptism o f the Holy S pirit. T h e Sabbath stands at the h ea rt o f the
m essage o f reconciliation ju st as it stands at the h eart o f G ods original p u rp o se for
m an." T h e Sabbath is the G od-ordained symbol o f his ow n presence in lim e and
 C O N T E M P O R A R Y T H E O L O G I E S O F T H E S AB BA TH

etern ity , that is, o f fellowship o f the C rea to r and m a n .69Because m en may behold
G od in clearer light in Jesu s C hrist and may experience God in a m ore intim ate
fellowship, th e Sabbath m eans infinitely m o re since C hrist .70
In d eed , th e Sabbath now rep resen ts the life o f m an restored in C hrist: It is a
re m in d e r th at God is still in control an d m an is only redeem ed an d saved by an act
in lim e' o f th e etern al God. W hat C hrist did in redeem ing th e w orld was to restore
m an to his created place as an etern al being. T h is was the significance o f Je su s
healing and forgiving on the Sabbath day. T h u s Jesu s m ade the Sabbath, the
m em orial o f th e creative pow er o f God. a sign o f G ods redeem ing and
sanctifying and u p h o ld in g pow er in C hrist. Je su s death an d resu rrectio n did
n o th in g to alter this fact: instead it has m ade it all the m ore im perative that m an
rem em b er th e Sabbath Day to keep it holy . 71
Seventh Day Baptists also envision that the Sabbath is the great symbol for
the unification o f th e peoples o f the w orld u n d e r allegiance to the revelation that
has com e to m an, an d which C hristians all accept . 75
T h e C h u rch o f Jesus C hrist o f Latter-day Saints (M orm on), as re p resen te d by
Jam es E. T alm age, teaches th at S unday is the acceptable day fo r Sabbath
observance, on the authority o f direct revelation specifying the Lord's Day as
su ch .75 T h is d irect revelation refers to a vision o f the fo u n d e r an d p ro p h et
Jo sep h Smith on Sunday, A ugust 7, 1831, which is published in The Doctrine and
Covenants. In this passage Jo sep h Sm ith exhorts his fellow believers to w orship on
G ods holy d ay, also re fe rre d to as the L o rd s day. 7'* T h e re is no d irect o r
explicit equation o f L o rd s day and Sunday, but this revelation is used by the
M orm on leaders to seule the issue .75
T o those who are no t satisfied with this settlem ent, the M orm on C hurch
o ffers th eir re p rin t o f the pseudoscientific G reek arg u m en tatio n o f the M ethodist
Sam uel W alter G am ble, Sunday, The True Sabbath of God (1900),76whose reasoning
is simply reiterated by K. F. C oom bs, The True Sabbath Saturday or Sunday (1948),
an d by Le G ra n d R ichards, A Marvelous Work and a Wonder (1950).
T h e M orm on position is also rep resen ted by Presidents D. O. McKay an d C.
W. Penrose in th e ir rep eated exhortations to observe Sunday on the basis o f the
Sabbath co m m an d m en t o f E xodus 20 .77 Interestingly, the M orm on a u th o r B. H.
R oberts, in exam ining the first-day" texts in the New T estam ent, adm its th at the
change o f rest days by C hrist o r the apostles can only be called pro b ab le ." 78
U n d erstandably, m any M orm ons have w ondered from the very start w hether
a re tu rn to th e Biblical holy day o f the L ord is not th e real restoration o f tru e
worship. O n e o f these was O rson P ratt, o n e o f the Tw elve Apostles," who w rote in
1850: A gain, m ust the seventh day o r the first day o f the week be kept holy unto
the Lord? T h e New T estam en t does not clearly answ er this question. T h e re is
ra th e r m ore evidence in that book for keeping holy the Sabbath day o r Saturday,
than th ere is fo r keeping the first dav o r Sunday. T h e New T estam en t is very
indefinite on this subject, an d th e re fo re it is an insufficient g u id e ."79
T h e In tern atio n al Bible S tudents Association (Jehovahs W itnesses) has
developed a peculiar in te rp re ta tio n o f the Sabbath o f the Bible. T h e original
seventh day o f th e C reation week in Genesis 2:2, the day o f G od's Sabbath, is
calculated to last exacdy 7,000 years. T h ese are divided into 6,000 years o f hu m an
history until A rm ag ed d o n an d 1,000 years o f the K ingdom S abbath u n d e r
C hrist in th e fu tu re . In the publication Let God Be True we read: M an being

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 T H E S AB BA T H IN S CR I P T UR E A ND HI STOR Y

created tow ard the close o f the sixth day, he was p u t on the earth tow ard the e n d o f
42,000 years o f earth 's p re p ara tio n . So in course o f tim e the g ra n d cycle o f seven
days' will ad d u p to 49,000 years .""0
Inasm u ch as G o d s Sabbath is still proceeding, according to this g ro u p , every
day th at C hristians exercise faith and obedience th ro u g h C hrist, they are keeping
Sabbath, G ods Sabbath o r rest. *' A ccordingly, no weekly day is recognized as a
holy day o r Sabbath day.
Summary and C onclusion
It is obvious th at m o d ern theologies o f the Sunday "Sabbath" are quite
divergent. W ith the rise o f radical text criticism and m odern evolutionism , the
Sabbath was less a n d less accepted as a C reation ordinance, so that fo r various
scholars th e Sabbath com m andm ent in the D ecalogue was in te rp re te d as a m ere
Jew ish feast day a n d redem ptive shadow o f the old covenant. R ordorf, C ullm ann,
and Jew ett, fo r instance, project S unday observance back into apostolic times an d
exalt S unday as the day o f C hristian w orship according to the intention o f the risen
L ord Him self. Karl B arth s an d Ernst Jen n i's neo-R eform ed Sabbath theologies
surprisingly u n fo ld neglected gospel dim ensions o f the Old T estam en t Sabbath
with keen an d re fresh in g insights. T o them , the Sabbath is noth in g less th an the
sacram ent o f grace. W hile B arth accepts the Sabbath as a C reation ordinance, he
ends in virtually proclaim ing Sunday as the C hristian Sabbath "in p ro fo u n d
ag reem en t with" th e fo u rth com m andm ent. Jen n i, how ever, rejects the Sabbath
as a C reation o rdinance, considering the Sabbath to be a Jew ish shadow that was
abro g ated by C hrist.
In Evangelicalism, two m ain stream s o f diverging Sabbath theologies have
developed. T h e o ld er P uritan stream m aintains that the Sabbath was instituted by
God as a C reation o rd in an ce fo r m ankind, was reinstituted fo r the people o f Israel
u n d e r Moses, an d was tran sfo rm ed by C hrist o r His apostles into a "Sunday
Sabbath." By way o f this strange tra n sfe r theory, the fo u rth com m andm ent is "in
prin cip le ap p lied to S unday observance.
T h e new er stream o f Evangelical Sabbath in terp retatio n , how ever, drastically
rejects both th e Sabbath as a C reation o rd in an ce and the P uritan theology o f
S unday as a tran sferre d Sabbath. T h e Sabbath is conceived m erely as a
redem ptive shadow o f th e old covenant ritual, com pletely abolished by Christ
Him self.
A recent com bination o f these two m ain stream s is presented by Jew ett, who
proposes th at C hristian believers with th eir S unday observance obey the principle
o f a Sabbatical-week rhythm as the abiding m oral principle o f the fourth
co m m an d m en t. For him S unday is not a C hristian Sabbath in any respect, only the
believers o u tw ard sign o f having fo u n d th eir souls rest in the resu rrected C hrist.
T h u s Jew ett tries to com bine law and gospel in his S unday theology'.
In D ispensationalism , with its dichotom y betw een law an d gospel, all such
attem pts are considered futile because the S unday o f p u re grace" is in no way
related any lo n ger to th e O ld T estam en t Sabbath com m andm ent o f p u re law."
It becom es quite evident that any Sabbath theology w hatsoever is inextricably
connected, not only with a Biblical protology (doctrine o f the beginning o f all
things) a n d eschatology (the en d o f things) but also with soteriology (doctrine o f
red em p tio n ) an d the Biblical in terrelatio n sh ip o f law and gospel. A nd it seems

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th at a fully developed Biblical Sabbath theology m ust h o n o r all the dim ensions o f
the scriptural Sabbath, uniting C reation, redem ption, and final perfection in one
abiding sacram en t o f G ods everlasting covenant, as presented in H ebrew s 4.
W eighed in th e balances o f this revealed unbreakable unity o f G od's work in
C reation, red em p tio n , an d final restoration, all Sunday theologies are found
wanting, in th at they create an un-Biblical dichotom y betw een th e work o f the
C rea to r a n d th e work o f the R edeem er, the R e-C reator.*

NOTES
1 S ee th e review in |. I. Stam m a n d M. E. A n d rew , T he Ten Com mandm ents in Recent Research. 2 d e d .. (L o n d o n .
1970). p p 9 0 -9 3 .
2 R d e V a u x M n o m / /f n f /( N e w Y ork. 1 9 6 1), 2 :4 7 5 -4 8 3 ; R obert N o rth , " T h e D eriv a tio n o f S a b b a th . Bibhca 3 6
(1 9 5 5 ): 1 8 2 -201; N eils-E rik A. A n d re a se n . T he O ld Testam ent Sabbath. S B L D is s.S e r . 7 (M issou la. M on t.. 197 2 ). p p . 1-8.
* 1. H . M eesters, O p Zock S a a r De O orstnong V an D e Sabbat (A ssen . 1966), p. 82.
4 E d u ard L oh se. " o a a io v ." T D S T . 7:3.
5 M eesters, oft. n t.. p p. 1 0 3 -1 0 6 , 162.
* R ud olf B u itm a n n , The H istory of the Synoptic Tradition (N ew Y ork. 1963), p. 16.
7 Loh.se, op. cti., p. 2 2 . S ee also E. K asem an n , B eg r n d et d e r n t.lieh e rianen d ie E in h eit d e r Kirche?"
Ex^angelische Theologie II (1 9 5 1 -1 9 5 2 ): 18.
" W illy R ord orf, Sun d a y (P h ilad elp h ia: 1968), p p. 6 2 , 6 3 , 6 6 .
9 Ibid., pp. 6 2 , 7 0 . 71.
10 Ibid.. p. 6 8 .
11 Ibid.. p. 21 5 .
12 Ibid.. p . 23 7 .
13 Karl Barth. C hurch D ogmatics. 111/4, p p . 4 7 -7 2 ; 111/1, p p . 213*228.
14 J o h n G alvin Institutes o f the Christian Religion 2. 8. 2 9 -3 1 .
15 B a rth , ap a t.. I l l / 1. p p. 2 1 7 . 2 1 8 .
" I b t d . . 111/4. p p 5 4 . 5 5 .
17 Ibid.. p p . 5 b . 5 7 .
1,1 Ibid.. p. 53.
19 Ibid . I l l 1. p. 2 2 8 .
thut .
21 Ib id (Italics su p p lie d .)
Ibid.. 111/4, p. 55.
25 S ee th e in cisive criticism o n Barth's p resu p p o sitio n s in Cienesis 1 by G. C . B erk o u w er. The T rium ph o f Grace in
the Theology o f K a rl B arth. (G rand R apids. 1 9 5 6 ). t h ap. 3.
24 J o h n C alvin . Commentaries an the F tr\t Book o f Sloses (G rand R apids, 1 948), 1:106.
23 E rnst J e n n i. D ie Theologische B e g r n d u n g de\ Sabbatgebotes im A lten Testam ent (Z urich. 1956).
26 Ibid.. p. 5.
27 Ibid., p p . 18. 22.
28 Ibid.. p p . 2527.
w Ibid.. p. 35.
30 Ibid.. p. 39.
31 T h o m a s A qu in as, Sum m a Theologica 2 a 2 a e. 122. 4: W estm in ister C o n fe ssio n 2 1. 7. ( I(>46). S ee H. B. V isser. De
G achiedenis ian rim SabbaLwtnjd mulrr ae G ereform errdrn in de Z n rntiende E eu w (U trech t, 1939). ch a p . 6.
32 A u g u stu s H o p k in s S tro n g , Systematic Theology (P h ila d elp h ia . 1907 ), p p . 109, 110.
53 Ibid.. p. 410.
34 John M u rray, T he Sabbath Institution (L o n d o n . 1953), p p 3 . 4.
I b t d . p . 5.
36 Ib td . p p . 6 . 7.
57 Ibid.. p. 14.
* Ibid.. p. 5.
39 H e r b e n W R ich ard son , T o u a rd an A m rn ca n Theology (N ew Y ork, 1967), p p . 112 -1 1 5 .
40 H arold U n d s e ll. " T h e L ord s D av an d N atural R esources." Christianity Today, M ay 7, 1 976, p p . 9 . 11.
41 Ibtd.. p p . 12. 9.
42 H a r o ld Lind sell. C o n sid e r th e C a se fo r Q u iet Saturdays," Christianity Today. N o v . 5, 1 976. p. 42.
43 J a m es 1* W csb erry. A re W e C o m p r o m isin g Ourselves*'" Sunday. A p r iM u n e , 197 6 , p p . 4. 5.
44 .lines P. W csb errv. T h e C ase fo r Q u ie t Sundavs." Sunday. Jan u a ry . 1 ^ /7 . p. 3.
45 W esb erry, "Are W e C o m p r o m isin g O u rselves?" p. 5.
46 J o h a n n e s C occeiu s (1 6 5 8 ). q u o te d in V isser, op. a t., p. 129.
47 * . L. K oole, D e T ien Gebodrn (B aarn . 1964), p. 75.
48 P. V isser, Z undagsrust en Zondagshethging (K m p en , 1959). idem. Decaloog en Zondag (K m p en , 1967); R. |
V a n D e r V e e n , "H et V ier d e G ebod ," in De Thora in de T hora. U .B .B S eries. N o . II (A a lten , 1963), D ccl I.
4* O scar C u llm a n n , The Chnstology o f the N ew Testam ent, rev. ed . (P h ila d elp h ia . 1963), p. 152. C u llm a n n d e v e lo p s
his e x e g e sis of J o h n 5 :1 7 in th e section "Jesus an d th e Dav o f Rest." a d d e d to h is b o o k E arly C hristian W orship,
(L o n d o n . 1969), p p. 8 8 -9 3 .

The next chapter will provide a "Sabbath theology " that averts this sort of dichotomy and provides a positive
approach to the subject.

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 T H E S AB BA TH I N S CR IP T UR E AND HI STORY

50 Cullmann. t a r t y C hristian W orship, p. 91.

51 Ib id . p . 92.
M Paul R. Jewett. T he Lord's Day: A Theological G uide to the C hristian Day o f W orship (Grand Rapids. 1971). pp. 34,
35.
M Ibid., pp. 56. 57, 59.
M Sec SD A B C . 7:735.
55 See Kenneth A. Strand. Another Look at 'Lords Day* in the Earlv Church and in Rev. 1. 10," N e w Testam ent
Studies 13 (1966-1967): 174-181.
36 G. E. Meuleman. among many, has concluded, however: Nevertheless it cannot Ik* proved whether they
began to celebrate the first dav consciously as a remembrance of the resurrection . .." in I)e Zondag." Geref. W eekblad.
13c irg. nr. 8.
lewcil. op. eti.. pp. 80. 117.
** Ibid.. p. /9.
w Ibid . pp 77. 80. 82. 81
60 Ibid . pp. 80-82
61 Ibid.. pp. 160. 165, 146
M L. S. Clnaler. Grace: The G lorious Theme (Philadelphia. 1922). p. 245.
63 W. T. Purkiser. The Sabbath Question.*T he H erald of Holiness; reprinted in Sunday. Scpiembcr-Octobcr,
1973. p. 8.
64 Ibid . pp. 9, 16.
M Ibtd.. pp. 17, 18.
66 This syntactical innovation is soundly rebuked by Wilbur Fletcher Steele. Must Syntax Die That the Sabbath
May Live? M ethodist R eview , May. 1899. pp. 401-409. reproduced in Russel J. Thomsen. Latter-day S am is a n d the
Sabbath (Mountain View. Calif.. 1971). appendix. The author stales that this particular translation of Matthew 28:1
(as the first of the Sabbaths*): rests upon the profoundest . ignorance of a (aw of syntax" (p. 402). The established
law of syntax referred to states that when a noun and an adjcctivc belong together (e.g.. first" and "Sabbaths"), they
must agree in gender, number, and case. As the adjcctivc first'* {mian m Matthew 28:1) is of a feminine gender, and
the noun Sabbaths" {sabbaton) is of neuter gender, the two do not belong in the same category . This Tact forever
excludes the translation the first of the Sabbaths. The correct translation remains therefore: the first (day) of the
week." And New Testament scholarship concludes unanimously that the nouns Sabbaton (singular) or Sabbata (plural)
mean only week" in some contexts: Mark 16:9; Luke 18:12; I Corinthians 16:2; Matthew 28:1; Mark 16:2; Luke
24:1 J o h n 2 0 :1 . 19; A cts 2 0 :7.
H erb ert E. S a u n d ers. The Sabbath: Symbol o f Creation a n d Re-C reatum (P la in field . N J .. 1970). p p 5 4 -8 0 .
M A. H . L ew is. T h e M ission o f th e Sabbath." The Sabbath Recorder. A p n l 2 6 .1 9 4 3 . p p. 2 7 3 . 2 7 4 . q u o te d in ibid., p.
6 . ^
*** S a u n d ers, op. a t., p p. 6 5 . 74
70 A h va J . C. B o n d . The Sabbath (P lain field . N .J.. 1 9 25). p. 118. q u o te d in ibut., p. 74.
71 S a u n d ers, op. a t.. p p . 7 6 . 78.
7* Ibid.. p. 78. ^
73 la m e s E. T a lm a g c , A Study of the Articles o f Faith (Salt Lake C ity. 1942). p. 4 5 1 .
74 S ectio n 5 9 :9 -1 3 .
73 S ee A. L. C row ley. Statem ent of B eliefs of the Church o f Jesus Christ o f Latter-day Saints L a k e C ity: 1 9 6 3 ) .p . 121;
I jc (rand R ichards, A M arvelous W ork a n d a W onder (Salt Lake C ity. 1 9 5 0 ).p p . 2 8 7 -2 9 4 ; B ru ce R. M c C o n k ie.M o rm o n
D octrine 2 d ed . (Sail Lake C ity, 1966). s.v "Sabbath"; J o s e p h F ield in g S m itn . Ansu'ers to Gospel Questions. 2 v ols. (Salt
Lake City: 1957-1966) 2 :5 8 . 59. T h o m se n claim s, h o w e v er, that th ere really is n o rev ela tio n fro m G o d in S ectio n 5 9
o f The Doctrine a n d Covenants that elev a tes S u n d a y in to th e h o ly Sabbath (p. 19). T h e basis fo r S u n d ay o b se rv a n ce in
th e M orm on C h u rc h , as in th e R om an C atholic C h u rc h , lies in trad ition alone" (p. 53).
7fl S am u el W alter (am b le. S unday, the T rue Sabbath o f G od (Salt Lake C ity. 195 4 ). p p . 1 5 4 -1 7 1 ; G a m b le had
o rigin ally p u b lish e d h is irresp o n sib le C reek arg u m en ta tio n in th e N o v em b er. 1 897, M ethodist Reineu (" S atu rd an an
ism: a B r ie f R eview ," p p . 8 b 7 -8 8 3 ). w hich was so u n d ly e x p o s e d by S teele (sec n o te 6 6 ) as b ein g a m o n u m e n ta l
b lu n der" (p . 4 0 9 ).
77 S ec T h o m s e n , op. a t., p p. 103 104.
78 B. H . R oberts, ' T h e L ord s D ay, Im provem ent E ra I (N o v e m b e r , 1 897):51.
79 Orson P r a tts Works (Salt L ak e C ity, 1945), p. 170 (origin ally p u b lish e d b betw
etw eeen 1 8 4 8 a n d 1851 in L iv erp o o l.
E n glan d ), as q u o te d in T h o m se n , irp. a t., p p. 2 0 . 2 1 .
Lei G od B e T rue, 2 d ed . (N ew Y ork. 1946), p. 168.
Ibid., p. 179.
 CHAPTER 16

Reflections on a Theology
of the Sabbath

Raoul Dederen

HE Sabbath issue involves far m ore th an the m echanics o f keeping th e right

T day as a holy day o f rest and worship. Essentially, it is a m atter o f belief o r
disbelief in Jesu s C hrist as C rea to r an d R edeem er, as revealed in the S criptures;
th ere fo re it bears upon the fu tu re orientation o f one's en tire way o f life.
In this ch a p te r I wish first to consider briefly the basic theological significance
o f th e Sabbath as it is conceived in S cripture, and second to discuss how this day o f
rest sheds light u p o n the p attern o f m an's basic p osture in the presence o f G od and
o f his fellow m en.
A lthough a b rief treatm en t o f this kind cannot provide satisfactory answ ers to
all p ertin e n t questions. I shall be quite satisfied if I can add to o u r m utual
u n d ersta n d in g o f th e theological dim ension an d practical im plications o f the
question b efo re us. For I think that one o f o u r most im perative tasks is to uncover
an d to ap p reciate th e im plications o f the Sabbath com m andm ent fo r m odern
theological th o u g h t an d practice in the church o f today.
A Basic Affirmation About God
Let us first in q u ire into the m eaning o f the Sabbath rest as conceived in the
Scriptures. It is now generally recognized that the weekly Sabbath was certainly
o f great antiquity" and belongs to the earliest strata o f Israelite religion .1 A nd
alth o u gh various hypotheses re g ard in g its origin have been proposed,- yet very
little light has been ad d ed to the Biblical record that traces it back to the creation o f
the w orld .5 T h e o rd e rin g o f m an s life to include rest on the seventh day is
evidendy a u n iq u e elem ent in Israels concept o f tim e.'
By fa r th e m ost frequently m entioned o f all the days re fe rre d to in th e Old
T e s ta m e n t,'th e Sabbath is a fundam ental elem ent o f the religion o f the Bible." It is
m entioned th ree times in connection with the creation o f the universe: once in the
Genesis n arrative o f C reatio n 7 an d twice as foundation o f the Sabbath
com m andm ent." T h is is quite significant w hen one keeps in m ind that the d octrine

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o f C reation concerns the fundam ental relationship between God an d the w orld, a
relationship th at is at the very h eart an d ce n te r o f the C hristian gospel. T h e idea
th at G od is C rea to r is indeed one o f the basic affirm ations ab o u t God d ial the
Biblical writers,'' an d C hristians afte r them , have re g ard e d as the indispensable
fo u n d atio n u p o n which th eir o th e r beliefs re st.1" Interestingly enough, it is in the
very first pages o f the Bible, at the ce n te r o f w hat the Biblical witness tells us about
G od as C reato r, th at we discover for the first tim e the concept o f th e Sabbath day.
So considered, an d because it is em inently a revelation o f the n a tu re o f G od a n d o f
His p u rp o se," the Biblical Sabbath yields theology in the strict sense o f the term , i.e.,
it provides us with a d octrine o f God, o f G od as C rea to r o f heaven an d e a rth , and
o f m an s final goal in Him .
T he D ivine Rest Its Im plications
T o clarify this, let us consider the Biblical statem ent itself. T h e Genesis
account affirm s that on the sixth day, a fte r creating heaven and ea rth an d m an,
God looked back with satisfaction u p o n His w ork o f C reation. H e saw that
everything th at he had m ade" was good, even very good. 1' Moses specifically
indicates th at it was at th at point that G od laid the fou n d atio n o f the Sabbath by
resting on th e seventh day: T h u s th e heavens an d earth were finished, a n d all the
host o f them . A nd on the seventh day God finished his work which he had do n e,
an d he rested on the seventh day from all his work which he had done. So God
blessed th e seventh day a n d hallowed it, because on it G od rested from all his work
which he h ad d o n e in creatio n . 15
T h a t G od rested afte r His work o f C reation is a fact u n d erlin ed with equal
clarity in th e fo u rth com m andm ent o f the Decalogue: "R em em b er the sabbath
day, to keep it holy. Six days you shall labor, an d do all your work; but the seventh
day is a sabbath to the L ord y our G o d ;. . . fo r in six days the Lord m ade heaven and
earth , th e sea, a n d all th at is in them , a n d rested the seventh day; th ere fo re the
L ord blessed th e sabbath day an d hallowed it .14
In both instances w hat is involved is not a divine decision to rest in the sense o f
leaving som ething u n d o n e. N o r are the ideas o f tiredness an d com pensating
recu p eratio n to be connected with this divine re st.1 T h e em phasis is on
com pletioncom pletion o f an activity, o f a function. G ods work and C reation
were com plete at the m om ent in which H e took tim e to re st .16For although heaven
and ea rth were indeed finished, G ods w ork was not en ded. T h e end cam e when
He rested on the seventh day, thus m aking the Sabbath day a definite part of
C reation. O nly then was His wrork d o n e .17
W hat are th e im plications o f the idea o f a divine rest on the seventh day o f
C reation? Let m e briefly m ention two o f them . First and forem ost, we are dealing
here with th e d o ctrin e o f G od, with theology a n d not anthropology. W hat we have
before us is no c ru d e an th ro p o m o rp h ism , arg u in g back from m an to G o d .1* N or is
it an attem p t to find a divine sanction fo r an already existing weekly rest by giving
it fo u rth place in a set o f ten com m andm ents. T h e arg u m en t, definitely
theological, is all the o th e r way a ro u n d , from G od to m an ra th e r than from m an to
God. T h e S criptures begin from th e C reation account and from G ods rest in
which m an is graciously com m anded to share.
A most rem arkable theological tru th is thus stated, nam ely, that by resting
on the Sabbath day God is m aking plain His desire to e n te r into a p e r

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sonal relationship with His creation. F ar from being satisfied m erely to create the
world an d m an a n d then leave them to forge th eir own destiny. H im self re tirin g
to the position o f a d etached spectator, God willed to coexist with m an a n d ex
pressed this in a m ost m eaningful way, nam ely, by instituting the Sabbath and
th en inviting m an to participate in His rest and blessedness.' T ru ly , this seventh
day, blessed an d sanctified by G od, was given in grace to the w orld .80 It was
m ad e fo r m an a n d given to him , as C hrist H im self declared." G e rh ard von
Rad correctly points out th at this divine rest is in every respect a new thing along
with th e process o f c reatio n ." G od has com e into m an s world an d H e has come
to stay.
Clearly, in th e S criptures C reation is n o t re g ard e d as a timeless revelation that
took place in th e orderly course o f n atu re , but as a historical w ork o f God that
launches history history th at itself is u n d ersto o d as a dialogue betw een G od an d
m an.
T h is points to a second theological im plication in the Biblical concept o f a
divine rest at th e en d o f the C reation process: G od, because H e is the G od o f
history, is also th e God o f the covenant a n d o f the prom ises. M an is the goal o f
C reation; b u t C reation, because it m eans fellowship, is also obedience,
p a rtn e rsh ip in a covenant. T his covenantal relationship, strongly em phasized in
the S criptures, affirm s anew th e astonishing proxim ity o f the creatu re to the
C rea to r. It testifies, on the one han d , to G ods sovereign pow er in history, His
goodness an d loyalty to His covenanted p eo p le ,24 while on the o th e r it calls for
m an s allegiance allegiance expressed, am ong o th e r ways, in his grateful
observance o f th e Sabbath rest, th e sign of this covenant." T his underscores the
religious ch aracter o f the S abbath, w hich is no longer m erely G ods gift,1* but also a
day to th e L o rd ," the Sabbath "o f the L o rd ,"2* a day holy to the L ord and
consecrated to Him . As Ellen G. W hite has expressed it, Its observance was to be
an act o f g ratefu l acknow ledgm ent, on th e part of all who should dwell upon the
ea rth , that G od was th eir C rea to r and th eir rightful Sovereign; that they w ere the
w ork o f His h an d s and th e subjects o f His authority."*
T h is is not to say that this day provides benefits fo r God o r secures His rights.
B ut on this day, set a p a rt by H im , G o d s presence is particularly m anifest. It
belongs fully to Him , a n d com es entirely and in a particu lar way u n d e r His
L o rd sh ip .51 It is in th e light o f this relationship betw een G od an d m an, betw een
G od an d His people, th at the Sabbath m ust be u n d erstood. It is this unfathom able
intim acy o f C rea to r an d creatu re. F ath er a n d son, that gives this day the fullness o f
its significance.
M otivations for Sabbath Observance
But let us now tu rn o u r attention to the significance o f the Sabbath rest an d to
the role it is to play in the belief an d practice o f C hristian congregations. W hat are
the basic m otivations fo r observing the Sabbath day?
A Day o f Rest.i n o rd e r to answ er the question, I wish to consider the
d iffe ren t form ulations o f the Biblical co m m andm ent re g ard in g this particular
day. In E xodus 20 the Sabbath day is connected with the C reation rest:
" R em em ber th e sabbath day, to keep it holy. Six days you shall labor, an d d o all
your work; b u t the seventh day is a sabbath to the L o rd your G od; in it you shall not
do any w o rk ,. . . fo r in six days the L ord m ade heaven and ea rth , the sea, a n d all

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th at is in them , a n d rested the seventh day; therefore the L ord blessed th e sabbath
day a n d hallow ed it . " 52
A ccording to the fo u rth com m andm ent, then, the Sabbath is first of all a day
o f rest. It is to be sanctified by dem onstratively laying all work aside. T h u s m an will
be rem in d ed at least once every seven days o f his creatureliness and o f the fact that
ap a rt from G od he is unable to u n d ersta n d him self o r find the right relation to his
work. T h e Sabbath day is a tim e d u rin g which m an brings his work to a standstill, a
day on which he ceases his toil to gain a livelihood an d allows G od's grace to be the
first an d last w ord in his life. T his is the day on which he com pletely su rre n d e rs to
God a n d places him self unreservedly an d unconditionally at G ods disposal.
For six days o f every week the w orld belongs to us, as it were. For six days we
may stam p o u r creative im press on things and m ake them the agents o f o u r will.
But on th e seventh day we are to testify that, afte r all, the w orld is not o urs but
G ods, th at we are not its lord and m aster but m erely G ods vassals. O u r observance
o f th e Sabbath attests to the facts that we live and work only by G ods grace, that H e
is o u r L ord a n d M aster, a n d that we recognize Him as such. O u r resting on that
day is a d em o n stration o f hom age to G od, proclaim ing Him C rea to r and M aster o f
the w orld a n d o f ourselves.
M an needs a constant re m in d e r o f this relationship betw een the transcendent
goodness and sovereignty o f G od and his own essential creatureliness .54For if God
is not th e ce n te r o f o u r lives, o u r creaturely needs will drive us to m ake som ething
else th e cen ter, a n d so devote o u r allegiance to a false loyalty. C o rresp o n d in g to
the divine rest, the Sabbath rest does not connote recuperation after toilsom e
work, but a sim ple cessation and abstention from fu rth e r work. O n the Sabbath
day m an does not belong to his work; he renounces his autonom y an d affirm s
G od's d o m inion over him .
But alth o u g h cessation o f work is com m anded, this is by no m eans all th at is
req u ired . C onsecrated to God as C reator, this day becom es a tithe" on time, ju st
as the tithe o f o n e s earnings, the firstborn o f the flock, an d th e first fruits o f the
harvest w ere a tith e o f th e w ork o f th e o th er days .'6 T h e Sabbath rest thus
expresses the consecration o f o n e s existence an d tim e to G od in the sam e way as
th e T em p le in Jeru salem expressed the consecration o f space .17 T h u s, while
unquestionably re q u irin g cessation o f work, the Sabbath consists o f som ething
m ore th an m ere physical rest; it is a "holy" day, a day to be kept holy." Its holiness
derives from G od's resting on that particular day o f the C reation week and
hallowing it.5" Likewise, m an is directed to keep it holy too. As the imago Dei, m an
knows and follows the will an d exam ple o f his divine F ather. T h e reality o f the
imago Dei im plies the imitatio D ei*
A Day o f R ejoicing.T h e re is a second basic m otivation for observing the
Sabbath day, nam ely as a day o f joy, a m em orial o f redem ption. D euteronom y
5:15 attaches th e Sabbath co m m andm ent to the m em ory o f Israel's slavery in
Egypt an d subsequent salvation. A fter instructing Israel to observe th e sabbath
day, to keep it holy , "40the co m m an d m en t a d d s :.....You shall rem em b er th at you
were a servant in the land o f Egy pt, a n d the L ord your God b ro u g h t you out
thence with a m ighty han d an d an o u tstretched arm ; therefore the L ord your God
co m m anded you to keep the sabbath day...... 41 H ere the reason for observing the
Sabbath day is th e joyous affirm ation that God delivered Israel from servitude in
Egypt. O n every Sabbath day Israel was to rem em b er that God was h e r liberator,

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th at H e had p u t an end to h er slavery. T h e Lord o f the covenant, who suffers no

o th e r god and rules over the whole o f creation, who as C reato r com m anded that
His people observe th e Sabbath day, was also the E m ancipator o f Israel. Since He
red eem ed them from Egypt, H e th e re fo re com m anded them to keep the
Sabbath day. T h e association o f the Sabbath with red em p tio n is unm istakable.4'
I'he D euteronom y statem ent does not m ean that Moses considered C reation
as insufficient reason for Sabbath observance, n o r does it re p resen t the addition o f
a foreign elem ent to the m em orial o f the original C reation re st .41 Moses simply
introduces a fu rth e r reason fo r G o d s right to sum m on Israel to keep the Sabbath.
In G ary C ohen's words, T h e original creauon b ro u g h t m an forth un to God out
o f that which was nonexistent; redem ption b ro u g h t m an forth un to G od ou t o f

T h e analogy for C hristians is so obvious as not to req u ire m uch elaboration.

Suffice it to say that o u r re d em p tio n , as C hrisuans, is o f no lesser significance than
was that o f Israel o f old. D elivered from the slavery o f sin 4' a n d o f the devil,4" we
are "a new c reatio n .47 We a re invited to pu t on the new n a tu re created afte r the
likeness o f G od,4" who created us, an d with whom we e n te r into a new fellowship.
In both Old an d New T estam ents we find an unbreakable unity betw een G od's
work in C reation an d His w ork in redem ption. T his unity, unequivocal in the
D euteronom y passage, is expressed even m ore forcefully in H ebrew s 4, w here the
apostle, in th e context o f the C reation Sabbath, ex horts his read ers to e n te r into

T h u s, as a m em orial o f C reation and a sign o f red em p tio n , the Sabbath

becom es a symbol o f G ods dual activity as C reator, for it proclaim s His creative
pow er in the universe and His re-creative pow er in m an's soul. T his unity o f
creation and red em ption is clearly expressed in one o f the most distinctive
featu res o f th e New T estam en t witness in reg ard to C reation, nam ely, that C hrist
is declared to be th e agent o f both the first and the second creation: H e is the
creative W ord th ro u g h whom G od created all things .'1 Sabbath observance, w hich
keeps fresh in o u r m inds the tru th o f the divine creative pow er, gives m eaning and
reality to those rep eated New T estam e n t declarations th at all things w ere m ade
th ro u g h C hrist and that w ithout Him was not anything m ade that was m ade.
O nce every seven days, on the Sabbath day, the C hristian, like Israel o f old, is
specially invited to rem em b er that God is a liberator who has put an en d to all
b o n dage and slavery. For th e C hristian, each Sabbath experience testifies to the
fact th at his Lord is C reato r an d that H e has set him free no longer to be
co n q u ered by any pow er, not even bv death. In o u r proclam ation and observance
o f th e Sabbath th ere will, th erefo re, always be a strong an d joyous affirm ation o f
C reation: th e affirm ation that th e world an d hu m an life are essentially g o o d ,'2an d
the attestation that Jesus C hrist is the living L ord o f the church, the L ord o f

A Day o f H ope.T his leads us to a third m otivation fo r Sabbath observance.

T h o u g h Genesis 1 and 2 m ake C reation the beginning o f all things an d the
Sabbath its m em orialbelief in C reation is not reduced to a m ere protology, to a
m ere d o ctrin e o f th e origins o f th e world an d m an. C reation is also an act o f the
p resen t instant, an d it rem ains tru e to itself till the h o u r o f the eschatological
restoration. T h is is why the Sabbath day, a day o f rest and rejoicing, is also a day o f
 T H E S AB BA T H IN S CR IP TUR E A ND HI STORY

T his day th at signifies th e basic fact that God is C reato r an d m an is c reatu re

also rem ains th e sign o f the continuing presence o f God in the life o f m an till the
day com es when full fellowship with G od will once again be realized. The weekly
Sabbath is a rem in d er, th en , o f the o th er day o f th e L o rd ," w hen o u r
red em p tio n shall be com pleted w hen C hrist, o u r C rea to r an d R edeem er, will
re tu rn as sovereign L ord and u sh e r in the final consum m ation o f the history o f
salvation. T h u s the Sabbath, the m em orial o f C reation and deliverance, is also a
sign o f hope, o f expectation o f C hrist the Lord com ing in glory at the en d o f time.
It is th e sign o f a ho p e that looks tow ard the com plete freedom o f the children o f
G od in th e fu tu re , a freedom an d restoration aw aited by the e n tire creation. As
such, it gives perspective, th ru st, and d e p th to m ans whole life to his very being
and to th e w ork he does d u rin g the six days o f his own tim e.
But the Sabbath rest is even m ore th an ju st a positive eschatological sign. It is
also a sign th at already g rants participation in that to which it points, for even now
it provides a fo retaste o f the fu tu re entran ce into G ods joyful rest. It is a sam ple,
a taste, as well as a sign, o f the eternal peace to come. Each Sabbath day is like a step
o r lan d m ark in a long line o f prom ises th at runs th ro u g h m an's generations
tow ard th e etern al Sabbath that day at the en d o f all days w hen all oppression
and strife will cease and when m an reaches th e culm ination o f rest that is in the

For this reason, while I fully side with Karl B arth in reg ard to th e vital
significance o f th e Sabbath as the symbol o f continuity and unity betw een G od's
work in C reation an d in re d em p tio n , it is on quite d iffe ren t prem ises. B arth s
position is based on a teleological in terp retatio n o f the first chapters o f G enesis
that absorbs Israel's protology in h er soteriology and eschatology.'" Denying
A dam s original state o f integrity. B arth cannot say that God was pleased with m an
as he fu nctioned in his original historical reality. G ods rest on the original
seventh day, th ere fo re , m ust be in terp re ted teleologically and soteriologically too,
i.e., as a prfig u ration a n d in au g u ratio n o f C hrists redeem ing work.
W hile I gladly recognize the close relationship betw een C reation, re d e m p
tion, an d eschatology, 1 perceive them in the context o f the historical reality o f
m an s fall, red em ption, an d restoration.*In my view, the New T estam ent, like the
O ld, reg ard s all th ree as intrinsic parts o f the everlasting proclam ation o f the one
L ord a n d Saviour Jesus C hrist. All th ree are rooted in the sam e G od, who is
C reato r. R edeem er, an d L o rd .*1 T h e G od o f grace, being also the L ord o f
C reation and history, is thus the First an d the Last. M ore specifically: W hen the
New T estam en t considers the eschatological restoration o f all things, it does not
speak o f this as the eventual realization o f C reation but as the final restoration o f
G ods initial C reation that was m arred by sin. C reation, red em p tio n , and
restoration o f all things belong together. W hen considered in the context o f the
Genesis account re g ard e d as historical realitya C reation m arred by sin but to be
resto red on that day" the eschatological im plications o f the seventh-day

C onsidered in the context o f its Biblical origin and its essential m eaning and
aim, th e Sabbath day is a day o f e n c o u n te r with G od. It is a day o f rem em brance, o f
joy, an d o f hope a day in which the C hristian believer receives anew all things
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from G od. Yet its im port goes beyond even these.

It is in deed striking that the fo u rth com m andm ent is found in the D ecalogue
exactly at th e articulation o f the com m andm ents dealing with the serv ice o f God
and those co ncerned with o u r fellow m en an d o u r daily life. T h e Sabbath seem s to
be th e sign o f w hat every o th e r day ou g h t to be, in that it defines an d illum ines
m an's attitu d e in all o f his deeds. M an's actions indeed, m ans whole life find
th eir tru e m ean in g in th e context o f the fundam ental attitu d e d en o ted by the
Sabbath day as a day belonging to G od. T o m any for whom it has becom e evident
that faith an d life, d octrine an d practice, cannot be separated, the com m andm ent
enjoining Sabbath observance can be seen to be, in the w ords o f H ans W. W olff,
an archetypal m odel for o u r theology."
T h e re is little d oubt, for instance, that at the h eart o f the Sabbath idea is the
w orship o f the C hristian com m unity. T his is not to say that th e celebration o f
w orship is th at which sets this day ap a rt an d sanctifies it.M but ra th e r that the
Sabbath day is hardly conceivable ap a rt from the celebration o f divine w orship .*5
T o keep the L o rd s day holy is also to g ath er to g eth er to h e a r an d to study G ods
W ord, to confess and to share the C hristian faith, to o ffer p ray er an d praise to
God.
Yet Sabbath w orship is not to be conceived as an isolated act, o n e that rem oves
m an from his everyday world. O n th e contrary, it is the cen ter from which everv
day o f th e week receives its m eaning an d light. T h is is so in at least two ways.
Relativization o f Mans Work.T h e Sabbath day involves restcessation o f
m an s daily labor, as we n oted earlier, a n d th ere fo re also a re cu rrin g relativization
o f his labor. By this experience, m an is repeatedly taught the lesson that G od, and
not his work, is th e sum total o f everything in his life. I'he Sabbath, a n d the
cessation o f work implicit in it, is G od's corrective to m an's ultim ate confidence in
his own toil. It is a w arning against m an's potential inebriation upon becom ing
aw are o f his own pow er an d efficacy. T h e Sabbath serves to put m an's labor in the
right perspective, so that m an tu rn s to God as the only source o f his existence.
T ra n scen d in g h u m an labor, how ever im pressive that labor may be, the Sabbath
rest tells m an in a very concrete m an n er, It is not your work o r activity that saves
you. but it is G od's perfect grace. Do not fret about tom orrow , n eith er becom e
in fatuated by y o u r achievem ents. G od grants as m uch to His beloved while th e\
sleep. Seek first th e kingdom o f (io d an d His righteousness an d all these things
shall be yours as well.
A theology o f the Sabbath, th ere fo re , is a theology o f m oderation and
sobriety. It invites m an to acquire the p ro p e r perspective tow ard his e a rth h
achievem ents, an d p ersuades him to ref rain from p utting his confidence in his
work that is, in himself. It is also a theology of grace an d freedom . F o rw h e n G o d
com m ands m an to rest on the seventh day, H e restores in him the sense of
belonging to G od, thus freeing him again from the things o f the created world.'*
A nd as m an shares with his M aker the experience o f the Sabbath rest in ceasing
from daily toil, he becom es m ore aw are o f his spiritual freedom . R esting from
work an d freed from secular routine, m an is given a ra re o p p o rtu n ity to reflect
upon and exp erien ce the divine love that created him and red eem ed him.
T h e re is in the Sabbath a quality o f re-creation and relationship that cannot
be fo u n d unless o n e discovers the potential with which God invested this
p articu lar day. H ere we m eet G od on a plane not possible on any o th e r dav o f the

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week,6 for as A braham H eschel points out, th at into which we e n te r is not a

d iffe ren t state o f consciousness but a d iffe ren t clim ate." W hile it is tru e that we
d o not autom atically realize this Sabbath quality by m erely resting on the Sabbath
day, th ere is a quality o f Sabbath observance th at cannot be found o n any o th e r day
th an G od's own day, the day H e blessed." C hristians will never u n d ersta n d what
it really m eans to keep the Sabbath until they try ita n d try it not m erely as a day o f
rest, but o n the level o f its full G od-invested potential fo r divine-hum an
fellowship.
T he P ositive M eaning o f Mans Labor. M ans labor, having thus been
placed in correct perspective by the Sabbath rest a n d w orship, acquires positive
significance. T h e Sabbath actually becomes the basis for the form ulation o f a
C hristian ethic that calls o n m an in general to acknow ledge the rule o f G od as
exp erien ced an d celebrated in the life o f the C hristian com m unity.
For this is indeed the day w hen G ods people assem ble to h ea r th e W ord o f
G od, receiving it with g ratitu d e, praise, an d rejoicing. A nd the sam e gratitu d e,
praise, an d rejoicing are to characterize m an's daily tasks. It is in w orship that the
tru e G od is confessed an d the C hristian is called to live in G od's tru th . H ere the
C hristian is n o t only challenged but is g ran ted freedom to live the totality o f his
life in th e responsibility o ffered him by the tru th o f G od. H ere m an brings his
o fferin g a n d is called u p o n to live from what he earns, acknow ledging that
every th in g he owns belongs to G od. in whose sight all m en are equal .70
Now th at he has felt th e nearness o f G od, and has been renew ed in the L ord's
likeness, the C hristian is free to en co u n ter the world that God created. H e is free to
fulfill th ere in his daily labor, b etter eq u ip p ed for the tasks o f the com ing week,
in d eed , b etter eq u ip p ed fo r the whole task o f living. As he starts a new week, he is
n o t only a m an who has ex p erien ced G od's creative an d redem ptive love, but h e is
also a C hristian raised up" with C hrist, silting in the heavenly places in Christ
J e s u s ."71 In this com m union with G od. all things are his, so that he may use them to
th e glory o f G od. G od's grace has set him free, free from the fear o f m an an d from
th e w orship o f things. It is this abiding, week-long presence, resulting from the
calm a n d peace o f the Sabbath day, that g enerates and em phasizes the ethical
dim ensions im plied in th e Sabbath rest.7*
The Arbitrariness o f the Sabbath
In an arbitrary m an n er God ap p o in ted that on the seventh day we should
com e to rest with His creation in a particular way. H e filled this day with a content
th at is "u n co n tam in ated " by anything related to the cyclical changes o f n a tu re or
th e m ovem ents o f the heavenly bodies .75 T h a t content is the idea o f the absolute
sovereignty o f G od, a sovereignly unqualified even by an indirect cognizance o f
th e n atu ral m ovem ents o f tim e an d rhythm s o f life. As the C hristian lakes heed o f
th e Sabbath day an d keeps it holy, he does so purely in answ er to G ods com m and,
an d simply because G od is his C reator. T h u s, the Sabbath com m and com es n e a re r
to being a tru e m easure o f spirituality than any o th e r o f the com m andm ents, an d ,
as in th e days o f Israel o f old, it is o ften m ore o f a test o f loyalty to G od th an is any
o f th e o th e rs .74T o be willing on the Sabbath day to withdraw from the ty ran n y o f
th e world o f things in o rd e r to m eet the Lord o f heaven and ea rth in th e quiet o f
o u r souls m eans to love G od with all o u r hearts, souls, m inds, an d bodies.
B efore concluding, I should like to m ake a cautionary distinction. It should be

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d e a r by now th at th e Sabbath does have significance for the tw entieth-century

m an, an d possibly m ore th an fo r any previous m an. T his is prim arily because the
striking changes that have characterized m odern m an urgently req u ire him to
rediscover him self and to reestablish fellowship an d com m union with G od an d his
fellow m an. T h e increasing secularization o f o u r culture, with its hectic activity,
the d isintegration o f o u r social life, the im personal connection o f m an with his
God symbolized by such m o d ern fads as the God Is D ead" craze, has ad d e d to the
confusion that dom inates o u r co n tem p o rary W estern w orld.
In such an atm o sphere, th e Sabbath as a day o f rest, kept holy unto G od, has
all too o ften becom e a traum atic experience, and this in m any ways. For one, too
m any o f us a re tem p ted to secularize the Sabbath, to deprive it o f its su p ern atu ral
content an d o f any dim ension o f reality beyond em pirical experience. T h e n ,
having dep riv ed it o f its intrinsic quality, we use it for o u r own selfish pleasure.
R ather than a day o f light that illum ines the whole o f m ans tim e, it com es to be
held as any o th e r day lived by m an in his newly found autonom y. By th e sam e
token, it loses its dim ension o f sanctification. However m uch we may choose to
replenish it again with m eaning, it rem ains fo r m any an em pty day, having lost its
characteristic as th e Sabbath day in the scriptural sense. It simply subsides to the
inescapable ty ran n y an d servitude o f th e weekdays.
But th ere are o th e r ways o f denying the basic m eaning o f th e Sabbath day.
Busy an d preoccupied with the problem s o f a driving an d com plex daily Ufe in a
m adly ru sh in g , neurotic society, som e tend to find in the Sabbath rest only
boredom a n d uneasiness. Viewed as a day when all th ere is left is to wish for its
h o u rs to be gone, the Sabbath is to them a b u rd e n , an obligation, an d
S abbathkeeping becomes a jo b o f religion ."76T his has litde in com m on with the
Biblical institution, for instead o f being lived and experienced as a tim e o f
refresh m en t an d renew al g ra n te d by a loving C reator, the Sabbath has becom e a
b u rd e n , an em pty tim e that m an seizes to carry out his own plans an d devices.
T h u s fo r those viewing it with this attitude, it has verily d eg en erated into a
negation o f G ods covenant o f grace.
C hrist's u n co m prom ising opposition to the Pharisees erro n eo u s u n d e r
standing o f S abbathkeeping revolved precisely a ro u n d this decisive factor .77 T h e
sabbath, ' said He, was m ade for m an, not m an for the sabbath .78 In o th er
words, th e Sabbath wfas m eant to be a boon to m an, not a burden. It is not a day taken
away from m an by G od in an exacting spirit, b u t a day given by G od in love to m an.
T o consider th e Sabbath as a day o f sorrow an d gloom is a denial o f its authentic
m eaning as a day o f jo y a n d delight, calling fo r m an s free and g ratefu l obedience
as the necessary result o f blessings received. It is this freedom an d love th at C hrist
affirm s w hen rem in d in g us that the Son o f m an is lord even o f th e sabbath. 79
Conclusion
T h ese few rem arks m ust suffice to indicate th at an authentic theology o f the
Sabbath is an invitation to keep the seventh-day holy in th e spirit o f joy and
thankfulness to G od the C rea to r fo r His gracious solicitude tow ard His creatures.
T h e Sabbath is to be clearly distinguished from all w orking days, as well as from
o th er free periods. It is not m erely one o f the free days but a holy day dedicated to
the resto ratio n o f fellowship with G od an d fellow m an, and thus particularly
designed to build an d stren g th en the ch aracter o f the believer. It is a constant

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 THF. S A B B A TH IN S CR I P T U R E AND H IS T OR Y

re m in d e r o f o u rc re a tu re lin e s sa n d o f o u r existence in time. Because H e lays claim

to th e whole o f m an, G od calls for m en to keep the Sabbath day: It is a sign o f
grace; it is tim e that God has given us in His love, and which we fill with the
celebration o f the advent o f that etern al freedom that, in p art, is already ours, a
freed o m th at com es from the living God Him self.

NOTES
I R olan d d c V a u x . A ncient Israel (L o n d o n . 1961). p. 4 7 9 . S ec a lso I. J. S tam m . "D reizig J a h re
D ek a lo g fo rsch u n g ," Theologische R undschau N F 27 ( 1 9 6 1): 18 9 - 2 * 7 .2 8 1 -3 0 5 ; F.rncst fe n n i, D ie theologische B e g r n d u n g
des Sabbatgebotes im A lten Testam ent, T h e o lo g is c h e S tu d ien 4 6 (Z rich. 1956). pp. 10*13; H. H . R ow ley, M en o f Goa
(L o n d o n . 1963). p p. I -36; J . J. S tam m a n d M. E. A n d rew . The Ten C om mandm ents in R ecent R ese a u h ( N a p p e r u lle . Hl.,
1 9 67), p p . 22*35; J. G u illen , N u e v a i a p o n a c io n c s al e stu d io d el sbado,** Estudios Bibhcas 2 6 ( 1 9 6 7 ):/7 -8 9 .
* F or u se fu l su rv ey s, see D e V a u x . op. cit.. pp. 4 7 5 -4 7 9 ; N .-E . A . A n d re a se n . The O ld Testam ent Sabbath. S B L Diss.
S er. 7 (M issou la. M o m ., 1972), p p . l - l o .
5 G e n . 1 :1-2:3.
4 "Je m eh r m an sich in d ie U te r a tu r b er d e n U r s p r u n g d e s Sabbats v e r lie ft, d e s to eind r ck Jicher w ird e in e m
d ie E in zigartigk eit d e r israelitisch en In stitu tion d es Sabbats." rem arks J e n m in Die thettlogisrhe B eg r n d u n g , p. 10. S ee
also E. G. K raeling, T h e P resen t S tatus o f th e S abbath Q u estio n ." Am erican J o u r n a l o f Semitic L anguages a n d
Literatures. 4 9 ( 1 9 3 2 -19 3 3 ):2 1 8 -228.
5 It occu rs ab out 5 0 tim es, a cc o rd in g to E rnest Je n m , Theologisches H andw rterbuch iuiw Allen Testam ent (M u n ich .
1971), 1:710. "Das W ort 'Sabbat.'" p recises J c n n i. b e g e g n e t im A lten T esta m en t k n a p p ber h u n d ertm a l." Die
theologische B eg r n d u n g , p. 4.
" T h e B ib le is m o re c o n c e r n e d w ith tim e th an w ith sp a ce. It p ays m o re a tten tio n to g en er a tio n s, ev en ts,
c o u n trie s, th in g s, an d h istory th an it d o e s to g eo g r a p h y . In th e B ib le, tim e has a sig n ifica n ce o f its o w n . at least eq u al
to that o f space.
7 G en . 2 :2 , 3.
8 Ex. 2 0 :1 1 ; 3 1 :1 7 .
9 For th e B iblical d o ctrin e o f C rea tio n , see Ps. 3 3 :6 -9 ; 8 9 :1 1 , 12; 9 0 :1 , 2 ; 146:5*7; 148:1-6: Isa. 4 0 :2 6 -3 1 ;
4 4 :2 4 -2 6 ; J o h n 1:1-12; A its 1 4 :1 5 -1 7 ; 17:22-31; R om . 1:18-23; C ol. 1:16-20.
10 For a b road er c o n sid era tio n o f th e issu e, see L an gd on G ilk e s . M aker of H e a ir n a n d Earth (G a rd en C ity, N .Y .,
1959), esp . ch ap s. 1 a n d 2.
II A s ad m irab ly b rou gh t ou t by Karl Barth. C.huuh Dogmatics (E d in b u rg h , 1 956), esp . 111/1, 111/4, I /I , 11/1, IV /1.
1 am in d eb ted to Barth's p r o fo u n d stu d ) o f th e Sabbath lo r several oasic c o n c e p ts p re se n te d h ere . For an
in tro d u ctio n to B a rth s view s o n th e sub ject, see J a m es B ro w n . "Karl Barth's D o ctrin e o f th e Sabbath." Scottish J o u r n a l
of Theology 19 (1 9 6 6 ). p p . 4 0 9 -4 2 5 .
11 G en . 1:31. S criptu ral q u o ta tio n s in th is ch a p ter a re fro m th e R evised S ta n d a rd V ersio n .
15 G e n . 2 :1 -3 .
14 Ex. 2 0 : 8 - 1 1. T h e th e m e o f G od 's rest is m e n tio n e d ag a in in E x o d u s 3 1 :1 7 .
15 I hat th e C reator sh o u ld w eary a n d n e e d rest is p r e p o ste r o u s to th e Biblical w riters. S ee, fo r in sta n ce. Isa
4 0 :2 8 . " H e rested , n ot as o n e w eary, but as w ell p leased w ith th e fru its o f Hi* w isd o m an d g o o d n e ss and th e
m a n ifesta tio n s o f H is Klorv." rem ark s E llen G. W h ite in Patriarchs a n d Prophets (M o u n ta in V iew . C a lif., 1 9 1 3 ),p . 47.
16 T h e term s fin ish ed an d done a re u sed fou r tim es in co n n e c tio n w ith th e Sabbath day in G e n e sis 2 :2 , 3.
17 M. L. A n d r e a se n . The Sabbath: Which Day a n d W hy? (W a sh in g to n , D .C ., 1 942). p p. 4 3 -4 5 .
1,1 D e V a u x . op. a t., p . 481.
19 C o m m e n tin g o n tn e G e n e sis statem en t that G o d b lessed th e sev en th dav a n d h a llo w ed it" (G en . 2 :3 ), J en m
p oin ts ou t that "on accou n t o f this b lessin g G od p u ts livin g fo rce s in th is day. This is in d e e d th e clay w h en G o d w ants
to en ter in to fe llo w sh ip w ith h is cr ea tu r es, an d c o m m u n io n w ith (.kid m ea n s life. O n a cco u n t o l its b e in g b lessed , th e
d av itse lf b eco m es in tu rn a b lessin g." Die theologische B e g r n d u n g , p. 2 9 . C f W alth er Z im m erli, D ie i rgeschichte, I .
Mose 1 11. 1 9 43. p 102
20 G. C . B er k o u w er. The Proxtdence o f G od ((rand R apids. 1952). p. 62.
21 Mark 2 :2 7 .
22 (krrhard vo n R ad. Genesis: A Com mentary (P h ila d elp h ia . 196 1 ). p. 60.
le r . 2 7 :5 .
* C h ap . 3 1 :3 5 -3 7 .
24 Isaiah 5 6 : 4 .6 . associates th e Sabbath rest w ith th e h o ld in g fast o f th e co v e n a n t, a n d E zekiel 2 0 : 1 2 .2 0 p o in ts it
o u t as a "sign" b etw een G od an d H is p eo p le. In E x o d u s 3 1 : 12-1 / th e Sabbath rest is d e sig n a te d as th e "sign" to Israel
that th e Lord is h er Sanctifier. O n e w h o rejects th is sign by viola tin g th e Sabbath has a lso rejected G o d (v erses 1 4 .1 5).
26 Ex. 16:29.
27 Lev. 23 :3 ; Ex. 16:23, 2 5 ; 3 5 :2 .
28 Lev. 2 3 :3 8 .
29 Ex 3 1 1 5
50 W h ite. op. rii.. p. 48.
51 It is w ith regard to th e S abbath day that th e C rea tio n n arrative u ses th e term holy fo r th e first tim e. T h e ea rth
an d th e h ea v en s w ere d ecla red "good" (G en. 1:12, 18, 2 1 , 2 4 ). m a n "very go o d " (v erse 3 1 ). but th e sev en th -d a v
Sabbath w as ca lled "hallow ed." i.e. "holy" (ch ap . 2:3).
52 Ex. 20:8-11
M T h e p ro p h e ts w ord s sp e a k in g o u t again st b u sin ess o n th e Sabbath co n tra d ict n atural m an's in clin a tio n s to
m ak e his life secu re o r to a d d to life s a o u n d a tice bv a n o n sto p , u n in terru p ted w ork. S ee Ex. 3 3 :1 4 ; Isa. 5 8 :1 3 . 14; |c r .
17:19-27; N e h . 1 3 :15-22. . . . . .
M T o W illy R o rd o rf, th e o rig in a l Sabbath w as a social-eth ical in stitu tio n p ro v id in g rest a n d re fr esh in g . H e

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 REFLECTIONS ON A THEOLOGY OF T HE SABBATH

considers ihc religious dim ension as a later addition. See his Sunday (Philadelphia. 1968), pp. 15-18, 45-54.
v Had the Sabbath always been kepi, man's thoughts and affections would have been led to his Maker as the
object of reverence and worship, and there would never have been an idolater, an atheist, or an infidel," rem arks
Ellen G. White (The Story of Redemption [Washington. D.C.. 1947]. pp. 382. 383).
54 Pointing out that in the case o f tne Sabbath rest the last ratner than the first is consecrated to God. A. M
Dubarle remarks: T h e offering of time, accomplished on the last day of the week, and not on the first as was the ase
in the offering o f the material good*, had the effect of consecrating the whole time, in as much as it tended toward the
day of meeting with G od. signification religieuse du sabbath dans la Bible." in Le Dimanche, Ixx O randi 39
(Paris. 1965). p. 52. See also M atitiahu Tsevat. T he Basic Meaning of the Biblical Sabbath." Zeitschnft fikr die
Alttestomenthche W iuew chaft 84 (1972) 454.
97 Je an Danilou. The Bible and the Liturgy (South Bend. Ind.. 1956). p. 223.
M Ex. 20:1! .
w See on this point H K. LaRondelle. Perfection and Prrfecttonum (Berrien Springs. Mich., 1975). pp. 69-72.
40 Deut. 5:12.
41 Verse 15.
4* In the Deuteronomy rendering of the Sabbath com m andm ent, the rest of Israel's slaves and domestic animals
(verse 14) seems to be the essential purpose of the Sabbath rest T h ere are. to be sure, other instances m Deuteronomv
where slaves are invited to rejoice with the Israelites in their worship of the true (iod (cf. Deut. 1212. 18; 16:11. l2,
14) in an attem pt to underline man's intrinsic dignity. But in this instance G ods concern is much m ore a
salvation-history m otif. T h e Israelite will grant his slave this day of rest because (iod delivered Israel from slavery in
Egypt and led her to the rest of the Promised Land See Jenni. th e theologiich Brgrundung, pp 16-19
45 Notice the rem inder, in this passage, of the already existing com m andm ent, as indicated in verse 12:
' Observe the sabbath day. to keep it holy, a\ the t.ord your God (ommanded ?ou."'~
44 T h e Doctrine o f the Sabbatn in the Old and New Testam ents," Grace Journal 6 (Spring, 1965): 10.
' I .(us 2:14 I |.h I ( ol i 14; H eb 9 IM S .
46 Jo h n 16:11; Heb. 2:14-18.
47 2 Cor. 5:17; Gal. 6:15.
4" Eph 4:24
49 See esp verses 1-5, 8-10. It is true that Christian devotion and thought concern themselves most with (iod's
redeem ing activity as revealed in Jesus Christ. This is at the foundation of our knowledge of God as a loving father, of
ou r hope to r salvation. But who is that God who is supremely righteous and loving, who judges and redeem s us. if not
the Creator of heaven and earth ? T h e gospel promises of salvation are rooted in tne Biblical doctrine of Creation, for
Creation is the activity o f God bv m eans of which we define what we mean by the word God." Without this
transcendent aspect of God that describes Him to our faith as the source of all existence. His judgm ent and love
would ultimately be unim portant to us. and the redem ption promise impossible to perform . His promise to redeem is
"gt>od" only if God is the C reator of the powers that rule our lives. T he ( Jinstian faith requires that the God who sa\es
be also the God who brought us into existence. It is only as we believe that (iod is Creator that we can believe that He
has power to re-create us. that is, to redeem us, for redem ption is essentially a creative act This has been brought out
admitahU in ( .ilk e y ,* a t . pp. 79-82. SSI. 254
w Given to the world as the sign of God as the Creator," the Sabbath "is also the sign of Him as the Sanctifier,
rem arks Ellen G. While in Testimontet to the Church, 9 vols. (Mountain View. C alif, 1948), 6:350. T his unity between
Creation and redem ption decisively sets the Biblical message of salvation apart from all dualistic religions that regard
salvation as release from the treated world rallier than tne restoration of the world.
Jl Jo h n 1:1-18, Hebrews 1:1,2, and Colossians 1:15-17 identify in their different ways creative wisdom and the
word of the C reator with Jesus Christ. T here is also an unmistakable reference to the role of Christ in Creation when
the words through" Jesus Christ are added to the from God" of I Corinthians 8:6.
** T he Sabbath rest reminds man that the world and hum an life are essentially ginxl. that they are God's
creation, endowed with many beautiful things. T hus the Sabbath is an invitation to rejoice in God's creation.
H T he seventh-day Sabbath is the day of, to, or unto the Lord. Ouite often, however, in the Scriptures the term
day of the Lord" carries a clear eschatological connotation. See Isa. 13:9; Eze. 13:5; Joel 2:31; Amos 5:18; 1 Cor. 1:8;
5:5; Phil l h. 2 10; I T h m 2. I 2 rfm I 12.
M Rom 8:20-22. As in ihe past (iod did His mighty works and overcame His enemies through His initial creatne
act and the delixerance of His people from Egypt, so He also acts now in the final decisive struggle that is to usher in
the eschatoiogical age.
H Barth, o t cU . 111/1, d 214.
* Heb. 4 1 -1 3 With Oscar Cullm ann. Seventh-day Adventists make a clear distinction between the New
Testam ent concept o f eternity as e\erlasung time and the familiar philosophical concept of eternity as the opposite of
time, as timelessness See Oscar Cullm ann. C h m ta n d Time (Philadelphia, 1950), pp. 61-80. In the New T estam ent the
eschatologual rest is described not as a rest of negation but. on the man ward side, as a time of worship and praise See
Rev 22:3*5
i7 See particularly Barth, op n t.. I ll 1. pp. 213-228; 111/4. pp. 47-72.
See, for instance, Barth, op. cU.. N i l . pp. 2181.
** Barth, op. c it . IV /1, p. 508: T h e biblical saga tells us that world-historv began with the pride and fall of man
. T h ere never was a golden age. T h ere is no point in looking back to one. T h e first man was immediately the first
sinner " By the same token Barth denies the historicity of Adam's fall as a transition from the statu.* integnlnlu to the
itatus corruptionu.
* For a m ore detailed Adventist critique of B arths views, see LaRondelle. op. cit., pp. 69-86.
Rev 1:17; 2:8; 22:13; 21:5. 6.
w As unequivocally indicated in Col. 1:15-20; Eph. 1:3-14.
M Hans Walter Wolff, T h e Day of Rest in the Old Testam ent." Lexington Theological Quarterly 7 (July, 1972):65
M W orship is a hum an act that, like all o ther hum an actions, can be diverted from its true object. thus losing its
meaning O ne can hardlv forget the prophets' warnings to that effect or Amos' denunciation of Israels assemblies
(Amos 5:21-24).
M T he tru e ground of worshipnot just on the seventh day, but o f all worshipis found in the distinction
between ihe C reator and His creatures. As a memorial o f Creadon, the Sabbath, which keeps this distinction ever
present to man's m ind, lies at the very foundation of tru e worship. See J. N. Andrews and L. R Conradi. Hutory of the

TS1SAH-20 o AK
 T H E SABBATH IN SCRIPTURE AND HISTORY

Sabbath a n d F in t Day of the Week, 2 d e d . (B a ltic C reek . M ich .. 1 873), p p. 5 0 9 -5 1 2 .

66 Nothing is as nard to suppress as the will to be a slave to one's own pettiness." observes Abraham Joshua
Hcschel. "Gallantly, ceaselessly, auietlv, man must light for inner liberty. Inner liberty depends upon being exempt
from dom ination of things as well as from dom ination of people. T h ere are many who have acquired a high degree of
political and social liberty, but only very few are not enslaved to things. This is our constant problemhow to live with
people and remain free, how to live with things and remain independent." T he Sabbath: its M e a n in g f o r M o d e m M a n
(New York. 1951), p. 89.
67 In s p ile o f th eir d ram atic e ffo r ts , th e attem p ts o f th o se w h o o b se rv e Sun d ay to g iv e th e first d ay o f th e week
Sabbatic q u alities h ave u tterly failed . S e e H erb ert E. S a u n d ers. T he Sabbath (P lain field. N .I.. 197 0 ), p p . 12-17.
Hcschel, op. n t., p. 21.
M Gen. 2:3. "God had previously blessed the fish of the sea [1:22] and man (verse 28]. This blessing
provided them with the power to be fruitful and to multiply." T hen the seventh day was blessed, provided with
lifc-rcstonng powers, so that from it m ans time might be made new and fruitful.Wolff, op. n t.. p. 70.
70 T he Saobath com m andm ent is the only one to take a step in the direction of nuking all men equal before
God."Ibid., p. 71.
71 Eph. 2:6.
72 By its very nature the Sabbath com m andm ent underlines all the other com m andm ents and provides for their
keeping. It is the one com m andm ent that grants time for worship, for the reception of the Word and the Spirit of
Goa. It is a lime set aside for the purpose of reflecting on and responding to life in relation to (iod, nature, self, and
humanity.
73 E frons to relate the origin of the seventh-day Sabbath with phases of the moon, agricultural seasons, or any
other natural phenom enon have utterly failed. See De Vaux. op. n t.. p. 480, Waller Harrelson, From Fertility C u lt to
Worship (Garden City, N.Y., 1969), pp. 30-32; Tsevat. op. n t.. pp. 456-458; Jcnni, Die theologiuhe H egrundung. pp. 11,
12; G uillln. op. n t., p. 78. 79; Felix Mathys, "Sabbatruhe und Sabbaifcst. Theologisrhe Z n ts c h n /t 28 ( 1972):245. 246.
74 While the greatest rewards are associated with the keeping of the Sabbath (Deut. 28:1-14; Isa. 56:2-7; 58:13.
14; Jer. 17:24-26; Eac. 20:12. 20), continued violation o f the fourth com m andm ent stood for years as a spiritual
therm om eter revealing Israels plight of having broken God's covenant (Ex. 31:15; 35:3; Num. l5:32-3o, Nch.
13:15-22; Jer. 17:27; Eze. 20:13, 16. 21. 24; 22:8. 26).
75 For a pertinent analysis of the current forces in Western culture and their threat to the traditional Christian
day o f rest, see Christopher Kicsling. The F uture oj the Christian Su n d a y (New York. 1970). pp. 3-15.
76 A rthur W. Spalding. The Sabbath a n d the Saboath Day (Mountain view. Calif., 1937), p. a. In the first chapter of
his book Spalding discusses several categories o f negative Sabbathkecpers: the Sabbath-burdened," the
"Sabbath-bound." and the Sabbath addicts.
77 See, for instance, the Mark 2:23-28 episode.
7S Mark 2:27.
79 Verse 28.
APPENDIXES
 A P P E N D IX A

The Planetary Week in the Roman

West

S. Douglas Waterhouse

S a sep ten ary tim e u n it the seven-day week is peculiar, for it is entirely
A in d ep en d e n t o f the m onth an d u n re la ted to an event in n atu re , such as the
m ovem ents o f the sun, m oon, o r stars. In the w hole o f the pre-H ellenistic, ancient
O rient it can now here be clearly perceived, except am ong th e H ebrew s .1 T h e
ancient Etruscans o f N o rth e rn Italy, an d th eir cultural descendants, the Rom ans,
are said to have possessed an eight-day m arket week. Such an assertion is not
technically correct. N eith er the R om ans n o r th eir predecessors possessed a w ord
to d en o te this space o f time. T h e country people w ere accustom ed to com ing to an
u rb an center, such as Rom e, fo r th eir m arket days, called nundinae, o r ninth
days." By o u r m ode o f reckoning, which is not inclusive like the R om ans, the n ine
days" actually co u n t out to m ean eight days. * Since the classics never placed
nundinum by itself to indicate a tim e unit, it cannot be claim ed that this was an
eight-day weekly cycle .5
T h e Jew ish historian Flavius Jo sep h u s correctly noted tow ard the en d o f the
first century a . d . that the week introduced into the R om an E m pire was in
im itauon o f the Jew ish septenary tim e observance. As he put it: T h e re is not o ne
city, G reek o r b arbarian, n o r a single nation, to which o u r [Jewish] custom o f
abstaining from work on the seventh day has not sp re a d .4 In d e ed , o u r m o d ern
week, observed w orldw ide, which em ploys the Jew ish system o f en u m eratio n ,
cou n tin g th e days u p to the Sabbath, goes back to the authority o f the H ebrew
S cripture and Jew ish practice .5
T h e A strological W eek a n d the R om an W orld
W hile it w as the H ebrew s who b ro u g h t the weekly cycle to the a tten tio n o f the
w orld, it is the planetary w'eek, arising in Hellenistic times, th at popularized the
weekly cycle, until it finally gained a w idespread acceptance th ro u g h o u t the
R om an E m pire. T h a t the n a tu re o f o u r present week has a secondary d ep e n d en ce
upon th e astrological week o f the Rom an Im perial Age, is m ade obvious w h en the

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 I HE PLANETARY WEEK IN T H E ROMAN WEST

distinguishing featu res o f the planetary week are listed:

1. Instead o f beginning th e day in th e evening (Lev. 23:32: C en. 1:5), the
astrological day began at m idnight.*
2. Instead o f startin g the first day o f the week as that which follows the
seventh-day Sabbath (M att. 2 8 :1), the first day o f the planetary week is S atu rd ay .7
3. Instead o f h o n o rin g the scriptural Sabbath (Ex. 20:8-11), S unday is
honored."
4. F u rth e r, each day is given a nam e, not sim ply en u m erated , as was the
H ebrew custom ."
5. Finally, an d most im p o rtan t, each hour, as well as each day, is given a
planetary ru ler, co n sidered a god. whose qualities influence its ruling h o u r, o r the
day to which it is assigned .10
T h e Rom an E m pire thus cam e to prom ulgate a seven-day week whose
sequence a n d nam es are: Satum i dies, ru le d by S atu rn ; Solis dies, ruled by the Sun;
Lunatdies, ru led by th e M oon; Mortis dies, governed by Mars; M ercurii dies, lo rd ed
by M ercury ; Jo vis dies, ru led by Ju p ite r; and Veneris dies, ruled by Venus. T h ese
astrological nam es for weekdays a re still c u rre n t in present-day E u ro p ean
languages derived from Latin. T ra n sla ted into G erm anic nam es o f the equivalent
gods, these nam es survive in present-day English."
T h e evidence for the arrival o f the astrological week into the West, that is, to
Rome an d to E u ro p ean peoples u n d e r h er control, dates from 27 B . C . , th e first
regnal year o f the first e m p ero r, A ugustus. For it was soon afte r the triu m p h o f
Messala in th at year that Albius T ibullus published what he had m ournfully
w ritten p rio r to Messala's d e p a rtu re : "W ithout me will ye go, Messala, across the
A egean w a v e.. . . 1 . . . s o u g h t. . . fo r reasons to linger and delay. E ither birds or
w ords o f evil o m en were my p retexts, o r th e re was the holy-day o f S aturn to detain
m e." '* Since S atu rn and M ars w ere considered m alevolent planets, S aturday
(Satum i dies) a n d T u esday (Mortis dies) w ere unlucky days, im propitious for the
start o f a new en terp rise, especially th at o f an overseas jo u rn e y .15 T h e
e n ra p tu re m e n t o f T ibullus with the concept o f planetary control over time
p erio d s is m ade evident fu rth e r on in the sam e passage, when he refers to the
planets as g u id in g p atro n s o f successive ages in Rom an history.w
A com plete listing o f lucky and unlucky days is provided by a type o f early
Rom an farm ca le n d ar (term ed menologia)," a frag m en t o f which dates to the first
cen tu ry a . d . Possessing a n astrological character, each o f the twelve m onths is
in tro d u ced bv its ow n zodiacal sign. O f interest h ere is the fact that along with the
nundinae, th e m ark in g o f f o f the Rom an eighth-day m arket holidays, is the
em ploym ent also o f th e seven-day planetary week, with each day having
tw enty-four h o u rs a n d each h o u r containing sixty m inutes.1" E rasing all question
o f th e w idespread existence o f th e astrological week in Italy b efo re a . d . 79 a re the
contents o f wall inscriptions and graffiti uncovered from pre-V esuvius Pom peii. A
G reek inscription p refaced with th e title Days of the Gods" lists the gods o f the
seven planetary days in o rd e r, beginning with S atu rn and e n d in g with V en u s .17 A
Latin graf fito, explicitly d ated to a . d . 60. states: In the C onsulship o f N ero C aesar
A ugustus an d Cossus Lentulus, 8 days before the Ides o f M arch, on S unday, on
the Ifith o f the M oon. M arketdav at C um ae. 5 days before the M arketday at
P om peii."1*
T h e biography o f A pollonius T yanaeus. while not alto g eth er trustw orthy,

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 TH E S ABBATH IN SCRIPTURE AND HISTORY

may indicate th at by the m id-first century a . d . th e planetary week was observ ed as

far east as In d ia ! 19 A pollonius, born at T y an a in C appadocia about fo u r years
before th e C hristian Era, built u p a re p u tatio n as one know ledgeable in ancient
lore an d possessing su p ern atu ral powers. Between his fortieth an d fiftieth year
A pollonius set out from a P ythagorean re treat" in Aegae, in Cilicia, on a five-year
jo u rn e y tow ard E astern lands. At N ineveh he m et Damis, th e fu tu re chronicler o f
his actions. From th ere he p ro ceeded to Babylon and on to India. At Taxilia. in the
U p p er Panjdb, he m et Iarchas, th e chief o f the B rahm ans. As a gift, Iarchas
presen ted his visitor with seven rings, each nam ed after the seven stars. It is
stated th at A pollonius wore each o f these in tu rn on the day o f the week th at bore
its nam e.*
W hile this account is supposedly based on the m em oirs o f Damis, it actually is
preserved for posterity by Philostratus, who w rote betw een a . d . 210 a n d 220.
H ence, the tale o f a B rah m an s gift com m em orating the days o f the planetary
week is op en to question, especially since Philostratus account abounds with
incongruities an d fables. T h e fact that A pollonius was a Pythagorean philosopher
and studied in Cilicia, how ever, is o f great interest. Both factors are intim ately
connected with the spread o f the planetary week. In the first century a . d . it was
being said that Pythagoras (who flourished in the sixth century B .C .) had
discovered th e G reek planetary sequence,*' an assertion that indicates (along with
o th er evidence) that the Pythagorean philosophers o f Cilicia and elsew here were
interested in planetary theology'. T h e region o f Cilicia, as will later be noted, was
steeped in Eastern astrological lore. H ere w ere to be found the a d h e ren ts o f the
god M ithras an d his rites a cult that hailed S unday as the p reem in en t day o f the
week.
At this point it w ould be well to divert o u r attention to look at the historic rise
o f astrology', particularly its introduction into the West. F or not only is the
planetary week the p ro d u c t o f E astern astrology but it never could have becom e
so p o p u lar w ere it not for astrologys captivating influence in W estern lands,
which by A ugustus' reign (27 b . c . - a . d . 14) had perm eated religious speculations
th ro u g h o u t th e M editerranean world.
Astrology , containing the prim ary concept that the heavenly planets and
zodiac signs are divine pow ers that exercise a m anifold patro n ag e on earth,
originated in Babylonia. G eographically it was C haldea (the region from
Babylon to th e Persian Gulf) an d historically it was the Persian reign (538-331 B .C .)
that m ark ed th e rise o f horoscopic astrology to p aram o u n t im portance in the
ancient world. W hile the zodiac belt o f constellations had long been know n in
Babylonia, not until the fifth century B .C . did a blend o f Persian and
C haldean/B abylonian beliefs result in horoscopic predictions concerning individ
uals, based on the configuration o f the heavens at the h o u r o f b irth .*
M eanwhile, the lack o f astrological know ledge in fifth-century G reece was
illustrated by th e usually know ledgeable Plato (428-347 B .C .), who in his Republic
(Book X) knew o f th e planets but not th eir nam es. Plato, who perh ap s h ad gained
some o f his heavenly know ledge from the P ythagoreans, was at least ahead o f his
co n tem poraries, fo r G reek literatu re o f the fifth century knew noth in g o f the
distinction betw een planet an d fixed star. In th e generation following Plato, the
situation dram atically changed. T h e G reeks not only had a concept o f the planets
as deities but also had even learned to nam e them after th eir own O lym pian gods

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 T H E PLANETARY WEEK IN THE ROMAN WEST

(Zeus, A p h ro d ite, et cetera).1' W hat caused the dram atic change? T h e contact o f
G reek intellectuals o f Asia M inor with the learned C haldean astrologers. It was
Eastern, Asian G reeks, m en such as Eudoxos from Knidus (390-340 B .C .) and
H ip p arch u s from Nicaea (190-126 B.c.),r w ho lent th eir prestige an d astronom i
cal discoveries to the art o f C haldean astrology/astronom y. Through such
interm ediaries in Asia M inor, the G reeks o f the m ainland cam e to possess the

Since th e Babylonians w ere interested mainly in characteristic phenom ena,

th eir planetary system began with the big, slow-moving planet J u p ite r (identified
with M arduk, the p atro n deity o f Babylon). His size an d brightness suggested
kingly power. Second in sequence cam e the lum inous queen star V enus (the
Babylonian goddess Ishtar). First to ap p e ar in the night sky, while the lesser
celestial lights still were eclipsed from view by the S uns evening glow, V enus light
(when nearest th e earth) was the most brilliant o f all the stars. H er warm radiance,
which seem ed so n e a r in the evening sky, suggested love and desire. T h ird was
S aturn (the god N inurta). His dim light an d slow m ovem ent suggested th e old
d eth ro n e d S un the retirin g distant Sun o f the night sky. The subsequent
fo u rth position was relegated to M ercury (the god Nabu), who was perceived as
the scribe o f the gods. His quick m otion, because o f his nearness to the S un, gave
him a nervous, m ercurial quality, as though he always was transm itting learn in g .51
Fifth in sequence was the fiery red planet Mars (the god N ergal), who was th o u g h t
o f as the source o f plagues the ru le r o f the realm o f the dead. T o this planetary
sequence the M oon (Sin) an d the Sun (Sham ash) were ap p en d ed .
T h e Babylonian hierarchy o f celestial gods, Jupiter-V enus-S aturn-M ercury-
M ars-M oon-Sun (the seven bibbi o f M esopotam ian astrologers),5* was re arra n g ed
by G reek m athem atical calculations, a rearra n g em en t that may have been m ade as
early as 300 B .C . o r as late as the tim e o f H ipparchus (c. 150 B .C .). G reek spherical
trigonom etry an d astronom ical observations established an o rd e r o f eight
spheres, the criteria o f o rd e r being based on th eir respective distance from the
earth . First was the sp h ere o f the fixed stars, m arking the bounds o f the cosmos.
W ithin this o u term o st b o undary were the seven in n er spheres o f the planets,
which in o rd e r (from distant to near) are: S atu rn , Ju p ite r, M ars, the Sun, V enus,
M ercury, and the M oon. T his new G reek spacial" sequence significantly
perceived th at th e Sun was set in the m iddle. T h e th ree planets above this
preem in en t ru le r w ere th o u g h t o f as m ale and less h u m id (except for S aturn); the
th ree below w ere fem ale (except M ercury, who was considered herm aphroditic)

T h e B abylonian zodiacal year was then m ade to conform to this new

sequence .54T h e an n u a l rising o f the Sun, from the w inter to the sum m er solstice,
began with th e zodiac sign o f A quarius and en ded with the sign o f Leo. T h e
ancient winter-solstitial m onth o f A quarius (now dated Jan u ary 20-F ebruary 18)55
was given to S atu rn , the m ost distant o f the visible planets. T h e next m onth, Pisces
(F ebruary 19-M arch 20), was assigned to Ju p ite r, the secondm ost rem ote planet;
Aries (M arch 2 1-April 19), th e third, to Mars. Since the yearly cycle o f the Sun was
conceived o f as a "great d ay, the next in sequence, the Sun, was reserved for the
years noon," th e zenith position directly opposite its rising. H ence, the fo u rth
m onth, T a u ru s (April 20-May 20), was given not to the Sun but to the following
planet, th e daw n-star" o f spring, Venus. G em ini (May 21-June 21), the fifth, was
 I H E S ABBATH IN SCRIPTURE AND HISTORY

assigned to M ercury; and C ancer (June 22-July 22), th e sixth, to the M oon .16
M arking th e seventh m onth in this sequence was Leo (July 23-A ugust 22), the
m o n th that begins the an n u al descent o f light dow n to the short days o f w inter
darkness. As ju st noted, this tu rn in g point was reserved for th e Sun itself. T h e
rem ain in g m onths o f the solar setting then were given to the five planets in reverse
o rd e r, so that V irgo (A ugust 23-S eptem ber 22) fell to M ercury; Libra (S eptem ber
23-O ctober 22), to V enus; Scorpio (O ctober 23-N ovem ber 22), to M ars;
Sagittarius (N ovem ber 23-D ecem ber 21), to Ju p ite r. Finally, with the tw elfth
m onth, C ap rico rnus (D ecem ber 22-January 19), S aturn once m ore is b ro u g h t to
view as ru ler. In this m an n er S aturn em erged as the pivotal planet that both began
and en d ed th e cycle o f the solar year (holding two consecutive m onths in a row).
C onsequently, he becam e the Hellenistic god o f time, K ronos (Satum os-A ion),
who not only controlled th e circle o f tim e but also ap p ears as the ancient fath er
figure who presides over the birth o f Light at the m om ent o f w inter solstice (the
shortest day o f the year).
O f co n tin u ed im portance is the Sun's influential position. A sjust seen, it is the
solar rising an d setting that p re d eterm in ed which two m onths each respective
planet was to ru le (only one m onth each l>eing assigned to th e M oon a n d Sun).
B eginning at m idnight, that is, the w inter solstice, the astrological year followed
the course o f the Sun as it rose, "daw ning" at spring and reaching a high
"noontim e" d u rin g the height o f th e su m m er season. With this observation in
m ind, o n e could erroneously assum e that the beginning (New Year's Day) o f the
astrological year w ould be assigned to deepest w inter, starting with th e Sun's
nativity. Actually, how ever, the twelve zodiacal m onths begin th eir e n u m erated
succession with th e d aw ning" o f spring, at th e m om ent o f the Sun's exaltation
(at th e vernal equinox). T h is twofold beginning is o f interest, because the sam e
analogy holds tru e fo r the astronom ical day o f the Hellenistic age. Again, as with
the yearly solar rising, it was m idnight that m arked the start o f co m puting the
h o u rs o f the day. But following the longstanding Persian custom , th e Magi
astrologers co n tin u ed to reckon the natu ral day from su n rise .*0
T h e connection betw een the intellectual m athem atical advances being m ade
by th e G reeks in Asia M inor an d what was taking place in Hellenistic Egypt is
illustrated by th e position o f H ip p arch u s (190-126 B .C .), the greatest astro n o m er
o f his time. W hile he m ade his celestial observations and calculations in Asia
M inor, an d tow ard the en d o f his life on the island o f R hodes (just o ff the
southw est coast o f Asia M nor).,, his discoveries, including his defense o f
astrology, m ade the greatest im pact upon the G reek thinkers o f A lexandria,
Egypt (the m ost im p o rtan t ce n te r o f Hellenistic learning o f that age). The
m easure o f this im pact can be noted in the works o f Ptolemy (C laudius
Ptolem aeus) o f A lexandria (died c. a . d . 150). It is Ptolemy who created the
Almagest, which served as the astronom ical bible until the seventeenth century. It
was this sam e savant who a u th o re d the Tetrabiblos, the m ain astrological treatise to
the presen t day. B ut what should be noted is that the basis o f Ptolemy's works,
which re p resen t the culm ination o f G reek astrology, was largely derived from that
o f th e Asian G reek, H ip p arch u s.
In d eed , it was in H ip p arch u s' own lifetim e, a ro u n d 150 B .C ., that o n e o f the
earliest m anuals o f astrological techniques was draw n u p in A lexandria. T h e work
was given th e nam e o f a sixth-century P haraoh, N echepso, an d his scribe,

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Petosiris. A p ro d u c t o f Hellenistic scholarship, it becam e the m ost qu o ted

h andbook o f astrology at Rome d u rin g the late second cen tu ry B .C .4 At about the
sam e tim e a synthesis o f Babylonian, G reek, an d Egyptian m ethods o f m easuring
tim e units took place. This was a most significant event for both the developm ent
o f what presently is u n d ersto o d as astrology an d the origin o f the planetary week.
For it was at A lexandria that astronom ers first designated the equinoctial hours"
as th e parts o f th e day. Babylonian priests long had divided day an d n ight into
twelve equal p arts each, a n d the G reeks had ad o p ted this system.** H ow ever, the
Egyptian priests traditionally w ere in u red to dividing the com plete night-day
cycle into tw enty-four constant units. T h e a u ra o f ancient Egyptian practice
eventually m ade its m ark on the G reek-speaking astronom ers o f A lexandria,
causing them to ad o p t the Egyptian division o f th e calendar day. H ow ever, still
being u n d e r th e aegis o f C haldean astrological th o u g h t, the astronom ers applied
the B abylonian sexagesim al cou n tin g system to the Egyptian h o u r so th at each
h o u r fell into sixty equal parts, creating sixty m inutes to the h o u r.
Thus it cam e about th a t the ingredients for th e planetary week w ere b ro u g h t
to g eth er; the concept o f planetary gods being taken from the Babylonians, the
m athem atics having been supplied by th e G reeks, an d the dekans, o r h o u rs ,*6
ad o p ted from th e th e Egyptians. A lexandria, possessing a large, indigenous, and
influential Jew ish p o p u latio n ,*7 was well suited for bringing in a final ingredient,
that o f th e H ebrew weekly cycle. A postate H ebrew th ought had long associated
the highest sp h ere o f the heavens, ruled by S aturn, as the sp h ere o f the A ncient o f
Days.** T h e antiquity o f this association can be d ated centuries back to the tim e o f
the O ld T estam en t p ro p h e t Am os. R ebuking idolatry, the H ebrew p ro p h e t
singled o u t fo r special co n dem nation Israels chief star-god Kaiwan (kyum), the
C h ald ean a n d Persian designation for S aturn (Amos 5:26).*J T h e two basic
co m ponents that form the foun d atio n for the astrological week thus were present
within th e com m unity o f A lexandrian Jews. N ot only did they possess a unique
sep tenary tim e cycle, but even m ore interesting to the Hellenistic astrologers was
th e fact th at they long had associated th eir "high" day (cf. Jo h n 19:41) as a day
ru led over by th e planet S aturn.
It is th e scholarly Rom an historian Dio Cassius, in a passage d ating between
a . d . 210 an d 220 , who tells posterity about the origin o f the astrological week.
A ccording to Dio, th e planetary week, now found am ong all m an k in d , was
instituted in Egypt. H e fu rth e r asserted that it was a com paratively recent
innovation, an institution unknow n to th e ancient G reeks. As Dio tells it, the
concept o f days ru led by planets o riginated with the recognition th at the planets
ruled the tw enty-four h o u rs o f the day. B eginning with the highest planet and the
highest day of th e H ebrew week, S atu rn an d Sabbath, it followed that the initial
h o u r an d initial day both were to be allotted to S aturn. As each o f the seven planets
(assigned in sequence according to th eir distance from the earth) took its
respective tu rn as ru le r over an h o u r, the first, the eighth, the fifteenth, a n d the
tw enty-second h o u r o f S a tu rn s day fell to S a tu rn s special jurisdiction. As
S aturday drew to a close, the tw enty-third h o u r w ent to Ju p ite r, the tw enty-fourth
to Mars. T h e first h o u r o f the next day w ent to th e fo u rth in sequence, th e Sun,
which th en w as given S unday to rule. In this m an n er, as the hourly rulers ro tate d
th eir respective positions, every day o f the week was nam ed afte r the lord o f its
first h o u r.

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In terest in the advanced, A lexandrian m athem atical-astrology reached

Rome in the first century B .C . Its reception by the Rom an u p p e r classes is
illustrated by th e astrologic diagram that was found on the d ead body o f the consul
Octavius in 87 B .C . 51 By the tim e the planetary' week began to spread westward into
Italy, the E m p ero r A ugustus him self was placing the zodiacal sign o f his birth,
C apricorn, on his coins (by 24 B .C .). U ndoubtedly it was the E m p ero r Septim ius
Severus ( a . d . 193-211) who set the stage for the final diffusion o f the planetary
week. B orn in the N orth A frican town o f Leptis M agna, he had been a fervent
believer in astrology from his childhood. H ence, it is not surprising that it was
d u rin g his reign tfiat the R om ans officially began to m ark the most im portant
dates according to the weekdays as well as according to the year. T h e earliest
extant evidence o f this custom com es from May 23, a . d . 205.54
Sunday O b serv an ce in the Pagan W orld
In a relatively b rief essay such as this, the full com plexity o f how Solis dies, the
day o f the Sun, rose to p aram o u n t im portance in the pagan Rom an world can only
be touched u p o n .55T h e ancient sources, however, d o pinpoint one religion as the
vehicle that p ro m ulgated Sunday religious observance. W hile the prestigious
A lexandrian cen ter o f learning fostered astrology an d its offspring, the planetary
week, it was th e so-called Persian" religion o f the god M ithra that extolled Sunday
as the m ost im p o rtan t day o f th e week. Replying to the taunt that he h o n o red the
day o f th e Sun, T ertu llian , th e C hristian C hurch F ather from N orth Africa (c. a . d .
150-230), m akes the illum inating adm ission that a day o f festivity to the Sun was in
his tim e popularly th ought o f as a "Persian" institution: O th e r s . . . believe that the
sun is o u r god. YVe shall be counted Persians perhaps, though we d o not w orship
th e o rb o f day painted on a piece o f linen cloth." *
In a book attacking C hristianity, the E picurean C elsusfr. a . d . 14 0 -180) speaks
o f th e "reasoning o f the Persians and the initiation rite o f M ithra" as postulating a
figurative road" that led th ro u g h the planets. T h is path, for those who would
escape earthly m atter, was perceived as a ladder o f seven gates, each associated
with o n e o f the seven planets. At the to p was an eighth gateway, re p resen tin g the
final sp h ere o f the fixed stars.5*T h is otherw orldly sequence o f an ascent th ro u g h
planetary incarnations seem s to have been in im itation o f the grow th a n d rise o f
M ithra, the deified Sun-Light, to his zenith position in the astrological solar year.
For like the ascendant light o f the Sun, which moves from its birth position (the
shortest day o f the year) th ro u g h planetary "spheres" an d zodiacal signs, so too the
planetary lad d er o f Celsus begins with distant S aturn, ru le r o f th e w in ter solstice,
and en d s with th e d om inating Sun, ru le r o f the su m m er solstice (the longest day o f
the year). But in addition, this grow th o f deified light now is m ade to conform to
the planetary week. From S aturn the lad d er moves th ro u g h the sequence o f the
gods o f the week in a reverse direction, enabling the Sun to attain a significant
seventh position (Saturn-V enus-Jupiter-M ercury-M ars-M oon-S un).w
I he im p o rtance o f the Sun for the followers o f M ithra is illustrated also by
archeological w ork do n e at Ostia, a coastal port city o f Rom an Italy. In the
M ithraeum o f the Seven Portals, seven gates are rep resen ted in mosaic, covering
the floor o f th e sanctuarys entrancew ay. A ttention is im m ediately draw n to the
large cen ter gate, which is flanked o n e ith e r side by th ree sm aller portals. W ithin
the in n er sanctuary itself, the seven planets are in attendance, depicted on the

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faces o f th e side benches. As with the seven gates m entioned by Celsus, seem ingly
these gates are to be associated with the planets. T h e pictorial presentation at the
very th resh o ld o f th e sanctuary, with its large m iddle gate, very likely reflects the
G reek "spatial" sequence o f the planets, with the Sun holding the ex p a n d ed cen ter
portal. It presum ably is the Sun's do o r" that brings the initiate into the sanctuary.
A m o re startling sim ilarity to the gateways o f Celsus is found in the nearby
M ithraeum o f th e Seven Spheres. O nce again seven gales are depicted in mosaic.
T his tim e, however, the seven portals fill the whole central floor o f the in n er
sanctuary. H ere it becomes obvious that the gates are connected with initiation
rites, th at is, th e seven spheres th ro u g h which the mystes m ust pass. T h a t each
gateway was th o u g h t o f as a transition point, m arking d eath an d re b irth , is
suggested by th e p ictu re o f a death-inducing dag g er in the pavem ent at the
en trance. Again in evidence are the celestial patrons, the seven planets presen ted
on th e front o f th e reclining benches th at su rro u n d the central aisle. Above, on the
su rro u n d in g walls, are placed the signs o f the zodiac. O nce m ore the idea is
conveyed that h ere is a star-stu d d ed planetary ascent th ro u g h seven heavens ."*0
T h a t the veneration paid to the day o f the Sun was linked to what T ertu llian
and Celsus term ed Persian" theology needs clarification. W hile M ithra indeed
was a very ancient Persian deity, the late, Hellenistic form o f M ithraism that
spread far an d wide in the Rom an E m pire actually was unknow n in Persia, T h e
astral m ystery religion of w estern M ithra had its roots in an u n o rth o d o x dannc cult
o f th e god as practiced in C haldea a n d A natolia, an d not in th e cult o f the
Z oroastrianized M ithra o f Iran.*' T h e historic antecedents to this apostate
d em on" offshoot o f o rth o d o x , Iran ian religion trace back to events that w ere to
find th eir d en o u em en t in Asia M inor, w here w estern M ithraism was first
fo rm ulated as the result o f the intercourse betw een Magi an d C haldeans.
T h e first o f these events cam e in 539 B .C ., with the fall o f Babylon to the
M edo-Persian E m pire. T h e rustic and nonliterate Persian Magi im m ediately w ere
subjected to th e sophisticated influence o f C haldean astrologers, whose
im pressive literatu re and urb an tem ples abo u n d ed in mystic em blem s o f the
elem ents, signs o f the zodiac, an d symbols o f th e planets. An even m ore
m om entous event u n folded in 521 B .C . when Darius I o f Persia decreed a d eath
penalty, th e so-called Magophunia, o r killing o f the Magi," which aim ed at
ex term in atin g th e whole caste o f daeiic (apostate) Magi in one day.6
T h e M agian p riesthood against whom Darius bitterly fought w ere Iranian
polytheists who h ad blended th eir w orship with C haldean astral beliefs .65 In sh arp
contrast w ere th e tru e Magi o f the p ro p h e t Z oroaster (the M azdayasnians), who
insisted that th ere was only one good god, A hura-M azda. A dored as a suprem e
deity, tran scen d en t and w ithout equal, A hura-M azda was held by the o rth o d o x to
be too great a n d spiritual to have images m ade to contain him.**
T h e divergent polytheists received a fu rth e r blow in 482 B .C . when X erxes I,
who had succeeded Darius on the Persian th ro n e, prohibited the w orship o f
daevas, o r dem ons. By im perial decrees, all the tem ples o f C haldea were
d ism anded. T h e im posing tem ple o f Babylon, Esagila, was leveled, a n d its
eighteen-foot, e ig h t-h u n d re d -p o u n d gold statue o f the god M arduk was m elted
into bullion."
T h ese catastrophic blows directed against Babylonian religious influence
abated som ew hat with the rise to pow er o f the Persian m onarch A rtaxerxes II

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(404-359 b . c . ) - Because o f his conflicts with his h alf b ro th er, C yrus the lesser,
A rtaxerxes felt a need to claim a legitim ate place in the Persian (A chaem enid)
royal line. T h e traditions o f the past th e re fo re becam e im p o rtan t. Ancient
pre-Z oroastrian idolatry was everyw here elevated. A hura-M azda, who h ad ru led
u n in te rru p te d as su p re m e god since the reign o f Darius I, now (c. 400 b . c . ) was
forced to share his once-suprem e position with the goddess A nahita an d the god
M ithra. Polytheistic tem ples, com plem ented with the presence o f idols, w ere
erected th ro u g h o u t the em p ire.
By this tim e, how ever, the ad h e ren ts o f C haldean astral theology had been
scattered to A natolia an d to th e M editerranean littoral. Illum inating the g u lf o f
d ifferen ce that rem ained to separate the daeinc Magi, who had been driven from
th eir h o m eland, from that o f th e o rth o d o x M azdayasnian Magi, who still w ere to
be fo u n d in th e East, is the new T estam en t witness. O n the o n e h an d are th e Magi
whose M azdayasnian background sh u n n ed the w orship o f idols, who com e from
th e rem o te East to ad o re the C hrist child (Matt. 2:1). O n the o th e r h an d are the
Magi who live in the n e a r W est, th e au th o rs o f dem onic magic (Acts 8:9-24;
13:6-11), th e black m agic o f m edieval times."
T h e em erg ence o f the m ost spectacular Hellenistic city-state in Asia M inor,
the kingdom o f P ergam um (263-133 B . C . ) , provided the a re n a for the final
am algam ation o f C haldean an d daei'ic Persian beliefs that resulted in the birth o f
Hellenistic M ithraism . T h e glorious days o f P ergam um began u n d e r A ttalus I
(241-197 B . C . ) . R en d erin g im p o rtan t services to the Rom ans, Attalus am assed
such wealth th at his nam e becam e proverbial for riches. Becom ing a p atro n o f arts
an d eastern C h aldean learning, he invited from Babylonia the fam ed astrologer
S udines (Babylonian Suiddtna). As co u rt adviser. Sudines m ade predictions based
on divinations, particularly d u rin g th e king's w ar against the G alatians (c. 240
B . C . ) . T h e im p o rtance o f this C haldean as a learned in stru cto r to G reek-speaking
stu dents is fo u n d in the fact that his lu n ar tablets w ere still quoted som e fo u r
h u n d re d years later ( a . d . 154-174) by the "m athem atician" V ettius Valeris.1"
U n d e r such cultural p atronage, which rem ained a dynastic tradition at
P ergam um . a great library was established d u rin g the reign o f the next m onarch,
E um enes II (197-159 B . C . ) . Its size was su p ersed ed only by the n u m b er of volum es
found in A lexandria. D uring th e sam e reign o f Eum enes, P ergam um was able to
ex p an d from th at o f a m ere enclave on the A egean Sea to include the whole o f Asia
M inor west o f the T a u ru s M ountains .69
W hile th e details o f how w estern M ithraism was first form ulated rem ain
unknow n, the facts speak fo r them selves as to the tim e a n d place. T h e
p o st-H ipparchian, Hellenistic astrology, which form s an integral part o f the
m ysteries o f this syncretistic religion, m akes it certain that daeiic M ithraism , which
the R om ans first en c o u n tered in 67 B . C . , 7 was form ulated within the last two
centuries B .C . Lactantius Placidus (c. a . d . 300) states that the cult passed from the
Persians to the Phrygians (the natives o f Asia M inor) an d from the Phry gians to
the R om ans .71 E verything known about Hellenistic M ithraism bears out this
assertion. T h e Phrygian dress that continually garbs the god M ithra an d his
com panions, w herever in th e Rom an E m pire they are en c o u n tered , m akes it
obvious that th e place of the god's origin is Asia M inor. Fortifying this conclusion
is th e type o f artificial cave in which the arcane M ithra was w orshiped, for
artistically it is derived from w estern Asia M inor.7* T h e place an d tim e thus are

316
 T H E PLANETARY WEEK IN T H E ROMAN WEST

n arrow ed; th e finger o f evidence unm istakenly points tow ard the Hellenistic
kingdom that encom passed Asia M inor, that is, P ergam um , p atro n o f the arts and
Eastern learning.
T h e n a tu re o f th e w estern M ithra is o f interest. W hile the god M ithra is, o f
course, Persian, th e liturgy o f the em erg en t astral religion rem ained C haldean
(Aram aic). T h e teach er o f the m ysteries was called a Magus, that is, a Persian
priest, but he tau g h t from a scroll called a Babylonian book."7 W hile a n u m b er o f
the classics speak o f this syncretism betw een Persian Magi and C haldean
astrologers, a late Latin inscription from Rome, which dates from a . d . 377,
beautifully sum s u p th e n a tu re o f the fusion by speaking o f the m ystery teacher as
a "B abylonian priest o f M ithras Persian tem ple.*
Tw o factors have usually been pointed out as especially im p o rtan t in
facilitating the rap id spread o f M ithraism : first, the bankruptcy o f indigenous
au th o ritarian religions, an d second, R om es peculiar religious d ep e n d en ce upon
Asia M inor. T h ese a re beyond th e scope o f o u r discussion here, but it is im p o rtan t
to ask: W hen was M ithraism in tro d u ced into Rome, an d what im pact did it have
after its arrival?
Plutarch rep o rts that w hen the Rom an general Pom pey co n q u ered the
pirates on th e coast o f Cilicia (the southeastern shore o f Asia M inor) in 67 B .C ., he
carried back with him to Rom e som e prisoners who w ere devotees o f M ithra. It
was these Cilician pirates, the re p o rt states, who in troduced the m ysteries into
Italy. T w o archeological finds ten d to substantiate the report. T h e first is a series
o f rock reliefs a u th o re d by A ntiochus I Epiphanes in 62 B .C ., giving evidence o f
the m ajor im p o rtan ce o f astrological. H ellenized M ithraism in the region lying
im m ediately to th e east o f Cilicia in the very tim e o f Pompey. F ound on the sum m it
o f N im ru d Dagh, at C om m agene, the rock inscriptions an d reliefs not only
contain a referen ce to w hat seem s to be the M ithraic m ystery-grade o f the L ion
but, m o re im p o rtan t, depict th e god M ithra shaking h ands with A ntiochus.7 T h e
o th er archeological find com es from Italy, about a century later. A graffito from
Pompeii, d atin g from before a . d . 62, sketches out the M ithraic magic em blem , the
so-called ROTAS-SA I'OR square. Using the Latin alphabet, the m ystery square
significantly was fo u n d in the area o f the luvenes, that is, the region set aside for
young m en to p erfo rm m ilitary exercises. H ere, then, is confirm ative evidence
that M ithraism h ad becom e ro o ted in m id-first-century Italy, its devotees being
draw n especially from Rom an soldiers. Because o f its m phasis on fighting against
evil an d th e forces o f darkness (in terp reted to include Rom e's enem ies),
M ithraism was to gain an ascendant position as the religion o f the Rom an troops.
B eginning with th e reign o f T ra ja n ( a . d . 98-117), m aterial evidence shows that
w herever the R om an legions planted th eir standards, M ithra an d his cult w ere in
p ro m in en t atten d an ce.7
T h e stren g th o f M ithras im pact on first-century-A.D. Rom e also can be
gauged by Statius, who m entions (c. a . d . 90) seeing the Tauroctonous Mithra (the
depiction o f th e god M ithra in the m ystery rite o f slaying the bull) in Italy .7' N ero,
the first Rom an e m p e ro r to listen form ally to the judicial m erits o f the C hristian
gospel (Acts 25:12 with 2 T im . 4 : 16)."" also is the first em p e ro r to acknow ledge the
appeal o f M ithra. W hen, in a . d . 66 , T irid ates 1, king o f A rm enia an d a M ithraic
priest, cam e with his a tte n d a n t Magi to reverence the em p ero r, N ero was
addressed by the E astern p o ten tate with these words: I have com e to thee, my

317
 T H E SABBATH IN SCRIPTURE AND HISTORY

god, to w orship thee as I do M ithras ."1 T irid ates went so far as to initiate N ero
into the M ithra cu lt .1,2 In re tu rn , the grateful N ero confirm ed T irid ates position as
ru le r over A rm enia.
C hristian an d M ithraic influences again w ere b ro u g h t to bear on the person
o f an o th e r em p ero r, C onstantine the G reat ( a . d . 306-337). By this time, M ithra,
the deified light, had becom e popularly identified with the unconquerable
Sun-god (Helios, Sol Invictus) o f the Rom an state .religion .83 O f im port fo r the
fu tu re o f th e p lanetary week was M ithras position as the titulary divinity o f the
reigning e m p e ro rs family. T h is explains why Ju lian the A postate, the nephew o f
C onstantine, would later m ake m uch o f the fact that he was u n d e r the
gu ard ian sh ip o f M ithra. In a . d . 312, C onstantine proclaim ed that he would
h en cefo rth be a follower o f C hrist. N evertheless, the m onarch continued to
perceive the C hristian faith th ro u g h the externals o f M ithra w orship. An
illustration o f th e e m p e ro rs failure to detach him self from pagan theology' is
obtained from the com m ent o f his contem porary, the C hurch F ather Eusebius,
who o f the supposedly C hristianized C onstantine said: "H e taught all arm ies
zealously to h o n o r the L o rd s Day [Sunday], which also is called the day o f light
and o f the s u n ." ,MHow significant the ph rase day o f light and o f the sun"! Was it
not the arm ies o f Rom e who held M ithra to be Light deified, the o ffsp rin g o f Sol,
the Sun? W hile each planet was held to be lo rd o f a particular day, who but
M ithra him self was lord o f the day o f light an d o f the su n "?
O n the seventh o f M arch, a . d . 321, C onstantine issued his fam ed "Sunday
law edict, com m anding that: All ju d g es, city people an d craftsm en shall rest on
the venerable day o f th e sun. B ut country-m en may without h inderance atten d to
ag ricu ltu re. W ith the issuance o f that decree, the day o f the sun, in its paganized
dim ension as a civil day o f the astrological week, officially was accepted by those
who ruled C hristendom . H enceforth, the wreek o f the planetary deities was to be
the "sanctified" septenary tim e unit th at the W estern world was to inherit."

NO TES
1 The seven-day-unit was well known in the ancient Near East, Inn it was not employed an a weeklv cycle. The
seventh day of seven dav-units within the lunar m onth (the seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first and twenty-eighth days
of the month) appear now and then as unlucky davs in Bab\Ionian texts. In ancient Creek, Sumero-Akkadian, and
L'gantic epu literature, the seven-dav-unit is utilized as a schematic device: an ac tion continues for six days but is
completed on the seventh day. It is the lunar month, however, that formed the basis for lime reckoning in the ancient
Orient. In Assyria and Babylonia the word Sabbath (ia p a itu . originally fabdttum ) may have designated, at an earlv
period, a division o f the m onth; later it was applied in cuneiform texts o f Babylonian origin to the Fifteenth day o f the
month, evcntuallv coming to mean full m oon. It follows that there is no real basis lor the popular hypothesis that
Hebrew iabbdt meant full moon" and not "week." See S. E. Loewenstamm, " The Seven-Day-Unit in (Jgaritic Epic
Literature,*' Israel E xploration J o u r n a l 15 (1965): 121-133; Arvid S. Kapelm d, "T he Num ber Seven in l'g an tic Texts,"
I T 18 ( 196#):494-499: Roland de Yaux, A n a m i Isra eli London, 1961). pp. 476-479; Niels-Erik A. A ndreasen, The O ld
Testament Sabbath. SBL Diss Ser. 7 (Missoula. Mont.. 1972). pp. 1-7. p 9 7 , n. 5 William Foxwell Albright, review of
Julius Lewy and Hildegard Lewy, T h e Origin of the Week and the Oldest West Astatic Calendar," H ebrew U nion
College A n n u a l 17 ( 1942 1943): 1-152, in J H l. 64 ( I945):288-291.
* Inclusive reckoning was used by ancient peoples generally, including Bible writers. According to this system of
reckoning, any parts o f the first and last units of time are reckoned as whole units. Van L. Johnson. T he Primitive
Basis of O ur C a le n d a r . Archaeology 21 (1968): 15.
* Following the com ments ofA lexander Adam. R om an Antiquities (Philadelphia. 1872), p. 218. T h e fact that a
market day of one city fell on a different day than the market day of a n e a rb \. neighboring city also militates against
the assumption that the n u n d tn u m was genet ally held as an eight-dav week. Like tne later seven-da\ week, however,
the n u n d in u m days frequently were identifiable in writing an a conversation. Market day was called the X u n d tn a e";
there was the day before the X u n d tn a e .' "two davs before the X u n d tn a e ," and so on. See J P. V. D. Balsdon. L ife a n d
Leisure in A n c ien t Rom e (New York. 1969), pp. 60. 61
A Josephus Contra Aptonem (LCL) 2. .i9. T he statement o f Josephus is well borne out by the evidence. Two
examples from the first centurv a . d . may suffice. Em peror Augustus wrote to T ibenus that he had kept his fast on the
Sabbath more strictly than a Jew (Suetonius D tvtu Augustus <6 2) Tiberius himself, before he became em peror,
attem pted to hear the public disquisition of the (reek gram m arian Diogenes of Rhodes, but was refused admission as

318
 T H E PLANETARY WEEK IN T HE ROMAN WEST

ihe disquisitions were held on every seventh day only, on the Sabbath (Suetonius T ib en u s 32). As a rule, the Romans
jeered at the Jewish use of the Sabbath as a rest day. See Jack l.indsav. O rigins o f Astrology (London. 1971), p. 234.
5 E. J. Bickerman. Chronology o f the A n c im t W orld ( Ithaca. N.Y.. 1968), p. 59; Eduard Lohse. "oaBBatov." T D N T ,
7:32.
6 Because the chronographer o f A .t> . 354 ( Chronica M inora I: M onum rn ta C erm am ae H ist., auctores antufuissim i. cd.
byC Frick [Leipzig. 1892], 9. 120) shows that night hours were reckoned to be under the control of the same planet as
that of the succeeding dav, some have assum ed that the planetary week was reckoned from evening to evening. See
Willv Rordorf. Sunday (Philadelphia. 1968). p. 34. T he data supplied by the chronographer. however, does not
conflict with the fact that Chaldean astrologers began their computations from the hour of midnight, the planetary
ruler of the first hour being considered the lord of the succeeding dav. Significantly, the astrological year also was
com puted from what was considered the winter midnight'* of tne annual rising and setting of the sun. O n the
astronomical cuneiform texts from the seleucid period snowing that advanced astronomical reasons were used in
com puting the dav from midnight. soeO. N eugebauer. T he Survival of Babylonian Methods m the Exact Sciences of
Antiquity and Middle Ages.'' Proceedings o f the Am erican Philosophical Society l()7 ( 1963):529; Bic ker man. op a t., p. 14.
Coincidentally, the ancient Romans began their civil day at midnight, l^ o n h a rd Schmitz. Dies." Dictionary o f Creek
a n d Ronuin Antiquities, ed. by William Smith (Boston. 1870); Plutarch Qwiestiones Rom ans 84.
7 Dio Cassius R om an H istory 37. 18 (LCL). See Bickerman. op. a t., p. 61. landsay. op cit.. p. 233; Johnson, op a /.,
p. 20.
MGaston H. Halsberghe, The C u lt o f Sol I nine tus (Leiden. 1972), p. 120; Rordorf, op. a t., p. 36;C .C . Richardson.
Lords Day," ID B , 3:152.
9 Johnson, op. cit., p. 20; Ixihse, loc. cit.
10 Bickerman, op. cit., p. 61; O. N eugebauer. The E xact Sciences in A n tiq u ift. 2d ed. (New York, 1957). p. 169.
11 T h e first day o f the week presents an exceptional case. While N orthern Europe perpetuates the pagan name
Sunday." the Romance languages term that day: dimartche, domenica, dom ingo, the Lord s Day." See F. H. Colson. The
Week (Cambridge, 1926). pp. 117-120.
12 Tibullus Elegiac 1.3. 1, 15-19 (LCL).
13 While both Mars and Saturn were reputed to be unlucky, Saturn was considered the m ore dangerous o f the
two. In the Zodiac. Saturn had as houses the two winter m onths of Capricorn and Aquarius, cold, wet signs
Traversing his houses, he supposedly begot not onlv winter rains but also within the body cold humors, intestinal
fluxes, anci soon. See Lindsay, op. cit., p. 127. In the Greek world Hesiod is the first to mention lucky and unluckv days
(W orks a n d Days 765-825). Possibly the medieval ban on the seventh lone in church music as the interval of the
devil" was because o f the association with the unlucky planet Saturn, to which the seventh day was consecrated; for
anciently it was held that as the planets followed their orbits they produced sounds whose pitch depended on the
speed o f the planets and that together form ed the music o f the spheres." For a disc ussion, see Martin A. Beek. Atlas
o f M esopotamia (New York. 1962).p . 150; Charles Peter Mason. Pythagoras," Dictionary of Creek a n d Rom an Biography
a n d M ythology. 3 vols., ed. by William Smith (Boston. 1849), 3:624.
li Elegiac 1, 3. 35-50.
** T he menologia were cut in stone or laid out in mosaic, and were more for public display than use* (see Balsdon,
op. a t., p. 59; T heodor Mommsen, Corpus In scn p tio n u m L atinarum . 2d ed [Berlin. 18931, 1:280-282; and more
recently Atlilio Degrassi. In sm p tio n es Italiae [Rome. 1963). 13. fascicle II: 284-298). Also displaying the seven-day
week in Roman Italy is a Sabine calendar that dates between 19 B . C . and a . d . 14. CUmiisting of three columns, the first
column marks the days of the seven-day week, the second the eight days of the n u n d tn u m , and the third records
whether the day is fastus (the praetor was allowed to adm inister justice in the public courts), nefastus (neither courts of
justice nor comitia were allowed to be held) or comitialis (the comma could be held) M odern scholars take differing
opinion as to the type of week found m the Sabine calendar Rordorf is of the opinion that the fa s ti S a h im " is
probably the Jewish week" (op. n t.. p. 10. n. 1); Johnson would see the calendar as evidence for the spread o f the
planetary week in the first century after Christ (op. a t., p. 19). "T here are two other very fragmentary caJendars. one
of the time of Augustus, the other from the early Empire, on which also the seven-day week is m arked "Balsdon. op.
a t., pp. 62, 63.
See Samuele Bacchiocchi, From Sabbath to Sunday (Rome. 1977), p. 245, n. 35: Balsdon. op. a t., p. 59.
17 Colson, op. a t., p. 32.
IM L in d say, op. a t., p. 23 4 .
19 It is known that Hellenistic astronomy penetrated into India at least as early as 150 B . C . See Neugebauer*
"Baby lonian Methods." p. 532. and the literature cited there. On Apollonius of Tvana, com pare Colson, op a t., pp
22-24; Benjamin Jowett. Apollonius Tyanaeus." in Smith. Biography a n d Mythology. 1:242-3.
20 Philostratus The L ife o f Apollonius o f T yana 3. 41.
21 Pliny N a tu ra l H istory 2. 22.
22 While the Neo-Pvthagorcans of the first century B . C . had a predilection for astral theology, m odern
scholarship has dem onstrated that the founder. Pythagoras of Samos (whose career in southern Italy flourished
between 540 and 510 B . C . ) . had nothing whatever to do with the invention or establishment of the Greek "spatial"
sequence o f the planets; Neugebauer. "Babylonian Methods," p. 530. It was Mithraic ("Persian") theology that
contributed largely to the adoption of the week throughout the Roman Empire. Franz Cum ont. Astrology a n d
Religion A m ong the Creeks a n d Rom ans (New York. 1960), p. 90; com pare Bickerman, ob. cit., p. 61.
25 Astrology , which operates with the use o f mathematical astronom y, is an extremely ancient art. dating back to
Old Babvloman and Sum erian times. See Willy H artner. T h e Earliest History of the Constellations in the Near East
and the Motif o f the Lion-Bull C om tnC JffiirM / o f N ear E astern Studies 24 (1965): 1-16.
24 B. L van d er W aerden. History of the Zodiac." A rchir jQ r O nentforschung 16 ( 1952/1953):224. While
equinoctial hours of constant length were unknown until Hellenistic times, the ancient Babylonians did possess
twelve dav-hours and twelve m ght-hours (Lindsay, op a t., pp 35, 69. 153). T he earliest horoscope, written in
cuneiform by a Chaldean scribe, dates to April 30, 409 B . C . (ibid .. p. 49). A systematic list of the twelve zodiacal
constellations (their names extremely old. going back to Sum erian times) appears for the first time in a Babylonian
text from year 6 o f D anus 11 (419 B . C . ) . See landsav. op a t., pp. 57, 58; Neugebauer. The Exact Sciences, p. 140; Van
d er W aerden. op. a t., pp. 217, 220.
25 T h e earliest Greek horoscope is that o f Antiochus I of Commagene. dating from July 6 or 7, 62 B . C . T he
earliest known horoscopes in which Olympian Greek names are given to tne planets are from Egy ptian papyri dating
from a . d . 4 and 14 (Lindsay. op. a t . pp. 126. 137). In a dialogue called Epinom is. probably bv one of Platos pupils, the

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 T H E SABBATH IN SCRIPTURE AND HISTORY

planets arc rum cd after ( reek god*, bowing the increase in planetary knowledge in the generation following Pialo.
V t the due ussion by Jean Rhss Hr am. trans.. Ancient Astrology: Theory atid Practice (Matheseos Lihn V III by Firmicus
Matcrnus) (Park Ridge, N.J.. 1975). p. 306. n. 24.
** Van dcr W aerdcn. op. a t . p. 225.
r Brum, op a t . p. 324. and ine literature cited ihere.
* T he reason (reek science (including astronomical knowledge) was born in Asia Minor is to be found in the
traumatic events that transpired in (he Persian hm pirc, events that drove out the Chaldean scholars from their
temple schools in t ruk and Babylon. T he problem o f how the transmission of astronomical knowledge from
Babylonia to (recce took place remains unsolved. "Even if we completely disregard the very serious practical
difficulty of utilizing cuneiform material, we must assume a careful and extended training by com petent Bans Ionian
scribes and com puters in o rd er to account for the profitable use of any o f the Babylonian ephem eridcs.Neuge-
baucr. Babylonian Methods." p. 534. Pliny claims that the (reek zodiac with its twelve signs was introduced all at
once by Clcostratus. 548-545 i . e . (S a tu ra i History 2. 31). In 432 B .C . Meton publicls displayed in Greece a stellar
calendar whic h. using the zodiac al division, indicated the daily progress of the sun (ftickcrman. op. a t., p. 57). T h e
light of history begins to shine only about 400 B . c . Zodiacal schemes were then used by F.uctemon and Eudoxus in
their calendars" (van der W aerdcn, ttp a t., p. 225).
19 Even though the ancient Semites realized that the evening and m orning star were different manifestations of
the same entity, they looked upon the plancl as male in the m orning and female m the evening. Sec W. F. Albright.
Yahweh and the (odi o f Canaan (London. 1968), p. 117. Mence the Romans spoke o f the m orningstar as l.uafer. the
light bearer," who became the fem inine Venus of the evening sky (cf W Robertson Smith. The Religion o f the Semites
(Ncs* York. 1956). p. 57, n. 3). T he glow of dawn's early light was personified, in antiquity, as a goddess (the
manifestation of lshtar- Venus in the m orning) who vic toriously gave birth to the wonderous male child, the m orning
star, who in turn became transform ed into the ruling Sun. Cf. Isa. 14:12-15; J. W. McKay. H eld and the
Dawn-Goddcss," V T 20 (l970):45l-464.
30 Luis I. J. Stadclm ann, The Hebrew Conception of the World IAnalecta Biblica 39; Rome. 1970). p. 70. T he slow,
steady movement of Saturn's revolution around the sun took 29V* years, Jupiter's period o f rotation was 12 scars:
while the fluctuating period of Venus lasted only 225 days. Sec (corgc Sarton. ~< naldacan Astronoms of the Last
T hree Centuries b .c ., 'JA O S 75 ( 1955): lf8, n. 4 Saturn (in the Hrllcmstic period) came to be called the winter or
hidden sun." See Ptolemy Tetrabihlo\ 2. 3. t>4. I .eros A Campbell. M ithrau Iconography and Ideologi (Leiden. 1968). p.
70.
51 Cf. W. F. Albright. "Some Notes on the Nahatacan (*oddess 'Al-Kutba' and Related Matters. Bulletin of the
American Schools of Oriental Research No. 156 (December. I959):37
12 T he sky. in the eyes of the first observers. was a great revolving vault, set mghtls. attached with tins flecks of
fire (the fixed stars). Inside this cclcstial vault were the erratic planets, or slanderers (which is the meaning of the
Greek word blanetai> T h e Chaldean astrologers figuratiselv spoke if the fixed stars as a Hcnk of sheep Among the
ordered ranks of these ordinary sheep were the *sild sheep (Akkadian bibbi). that is. the sesen travelers " T he
sequential order of the five planets in Babs Ionian thought begins with the two hencficcnt deities Jupiter and Venus,
moves on to malign Saturn and the doubtful inHuenccol Mereurv, and ends *ith the underw orld ruler Mars See the
discussion by Stadelmann. op a t., pp 91, 92 (It should be noted that the later Seleucid texts provide a different
sequence of planets.) While the reason for the standard order of the seven bibbi ts not known, possibls the order's
structure was of an envelope" type. Jupiter (A) s%as paired uith the Sun (A). Venus <Bl was coupled with the Moon
(B').and Saturn (C) with Mars (C*) In the vers middle *as the ambisalcnt Mercury (I>). the intermediary scribe. Such
a structural arrangem ent was well known in Akkadian literature, cf.. for instance. William L Moran in the Bulletin of
the American Schools of Oriental Research No. 200 (I970):48
55 Lindsas. op. a t., pp. 127. 128. Cum ont. op a t., pp 66. 67
M Prior to Hellenistic times and the establishment ol the (reek "spatial" order of the planets, the Babslonians
had only one house (that is. one stationary divisional the zodiac ) per planet Ihis one-house ss stem was referred toby
Firmicus M atem us: T h e Babylonians called the signs in which the planets are exalted their 'houses. *Alathe\eu\
hbn VIII. 2. 3. 4; see Bram. op. a t., pp. 34. 305. n. 23. T he mathematica! astronomy that Hellenistic astrologers
employed was not fully developed until about 300 b . c . (Neugebauer, The Exact Sciences, p. 102).
M In the fulls developed zodiac of the Greco-Roman storici. Aquarius (Water Carrier") and lc o (the "Lion," a
solar emblem) m arked the months that immediatels followed the * inter and summer solsticcs. But between 3000 and
1000 b . c . these two zodiacal constellations m arked the positions of the Sun at those two periods of the year. See
Bukcrm ann. op. a t . p. 58; Campbell, op. a t., p. 46. Aquarius, which stands in the confines of the zodiac that is
diametncallv opposite to Leo. *as in Sum ero-Baby Ionian limes also conceived of as an ibex or mouflon, comprising
the mam stars of both C apricorn (Water-Goat") and Aquanus. T he heliacal rising (the ascent above the horizon at
the moment of dawn) o f trie ibex's horns ( form ed by Aquarius) served as the signal tnat m arked the winter solstice for
the earls Babylonians (H artner. op a L . pp. 9. 11).
* Campbell, op. a t., p. 76.
,T T he pater ( father ) who held the highest grade in the M ithraeum was considered under the protection of
Saturn. In his office, he presided over the death and rebirth of the initiate, just as Saturn, in the telestial sphere, was
thought to preside over tr e death and rebirth of the Sun (Campbell, op. at., p. 76). On the role of Saturn (represented
Hith a lion's head and swings) as the god who rules the cycles of time, see Walter (). Moeller, The Mithraic Origin and
Meanings o f the Rotas-Sator Square (Leiden. 1973). pp. 5. 6, and the literature cited there.
w T he moment of * inter solstice (anciently hela to be the 25th of Dccembcr) was honored by the Chaldeans as
the em ergence of lightthe offspring of the Sun. It is from this Babylonian concept that there later originated the
Mithrakana. a festival dedicated to Mithra (lux mundi, the light of the world"), an event that m arked Mitnra's ascent
from the nether regions (December 25). T he Syro-Phoenicians. on the other hand, held a different doe trine For
them the in ter solstice *as when the old. decrepit Sun became transform ed into a youthful, vigorous, invincible
other ^self Elagabalus. the em peror ( a . d . 218-2*22). introduced the Syrian sun cult to Rome, and Aurclian ( a . d .
270-275) established December 25 as the outstanding Roman festival o f the year ( a . d . 274). In imperial Rome, few
distinguished between the two doctrines; the dies natalis Solis In vidi was celebrated by a prolusion of lights and
torches The das honoring the birth of Light and the Sun was chosen by Pope )ulius I ( a . d . 337*352) as the day to
remember Christ's nativity. Cf. the rem arks of T heodor H. (aster. Myth, Legend, and Custom in the Old Testament (New
York. 1969), pp 369. 570; Halsbcrghc. op. a t., pp. 55. 56. 120, 158, 174; Julian M orgenstcrn, "T he Son of Man' of
Daniel 7 13! A New Interpretation." J tlL 80 (iy6l):68, 69.

3 20
 T H E PLANETARY WEEK IN THE ROMAN WEST

v* T he progression of the light of the Sun through the ecliptic (the apparent annual path of the Sun in the
heavens) s e n e d as a great celestial archetype for earthly horoscopes. While me Sun was born at winter solstice, the
counting o f his "houses'* began with h b "ascendant" sign at the vernal equinox. Hence, in earthl> horoscopes, the
stan of enum erating an individual's "houses" is the sign of the zodiac that was asc ending in the East at the exact ume
and place o f birth. O n the exaltation of nativitv. see Lindsay. op. a t., p *126
N a tu r a lH x s to n 2. 188 When Plins states that the Babslomans rec to n ed their day from sunrise, presumabls he
was referring to the aChaldean~ Magi o f the Hellenistic Age. for the ancient Babylonians, like the Hebrews, reckimed
the start o f tne day from sunset, (if. Bickerman. o t. a t.. pp 13. I-I. Neugebauer. "Babylonian M ethods." p. 5.11 On
the Magi cu sto m of reckoning the complete da\ from dawn, see landsas. o t a t . p. 96. Traditional fo lk societies. in
th eir persom ficalM m o f the phenom ena of n atu re, would anthropom orphize celestial events. Possibly Hellenistic
astrologers thought of the vernal equinox (fertility season)asthe moment of conception: nine m onths later came the
birth of deified Light at the winter solstice.
41 Augustus de Morgan. "Hipparchus." in William Smith. Biography a m i Mythology. 2:476. 477. Cf. above, n. 27
George Sarton. A ru ie n t Science a n d M o d em C ivilization (New York. 1954). pp. 47-49. and idem, "Chaldaean
Astronomv of the l.ast T h ree Centuries i . e . " J o u r n a l o f the A m eru a n O riental Soaety 75 (1955): 172.
41 B rain, op. a t., p p. 5 . 3 0 3 . n. 7.
44 H erodotus Persian Wars 2. 109.
45 Bickerman. op a t., p. 16; Lindsas. op. a t., pp 35. 153. 156. 157. About 135 a.c... Ctesibius. a celebrated
m athematician of Alexandria, m ade an ingenious invention in which water was made to d ro p upon wheels in such a
way as to turn them, flic regular movement of these wheels was com m unicated to a small statue, which, gradualh
rising, pointed with a little stick to the hours m arked on a pillar that was attached to the mechanism (Leonhard
Schmitz. Horologium.** in William Smith. Greek a n d R om an Antiquities, pp. 615.616). In 1901 divers working off the
isle of Antikylhera found the rem ains of a clocklike mechanism dating from 80 b . c . The mec hanism indicated the
annual motion of ihe Sun in the zodiac, an amazmgls complex astronomical clock thal happened also to indicate the
time. For details, see Derek J. de Solla Price, An Ancient Greek C om puter. Scientific Am erican, Ju n e . 1959. pp
60-67
46 T he ie k a n s, or Calendar Stars, which were supposed to m e and set at intervals of 10 davs throughout the
year, and to culminate at intervals of 1 hour throughout the night" represent the onls Egyptian contribution to the
( reek planetary theors Bui even the F.gvptian dextrine of the dehorn as m olded into Hellenistic astrology in such a
wav as to conform to BabyIonian thcologv ; it was the Babvlonian elem ents that presailed (N an der W aerden. op. a t .
p 229. 230).
47 In Jerem iah 24. the Jews who did not go into Babvlonian exile, who rem ained in the homeland or who fled to
Egypt to dwell, were labeled bad figs." unfit to eat. E. Badian speaks of the lews in Alexandria as the largest o f the
foreign com m unities, who were stronglv organized and form ed a citv wit inn the cits*(Studies in Greek a n d R om an
H u to n (Oxford. 1964). p 186)
4 T a citu s H istonae 5. 4.
4MStadelmann. op a t., p. 88
Mi Roman History 37. 18. 19 T he custom of naming the days after the planets also mav have ansen. Dio savs. bs
regarding the gods asonginalls presiding over separate davs assigned In the principle of the tetrac hord" (which was
believed lo constitute the basis of music)
51 Lindsay, op. a t., p. 217; see also the rem arks o f Bram. op n t., p. 5
M Johnson, op. a t., p. 21.
u Halsberghe. op. a t., pp. 49. 50.
44 Bickerman. o f. cit., p. 61. "Juvenal suggests thal bv the earls second century schools were following a
seven-day tim etable (Juv. 7. 160, 161. in Lindsas. op. a t ., p. 234) F urther we mas note that an inscription belonging
lo a . d . 205 has been found in Kat Isburg in Transvlvania. where the date i s gisen not only bs the sear and ihe month,
but also by the weekday, in (his case Monday.C<olson. op a t.. p. 25.
55 Cf. Halsberghe. op. at.
* Cf. note 8
57 Tertullian Apology 16 (A N F 3. 31). This statem ent should be read m conjunction rich Tertullian s defensive
assertion: Do not mans am ong sou [pagans].. . likewise, move your lips in the direction of the sunrise? li is sou. at all
events, who have even adm itted the sun into the calendar if the week; and vou have selected its das (Sundas). in
preference to the preceding day. as the most suitable in the week . . You deliberaiels deviate from sour own
icKgjous i ikmu those of strangers" (AiNnimM IS \A .\! S ISSfciof s d a h s s h . Noa ISO/ 1582 In antiquity th e n
was no one commonly accepted nam e for the followers of Mithra, but they were loosels referred to as Persians",
indeed. Perses (Persian) was an alternate nam e for Mithra; Campbell, op at., p. 4. Moeller, op. a t , p. 15.
** O rigen Contra Celsum 6. 21. 22; Campbell, o f aI., p. 342, n. 3.
w T rue. Celsus. in describing his planetars ladder, makes no connection with the days of ihe week However, in
Mithraic iconography it is common to sarv the arrangem ent of the gods of the weekdays, while al the same um e not
disrupting the sequential order o f the planetars deities. Examples: on the Bononia relief, ihe planetary gods are
placed on ihe face of the tauroctone arch so that the week o|>ens in ihe East (running counierc loc kwise) with Monday
(L u n a ), followed by Tuesday (Mars), and soon, closing with Sundas (Sol) as the seventh dav. Here, too, the sequence
mas have been thought o f as a ladder, from the Moon (A pogenesu. souls ascending) to Saturn and the Sun (a new
Genesis, lo an ethereal world o f pure light). In the Bngetio relief the or del liegins with Saturn (running c lockw ise) and
ends Miih Venus, which is the normal sequence of ihe planetary week. See Campbell, op. a t., p. 392. n. 3. and Plates
XVII. XXXI11. When the planets act as the protectors of the seven grades in the Mithraic cull, the weekls order is not
kept; then the sequence is (flUfttag with ihe top B id e ) SttUltl, Sun, Moon. |u m iei, Mais. Venus, and Men u i\
I here was probably as little agreem ent am ong Mithraists about the details ol eschatologv as am ong the earls
C hnstians.Campbell, op. a t ., p. 392.
Campbell, op. a t . pp 300-302. figs. 19.20; M .J. Verm asercn, Mithras, the S ta r t God ( S c * York. 1963). p. 157
1 he concept of an otherworldls ladder, each siep marking a transition poini. is vers ancient T he S um enans and
Babslomans held that the goddess Ishtar traversecl downward through seven gales before reac hing ihe Netherworld,
home of the dead As she desc ended through each gate. Ishtar was m ade to surrender those parts of her clothing that
svmbolized her office and rank (.W E T . pp. 106-109). In the earlier Sum erian version, ihe goddess had to ahandon
seven cities on her jour ties of descent a b u t. p. 53). In order lo ascend upward lo llie place of eternal life. Cilgamesh.
the legendarv king o f Lruk. acquired fame, raising up a name" for himself, as he climbed up seven m ountain peaks

321
 T H E S AB BA TH IN S CR IP T UR E AND HI STORY

n b td . p. 4 7 -5 0 ). T h e uqqurat tem p le tow er o f an cien t M esop otam ia ea ch p ossessed a stairw ay ra m p that sup p o sed ly
i r r \ l as a link b etw een h ea v en a n d earth . In g o in g u p th e step s to th e to p m o st sh r in e, th e priest figuratively was
clim b in g to th e h o m e o f th e g o d s in th e u p p er m o st h ea v en s S ee M irtea E lu d e , Im age\ a n d Symbols (N ew Y ork . 1969),
p p. 4 2 . 43. T h e step -p vram id o f th e E gyp tian T h ird D ynasty p ossibly was d e s ig n e d as a g ig a n iic stairw ay. T h e
d ece a sed Pharaoh's a scen t w ou ld tra n sfo rm h im in to a star or a co m p a n io n to th e S u n g o d . ( . th e rem arks o f Kurt
M e n d elsso h n . The H uldle o f the Pyramids (N ew Y ork, 1974), p p. 2 8 . 47. Ja co b , too, saw in a d rea m a lad d er that w as **set
u p o n th e ea r th , an d th e to p o f it reach ed to h eaven : an d b eh old th e a n g els o f ( k x i a scen d in g an d d e s c e n d in g o n it
(Lien. 2 8 :1 2 ). H e re a g a in , th e lad d er c o m m u n ica tes a tran sform a tio n p rocess. T h is is em p h a sized by J esu s, w h o
claim ed that H e w as tn c la d d er that lin k ed h ea v en a n d earth (Joh n 1:51). O n Jacob'* la d d e r . see th e o b serv a tio n s In
Harry A. H o ffn e r . Jr.. "Second M illen n iu m A n te c e d e n ts to th e H eb rew O J B I. 8 6 (1 9 6 7 ):3 9 7 a n d n. 30.
61 R ichard N . Frye, The H eritage oj Persia (N ew Y ork. 1963), p 1HT; I. ( ersh ev itch . The Ai'estan H ym n to M ithra
(L o n d o n . 1959), p p. 6 6 et passim. R icnard T . H allock's review o i Frve's h ook in J o u rn a l o f S e a r Eastern Studies 25
<1966): 6 2 . 6 3 .
H e ro d o tu s Histories 3. 79; J o s e p h u s A ntiquities of the Jews 1 1 .3 . I
61 S ee th e b rie f co m m en t by \K . F. A lb righ t, prom the Stone.-\ge to Christianity. 2 d ed (G a rd en C ity. N Y .. I 9 5 7 ) .p
360; Y erm a sere n . op. cit.. p p . 2 6 . 2 1. T h e slavin g o f th e M agi by D ariu s I a lso is celeb ra ted o n th e rocks o f B eh istu n .
S ee G e o r g e G. C a m ero n . I h e M on u m en t o f K ing D arius at B ihtstun," Archaeology 13 (I 9 6 0 ) 162*171.
w H e r o d o tu s Persian W a n 1. 131, 132. S ee A lb righ t. From Stone Age. p p. 3 6 0 . 3 o l . John B N o ss. S ta n s Religions,
5th e d . (N ew Y ork. 1974), p. 346.
M A. T . O lm ste a d , History o f the P efrian Em pire (C h ica g o . 195 9 ). p p. 2 3 2 . 2 3 7 .
66 A b ou t 4 0 0 b . c . th e in scrip tio n s o f A rta x erx e s 11 a b a n d o n M ardavasm an p hraseology a n d frankly list th e
c h ie f g o d s o f th e p a n th e o n as A hu ra M azda. M ithra. an d A n ah iia . A bou t th e sam e tim e, a cco rd in g to B er o ssu s. as
cited by C le m e n t o f A lex a n d ria , su p p o rted by a p assage in th e A vesta , ih e Iran ian g o d s w ere first re p r ese n te d in the
form o f im ages" (A lb righ t. From Stone Age. p o 3 6 0 . 3 6 1 ). O n th e historical ev e n ts tnat in flu en ce d A rta x erx e s II. see
(ie o r g e G. C a m ero n . "A n cien t Persia." in The Idea o f H ts to n in the Ancient S e a r East. ed . by R obert C. D en ta n (N ew
H a ven , 1955), p. 96; also R olan d G . K ent. T h e O ld e st O ld Persian In scr ip tio n s, J o u r n a l of the A m eru a n O riental
Society 6 6 (1 9 4 o ):2 0 6 -2 1 2 .
^ Franz C u m o n t. O riental Religions in R om an Paganism (N ew Y ork. 1 956), p p. 188*190; V erm a sere n . op n t . p p
2 0 -2 3 . T h e d iscovers o f th e Precession o f th e E q u in o x es, attrib u ted to H ip p a rch u s in 129 B . C .. a k in g v*nh other
d isco v eries, may h ave b e e n k n o w le d g e th e C h a ld e a n s alread y knew T h e r e is s o m e e v id e n c e to b eliev e that a rca n e
( .halt Iran astron om y c o n u n u e d to ex ist in w hat w as c o n sid e r e d black m agic; see th e in ter estin g ob serv a tio n s m a d e bs
M oeller, op. cit., p. 8 a n d n . 1.
M C u m o n t, Astrology, p p. 33-3 6 ; Lindsay , o t n t., p. 61; N e u g e b a u e r . T he E xact Sciences. p p 137. 175, 176.
w M .J . M ellink . ftr g a m u m ." ID B . 3 :7 3 3 -7 3 5 ; L eon ard S ch m itz. "P ergam u m ." A D u tu m a n o f Greek a n d R om an
Geography, e d . by W illiam S m ith , 2 vols. (L o n d o n . 1857). 2 :5 7 5 , 576.
70 Plutarch Vila Pompet 24.
71 L. Plat id u s A d Statius Thebaidos 4. 7 1 7 ; C u m o n t. O riental Religions, p . 143.
71 C am p b ell, op. n t.. p p . 8 . 3 4 . 3 9 ; Y erm a sere n . op. n t.. p p. 2 2 . 2 3 . 184. 185.
7* Y erm a sere n . op. n t.. p. 23.
7 I h u t. p p 155, 156.
7S Vita P o m p n 24.
** la n d sa v . op n t . p p . 137-140; A lb n g h t. From Stone Age. p. 3 6 1 .
77 M oeller, op n t.. p. 2 . n. I.
7" Y erm a sere n . op n t.. p p. 3 0 , 31 In th e study o f th e spread o f M ithraism th ro u g h o u t th e w estern R om an
E m p ire, it lo o o fte n is o v e r lo o k e d that th e in crea se in c a n ed M ithraic re p r ese n ta tio n s (especially a lo n g th e limes, that
is. in e frin g e s o f th e e m p ir e ) d u r in g th e s eco n d a n d th ird c e n tu ries a . d . ca n n o t be u sed as a fin al criterio n in d a tin g
th e p op u larity o f this m vsters cu lt, lo r il is to be n o te d that in th e ev o lu tio n a ry d e v e lo p m e n t o f R o m a n art. the
inc rease in th e u se of figu res an d florid architectu ral d eco r a tio n d id not really c o m e in to its o w n as an art fo rm u ntil
late in th e first centu ry a . d . S ee. for e x a m p le , th e co m m e n ts o f M orton S m ith , " ( o o d en o u g h 's Jew ish Symbols in
R etro sp ect." y /!/. 8 6 (I 9 6 7 ) :6 0 T h e r e is n o d o u b t, h o w e v er. that th e R om an arm y w as th e p n n c ip a l a g en t in the
d iffu sio n o f th e M ithraic religion . Franc C u m o n t. The Siystenes o f M ith ra (N ew Y ork. 1956), p. 40.
79 A d Statius Thebauloi 4. 7 1 7 -7 1 9 (LCL)
* T h e c o n fro n ta tio n b etw een Paul a n d N e r o is in terestin gly re co n stru cte d by Em il G. K raeling, I H a v e K ept the
Faith (C h icago. 1965). p p . 257*267 la k e M ithraism . an im p ort fro m C ilicia to R o m e. Paul to o h a iled fro m T a rsu s in
C ilicia. C f. trie co m m e n ts bs A lb n g h t. From Slone Age. p. 3 9 6 a n d n. 8 0 ; (Campbell, op n t.. p. 4
M R om an H u to n 6 3 . 5 (LCL)
"* S u tu r a l History 30 6 (LCL).
w W h ile M ithraism its e lf w as n e s e r a cc ep te d as a stale re lig io n , it w as m erg e d and id en tified w ith th e cu ll o f th e
S u n (Deus S o lIn x ic tu st esta b lish ed by L D om ttiu s A u r elia n u s in a . d . 2 7 4 . S ec H a lsb er g e. op. n t . p p 1 18-122; F. W.
B ea re. Z eu s in th e H ellenistic A ge." in The Seed o f W isdom: Essays in H o n o u r o f T. J Sleek, ed . by W . S M cC u llo u g h
(T o r o n to . 1964). p p . 9 9 . 1 12; see also n o te 38.
M E u seb iu s \ ita Constantiru 4. 18. S ee R ich ard son , toe n t.. S arto n . A n cient Science, p. 9 9 . n. 30. T h e labarum . ih e
war stand ard o f th e E m p eror C o n sta n tin e, co m p risin g a m o n o g ra m o f th e letters X (ch n a n d P (rho). a p p aren tly was
not origin ally a C hristian sym b ol, but a lo n g sta n d in g pagan sym bol o f th e v icto rio u s S u n (or D aw n p erso n ifie d ),
n h ic h d e fe a ts nigh t's d ark n ess. S ee in p articular th e valu ab le d iscu ssio n by M arvin H P o p e . T h e Saltier o f A largatis
R ecinsidered." in S e a r E astern Arehaeidogy in the Twentieth Century. Essays in H onor o f S e lso n Glueck. e d by J a m es A.
S a n d ers (G ard en C ity. N .Y .. 1 9 7 0 ).p p 1 /8 -1 9 6 . M oeller sees th e C h iR h o cro ss n o i only as a su n sym bol but a lso as an
a b b reviation o f Chronas (S aturn). T h e solar cross as a trru x quailrata) seem in g ly is th e m ajor sy m b o l o f th e M ithraic
R otas-Sator squ are, p o ssessin g th e n u m erica l valu e o f 6 6 6 ( c f th e n u m b er an d m ark o f th e beast in R ev. 13:18); see
M oeller, op n t.. p p. 8 (n . 2 ), 1 8 -20. 2 4 . 30.
*s I n te restin g ly . th e b o o k o f R evelation p resen ts C h n s l as "Lord" o v er H is o w n special clay (chap. I ; 10) in th e
co n tex t of fxissrssm g ru lin g authority over llir rlrsii.il b tX litt "t h ra v rn (VtflM 2 0 M n ln .i. tOO, m M l ^uis .is
Kro n u s S atu rn , th e ru ler of tim e , is p ictu re d as lord o v er th e starry h eaven s. Cf. C a m p b ell, op. cit., Plate X Y l l
Codex Ju stm u tn u s 3. 12. 3. S e e B ick erm an . up n t ., p. 6 1 ; S D /iB S S B . N o . 1642.
97 O u r m o d e m w eek , h o w ev er, still retain s ih e scriptu ral system o f en u m e r a tio n , c o u n tin g th e d ays u p lo th e
Sabbath

322
 APPEN D IX B

The Sabbath and Sunday From the

Second Through Fifth Centuries *

Kenneth A. Strand

H E au th o rs o f ch ap ters 5 th ro u g h 7 (pp. 92-150) provide evidence that

T Sunday was not substituted for S aturday as the C hristian weekly day o f
w orship o r rest d u rin g New T estam ent times. In addition, persuasive evidence is
set fo rth in c h a p te r 7 that Jeru salem was not the place o f origin for C hristian
S u n d a y o b s e rv a n c e . I n d e e d , th e e a r lie s t d ir e c t e v id e n c e fo r C h r is tia n
weekly w orship on S unday com es from second-century A lexandria an d Rome.
A bout a . d . 130 B arnabas o f A lexandria, in a highly allegorical discourse, declares.
W herefore, also, we keep the eighth day [Sunday) with joyfulness . 1 Som e two
decades later Ju stin M artyr in Rom e actually describes in som e detail th e type o f
C hristian m eeting held on Sundays th ere , possibly as a very early m orning
service.* (Part o f Ju stin 's statem ent is qu o ted by Sam uele Bacchiocchi on p. 137; it
ap p ears in full at th e end o f this appendix.)

R om e a n d A lex an d ria N o t T ypical

T h e situation in Rom e an d A lexandria, how ever, was not typical o f the rest o f
early C hristianity. In these two cities th e re was an evident early attem pt by
C hristians to term in ate observance o f th e seventh-day Sabbath, bu t elsew here
th ro u g h o u t th e C hristian w orld S unday observance simply arose alongside
observance o f S aturday. T w o fifth-century church historians, Socrates Scholas-
Ucus a n d Sozom en, describe the situation in the following way:
For a lth o u g h alm ost all churches th ro u g h o u t the world celebrate th e sacred
m ysteries [the L ord's S upper] on th e sabbath [Saturday] o f every week, yet the
C hristians o f A lexandria an d at Rom e, on account o f som e ancient tradition, have
ceased to d o this. T h e Egyptians in the neighborhood o f A lexandria, an d the
inhabitants o f T hebais, hold th eir religious assemblies on the sabbath, but d o not

E ven th o u g h variou s d etails treated h e r e receive ra n d o m atten tio n in ch a p ters H tu 10, it seem s u se fu l to
ir o v id e th is m o re co m p r e h e n s iv e a n d c o h e s iv e survey co n ce rn in g th e Sabbath a n a S u n d a y fro m th e s eco n d to the
iflh ce n tu ries.

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 T H E S A B B A TH IN S CR IP T UR E AND H IS TOR Y

participate o f the m ysteries in the m an n er usual am ong C hristians in general: for

a fte r having eaten an d satisfied them selves with food o f all kinds, in the evening
m aking th eir offerings they partake o f the m ysteries .''3
T h e people o f C onstantinople, an d alm ost everyw here, assem ble to g eth er
on th e Sabbath, as well as o n the first day o f the week, which custom is never
observed at Rom e o r at A lexandria. T h e re are several cities an d villages in Egypt
w here, co n trary to the usage established elsew here, the people m eet to g eth er on
Sabbath evenings, an d , although they have dined previously, partak e o f the
m ysteries .4
T h u s, even as late as thefifth century alm ost the en tire C hristian w orld observed
both Saturday and Sunday fo r special religious services. Obviously, th erefo re.
S unday was not considered a substitute for the Sabbath.
O b serv an ce o f B oth S aturday a n d S unday
Let us notice a fu rth e r sam pling o f the ancient sources that give evidence for
the early C hristian observance o f both S aturday an d Sunday.
We may begin by querying w hether even in Rome an d A lexandria the
Sabbath was im m ediately displaced com pletely by Sunday, o r w hether the process
was g rad u al. T h is question is raised, for exam ple, by the fact that early in the third
century H ippolytus o f Rome rebuked those who w ere giving heed to d octrines o f
devils" and o ften app o in t fasting on the Sabbath [Saturday] an d the L o rd s Day
[Sunday], which C hrist did not appoint, a n d thus d ish o n o r the G ospel o f C hrist." *
Fasting was considered negative to a p ro p e r joyful observance o f a weekly
C hristian day o f w orship, a n d it is o f interest th at H ippolytus opposed fasting on
both the Sabbath and Sunday/*
M oreover. O rigen, an A lexandrian contem porary o f H ippolytus, m akes
referen ce to p ro p e r S abbath observance" in these words: "Forsaking th ere fo re
the Ju d aic Sabbath observance, let us see w hat kind o f Sabbath observance is
expected o f the C hristian. O n the Sabbath day, nothing o f worldly activity should
be do n e. If th e re fo re desisting from all worldly works a n d doing nothing
m u n d an e but being free for spiritual works, you com e to the ch u rch , listen to
divine readings a n d discussions an d think o f heavenly things, give heed to the
fu tu re life, keep before your eyes the com ing ju d g m e n t, d isreg ard present and
visible things in favor o f the invisible and fu tu re, this is the observance o f the
C hristian S ab bath ."7
T his evidence from Rom e and A lexandria is adm ittedly scant, but at the very
least it does seem to suggest that not all C hristians in those two cities ab an d o n ed
th e Sabbath im m ediately a n d totally d u rin g the second century. By the tim e o f
Socrates Scholasticus and S o/om en in the fifth century, how ever, it is clear that the
om ission of special S aturday w orship services in Rom e and A lexandria was an
established fact having som e d eg ree o f antiquity.
But what was the situation elsew here? As we look at the rest o f the early
C hristian w orld, the evidence for h o n o r to both Sabbath an d Sundav m ultiplies.
For exam ple, the Apostolic Constitutions, a fourth-century com pilation with
probable Syrian o r o th e r E astern provenance, gives a n u m b er o f prescriptions
relating to the Sabbath as well as Sunday. A m ong them are the following:
Have before thine eyes the fear o f G od, an d always re m e m b er the ten
co m m andm ents o f God. . . . T h o u shall observe the Sabbath, on account o f Him

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who ceased from His work o f creation, but ceased not from His work o f
providence: it is a rest for m editation o f the law, no t for idleness o f the h a n d s. "
"B ut keep th e Sabbath, a n d the L o rd s day festival; because the fo rm er is the
m em orial o f th e creation, a n d th e latter o f the re su rre c tio n ."
O h L ord Alm ighty, T h o u hast created the world by C hrist, and hast
a p p o in ted th e Sabbath in m em ory thereof, because that on that day T h o u hast
m ade us rest from o u r works, for the m editation upon T hy law s.. . . VVe solem nly
assem ble to celebrate the feast o f the resurrection on the L ords day, an d rejoice on
account o f H im w ho has co n q u ered d eath , an d has b ro u g h t life an d im m ortality to
lig h t . 10
Let your ju d icatu re s be held on th e second day o f the week (M onday), that if
any controversy arise about y our sentence, having an interval till the Sabbath, you
m ay be able to set th e controversy right, an d to red u ce those to peace who have the
contests one with a n o th e r against the L o rd s d a y .""
Let th e slaves work five days; but on the Sabbath-day an d the Lord's day let
th em have leisure to go to ch u rch for instruction in piety. VVe have said that the
Sabbath is on account o f the creation, an d the L ord's day o f the resurrection." '*
T h e in terp o later o f Ignatius o f A ntioch, who enlarged the w ritings o f this
second-century C h u rch F ather d u rin g the fo u rth century, states: Let us
th ere fo re no lo n g er keep the Sabbath afte r th e Jew ish m an n er, an d rejoice in days
o f idleness; for he that does not work, let him not eat.' For say th e [holy) oracles.
In th e sweat o f thy face shalt thou eat thy bread.' But let every o n e o f you keep the
Sabbath afte r a spiritual m an n er, rejoicing in m editation on the law, not in
relaxation o f the body, ad m irin g the w orkm anship o f G od, an d not eating things
p re p are d the day before, n o r using lukew arm drinks, an d walking within a
prescribed space, n o r finding delight in dancing an d plaudits which have no sense
in them . A nd afte r the observance o f the Sabbath, let every friend o f C hrist keep
the Lord's Day as a festival, the resurrection-day, the queen an d ch ief o f all the
days [o f the w eek ]."11
G regory o f Nyssa in the late fo u rth century re fe rre d to the Sabbath an d
Sunday as "sisters," and about th e sam e tim e A sterius o f Am asea declared that it
was beautiful for C hristians that the "team o f these two days com e together" "the
Sabbath and the L o rd s Day." M A ccording to A sterius, each week b ro u g h t the
people to g eth er on these days with priests to instruct them .
In th e fifth century J o h n Cassian m akes several references to ch u rch
atten d an ce on both S aturday an d Sunday. In speaking o f Egyptian m onks, he
states th at "except V espers an d N octurns, th ere are no public services am ong
them in the day except o n S aturday an d Sunday, w hen they m eet to g eth er at the
th ird h o u r [9:00 a . m .] for the p u rpose o f Holy C o m m u n io n .",s
Cassian also refers to a m onk "who lived alone, who declared th at he had
never enjoyed food by him self alone, b ut th at even if for five days ru n n in g no n e o f
the b re th re n cam e to his cell he constandy p u t o ff taking food until on S aturday o r
Sunday he went to ch u rch fo r service an d fo u n d som e stran g e r w hom he b ro u g h t
hom e at once to his cell . 16
An aged p resb y ter n am ed P aphnutius, so Cassian fu rth e r tells us, lived in the
desert o f Scete, five miles from the nearest church. T his m an, even w hen w orn
out with years" was not h in d ere d by the distance from going to church on
S aturday o r S u n d ay ." 17

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 T H E S AB BA TH IN S CR I PT UR E AND HI STOR Y

Cassian has b ro u g h t us once again to the fifth century, to the tim e w hen
Socrates Scholasticus an d Sozom en re p o rted that in general, except in th e cities o f
Rome a n d A lexandria, C hristians w ere holding services on both S aturday and
Sunday. In su b sequent centuries, the Sabbath was eventually displaced by Sunday
quite generally th ro u g h o u t E urope as S unday finally began to take on the
ch aracter o f a rest day (a story told in ch a p te r 10). How ever, in Ethiopia the
practice ad o p ted was th at o f m aking Sabbaths" o f both S aturday an d S unday (see
c h a p te r 9).'*
W hence Sunday?
T h e p reced in g discussion has alluded to the fact that Sunday's achievem ent
o f p red o m in an ce as the weekly C hristian day for w orship and fo r rest o ccu rred in
two m ajor stages: ( 1 ) it originally arose as a day fo r worship services only, a n d (2 ) it
later took on the ch aracter o f a day o f rest. In th e fo rm er role, th e re would be no
reason fo r conflict with the S aturday rest dayan d indeed, fo r centuries both days
w ere h o n o red , as we have seen. In the latter role, how ever, the potential fo r
conflict o f S unday with the Sabbath is obvious. T h a t such conflict was a p p e arin g
even as early as the fo u rth century is revealed in the literature, a point to which we
shall re tu rn later. But first we m ust query. How' did Sunday originate as a weekly
day fo r C hristian worship services?
Obviously, the situation o f a co n cu rren t rise o f the C hristian S unday and
dem ise o f th e S aturday Sabbath, as described by Bacchiocchi for Rom e in ch a p te r
7, was not characteristic o f m ost o f th e C hristian world. As we have seen, for
centuries S atu rday co ntinued to be observed alongside the em erging Sunday
th ro u g h o u t C h ristendom generally. M oreover, a fact o f considerable im portance
reg ard in g th e rise o f the weekly C hristian S unday is that w hen it did em erge it was
regularly looked u p o n by the C hristians as a day to h o n o r C h rists resurrection.
T his resu rrectio n connection is im p o rtan t to investigate, particularly in view o f
recent discoveries.^
In th e New T estam en t, C hrists resu rrectio n is symbolically related to the first
fruits o f th e barley harvest, ju s t as His d eath is related to the slaying o f the Paschal
lam b (see 1 C or. 15:20 an d 5:7). T h e o fferin g o f the omer o r wave sh eaf o f the
barley harvest first fruits was an annual event am ong the Jews. W hat has generally
gone unrecognized about this annual festival is th at at the tim e o f th e rise o f the
C h risd an chu rch the Jew s had two d iffe ren t m ethods o f reckoning the day fo r its
celebration.
T h e tim e o f observance is based on Leviticus 23:11, which slates that the wave
sh eaf o f th e barley harvest was to be o ffered in the season o f unleavened bread on
th e m orrow afte r the S abbath." T h e Pharisees in terp re ted this as the day after
th e Passover Sabbath. T h e ir p ro c ed u re was to celebrate the Passover Sabbath on
Nisan 15 (the Paschal lam b had been slain on Nisan 14) an d to o ffe r the first fruits
wave sh ea f on Nisan 16. In d iffe ren t years, these dates would fall on d iffe ren t days
o f th e week (sim ilar to o u r C hristm as an d New' Y ears days).
O n the o th e r hand, the Essenes an d S adducean B oethusians in te rp re te d the
m orrow afte r the Sabbath" as th e day a fte r a weekly Sabbath th ere fo re always a
Sunday. T h e day o f Pentecost also always fell on a Sundayth e m orrow a fte r the
seventh S abbath from th e dav o f the o fferin g o f the barlev-harvest first fruits (see
Lev. 23:15, 16).

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It would be natural for C hristians to continue a first-fruits celebration.

How ever, they would not keep it as a Jewish festival. Instead, they would keep it in
h o n o r o f C hrist's resu rrection. A fter all, was not C hrist the true First Fruits (1 Cor.
15:20)^ an d was not His resu rrectio n o f the utm ost im portance (see verses 14,

But w hen would C hristians keep such a resurrection festival? W ould they do
it every wreek? No. R ather, they w ould do it annually, as had been their custom in

A nd which o f th e two types o f reckoning would they choose that o f the

Pharisees, o r th at o f the Essenes an d B oethusians? U ndoubtedly, both. T h o se who
h ad been influenced by the Pharisees would hold their Easter festival on a
d iffe ren t day o f th e week year by year, an d those w ho had been influenced by the
B oethusians o r by the Essenes would hold th eir Easter festival on a S unday every

T h is harm onizes precisely with the situation existing in the Easter

controversy tow ard the en d o f the second ce n tu ry .11 At that tim e Asian C hristians
(C hristians in the Rom an province o f Asia in w estern Asia M inor) placed em phasis
o n N isa n 14, regardless o f the day o f the week. But C hristians th ro u g h o u t most o f
the rest o f th e C hristian world including Gaul, Rome, C orinth, Pontus (in
n o rth e rn Asia M inor), A lexandria, M esopotam ia, and Palestine (even Jeru salem
itself) held to a S unday-E asier observance. Early sources indicate that both

A reconstruction o f ch u rch history that sees the earliest C hristian Sunday as

an annual Easter ra th e r th an as a weekly observance m akes historical sense. T h e
habit o f keeping th e annual Jew ish first-fruits festival day could easily have been
tra n sfe rre d into an annual C hristian resurrection celebration in h o n o r o f C hrist,
th e First Fruits. T h e re was, by contrast, no such habit n o r even psychological
background for keeping a weekly resu rrectio n celebration.
T h e later-em erging weekly C hristian Sunday would then have arisen as an
extension o f th e an n u al Easter Sunday. T h is sort o f rise o f the weekly C hristian
Sunday indicates, m oreover, how an d why it took on th e ch aracter o f a
resu rrectio n festival: It was simply an extension o f the an n u al celebration o f

Precisely w hat factors w ere operative in the rise o f the weekly C hristian
Sunday from th e an n u al one in this way is not clear; but one interesting suggestion
has arisen because o f the fact that alm ost all early C hristians not only observed
both Easter an d Pentecost on Sundays bu t also considered the whole seven-week
season betw een th e two holidays to have special significance. J. van G oudoever
feels th at p erh ap s th e Sundays in that en tire season from Easter to Pentecost had
special im p o rtan ce too." If so, o th e r concerns already p resen t could have aided in
ex ten d in g S unday observance from an annual to a weekly basis, spreading first to
th e Sundays d u rin g the Easter-to-Pentecost season itself an d then eventually to

Such an an n u al S unday celebration could have furnished a source from

which C hristians in A lexandria and Rom e in augurated the weekly Sunday as a
substitute for th e Sabbath. B ut th eir early rejection o f the Sabbath was on g ro u n d s
o th er th an that o f sim ply in tro d u cin g w orship services on Sundays, for th e re was
nothing in h ere n t in this S unday weekly resurrection festival to cause it to replace
 T H E S AB BA T H IN S CR I P T U R E AND HI S TO R Y

the Sabbath. In fact, as we have seen, generally th ro u g h o u t early C hristendom ,

with th e exception o f Rom e an d A lexandria, it was simply a special day observed
side by side with the Sabbath.
S unday B ecom es a R est Day
T h e story o f S undays becom ing a rest day, and as such displacing the
Sabbath, is told at som e length in ch a p te r 10; hence only highlights will be noted
here.
U ndoubtedly, one o f the m ost im p o rtan t factors that influenced Sunday's
taking on the ch aracter o f a C hristian day o f rest is to be found in the activities o f
E m p ero r C onstantine the G reat in the early fo u rth century, followed by later
C h ristian em p e ro rs. Not only did C onstantine give C hristianity a new status
within th e R om an E m pire (from being persecuted to being h o nored) but he also
gave S unday th e status o f becom ing a civil rest day. His fam ous Sunday law o f
M arch 7, 321, reads:
O n th e venerable Day o f the Sun let the m agistrates an d people residing in
cities rest, an d let all w orkshops be closed. In the country, howrever, persons
engaged in ag ricu ltu re m ay freely an d lawfully continue their pursuits; because it
often h ap p en s th at an o th e r day is not so suitable for grain-sow ing o r for
vine-planting; lest by neglecting the p ro p e r m om ent for such o p eratio n s the
bounty o f heaven should be lost.
T his was th e first in a series o f steps taken by C onstantine an d by later Rom an
em p ero rs in reg ulating S unday observance. It is obvious that this first S unday law
was not particularly C hristian in orientation. We may note, for instance, the pagan
designation venerable Day o f the S un. Also, it is evident that C onstantine did not
base his S unday regulations on the Decalogue, for he exem pted agricultural
worka tvpe o f work strictly p rohibited in the Sabbath com m andm ent in Exodus
20 :8- 11.
In a . d . 386, T heodosius I a n d G ratian V aleniinian ex ten d ed Sunday
restrictions so th at litigations should entirely cease on that day an d th ere w ould be
no public o r private paym ent o f debt. Laws forbidding S unday circus, th eater, and
h orse racing also follow ed .27
T h e question arises. How did th e C hristian ch u rch react to such civil legislation
m aking S unday a rest day? As desirable as such legislation may have seem ed to
C hristians from o n e stan d p o in t (for exam ple, th ere had been earlier re fere n ce to
leisure fo r church attendance on Sundays28), it also created a dilem m a. Except fo r
chu rch atten d ance, Sunday had h ereto fo re been a workday; th erefo re, what
kinds o f ch an g e w ould have to be m ade to accom m odate it as a rest day? W hat, fo r
instance, would h ap p en to n uns such as those described by Je ro m e in B ethlehem ,
who, afte r following th eir m o th er su p erio r to ch u rch an d th en back to th eir
com m unions, devoted the rest o f their tim e on S unday to th eir allotted tasks, and
m ade garm en ts eith er fo r them selves o r else fo r o th e rs ?29
M oreover, th ere already was one Sabbath rest day each week. C ould
C hristians affo rd to have two rest days both S aturday an d Sunday? As already
m entioned, this latter concern was generally answ ered in the negative, th o u g h in
E thiopia two Sabbaths" each week w ere observed.
P erhaps a first hint o f the new tre n d re g ard in g th e weekly C hristian Sunday
com es as early as the tim e o f C onstantine him selfin a w ork com m only attrib u ted

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to the ch u rch historian Eusebius: a com m entary on Psalm 92, "the Sabbath
Psalm." T h e a u th o r o f this com m entary writes th at C hristians would fulfill on the
L o rd s day all th at in this psalm was prescribed for the Sabbath, including w orship
o f God early in th e m orning. H e then adds that th ro u g h the new covenant the
Sabbath celebration was tra n sfe rre d to "th e L ord s Day .50
L ater in th e sam e century E p h raem Syrus suggested that h o n o r was d u e to
th e L o rd s Day, th e firstborn o f all days, which had "taken away the right o f the
firstborn from th e S abbath ."51 T h e n he goes on to point out that the law prescribes
th at rest should be given to servants an d anim als. H ere the reflection o f the O ld
T estam en t Sabbath co m m andm ent is obvious.
T h e earliest ch u rch council to deal with Sunday as a day o f rest was a regional
one, m eeting in Laodicea about a . d . 364. A lthough this council still m anifested
respect for th e Sabbath as well as S unday in the special S cripture readings, it
nonetheless stipulated the following in its C anon 29: C hristians shall not Ju d aize
an d be idle on S aturday but shall work on that day; but the L o rd s day they shall
especially h o n o u r, and, as being C hristians, shall, if possible, d o no work on that
day. If, however, they are fo u n d Ju d aizin g , they shall be shut ou t from C hrist.
T h e regulation with reg ard to w orking on S unday was ra th e r m o d erate in
that C hristians should not work on th at day if possible! However, m ore significant
was th e fact that this council reversed the original practice re g a rd in g the
seventh-day Sabbath, which was now to be considered a workday.
F u rth e r conciliar enactm ents, as well as decrees by rulers, including
C harlem agne, belong prim arily to the sixth century an d onw ard, a story told in
som e detail in c h a p te r 10 .
E vidence o f C ontroversy
In th e referen ces from early C hristian literatu re noted above, we have found
th at especially d u rin g the fo u rth an d fifth centuries th ere was an increase in
m ention oiboth Sabbath an d Sunday. T his influx o f references, particularly those
o f a polem ical n atu re , bears ad ded testim ony to the conflict that was arising
betw een the two days subsequent to C onstantine's Sunday law.
O n the o n e h an d , the Apostolic Constitutions, for instance, stressed observance
o f both S aturday a n d Sunday, re q u irin g that slaves work only five days an d on
S aturday an d S unday have leisure to go to church. O n the o th e r hand, we have
fo u n d th e C ouncil o f Laodicea re q u irin g work on Saturday.
A n o th er p o in ted reference with polem ical tone com es from Jo h n C hrysos
tom (died a . d . 407), w ho declared, W e are becom e a laughing-stock to Jew s and
G reeks, seeing th at the C hurch is divided into a thousand parties---- You will now
u n d ersta n d why Paul calls circum cision a subversion o f the Gospel. T h e re are
m any am o n g us now', w ho fast on the sam e day as the Jews, and keep the sabbaths
in the sam e m an n er; an d we e n d u re it nobly o r ra th e r ignobly and basely"!
T h e controversy re g ard in g fasting on the Sabbath, a controversy particularly
p ro m in en t in th e literatu re from the m id-fourth century into the fifth century,
may ad d its w eight o f evidence to the changing situation for the Sabbath in
relationship to S unday. A lthough in Rom e and in som e o th er places in the West
such a fast was ad o p ted as a re g u la r weekly practice, thus m aking the Sabbath a
gloomy an d rejected day, o th e r places in the West (including Milan in n o rth e rn
Italy) a n d th e en tire E astern C h u rch resisted the innovation. Im p o rtan t witness to

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 T H E S AB BA TH IN S CR I PT UR E AND HIS TORY

this general situation is affo rd ed , for instance, in various statem ents by A ugustine
o f H ip p o (died a . d . 430) a n d by his later contem porary J o h n C assian. Also, a h alf
century to a cen tury earlier, two particularly poignant statem ents with strong
polem ical overtones com e from the in terp o later o f Ignatius an d from the Apostolic
Constitutions:
I f any o n e fasts on th e L o rd s Day o r on the Sabbath, except on th e paschal
S abbath only, he is a m u rd e re r o f C h rist ."55 (All C hristians considered it
a p p ro p ria te to fast on the Paschal Sabbath, the anniversary o f the Sabbath d u rin g
which C hrist was in the tom b.)
If any o n e o f the clergy be fo u n d to fast on the L o rd s day, o r o n the
Sabbath-day, excepting o n e only, let him be d eprived; but if he be one o f the laity,
let him be su sp en d e d .56
At th e tim e w hen A lexandria an d Rom e rejected Sabbath observance in the
second cen tu ry , polem ical overtones negative to the Sabbath w ere evidenced in
th e w ritings o f B arnabas o f A lexandria an d Ju stin M artyr .57 Now, som e two
centuries later, a fte r the tim e o f C onstantine the G reat, the polemics begin to
a p p e a r on a w idespread basis as the new S unday rest day began to conflict with the
original S aturday rest day.
S um m ary
It has becom e obvious th at the displacem ent o f S aturday by S unday as a day o f
weekly C hristian w orship a n d rest was a long and slow process. Until the second
cen tu ry th ere is no concrete evidence o f a C hristian weekly S unday celebration
anyw here. T h e first specific references d u rin g that century com e from
A lexandria an d Rom e, places th at also early rejected observance o f the
seventh-day Sabbath.
In this early substitution o f S unday fo r S aturday, how ever, the C hristian
ch u rches in A lexandria a n d Rom e w ere unique. Evidence from the fifth century
indicates that also at that tim e both Sabbath and Sunday were observed generally
th ro u g h o u t th e C hristian w orldexcept in Rom e a n d A lexandria.
M oreover, w hen the C hristian weekly Sunday first em erged, it continued to
be a day o f work, although it included a w orship service in h o n o r o f C h rists
resu rrectio n . T h is weekly celebration o f C hrist's resu rrectio n ap p ears to have
been an extension o f an annual S unday-E aster resurrection festival. T h e latter, in
tu rn , fo u n d its an teced en t in the Jew ish first-fruits celebration m entioned in
Leviticus 23:11also an annual event.
Finally, from the tim e o f C onstantine onw ard, a tren d developed tow ard
m aking S unday a C hristian Sabbath. T h is process b ro u g h t about a w idespread
conflict o f S unday with the seventh-day Sabbath, a n d eventually in m edieval times
this S unday Sabbath" cam e to displace the original S aturday Sabbath generally
th ro u g h o u t E urope. In Ethiopia, on the o th e r h an d , both S aturday a n d S unday
w ere considered to be Sabbaths."
A ddendum

Inasm uch as the significant early reference to S unday by Ju stin M artyr o f

Rom e (1 Apology 67) is n o t staled in full in the m ain texi o f this volum e, it is
ap p e n d e d h ere as it ap p ears in AN F 1:186:
A nd on th e day called Sunday, all who live in cities o r in the country g ath er

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 SAB BA T H AND SUNDAY FROM 2D T H R O U G H 5 T H C E N T U R I E S

to g eth er to o ne place, an d the m em oirs o f the apostles o r the w ritings o f the

p ro p h e ts are read, as long as tim e perm its; then, w hen th e re a d e r has ceased, the
p resid en t verbally instructs, a n d exhorts to the im itation o f these good things.
T h e n we all rise to g eth er an d pray, an d , as we before said, w hen o u r p ray er is
e n d e d , b read an d wine an d w ater are brought, an d the president in like m an n er
o ffers prayers a n d thanksgivings, according to his ability, an d the people assent,
saying A m en; an d th ere is a distribution to each, an d a participation o f that over
which thanks have been given, a n d to those who are absent a portion is sent by the
deacons. A nd they who are well to do, an d willing, give what each thinks fit; and
what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the o rp h a n s and
widows, an d those who, th ro u g h sickness o r any o th e r cause, are in want, and
those who are in bonds, an d th e strangers sojourning am ong us, and in a word
takes care o f all w ho are in need. But S unday is the day on which we all hold o u r
com m on assembly, because it is the first day on which G od, having w rought a
change in the dark n ess and m atter, m ade the world; and Jesus C hrist o u r Saviour

J u s tin M artyr. I Apology*#? ( A S F 1:186). Willy R ord orf b elieves tlm S u n d a y -m o rn in g w o rsh ip crvicc as
d escrib e d by J u su n lo o k plate- "before titiybreah" (see hi Sunday [P h ilad elp h ia . 1968], p p. 2 5 4 . 2 6 5 )
S o crates S ch olaslicu s Ecclesiastical H istory 5. 2 2 ( N P N F ft 2:1 3 2 ).

* H ip p o lv tu s (.om mentary on D aniel 4. 2 0 . 3. For ('reek text an d F ren ch tra n sla tio n , see M aurice L efe v re.
H ip p o h te. C o m m en ta te tu r D aniel (P a n s. 1 9 4 7 ),p p . 3 0 0 -3 0 3 .
6 For d etails o n th e S abbath fast, see K. A . S tran d . "Som e N o tes o n th e Sabbath Fast m Early Christianity.** A U S 5
3 (1 9 6 5 ): 1 6 7-174. as w ell as th e m aterial o n th is top ic g iven in th e p resen t v o lu m e by S a m u e le B acchiocc hi in ch a p ter

7 O r ig e n , H om ilv 2 3 . o n N u m b ers, par 4 (P C 12:749. 7 5 0 ). It is clear that in th e co n tex t < ) n g e n is d efin itely
^ peaking o f Saturdas ^What^ m as n ot b e eq u ally certain , h o w ev er, is how th e r e fe r e n c e to c h u rch a tten d a n c e o n

P seu d o -Ig n a tiu s. \ta g n * u a n \, lo n g v er sio n , ch a p . 9 ( A S F 1:62, 63).

N G regory o f N vssa. O n R eproof (P C 4 6 :3 0 9 . 310); A s te r iu s o f A m asea. H o m ily 5 . o n M atthew 19:3 (P C 4 0 .2 2 5 .

'* A p p aren tfs th e first d ocu m en tary e v id e n c e w e h ave lo r Sun d ay s b ein g r e le r r e d to as a S abb ath is fo u n d in
an in ter p o la ted p assage in th e F thtopM s e r s io n o f th e Egyptian C h u n k O td r t A lter a h e ig h te n e d se r sio n o f a sta tem en t
from th c Apostolic Constitution* (Ye a n d so u r slaves an d s o u r servan ts, d o y o u r w ork five d a s s A n d o n th e sabbath and
first d a y ye shall not d o an s w ork in them "), an ex p la n a tio n is given reg a rd in g th e in stitu tio n o f th e S abbath at
C rea tio n , fo llo w e d bs this u n iq u e com m en ta ry : T h e n th e First dav is th e d as o f th e resu rrectio n o f o u r L ord Jesus
C hrist. A n d th e first (d ay) wa* n am ed sabb ath , an d b oth w ere n am ed sabbaths. A n d m th e p ro p h e ts a lso h e plaints
d ecla res that b o th are sabbath*, an d says: H o n o r m s sabbath* A n d all o f th o se w h o h o n o r m s sabbaths, and
p ro fa n e th em n o t. an d c o n tin u e in m s o r d in a n c e s. I will b n n g to m s h ols m o u n ta in . .. A tten d a n d u n d er sta n d w h en
he said . Ms sabbaths, h e said (it) o f b o th days.** Frig trans. in (1 H o r n e r. The Statutes of the Apostles (L o n d o n . 1904].
pp. 2 1 0 . 2 1 1 . S e e my fu rth er d iscu ssion in A N o te o n th e Sabbath in C optic S ources," A L S S 6 (1 9 6 8 ): 1 5 0 -1 5 7 .
19 For a m o re d e ta ile d d iscu ssion o f th e m atters treated in th e n ext few p a ra g ra p h s, see m v fo llo w in g
p ub lica tio n s The E a r h C hristian Sabbath (W o rth in g to n . O h io . 1979). p p 4 3 -5 2 ; "John as Q u a r to d e c im a n : A
R ea p p ra isal. /HI 84 ( l9 6 5 ) : 2 5 l - 2 5 8 ; an d " A n oth er L ook at th e 'Lord's D a s 'm th e Farly C h u rch a n d in R es. 1 .10.**
N e w Testam ent Studtei 13 (1 9 6 6 -1 9 6 7 ): 174-181 I lie D ea d S ea scrolls, in clu d in g th e recen tly p u b lish ed T e m p le
Scroll." h ave b een im p ortan t in illu m in a tin g th e situ ation in J u daism ju st p n o r to and at th e tim e o f th e n s e o f th e

w T h e E ssen es an d B o eth u sia n s actu alls c h o s e S u n d ays a w eek apart b eca u se o f a d iffe r e n c e in their
u n d er sta n d in g o l w h eth er th e Sabbath o f L ev. 2 3 : 11 w as th e Sabbath d u n n g o r th e S abbath after th e Feast of
U n lea v en ed B read. T h ey a p p e a r also to h a v e re ck o n e d o n th e basis o f a solar ca len d a r in con trast to th e lunar

*1 F u seb iu s I 'tclesiastiral H utory 5. 2 3 -2 5 . p ro v id es th e d etails (N P N F '2 1:241 -2 4 4 ). S e e m s fu rth er d iscu ssio n in

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 T H E S AB BA TH IN S CR I PT UR E AND HI STORY

72 Ibid . 5. 23. 1 (N P N F I2 1:241): 1 S o io m c n Eccl. H u t. 7 . 19 ( W N F t 2 :3 9 0 ). It m ay b e a d d e d that th is view

re g a rd in g (h e o rig in o f th e S un d ay Easter, at a lim e w h en C hristian in flu en ce s w ere still m o v in g largely fro m East to
W est ralher than tice irrsa . is certain ly m o re realistic than to su p p o s e that a Sun d av E aster o f W estern o rig in h ad so
early in ch u rch h is t o n rep la ced th e S is a n 14-15*16 co m m em o r a tio n virtually every w h e re th r o u g h o u t th e C hristian
w orld b oth East an d W est.
23T h e special im p o rta n ce o f th is sea so n is in d icated , e .g .. by T e r tu llia n . T he Chaplet, ch a p . 3; O n Baptism , ch a p .
19: a n d O n Fasting, ch a p . 14 (A N F 3 :9 4 . 6 7 8 . an d 4 : 1 12).
2M . van C fouaoever. Biblical Calendars. 2d ed . (L eid e n . 1961), p. 167.
23r h ilip C a rrin g to n , The F n m i t n f Christian (.alendar (C am b rid g e. E n g la n d , 195 2 ). p. 3 8 . o ffe r s a n o th e r
su g g e stio n : S in ce cr o p s co u ld h ard ly h a v e b een ripe e v e ry w h er e on th e tw o S u n d a y s esp ecia lly set a sid e (d ay o f barley
first fru its an d P entecost d ay), m ay it n o t h a v e b een im p lied that any Sunday w ith in th e fifty da y s was a p r o p e r day for
th e o ffe r in g o f th e first fruits? For an ex c e lle n t d iscu ssion o f th e w h o le q u e stio n o f Easter in relation to th e w eekly
S u n d ay , se e L aw ren ce T . G eraty. T h e Pascha an d th e O rigin o f S un d ay O b servan ce." .4C SS 3 ( 1 9 6 5 ):8 5 -9 6 .
26C odexJustm ianus 3. 12. 3. trans. in Philip S ch aff. H istory of the Christian Church. 5th e d (N ew Y ork. 1 9 0 2 ), 3 :3 8 0 ,
n o te I.
27 S ee. ej$ .. Theodostan Code 1 1 .7 . 13 an d 15. 5. 5, trans. by C ly d e Pharr (P rin ceto n . N .J .. 1952). p p . 3 0 0 , 4 3 3 .
28 E .g., I ertu llian O n Prayer 2 3 ( A S F 3 :6 8 9 ), re fe rs to " d e ferrin g e v e n o u r b usinesses" o n S un d ays. T h e c o n te x t
o f this sta tem en t su g g e sts that w hat is m ean t is n o t total rest o n S u n d a y s, b u t leisu re fo r c h u rch a tten d a n c e (see th e
d iscu ssion by R o rd o rf. op. a t., pp. 1 5 8-160).
29S ee J e r o m e . E p istle 108. 0 (N P N F I2 6 :2 0 6 ).
" S e e E u sebiu s. Com mentary on the Psalm s, o n Ps. 91 (9 2 ):2 . 3 ( PG 2 3 : 1 172). T h e a ttrib u tio n to E u seb iu s is n ot
certain .
51 S. Ephraem Syri h y m n el sermones, e d . by T . I. Lam v (1 8 8 2 ), 1 :5 4 2 -5 4 4 .
52 C harles I. H e fe le , A History oj the (o u n c ils o f the Church. 2 (E d in b u rg h . I H 7 6 ):3 16. C a n o n 16 (ibid., p. 3 1 0 ) re fe rs
to lection s: an d C a n o n s 4 9 a n d 51 (ibid.. p. 3 2 0 ) reveal that S aturday as w ell as Sunday h ad sp ecia l co n sid era tio n
d u r in u Lent.
C o m m en t o n C alatian s 1:7 in C om mentary on Galatians ( S P S F / \ 13:8).
54 S e e esp ecially A u g u stin e . E p isd e 3 6 (to C asu lan u s); Epistle 54 (to J a n u a r iu s). par 3; E p istle 8 2 (to J e r o m e ),
par. 14 (N P N F H 1 :2 6 5 -2 7 0 . 3 0 0 , 3 0 1 . 3 5 3 . 354); an d J o h n C assian . Institutes 3. 9 . 10 ( S P N F '2 1 1 :2 1 7 . 2 1 8 ).
A u g u stin e's ep istle s may be n u m b e r e d som ew h at d iffe r e n tly in ed itio n s o th e r than S P S F .
ss P s e u d o -Ign atiu s. P hilipptans 13 ( A S F 1:119).
56 C a n o n 6 4 in Apost. Const. ( A S F 7 :5 0 4 ). The c a n o n is n u m b er ed 6 6 (65)" in C harles J . H e fe le , A H istory o f the
Christian Councils. 2d e d . I (E d in b u r g h . I 8 8 3 ):4 8 4 .
57 E p istle o f B arn ab as, ch ap . 15 (A N F 1:146. 147); an d in lu s u n M artyr, e .g .. D ialogue with Trypho 12. 18. 1 9 .2 3 .
4 3 (A N F 1:200. 2 0 3 . 2 0 4 . 2 0 6 . 2 1 6). In ch a p ter 7. S a m u e le B acch iocch i d e a ls briefly w ith J u stin M artyr's a ttitu d e
tow ard th e Sabbath (see p. 137).
w It may be m e n tio n e d that a fo r e r u n n e r o f th e A postolu Constitutions en titled th e D idascaha Apostolorum . usually
d a te d th ird cen tu ry , c o n ta in s so m e an ti-S abb ath p olem ic. H o w ev e r, it sh o u ld also lie n o ted tnat th e D idascaha
Apostolorum had an e v o lu tio n (especially in its Syriac an d l^uin fo rm s) th at u n d o u b ted ly in v o lv ed a d d itio n or
in ter p o la tio n o f m aterials d u r in g th e fo u rth centu ry or e v e n later. In an y ev e n t, th e c o n te x t o f th e an ti-S abb ath
rem arks sh ow s a p roclivity fo r "the R om ans" a g r o u p that as w e h ave s e e n , already sub stitu ted S u n d a v fo r th e
Sabbath in th e s e c o n d cen tu ry . For th e m ain anti-Sabt>ath p o lem ic in th e Didascaha an d its co n tex t, see fe. H u g h
C o n n o lly , tran s.. D idascaha Apostolorum (O x fo r d . 1929). p. 238.
 APPEN D IX C

On Esteeming One Day as Better

Than AnotherRomans 14:5, 6*

Raoul Dederen

NE m an esteem s one day as b etter than an o th er, while a n o th e r m an esteem s

all days alike. Let every one be fully convinced in his own m ind. H e who
observes th e day, observes it in h o n o r o f the Lord. H e also who eats, eals in h o n o r
o f th e L o rd , since h e gives thanks to G od; while he who abstains, abstains in h o n o r
o f th e L ord an d gives thanks to G od" (Rom. 14:5, 6, R.S.V.).
W hat was in Paul's m ind w hen he indicated in the above text the C hristian's
perfect liberty eith er to esteem one day above a n o th e r o r to fail to m ake any
distinction at all am ong them ? Was he objecting to S abbathkeeping and
attem p tin g to prove that the Jewish Sabbath" was "nailed to the cross" is some
would hold? W hat was he saying to th e C hristian com m unity in Rome!*
Little is know n re g a rd in g the b e g in n in g o f this C hristian com m unity. It seems
certain, th o u g h , th at th ere was a large church at Rom e aro u n d a . d . 58 when Paul
wrote this Episde, a ch u rch com posed, like m ost churches, o f m ixed Jewish and
G entile m em b ersh ip (see chaps. 1:13-16; 2:9, 10, 17; 11:13, 31). W hen the
N eronian persecution broke o u t (c. 64)," writes C. H. D odd, the C hristians of
Rom e w ere 'a large body' (I Clem . VI, I), an im m ense m ultitude' (Tacitus Annals
XV. 44).'
T h e passage u n d e r study is part o f the ethical o r practical section o f the
Epistle (chapters 12-16). Far from being a new developm ent in P auls oudine, this
section is in fact ro o ted in th e first m ain p a rt o f the letter (chapters 1-11). T h e
re c u rrin g them e in the first part is th at o f justification by faith, the universal
sinfulness o f m an, and the universal grace o f God. T h e statem ent we are
considering (chap. 14:5, 6) falls within the large section o f the Epistle devoted
explicitly to th e application o f C hristian tru th s to the daily C hristian life.

A b b reviated from O n E steem in g O n e Day as B etter T h a n A n oth er." A U S S 9 (Jan uary, 1971): 16-35.

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 T H E S A B B A TH IN S CR I PT UR E AND H IS TOR Y

T he Immediate Context
It will be helpful to take a closer look at the im m ediate context:
"As fo r th e m an who is weak in faith, welcome him , but not fo r disputes over
opinions. O n e believes he may eat anything, while the weak m an eats only
vegetables. Let not him who eats despise him who abstains, an d let not him who
abstains pass ju d g m e n t on him who eats; fo r G od has welcomed him . W ho a re you
to pass ju d g m e n t on the servant o f another? It is before his own m aster that he
stands o r falls. A nd he will be upheld, for the M aster is able to m ake him stand.
O n e m an esteem s one day as b etter than an o th er, while an o th e r m an
esteem s all days alike. Let every one be fully convinced in his own m ind. H e who
observes th e day, observes it in h o n o r o f the Lord. H e also who eats, eats in h o n o r
o f th e L ord, since he gives thanks to G od; while he w ho abstains, abstains in h o n o r
o f th e L ord a n d gives thanks to G od (verses 1-6, R.S.Y'.).
A cursory read in g o f Rom ans 14 indicates th at th ere existed in the C hristian
com m unity o f Rom e a controversy in connection with both diet an d the
observance o f certain days. I n fact, th e m atter o f esteem ing o n e day as b etter than
an o th er" is m erely inteijected in a passage th at has to d o entirely with a
controversy that existed in the Rom an church on th e m atter o f m eat eating versus
vegetarianism a n d abstinence from wine (see verses 1, 21).
Exactly w hat the problem was rem ains u ncertain. But afte r having dealt with
th e m ore g eneral aspects o f C hristian behavior, Paul tu rn s to a problem that was
perp lex in g th at particu lar community.* As in most C hristian com m unities,
tension arose betw een th e old-fashioned" an d the em ancipated," o r e n lig h t
en ed ," in T . W. M ansons words.3 In this particular case the weak" were
vegetarians, th e strong" w ere p re p a re d to eat all kinds o f food.
Who Were T hese Ascetics?
T h e tendency has been to point im m ediately to Jew ish C hristians w ho still
ad h e red to th e shadow s o f the O ld T estam ent laws an d whose m inds w ere not yet
sufficiently established as the weak" believers m entioned in this passage. Ascetic
tren d s, how ever, existed in paganism as well as in Ju d aism .1 T h o se who followed
th e O rp h ic M ystery cull an d the Py thagoreans a p p e a r to have been vegetarians.
Gnostic tendencies tow ard asceticism, too, may have obtained som e following in
R om e.' But those do not satisfy all the circum stances. Rom an C hristians w ere in
the habit, says Paul, o f observing scrupulously certain days; an d this custom did
not, as far as we know, prevail am ong any heath en sect.
It seems difficult also to retain the possibility that Paul was speaking o f Jewish
C hristians who rejected wine (verse 21) an d who would have serious scruples
about eatin g unclean m eats o f which o th ers am ong the congregation partook.
Ju d aism did not reject wine except for the d u ra tio n o f a vow; an d in Rom e, the
weak" b re th re n objected to eating flesh at all, an objection that was not founded
on th e law o f Moses but on ascetic motives foreign to the eleventh ch a p te r o f
Leviticus.*
Since all m eat was refused, som e have postulated that the reason could very
well be th e sam e as th at given in 1 C orinthians, nam ely, th e difficulty o f obtaining
m eat th at had not previously been o ffered in sacrifice to deities. T h e re is, in fact,
a ra th e r close affinity betw een R om ans 14 on the one hand an d 1 C orinthians 8
an d 10 on th e o th e r. But Pauls silence concerning idols a n d dem ons in R om ans

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 O N E S T EE M IN G O N E DAY AS B E T T E R T H A N A N O T H E R

14, as well as th e m ention o f the observance o f certain days, inclines m any to

conclude th at th ere is no real parallel between the two situations.*
It is equally possible that those refrain in g from m eat a n d wine m ight have
been C hristians o f Jew ish origin influenced by Essenism. We know that at that tim e
th ere was a large Jew ish colony in Rome, an d that the Essenes sought to attain a
h ig h er sanctity by d epriving the flesh o f the satisfaction o f its desires. A sa possible
o u tgrow th o f Pharisaism , Essenism had m uch in com m on with it, although it also
fo u n d itself at great variance with it. Not only was cerem onial purity an absorbing
passion with the Essene, but in his desire to observe carefully the distinction laid
dow n by Moses re g ard in g m eats as lawful and unlaw ful, he went far beyond the
Pharisee. Many believe that he even d ra n k no wine n o r touched any anim al food,
at least at tim es.10
Less objection applies to this proposed solution if it is presented, not w ith the
idea that Essenism existed in Rom e as a strict organization (which is highly
im probable), but th at th ere was an Essene influence in the Jew ish com m unity
there. Such is probable, an d the view fulfills the th ree conditions o f the case. T h e
Essenes w ere Jew ish and ascetic, and they observed certain days. T h e re is som e
evidence," writes F. F. B ruce, "that such baptist' com m unities w ere found in the
D ispersion as well as in Ju d ae a. T h e Jew ish com m unity o f Rome, in particular,
ap p ears to have preserved som e characteristic features o f this non-conform ist'
Ju d aism featu res which, as we may g ath er from the H ippolytan Apostolic
Tradition, w ere carried over into Rom an C h ristian ity .""
On Esteem ing Certain Days Above Others
At this point, in a discussion that has to d o with a controversy on the m atter o f
m eat eating versus vegetarianism , Paul interjects a n o th e r issue, that o f esteem ing
o n e day as b etter than an o th er" (verse 5, R.S.V.). T h e statem ent presents no
particu lar difficulty as far as its translation is concerned. It has been very faithfully
re n d e re d by th e translators. But is it possible to d eterm in e what days Paul had in
m ind w hen he w rote that a C hristian is at perfect liberty eith er to esteem o n e day
above a n o th e r o r to fail to m ake any distinction at all am ong them ?
Som e co m m entators have a rg u ed that the distinction h ere touched upon
refers to th e seventh-day Sabbath. W hat o th e r day would any Rom an C hristian
ju d g e to be above o th e r days? asks R. C. H. Lenski.'- In this in terp re tatio n , Paul
considers th at all distinction o f the Sabbath day from o th e r days has been
abolished by C hristianity.
It is to be n o ted, how ever, that the attem pt to connect the Sabbath o f the
D ecalogue with th e days" m entioned in this passage is not convincing for
ev eryone. W ho could have a divine com m andm ent before him an d say to others:
You can treat th at com m andm ent as you please; it really m akes no d ifference
w h ether you keep it o r not"? N o apostle could conduct such an arg u m en t. A nd
probably no m an w ould be m ore su rprised at that in terp re tatio n than Paul
him self, who h ad utm ost respect for the Decalogue, G od's law, which is "holy, and
ju st, an d g o o d (chap. 7:12). C hrist, the norm o f all Pauline teaching, was
indisputably a S abbathkeeper. A nd Paul him self, who evidently cannot be
reckoned am o n g th e weak," w orshiped on the Sabbath "as was his custom " (Acts
17:2, R.S.V.; cf. L uke 4:16).
T h e re is no conclusive evidence to the contrary. Paul was in no doubt as to the

335
 THF. S ABBATH IN S CR I P T U R E AND H IS TOR Y

validity o f th e weekly Sabbath. T h u s, to assum e that w hen they w ere converted to

C hristianity by Paul, Gentiles o r Jew s would be anxious to give u p the Jew ish"
Sabbath fo r th eir own day" is hardly likely. T his could be expected only at some
later lim e in th e history o f the C hristian church, an d for o th er reasons.

It has been arg u ed with a great deal o f plausibility that Paul was simply
re ferrin g to th e sacred days o f the Jew ish econom y, th e seven an n u a l cerem onial
Sabbaths instituted by God after Israels deliverance from Egypt.14Som e reg ard ed
them as having abiding sanctity, while others considered them as abrogated w ith
the passing away o f the cerem onial institutions.
Paul may have had in m ind the case o f Jew ish converts end eav o rin g to
m ake a case for the observance o f these yearly feasts an d sabbaths. But the special
days o f th e week re fe rre d to in o u r passage w ere probably fast days. This
suggestion is based on the context itself, in which abstinence is the p re d o m in a n t
feature. It may even be that am ong the faithful who strictly abstained from llesh
an d wineo r in addition to them th ere w ere others who did so only on
certain days. Pauls statem ent in R om ans 14:2, O n e believes he may eat anything,
while th e weak m an eats only vegetables (R.S.V.), is curiously analogous to his
th o u g h t in verse 5, O ne m an esteem s one day as b etter than an o th er, while
an o th e r m an esteem s all days alike" (R.S. V.). H e m entions the two cases together,
and later in the c h a p te r he declares that a m an should not be judged by his
eating (verses 10-13), which may imply that Paul is re ferrin g to fast days. It
ap p ears quite probable from th e context that Paul h ere is correlating the eating
with th e observance o f days. Most likelyalthough it is im possible to ascertain
this th e apostle is dealing with fast days in a context o f eith er partial or

H ere again the Essenes may have caused the problem . It is certainly
significant that besides abstaining from m eat and wineat least at timesthey
w ere also very specific in the m atter o f observing days. T hey sanctified certain days
th at w ere not observed by the general stream o f Jews. A lthough the Essenes
principal feasts w ere the sam e, as in the rest o f Israel, others have been ad d ed
which seem to have been unique to the sect." T h e ir liturgical calendar, set up
according to th e calen d ar o f Jubilees, was d iffe ren t from the official priestlv
calen d ar in Jeru salem . Som e have suggested that the calen d ar o f Jubilees
re p resen te d th e ancient liturgical com pulation o f the T em p le itself, laier
a b an d o n ed at Jeru salem in favor o f the lunar-solar calendar in use in the
Hellenistic world. "It is not im possible that this substitution gave rise to ihe Essene
secession, rem arks Marcel S im on. As m ight be expected, th ere was a

Som e p ertin e n t observations em erge now that could well tie in the m a tte r o f
diet with that o f esteem ing certain days above others. T h e Essenes scrupulously
abstained from m eat and wineat least at times. T h ey a d d e d certain feast days to
the re g u la r Jew ish calendar. T h e discussion over the point existed in Jew ry p rio r
to th e advent o f C hristianity. C ould it be that ihe controversy was carried over into
the C hristian ch u rch and finds itself reflected in Rom ans 14? In this case, the
practice o f th e weak may be com pared with the early C hristian custom indicated in
the Didache o f fasting twice every w eek.1* Is it not significant, an d relevant as well.
 O N ESTEEM IN G O N E DAY AS B E T T E R T H A N A N O T H E R

that we have in this d o cum ent too a m atter o f diet and days connected in a
controversial issue?
A lthough th e aforegoing in terp retatio n cannot be considered as an
established fact, it cannot be ignored, and indeed seems to be the most likely
possibility in a context in which abstinence is a p red o m in an t feature. T h e re fo re I
suggest th at Paul in Rom ans 14:5, 6 is re fe rrin g to practices o f abstinence and
fasting on reg u lar, fixed days.1*

NOTES
*C . H Dodd. The Epistle o f P a u l to the Rom ans (London. 1954). p p. xvii-xx.
2 A lth o u g h to m e h a v e su g g e ste d that Pau l m igh t sim ply h ave b een g iv in g g en er a l c o u n se l arisin g fro m past
e x p e r ie n c e (see. for in sta n c e. U illiarn Sandav a n d A rth u r C. H c a d la m . A C ritical a n d Exegetical Commentary on the
Epistle to the Rom ans, 5th e d . [E d in b u rg h . 195ft). p p 3 9 9 -4 0 3 ). I b eliev e w ith E m il B ru n n er that **a ce rta in split had
occ u r red m th e c h u rch at Rome** (T he Letter to the Rom ans [P h ilad elp h ia. 1949], p. 1 14).
*T. W Manson. R om ans, in Peakes Com mentary on the fible. Matthew Black, ed (London. 1964 , p. 951. 1
4 For a list of th e m ajor g ro u p s, see O tto M ich el. Der B n e f an die Rom er, I Oth ed . (G ttin g e n . 19d5). p . 2 9 7 .
4 M ans J on as. T he G nostic Religion (B o sto n . 1958). p. 33
M ost vegetarian s in th o se d avs a b stain ed fro m m eal o n th e basis of th eir m etap h ysical c o n ce p t o f th e w orld.
Most C hristian veg eta ria n s today d o so m a in h in striving for g o o d h ealth For th e ig n ifu a n ce o f K o iv o u sed in
R om ans 14:14. see my a rticle **On E steem in g O n e D a v a s B etter T h an A n o th e r . A C S S 9 (Jan uary, I 9 7 l) : 2 0 . n o te 12.
' A n d ers N v g r e n . Commentary on the R o m a n i (P h ila d elp h ia . 1949). p. 4 4 2 . C f. A. M H u n te r . T he Epistle to the
R om ans ( L o n d o n .1 9 5 7 ). p 117
ft For a closer lo o k at th is a ffin ity . see m v article (in n o te 6 ). p 21.
* C f. A d o lf yon S ch latter. G o tta Gererhtigheil, 4th ed . (S tu ttg a n . 1965). p p . 3 6 4 . 368; M ich el, op. cit.. p. 2 5 6 : E rnst
G a u s lc r . Der R om erbnef (Z urich, 1952). 2:3 5 6 .
W h ereas so m e, o n th e basis of th e D ead S ea scrolls, con sid er that th e E ssenes u se d w in e, o th ers regard it as
im p ro b a b le in view o f th e u se o f th e w ord tin u h : see J. van d er P loeg. T he Excai-ations a t Q u m ra n (L o n d o n , 1 9 5 8 ). p.
2 1 2 , a n d E. F. S u tc liffe , The M onks o f Q um ran (W estm in ster, M d., I9 6 0 ), p. 110. A rch eo lo g ists have u n c o v ere d
n u m e ro u s d etio sits o f b o n e s m jars a n a p iec es of ja rs, b o n e s o f an im als (m a in h s h e e p an d g o a ls) that had b een co o k ed
o r roasted W h e th e r th e se are tn e rem ain s o f an im als th e flesh of w hich w as e a ten o r are ev id e n c e o f th e sacrifices that
th e E ssenes fell n ecessary to o ffe r w ith in th e purity o f th eir ow n com m u n itv is a m atter o f d eb a te; see Kurt S ch u b ert.
The D ead Sea Com m unity ( S ic * Y ork. 1959). p . 2 3 . J van d e r P loeg, " T h e M eals o f th e E ssenes,"J o u r n a l o f S em etu Studies
2 (1 957): 172; R. d e Y'aux, R e u se hiblufue 6 3 (I 9 d 6 ):7 3 , 7 4 . 5 4 9 , 550; W. R. Farm er. U )B (N e w Y ork, 1 962). 2 :1 4 8 .
" F. F. B ru ce, ***To th e H ebrew s' or to th e E sse n e s?" S e w Testam ent Studies 9 (1 9 6 2 -1 9 6 3 ):2 2 7 .
12 R. C . L en ski, T he Interpretation o f St. P aul's Epistle to the Rom ans (C o lu m b u s. O h io . 1 945), p. 8 21.
11 S ee. for in stan ce. J o s e p h Parker. R om ans a n d G alatians. The People's Bible (N ew Y o rk . 1 901). 2 6 :1 2 3 -1 2 5 ; A.
B arnes. "R om ans," Sotes on the N eu Testam ent (L o n d o n , 1832), 4 .299, 3 0 0 ; W ilber T . D a y to n . Rom ans a n d G alatians,
W cslevan B ib le C om m en tary ((W and R apids. M ich., 1965), 5 :8 5 , 86.
M S ee L eviticu s 2 3 an d S lu m b ers 2 8 , 29
M a m es D en n e y . "R om ans." The Expositors Greek Testament, W. R. \ u o il. e d . (G rand R apids, M ich., 196 1 ). p.
702; J o s e p h H u b y. S a in t P aul. EpUre aux R tm iaim (Paris, 1957), p p. 4 5 5 , 4 5 6 ; C a u g le r , op. cit., p. 333.
^ M arcel S im o n . I s s series juives au temps de Jsus (P a n s. 1960), p. 62.
17 Ib id ., p p . 6 2 , 6 3 . C f. A . J a u lie rt, L a d a te d e la Cen, calendrier biblique et liturgie chrtienne (Paris, 1957), p p. 51*56.
'* T h e P tdache (8:1) w arn s C hristian s not to fast w ith th e h yp ocrites o n th e seco n d a n d Fifth d avs o f th e w eek , b u t
rather o n th e fou rth an d sixth days.
,9 S e e F J. L een h a rd t, T he E p u tle to the R om ans (I x m d o n , 1961), pp. 3 4 8 ,3 4 9 . M .J . L igranjze d e c la r e s ."Il est assez
clair, d 'a p rs le c o n te x te , q u 'il s'agit d 'a b stin e n c e ." S a in t P aul, E pltre aux Rom ains (P a n s, 1950). p. 3 2 5 .
 APPENDIX D

The Sabbath D ays of Colossians

2 : 16 , 17

Kenneth H. Wood
M

HE historic position o f the Seventh-day A dventist C hurch on Colossians 2:16

T is th at th e sabbath days m entioned in this verse are festival sabbaths
prescribed by the laws o f Moses (Lev. 23:32, 37-39), not the seventh-day
Sabbath o f the fo u rth com m andm ent o f the Decalogue. Individuals h e re and
th ere have recognized th at the arg u m en ts used to sup p o rt this position are not
coercive, b u t th e position has seldom been challenged. A review o f church
publications reveals that w riters have set forth an d d efen d ed the historic view
using one o r m ore o f the following fo u r argum ents.
1. T h e Colossian believers, being confused by a heresy that sought to im pose
on them various req u irem en ts o f the Jew ish cerem onial law, needed to distinguish
betw een the m oral an d cerem onial aspects o f the T o ra h , o r law. T h e heresy very
likely included som e pagan an d G nostic elem ents, but the h ea rt o f it, as at Galatia,
seems to have been legalistic, Jew ish cerem onialism . Logically, then. Paul would
have set forth the tru th th at to p erfo rm cerem onial rites as a m eans o f salvation
was not only futile but an implicit denial o f the fact that Jesus was the M essiah, the
O n e who, by fulfilling th e types, m ade them m eaningless. A nd, to help the
Colossians identify the parts o f the T o ra h that no longer were binding, he
m entioned several rituals and festivals prescribed in the cerem onial law.
2. T h e religious activities listed in verse 16 are sim ilar in o rd e r and content to
those m en tio n ed elsew h e re in the S criptures w here the sacrifices an d festivals o f
the cerem onial law are set forth. For exam ple, in Ezekiel 45:17 God says: It shall
be th e p rin ces part to give b u rn t offerings, an d m eat offerings, an d d rin k
offerings, in the feasts, an d in the new m oons, and in the sabbaths, in all
solem nities o f the house o f Israel." (See also 2 C hron. 2:4; 8:13; Hosea 2:11.)
T h o u g h som e believe th at the sabbaths m entioned in Ezekiel and o th er passages
re fe r prim arily to the seventh-day Sabbath, doubtless the cerem onial sabbaths also
are included.
3. Both the larg er context and the im m ediate context strongly suggest that

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 T H E "SABBATH DAYS" O F COLOSSIANS 2:16. 17

Paul was re fe rrin g prim arily to the festivals an d ordinances o f the cerem onial law.
T h ro u g h o u t Colossians 1 and in the earlv part o f c h a p te r 2 Paul extols C hrist as
the Son o f G od, th e C reator, the O ne w ho deserves w orship an d honor, the O ne
who provides forgiveness an d redem ption, the O ne whom all should accept as
Lord. H e em phasizes one o f his favorite them es that to be in C hrist is the
sumtnum bonum o f religious experience. H e sets forth C hrist as the O ne who on the
cross reconciled the world to (od, the O ne w ho is H ead o f the church. Paul is
d eterm in ed to m ake clear that only that faith which focuses on C hrist is o f value.
N either th rones, dom inions, principalities, n o r powers (chaps. 1:16 an d 2:15)
are to be feared o r v enerated, for they are u n d e r the authority o f C hrist, having
been created by H im . T h u s, w hile the im m ediate context o f verse 16 speaks o f the
com plete forgiveness o ffered by C hrist to believers (verses 13, 14), the larger
context, th e m ain them e o f Pauls m essage, is the greatness o f C hrist a n d the
im portance o f being in H im ," ad h e rin g to His teachings an d recognizing that
circum cision an d cerem onial m eats, drinks, holy days, new m oons, and sabbaths

T h e key w ord in the passage, the w ord that argues strongly that the "sabbath
days o f verse 16 are cerem onial sabbaths, is shadow (skia, as opposed to soma.
body), a w ord used in a sim ilar way in H ebrew s 8:5 and 10:1. Paul says that the
m eat, d rin k , holy days, new m oons, an d sabbath days "are a shadow o f things to
com e" (Col. 2:17). A shadow has n eith er substance n o r ultim ate value. It is
d ep e n d en t for its existence on som ething substantial (the soma casts the skia). It
ends when it reaches the reality. T h u s "shadow " describes well the various
elem ents o f th e cerem onial law, including the annual sabbaths, for they pointed
forw ard to C h rists life, m inistry, an d kingdom as the reality. Paul can hardly be
re ferrin g to th e seventh-day Sabbath o f the Decalogue, fo r the seventh-day
Sabbath is not a shadow o f anything, it is the reality. F u rth er, although to som e
extent th e Sabbath points forw ard to the prom ised rest in C hrist (see H ebrew s 4),
it does not obtain its prim ary significance from things to com e" but from an event
in the pastthe creation o f the world in six days (Gen. 2:2, 3: Ex. 2 0 :8 -1 1).'
Adventists acknow ledge that o f the approxim ately sixty times the word
sabbath is used in th e New T estam en t, fifty-nine are references to the weekly
Sabbath. But they hold that in Colossians 2 it m eans cerem onial sabbath." T hey
d efen d this view not on the basis o f linguistics but on the basis o f context. T hey
arg u e that the n u m b e r o f times a w ord is used in a certain way does not d eterm in e
its m eaning in all situations. C ontext is decisive.
T h e word frog, for exam ple, has a wide variety o f m eanings. It may m ean a
small, leaping, tailless am phibian; it may m ean a swollen, sore th ro at; it may m ean
the trian g u lar h o rn y pad in the m iddle o f the sole o f a h orses h<K)f; it may m ean an
o rn am en tal loop used as a fastening for a button on a coat o r dress; it may m ean a
device on o n e rail o f a train track that can be switched to permit w heels to cross an
intersecting rail. Clearly, to arg u e that because fifty-nine times the word m eans a
four-legged c reatu re it m ust m ean the sam e in the statem ent I have a frog in my
th ro a t is nonsense. M eaning m ust always be decided by context.
T h is principle is so obvious that it hardly needs elaboration; yet because some
seek to show from Colossians 2 that the seventh-day Sabbath was abolished at the
cross, we wish to ad d two fu rth e r illustrations. T h e H ebrew word torah, for
exam ple, has m any m eanings, all o f which m ust be d eterm in ed by context.
 T H E SA B BA TH IN S C R IPTU R E AND HISTORY

Som etim es torah re fers to the P entateuch, som etim es to the T e n C om m andm ents,
som etim es to th e e n tire expressed will o f G od, som etim es to the instruction given
by a king, a teacher, a m other, a father, wise people, a wise wife, o r a poet.
Likewise, th e w ord day may m ean a tw enty-four-hour period; o r it may m ean
only th e light p art o f the tw enty-four-hour period; o r it may m ean an ex tended
but indefinite p erio d o f tim e (e.g., T h e day in which we live is o n e o f international
tensions o r T h e antitypical day o f ato n em en t began in 1844). Clearly, even if
the w ord day is used fifty-nine times to m ean a tw enty-four-hour period, this does
not req u ire th at it m ean tw enty-four hours the sixtieth tim e it is used.
W hile m any com m entators hold otherw ise, several o f the most respected
Bible co m m en tators have declared th at Paul was re ferrin g to cerem onial sabbaths,
not the seventh-day Sabbath, in Colossians 2:16. A dam C larke, a M ethodist, said:
T h e re is no intim ation h e re that the Sabbath was d o n e away, o r that its m oral use
was su p ersed ed , by the introduction o f C hristianity___Remember the Sabbath day, to
keep it holy, is a com m and o f perpetual obligation, a n d can never be su p ersed ed but by
the final term in ation o f tim e ."5
Jam ieson, Fausset, a n d Brow n noted that the annual sabbaths "o f the day o f
ato n em en t an d feast o f tabernacles have com e to an en d with the Jewish services to
which they belonged (Leviticus 23:32, 37-39)," but the weekly sabbath rests on a
m ore p erm a n en t foun d atio n , having been instituted in Paradise to com m em orate
the com pletion o f creation in six days ."4
A lbert B arnes, a Presbyterian, observed: " T h e re is no evidence from this
passage th at he [Paul] would teach that th ere was no obligation to observe any holy
time, fo r th ere is not the slightest reason to believe that he m eant to teach that one
o f th e ten com m andm ents h ad ceased to be binding on m an k in d __ He h ad his eye
on th e g reat n u m b e r o f days which w ere observed by the H ebrew s as festivals, as a
p art o f th eir cerem onial an d typical law, an d not to the moral law, o r the ten
com m andm ents. N o p art o f the m oral law no one o f the ten com m andm ents
could be spoken o f as 'a shadow o f good things to com e. These com m andm ents
are, from th e n a tu re o f m oral law, o f p erp etu al and universal application. *
4. I f the apostle Paul had in ten d ed to ann o u n ce to the Colossian believers
that th e seventh-day Sabbath was no longer o f consequence, surely this news
would have created quite a stir, not m erely in Colossae but in o th e r cities.
Adventists recognize that the arg u m en t from silence is not a strong a rg u m en t, but
they feel certain th at as copies o f Pauls letter w ere m ade, an d these copies were
taken to o th e r churches and read, the shock o f the believers in learning that
C hrists d eath on th e cross abolished the Sabbath would have been so great that ihe
en su in g discussions would have been reco rd ed , as w ere those re g ard in g
circum cision, idol w'orship, fornication, and o th e r m atters (see Acts 15).
B ut Paul's letter sent no shock waves th ro u g h the com m unity o f believers.
T h e people ap p a ren tly u n d ersto o d that h e was speaking o f the rites and
cerem onies connected with the Jew ish faith. T h ey und ersto o d him to m ean that
the cross abolished th e ritual sacrifices, festivals, regulations involving m eats and
drinks, cerem onial sabbaths, special days governed by the new m oon, an d even
the cerem onies th at had been p erfo rm ed on the seventh-day Sabbath.
In using th e fo u r arg u m e n ts reviewed above to su p p o rt their position that
Paul is speaking prim arily o f cerem onial sabbaths in Colossians 2. A dventists are
aw are th at the w ord sabbath in verse 16, th o u g h apparentlv plural in form ,

340
 T H E SAB BA TH DAYS" O F COLOSSIANS 2:16, 17

probably should be translated as a singular. But they feel that this fact does not
u n d erm in e th eir view an d can be harm onized with it. C areful students have noted
that in m ost passages w here the G reek w ord for sabbath is used with a singular
m eaning, th e form is sabbaton, a n e u te r n o u n in the singular, an d that in som e
places th e n e u te r nom inative in the pluralsabbata is used to express a singular
m eaning. In Colossians 2:16 the genitive o f this form is used.
In th e S eptuagint the plural form with a singular m eaning is found in
n u m ero u s places. For exam ple, in E xodus 16:23, 2a; 20:8; D euteronom y 5:12;
Jerem ia h 17:21, 22; and Ezekiel 46:1. T h e New T estam ent contains sim ilar
instances, for exam ple in M atthew 12:1; 28:1; and Luke 4:16.
A dventists feel that A. T . R obertson, the well-respected New T estam en t
scholar, has o ffered the best explanation as to why sabbata and sabbaton,
th o u g h p lural in form , often stand for the singular. T h e A ram aic w ord for
Sabbath is shabbetha, transliterated into G reek as sabbata. But sabbata, although
rep resen tin g th e singular shabbetha, h appens to be spelled as a plural in G reek
and has been m isunderstood to re p resen t the plural o f the G reek sabbaton,
Sabbath." T h e re fo re in any occurrence o f sabbata (or its o th e r case form s
such as sabbaton) one m ust inquire if it represents the A ram aic shabbetha, in
which case it is singular, o r w hether it is genuinely the plural o f sabbaton, in which
case it is a p lu ral .'1
T h e m ost defensible position seems to be to re g ard th e genitive plural
sabbaton in Colossians 2 : 16 as a singular. Not only from a linguistic point o f view is
this logical, but from the context. A pparently the aposde Paul used sabbath
generically in th e singular, to co rresp o n d with the fo u r o th e r w ords in the
series m eat, d rin k , holy day, an d new m oon, each o f which is singular. Inasm uch
as som e ritual observances com m anded by the laws o f Moses w ere held on the
weekly Sabbath fo r exam ple, the daily b u rn t o fferin g was doubled on that
day p erh ap s Paul used sabbath generically, inten ding to include these cerem o
nies along with those that specifically involved an n u al sabbaths, as p a rt o f the
"shadow" that was d o n e away in C hrist. T h ese ritual cerem onies, o f course, did
not m ake th e seventh day a Sabbath; it was a Sabbath already, established at
C reation an d co m m anded by the m oral law% an d abolition o f the cerem onial
observances th at fell on that day would abolish n eith er the Sabbath n o r G o d s
com m and to keep it holy.
A m ong th e references in Seventh-day A dventist literatu re that discuss
Colossians 2:16 th e following are typical:
Bible Readings fo r the Home (W ashington, D.C., 1958).
William H enry B ranson, Drama of the Ages (Nashville, T e n n ., 1950).
Earle H ilgert. Sabbath Days in Colossians 2:16," Ministry, February, 1952,
pp. 42, 43.
W. E. Howell, Sabbath in Colossians 2:16," Ministry, S eptem ber, 1934, p.
10; idem, "A n en t Colossians 2:16, Ministry, April, 1936, p. 18.
A rth u r E. Lickev, God Speaks to Modem Man (W ashington, D.C., 1952).
Francis David Nichol, Answers to Objections (W ashington, D.C., 1932); idem,
Problems in Bible Translation (W ashington, D.C., 1954); idem, The Sei'enth-day
Adventist Bible Commentary (W ashington, D.C., 1957), 7:205, 206.
Ellen G. W hite, Patriarchs and Prophets (M ountain View, Calif., 1913); idem.
Selected Messages (W ashington, D.C., 1958), book 1.

341
 APPENDIX E

A Note on Hebrews 4:4-9

Roy E. Graham

O STUD Y on th e topic o f the Sabbath in Biblical leaching w ould be com plete

w ithout referen ce to H ebrew s 4:4-9, especially verse 9 with its use o f the term
sabbatismos. O n e Seventh-day A dventist publication included the statem ent th at
this text, i.e., H ebrew s 4:9, is p erh ap s the strongest arg u m en t in the New
T estam en t fo r keeping the seventh-day Sabbath." 1
M ore generally it is u n d ersto o d by Seventh-day Adventists to re fe r
to th e sy m b o lic a s p e c t c o n ta in e d in th e S a b b a th c o n c e p t w h e re b y th e
m e m o ria l o f C r e a tio n b e c o m e s, t h r o u g h e x te n s io n , th e m e m o ria l a n d
symbol o f m an s re d e m p tio n .2 T his position is carefully worked out in
th e Seventh-day A d ven tist Bible Commentary in su c h s e n te n c e s as: T h e
Sabbath th u s bears witness both to the creative and to the sanctifying
pow er o f G od, a n d its observance is an acknow ledgem ent o f faith in His pow er to
create an d to re-create, o r sanctify, individual lives ." 5Again it is stated: T h e 'rest'
that rem ains (verse 9) is obviously the rest into which the believing C hristian o f
verse 10 en ters." * It is significant that Ellen C>. W hite, whose w riting is considered
to be auth o ritativ e in Seventh-day A dventism , refers to the rest o f H ebrew s 4:9
as being th e rest o f grace .5 M ore recently, Sam uele Bacchiocchi, while
em phasizing th e red em p tiv e m eaning o f the S abbath, has a rg u ed cogently for
seeing th e relationship o f the literal observance o f the seventh-day Sabbath within
the context o f its " tru e m eaning in the light o f the com ing o f Christ."*
T h e discussion, o f which H ebrew s 4:9-11 is the conclusion, begins ea rlier in
the Epistle. A fter extolling the superiority o f Jesu s C hrist, the apostle and high
priest o f o u r confession ,"7 the w riter explores the wilderness w anderings o f the
national fo reb ears o f those whom he was addressing. He concludes that the reason
for th e failure o f those who left Egypt in the Exodus experience to e n te r into
C anaan, which had been prom ised to them , was th eir unbelief. In c h a p te r 4 the
apostolic w riter seeks to relate this experience to the C hristians o f his time. T hey
also have received a prom ise o f rest; they, too, may fail to enjoy its fulfillm ent
th ro u g h a lack o f faith. William G. Jo h n sso n has raised the questions evoked by
this passage. H e states them as follows: ( 1) W hat is the rest' that rem ains fo r G od's
people? (2) W hen is it to be e n te re d into now o r in the future? a n d (3) How does

343
 T H E SAB BA TH IN S C R IP T U R E AND H ISTO R Y

th e Sabbath figure in the arg u m en t? '

T h e n o u n used for "rest" in this passage is kalafmnsis (chaps. 3 :1 1, 18: 4:1, 3
[twice], 5, 10, 11); the related verb kalafxiuo is also used th ree times (chap. 4:4, 8 ,
10). O nly in H ebrew s 4:9 is the w ord sabbatismos" used for re s t." T h e re ap p e ar
to be fo u r ways in which the term "rest" is used here. In ch ap ters 3 : 11. 18, an d 4:3,
5, it is evidently an expression to describe what would have been the experience o f
those who left Egypt an d who were planning to e n te r the literal land o f
C anaan"C anaan rest, it m ight be called. This literal occupation o f C anaan
app ears, how ever, as only a p art o f what G od envisaged for His people. In C anaan
they w ere to be a nation o f priests, a m eans o f proclaim ing salvation to the world
(cf. Ex. 19:4-6). T h is is a d e e p e r m eaning o f the term "rest," w ith which the w riter
o f H ebrew s chooses to invest it. T h u s he is able to speak o f th e tim e ol Jo sh u a and
David periods when the conquest o f the land was taking place o r had been
realizedas still not m eeting the requirem ents o f G od's rest (see Heb. 4:6-8).
Rest" is also ap plied to the Seventh-day Sabbath, although in an alm ost casual way
in ch a p te r 4:5. H ere the seventh-day Sabbath ap p ears as an illustration o f what
G od's rest" is. T h e n in verses 1,3, 10, and 11, the term "rest" is used to describe
the C hristian's rest from the works o f sin a n d from any attem pt to ea rn salvation.
T he em phasis, th erefo re, seems to be on that "rest" that com es when the life is
subm itted to G od. T h e whole discussion is rem iniscent o f th e w ords o f Jesu s as
reco rd ed in M atthew 11:28, R.S.V.: ' C om e to m e ,. . . and I will give you rest."
It may be noted, fu rth e r, that in this ch a p te r 4 o f H ebrew s the words
katapausts an d sabbatismos are used synonym ously. T his is seen especially in the
context o f verses 9 and 10. B oth are taken to re fer to that experience that
characterizes th e C hristian's assurance, o f which the seventh-day Sabbath is both
symbol and p a rt.' It is considered, as the rabbis described it, a type o f the world to
com e (cf. 2 Macc. 15:1).
It would seem a p p ro p ria te to follow the arg u m en t o f the w riter o f th e Epistle
in this m an n er: For if Jo sh u a h ad given them rest (evidently th e en tra n ce to
C anaan did not accom plish this), then w ould h e (i.e., the Holy Spirit, cf. chap. 3:7)
not afterw ard (th ro u g h David o r in the days o f David) have spoken o f a n o th er
day." T h e glorious state o f Israel was yet fu tu re , and, while o th e r rests" that had
existed p rio r to the times o f David m ight be symbolic o f what was to com e, it was
the ultim ate fulfillm ent o f G od's plan fo r His people that was being em phasized.
Since this was not achieved th ro u g h th eir unbelief, the "rest was still future. Yet
th ro u g h th e ex perience o f personal salvation the individual m ight enjoy that
"rest" h ere an d now th ro u g h grace while p re p arin g for the full experience
ultim ately in th e kingdom o f glory.

NO TES
1Sentor Sabbath School Ltumm Q uarter!t. Mav 15. I94H
* S e e . e g . M L A n d re a se n . th e Sabbath, p p 8 6 -8 9 ; W , O J o h n s s o n , In Abudute (o n fid rr u e (N a sh v ille. T e n n ..
1979); Hakae K u b o, (io d Meets M a n (N a sh v ille. T c n n ., 1978). p p. 6 5 -6 9 . (C f. Karl B arth. C .hunh Ifogm atu ( E d in b u r g h ,
19561. I l l 4. p p 4 7 -7 2 . 4 7 0 -5 6 4 . esp ecially p p 5 5 0 -5 6 4 >
S D A B l . 7 :4 2 0
4 I b ti , p. 4 2 3 T h is m as lie seen as a m idw av p oin t b etw een th o se a d v o ca tes o l th e tra d itio n a l view as m en tio n ed
ab ove an d th o se w h o w ou ld w ish to use H ebrew 4 :9 to p ro v e that th e seven th -d av S a b lu th is till to be o b se rv ed in th e
C hristian d isp en sa tio n . C f. D avid L ou is Lin. A n Investigation In to th e M ea n in g o l th e S abhatism os o f H eb . 4:9"
(M A th esis. A n d rew s I 'n iv e r s io , M ay. 1946). Ian c o n c e d e s that it mav m ean S a b b a th k eep in g now a n d h a v e a fu tu r e
ap p lication but d e n ie s that th e a u th or o f H eb rew s w ou ld h ave th e tw o sep a ra te id ea s in m in d
* S D A B C . 7 :9 2 8 . C f. E llen C . W h ite. T hought From the M o u n t of Hlewtng (M o u n ta in V iew . C a lif.. 1 956). p. I.
6 S a m u e le B a c ih io c c h i. From Sabbath to Sunday (R o m e. 1977). p p. 6 3 -6 9 .

344
 A N O T E ON HEBREW S 4:4-9

7 Hcb. 3:1. R.S.V.

* lo h n s so n , op. cti.. p . ISO.
9 ln th e S ep tu a g in t. katapauo 1 u sed * it h re fe ren ce to th r Sabbath in G en esis 2 :2 , 3; E x o d u s 3 4 :2 1 ; 3 1 :1 7 .
10 C f. a m ore recen t w r ite r s ap p roach : tio d 's sev en th -d a y has n o clo sin g refrain as d o o th er davs. E v en in g ca m e
a n d m o rn in g ca m e.' H is rest is ev e rla stin g a n d it is h o ly . a n d in th e w orld o f m an th e Sabbath is th e *a> p r o \id e d to
'en ter in to his r e s t.'* G e o r g e T . M o n ta g u e. T he H ot} S p tn t Growth o f a Biblical Tradition (N ew Y ork. 197 6 ). p. 64.

345
 APPENDIX F

The Lords D ay in the Second

Century

Kenneth A. Strand

B Y the th ird C hristian cen tu ry "L o rd s day had becom e a com m on designation
am ong C hristians for the weekly Sunday, on which a special religious service
was held.' A lthough certain early-second-century references (to be discussed
below) have o ften been set fo rth as Sunday L o rd s day statem ents, the first clear
patristic evidence in this m atter ap p ears tow ard the end o f the second century. We
will first notice this evidence a n d then move back th ro u g h the second century until
we com e to th re e so-called L ord's day statem ents that are th o u g h t to have been
p en n ed befo re a . d . 120 (two definitely before 120 an d the th ird probably so).
C lem ent o f A lex a n d ria an d Iren aeu s
T h e first C h u rch F ather whose extant w ritings use the term L o rd s day to
apply to th e weekly C hristian S unday was C lem ent o f A lexandria n ea r the close o f
the second century, probably about a . d . 190. C lem ent, who allegorized
extensively in his theological discussions, th ought that the G reek p h ilosopher
Plato som e five a n d o n e-h alf centuries earlier had m ade a prophetic referen ce to
Sunday: T h e L o rd s day Plato prophetically speaks o f in the ten th book o f the
Republic, in these w ords: A nd when seven days have passed to each o f them in the
m eadow, on th e eighth they are to set ou t and arrive in four days. *
Obviously, a fu tu re C hristian S unday (or even a fu tu re C hristianity) was
totally foreign to Platos m ind, but the point o f interest h ere is that C lem ent
designates the C hristian weekly S unday as the "L ord's day."
A slightly earlier L o rd s day" reference (about a . d . 180 o r 185) was m ade by
Bishop Iren aeu s o f Gaul, but Iren aeu s ap p ears to have been speaking o f Easter
Sunday ra th e r than a weekly Sunday: "T his [custom], o f not bending th e knee
upon Sunday, is a symbol o f the resurrection, th ro u g h which we have been set
free, by the grace o f C hrist, from sins, and from death, which has been p u t to
death u n d e r H im . Now this custom took its rise from apostolic tim es, as the blessed
Irenaeus, th e m arty r an d bishop o f Lyons, declares in his treatise On Easter, in

346
 T H E LORDS DAY" IN T H E SECOND C EN TU R Y

which he m akes m ention o f Pentecost also; upon which [feast] we d o not ben d the
knee, because it is o f equal significance with the L ord's day, for th e reason already
alleged con cern in g it."
As th e ed ito rs o f the Ante-Sicene Fathers have observed, this referen ce m ust be
to E aster .4 It seem s clear that two annual events are intended; for Pentecost, an
annual event, is placed in com parison with L ord's day."
Some Apocryphal Sources
C ertain apocryphal sources that w ere p erhaps w ritten about the m iddle o f the
second cen tu ry also use th e designation L o rd s day," but not in clear referen ce to
a weekly Sunday. T h e Gospel o f Peter, fo r exam ple, twice applies th e term to the very
day on which C hrist's resu rrectio n took place .'1 A nd the Epistle o f the Apostles m akes
a curious referen ce to th e " L o rd s d ay as the O g d o a d .
In th e Arts o f John th e re is a referen ce to " L o rd s day" th at seems to have
Saturday in view.: But on the o th e r h an d , the very fanciful Acts o f Peter would
ap p e a r to m ean th e weekly C hristian S unday in its use o f the te rm . T h e d atin g o f
the Acts of Peter, as well as o f the section o f the Acts of John that m entions "L ord's
day," is especially difficult, however, an d it is possible that both o f these references
may be later th an from the second century.*
Barnabas o f A lexandria and Justin Martyr in Rome
W h eth er B arnabas o f A lexandria (c. a . d . 130) an d Ju stin M artyr in Rom e (c.
a 150), whose m ain S unday references have been called to attention above in
.d .
ch a p te r 7 an d ap p en d ix B, w ere acquainted with the term "L o rd s day" fo r the
weekly S unday has been raised in recent discussions."' T h e fact is that n eith er o f
these C h u rch F athers in th eir extant w ritings uses the term , but they use instead
the designations e ighth day" an d "Sunday" for th e first day o f the week."
Obviously, this silence precludes calling upon these two C h u rch F athers for
evidence th at S unday was term ed "L o rd s day" in th eir tim e a n d locale. O n the
o th er h an d , th e sam e silence should not be utilized as p ro o f that B arnabas and
Ju stin were totally u nfam iliar with the term L o rd s day" as a nam e for S unday,
inasm uch as th eir specific S unday statem ents are in contexts th at would preclude
th eir use o f this term even if they w ere acquainted with it. B arnabas m ade his
eighth day" statem ent in the context o f a highly allegorical a n d eschatological
discussion, an d Ju stin used the term "Sunday" in his apology addressed to the
Rom an e m p e ro r an d Senate ("L ord's d ay would surely have been m isunderstood
in this setting) an d the term eighth day when disputing with a Jew ish rabbi
(again, th e reason for his choice o f term inology is clear ).11
In sh o rt, we may say, th ere fo re , that any d eb ate re g ard in g w hether o r not
B arnabas a n d Ju stin knew o f S unday as the L o rd s day is m eaningless. T h e re
simply is no evidence o n e way o r the other.
We now tu rn to th re e earlier soufces that have often been set fo rth as
evidence o f a S unday Lord's day": The Didache, Ignatius' letter to the
M agnesians, a n d Pliny's letter to T rajan .
Didache, Chapter 14
T h e Didache, a sort o f baptism al, organizational, o r instructional m anual, has
been d ated anyw here from the late first century to the late second century, but

347
 T H E SA B B A TH IN SC R IP T U R E AND HISTO R Y

scholarly opinion now favors a fairly early date, at least for a good deal o f the
m aterial com piled in the Didache. T h e docum ent seems to have o riginated in

T h e statem ent in c h a p te r 14 o f interest h ere reads as follows: Kata kuriaken de

kuriou sunaxthentes hlasate arton kai euxanstesateO n the L ords o f the L ord [or.
A ccording to th e L o rd s o f the Lord"] assem ble, break b read, a n d hold
E ucharist. H T h e w ord "day (G reek hemeran, in th e accusative case) does not
actually a p p e a r in the text, but most translators have ad ded it in th eir English
translation, m aking the text read as follows: O n the L ords day. . . Som e
stu d en ts o f th e text would, however, suggest th e rendition A ccording to the
L o rd s co m m an dm ent . . also a possible translation o f the original G re ek .'5
Sam uele Bacchiocchi, following a rendition o f Jo h n Baptiste T h ib au t an d
su p p o rtin g it with a ra th e r im pressive line o f evidence, gives a sim ilar translation:
A ccording to the sovereign d octrine o f the L o rd . 16
Som e years ago a noted British scholar, C. \V. D ugm ore, set forth arg u m en ts
that th e Didache term inology, which he refers to as " L o rd s day, really m eant an
annual Easter Sunday. In fact, D ugm ore also noted th e paucity o f referen ce to a
weekly C hristian S unday in New T estam e n t and subapostolic literatu re and felt it
stran g e that if this day w ere indeed the most im p o rtan t day o f the week for
C hristians th ere w ould not have been m ore m ention o f it until Ju stin M artyr at the

Law rence T . G eraty has followed up on this possible m eaning for the Didache
statem ent, com m enting as follows: U ndoub tedly o n e o f the earliest [hints that
the Pascha was celebrated as an annual L o rd s day festival] is the phrase L ord's
Day' in the Didache, an ancient baptism al o r organizational m anual. A lthough this
ren d itio n from xugiaxfyv 6 e x d q i o v o w a /S ^ v re s has been disputed, it is
nevertheless the p re fe rre d translation. If so. the context would indicate that this
could be an an n u al day fo r baptism an d the celebration o f the E ucharist ." 18
G eraty has fu rth e r called attention to the fact th at "a recognition o f this
possibility existed in the n in eteen th century w hen J. Rendel H arris tried to show
from the te n o r o f the Didache an d its context, that it m ust have had referen ce to
som e great an n u al festival, perh ap s sim ilar to the day o f ato n em e n t. G eraty goes
o n to point o u t with referen ce to D ugm ore's work that this scholar, "after an
analysis o f sim ilar passages in the Didache and Apostolic Constitutions, has a rg u e d
convincingly that 'th e use o f xi>Qiaxr| as a technical term for Easier Day thus seems
to be reasonably attested. Its use as a norm al description o f the first dav o f every
week would only have been possible afte r Sunday had becom e a re g u iar day o f
w orship am ong C hristians and had to be tho u g h t o f as a weekly com m em oration

Ignatius to the M agnesians, Chapter 9

A bout a . d . 115 Ignatius. Bishop o f Antioch, traveled th ro u g h the R om an
province o f Asia on his way to m artyrdom in Rome. O n this jo u rn e y he p en n ed
letters to various o f the Asian churches, giving them counsel in view o f Ju d aizin g
an d Gnostic tendencies th at a p p e are d to be creeping in .20
Ignatius' so-called L o rd s day statem ent occurs in ch a p te r 9 o f his letter to
the M agnesians, a n d reads as follows from a com m only accepted edition o f the
G reek text: meketisabbatiiontes alia kata kunaken zontes No longer sabbatizing, but
 T H E "LO R D S DAY" IN T H E SECOND CENTUR Y

living according to th e L o rd s . 21 It should be noted that the G reek w ord for day"
(hemeran, in th e accusative case) is not in the text.
T h e m an uscript evidence favors, however, a longer version o f the G reeka
version th at contains the w ord zden, life. T his w ord has been o m itted by m o d ern
editors in th e com m only accepted G reek w ording given above. T h e actual text as
fo u n d in th e earliest ex tan t m anuscript reads as follows: meketi sabbatizontes alia
kata kuriaken zoen zdntes.rt T h e norm al re n d erin g o f this expression (unless a
cognate accusative was in te n d e d 2') w ould be: no longer sabbatizing, but living
according to th e L o rd s life.
Probably th e strongest evidence that not days bu t ways of life a re in view in this
passage com es from a consideration o f the en tire context. T h e persons to w hom
Ignatius re fers as "no longer sabbatizing, but living according to the Lord's" are
the Old Testament prophets. In c h a p te r 8:1, 2 he h ad declared th at if we are still
living according to Judaism we adm it th at we have not received grace; for the m ost
divine p ro p h e ts lived in accord with Jesus C hrist." In ch a p te r 9 : 1. 2 he goes on to
declare, "If, th erefo re, those who lived in ancient ways cam e to new ho p e, no
longer sabbatizing, but living according to the L o rd s [life], in which also o u r life
arose th ro u g h him an d his d e a th ,. . . how shall we be able to live w ithout him o f
whom even th e p ro p h e ts w ere disciples in the Spirit looking forw ard to him as
th eir teacher?
It is also w orth noting th at the fo u rth -cen tu ry in terp o later o f Ignatius did not
see in this passage a conflict betw een two d iffe ren t days, for he ap p ro v ed the
observance o f both days. In his version o f this passage in M agnesians 9 (quoted at
length in ap p en d ix B) he prescribes that the Sabbath should be kept in a spiritual
m an n er," afte r which the L ord's day should also be observed."
A distinguished patristic scholar, R obert A. K raft, has provided the following
translation o f th e original Ignatius o f the early second century: "If, then, those
who walked in the ancient custom s [i.e., the aforem entioned p rophets] cam e to
have a new' hope, no lo n g er sabbatizing but living in accord with the L ord's
life in which life th ere sp ra n g u p also o u r life th ro u g h him an d th ro u g h his
d e a th . Ji
Plinys Letter to Trajan
A bout a . d . 112 Pliny the Y ounger, g o vernor o f the province o f B ithynia in
n o rth e rn Asia M inor, w rote a letter to Rom an E m p ero r T ra ja n re g ard in g the
situation he m et in d ealing with C hristians in his province. H e indicates th at he
in terro g ated som e fo rm e r C hristians who, u n d e r this questioning, indicated "the
w'hole o f th eir guilt o r th eir e rro r" w hen they w ere C hristians to have been that
they w ere in th e habit o f m eeting on a certain fixed day [stato die] before it was
light, w hen they sang in altern ate verses a hym n to C hrist, as to a god, an d b o u n d
them selves by a solem n oath, not to any wicked deeds, but never to com m it any
frau d , th eft o r adultery, never to falsify their w ord," et cetera.2*
T h e statem ent, it is clear, is not really a "Lord's day reference, fo r it does not use
this term inology (indeed, the term L o rd s day w ould have h ad quite a n o th e r
m eaning fo r a Rom an g o vernor th an w hat we know it later cam e to have for
C hristians). T h e reason fo r noting Plinys statem ent here is that various m o d ern
w riters have dealt with it as if it were a Sunday L o rd s day" p ro o f text.
In discussing this passage, G eraty points out that until the Jew ish-R om an war

349
 I H E SAB BA TH IN SC R IP T U R E AND HISTORY

o f a . d . 132-135 the observance o f a weekly day o f w orship w ould not, in Rom an

eyes, necessarily have involved guilt, but an annual vigil service in h o n o r o f the
L ord's re su rrec tio n m ight have d o n e so. T h e Rom ans w ere used to, and
p erm itted , th e weekly religious rites o f the Jews on th eir Sabbath, an d possibly o f
pagan sun w orshippers on th eir Sunday. How ever, now they had on th eir h ands a
new sect, th e C hristians, m eeting on a statu die ante lucem an d attrib u tin g divine
honors to som e p erson o th e r than the Rom an em p ero r; and this could certainly be
looked u p o n as a d a n g e r to the Rom an peace. T h u s the reaction o f the Rom ans,
the lim e o f m eeting, an d to a lesser d eg ree the co n ten t o f the service, would seem
to indicate an Easter vigil celebrationif indeed earlier exam ples o f this
celebration w ere anything like what they later cam e to be.
S um m ary o f the S econd-C entury Evidence
In sum total, th e evidence from the second century' for application o f the term
L o rd s day to a weekly C hristian S unday is nonexistent in patristic literatu re
until n ear th e e n d o f th at century, the first such reference by a C h u rch F ather
com ing from C lem ent o f A lexandria. Possibly "L o rd s day" was used earlier in
som e q u arte rs to designate an annual E aster Sunday. T his could not have been
tru e in th e Rom an province o f Asia, how ever, for that province rem ained
Q uarto d ecim an until the e n d o f the second ce n tu ry /" O n e curious reference in an
apocryphal work from th ere, the Acts of John, seem s to apply the term inology to
Saturday.
B arnabas o f A lexandria an d Ju stin M artyr o f Rome in th eir respective
writings o f about a . d . 130 an d a .d . 150 should not be adduced as evidence o f
w heth er o r not in th eir day the weekly Sunday had com e to be known as the
"L o rd s day." In th eir ex tan t works, n eith er o f these fathers used the term , nor
could they be expected to have used it.
Finally, n o n e o f the th re e earliest so-called L o rd s day" references from the
second cen tu ry in the Didache, Ignatius, and Pliny actually uses the term . In
fact, th e weight o f evidence in each case favors a m eaning o th e r than a weekly
C hristian Sunday.

NO TES
1 T h e earliest e v id e n c e fo r th e u sa g e c o m e t fro m la te -sec o n d -ce n tu ry A lex a n d ria , as will he n o ted b e lo w ; but
b e g in n in g a s early a s T e r tu llia n o f C a rth a g e, w h o se w ritings sp a n n e d th e p erio d f rom a b o u t a . d . 197 to 2 2 2 . v ariou s
p a tn siic so u r ces fro m e lse w h e r e th an A lex a n d ria aJso u se tn e term L o rd s d a y as a d esig n a tio n for th e w eekly
C hristian S un d ay E specially n otew o rth y are th e fo u rth - an d fifth -cen tu ry so u rces called to a tten tio n in a p p e n d ix B.
a b o ve, as m e n tio n in g b oth th e Sabbath an d Lord's d a y * (Apostolic Constitutions. J o h n C assian a n d o th er so u rces)
2 C lem en t o f A lex a n d ria Miscellanies v. 14 (A S F 2 :469).
5F ragm en ts fro m th e Lost W ritin gs o f Ir e n a e u s. 7 (A S F 1:569, 570).
4 A S F 1:569. n o te 9.
' Gospel of Peter, 9 . 12 (A S F 8:8).
6Epistle o f the Apoytlei (E n glish trans. in M. R. J a m es. The Apocryphal S e w Testament, cor. e d . (O x fo r d . 1 953), p.
4 9 1 ). Precisely w hat "O p doad m ea n s in th is co n tex t is not clear.
1 Acts o f John (A S F 8 :5 6 0 , 5 6 1 ). T h e p assage reads as follow s: A n d th e so ld iers, h avin g tak en th e public
c o n v ey a n ce s, travelled fast, h avin g seated h im (Jon n l in th e m idst o f th em . A n d w h en they ca m e to th e first c h a n g e , it
b ein g th e h o u r o f b reak fast, they en trea te d him to tie o f gcxxJ c o u r a g e , a n d to tak e b rea d , a n d ea t w ith th em . A nd
J o h n said: I rejoice in so u l in d e e d , but in th e m ea n tim e I n o not w ish to take an v fo o d . . A n d o n th e sev en th d a y , it
b e in g th e L o rd s d ay, h e said to th em : N o w it is tim e for m e also to p artak e of food ." T h e s ev en th d a s " h ere m ay refer
specifically to th e sev en th -d a y Sabb ath , o r it may re fe r to th e sev en th d ay o f t h e j o u m e s I f th e latter, th e d as w ould
ev id e n tly still b e S atu rd ay. T h is is so b eca u se fastin g o n Saturday was not allo w ed in th e re g io n to w hich th e d o cu m en t
p ertains th e R om an p ro v in ce of A sia, in th e Eastern C h ristian w o rld , w hich d id not a d o p t th e S abbath fast. O n the
p ro b lem o f d ate, see n o te 9.
8 T h e Acts o f Peter c o n ta in s a stra n g e m ix tu re of p ossib le fact a n d o b v io u s fiction (in th e latter ca teg o r y , for
e x a m p le , a talk in g d o g carries m essages b etw een S im o n Peter an d S im o n M agus!). T h e L ord's d a y r e fe r e n c e s o f

350
 T H E LORD'S DAY" IN T H E SECO ND C EN TU R Y

prim ary- in terest a re fro m p aragrap h s 2 9 , 3 0 (Jam es, op. cit., pp. 3 2 9 . 330 ).
9 In a d d itio n to in trod u ctory m aterials in A N F an d J a m es (op. cit.) cited in th e fo r e g o in g n o tes, see Edgar
H e n n e c k e s N e w Testam ent Apocrypha (P h ila d e lp h ia . 1963) (i.e ., Eng. ira n s. o f W ilhelm S c h n e e m e lc h e r s ed itio n o f
H e n n c c k e s N eu' Testam ent Apocrypha); csp . 2 :1 9 5 . 196 fo r d iscu ssion r e g a rd in g th e in tro d u cto ry se v e n te e n ch a p ters
o f th e Acts o f John, w h e re th e m aterial o n T-ord's d a y occu rs (see n o te 7). T h e Lord's d a y r e fe r e n c e itse lf re ceiv e s n o
m e n tio n , h ow ever. A lso g iv in g b rie f a tten tio n to so m e a p o cry p h a w e h a v e m e n tio n e d a b o v e is Jacques H e r v ie u x . The
N ew Testam ent Abocrypha (N e w Y ork. I960).
10 S ec, e.g .. W alter E. Straw , O n p n o f Sunday O bsenunce in the Christian Church (W a sh in g to n . D .C ., 1 939), p. 35.
A lso. R obert L. O d o m . Sabbath a n d Sunday in E arly Christianity (W a sh in g to n . D .C ., 1 977), p. 130, m en tio n s )u stin as
n ot on ce" sp e a k in g o f th e first d a y o f th e w eek eith e r as th e Sabbatn or as th e L ord s d a y .
11 E igh th day' in B arn ab as, ch ap . 15. a n d in Ju stin 's D ialogue with Trypho. ch a p . 4 1 (A N F 1:147. 2 1 5 ); Sunday ''
in Ju stin 's I Apology 6 7 (A N F 1:186).
,2 S ce n o te 1 1.
15 S ec. e .g ., J ea n -P a u l A u d e l, La didache: instructions des apdtres (Paris. 1958); and R obert M. G rant, The Apostolic
Fathers, vol. 1. A n Introduction (N ew Y ork. 1964), p. 75. H o w ev e r, cf. also R obert A. K raft. T he Apostolic Fathers, vol. 3.
Barnabas a n d the D idache (N e w Y ork. 1965), p . 76; T h e D id a ch e co n ta in s a g rea t d ea l o f m aterial w hich d eriv es from
very early (i.e .. firsl-ccn tu ry an d early sc c o n d < c n tu r y ) fo rm s o f (Jew ish-) C hristianity; but it w o u ld b e d iffic u lt to
a rg u e co n v in cin g ly that th e present fo r m of th e Didache is earlier m a n m id -seco n d centu ry."
14 LCL. Apostohc Fathers, 1:330 (G reek ), 331 (E n glish ), LCL; o th er E n glish ren d itio n s available in v ariou s ed itio n s
o f Apostolic Fathers, su ch as K raft, op. cit.. p. 173 (see n o te 13); C yril C. R ich a rd so n , trans. & c d .. Early Christian Fathers.
L C (P h ila d elp h ia . 1953). p. 178; E d gar I. G o o d s p e e d . T he Apostolic Fathers (N ew Y ork. 195 0 ). p. 17.
15 S ee, e .g .. Frank H . Y ost. The Early C hristian Sabbath (M ou n tain V iew , C a lif.. 194 7 ). p. 32: "A n u m b er o f w ord s,
a p p r o p r ia te b oth gram m atically an d in m ea n in g , co u ld be su p p lied . . . an d m ak e as g o o d o r b etter s e n se th an 'day*;
for in stan ce, th e w ord 'c o m m a n d m en t.'"
,6 S a m u e le B acch iocch i. From Sabbath to Sunday (R o m e. 1977), p. 114. n o te 73. H e a d d s to T h ib a u ls lingu istic
arg u m en t so m e six fu r th e r a rg u m en ts, m ostly relatin g to co n tex tu a l co n ce rn s.
17 C . W. D u g m o r e, "Lortl s D ay a n d Easter." in A eotestamentica et P atn stica (festsch rift for O scar C u llm a n n ),
s u p p le m e n ts to N o v u m Tcstam entum 6 (L eid e n , l9 6 2 ) : 2 7 2 - 2 8 1.
18 L aw ren ce T . G eratv. T h e Pascha a n d th e O r ig in o f S un d ay O b servan ce." ,4Lr5 5 3 (1 9 6 5 ):8 7 , 88.
19 Ibid., p. 8 8 , n o te 15. T h e r e fe r e n c e to H arris is The Teaching c f the Apostles (L o n d o n . 1 887). p a g es 105. 106. T h e
re fe r e n c e to D u g m o r e is to p ages 2 7 6 -2 7 9 in D u g m o re's w ork ci.e d in n o te 17.
20 S ee, e.g ., th e brief treatm en t in R ich ard son , op. a t., p a g es 7 4 -8 6 . 9 4 . a n d G o o d sp e e d . op. cit., p a g es 2 0 3 -2 0 5
(see n o te 14). A n ex c e lle n t g en er a l a cco u n t o f Ignatius' trip to R om e and o f his letters is g iv en in Philip C a rrin g to n ,
The First C hristian Century, vol. I o f The Early Christian Ctiurch, (Cambridge*. E n g., 1957), p a g es 4 4 5 -4 5 9 . E nglish
tran slation o f th e letters is fo u n d , e .g .. m A X F 1:4 9 -1 2 6 (in clu d in g a n u m b er o f sp u rio u s ep istle s .is w ell); Apostidu
Fathers. 1 :1 7 3 -2 7 7 . LCL; C toodsp eed . op. cit., p a g e s 2 0 7 -2 3 5 ; R ich ard so n , op. cit.. p a g es 8 7 -1 3 7 ; R obert M. G rant,
trails.. Ignatius o f Antioch, vol. 4 o f T he Apostohc Fathers, (N ew Y ork. 1966), p a g es 2 9 -1 3 7 .
21 T h e tran sliteration g iven h ere is fro m G reek tex t as g iven in Apostolic Fathers. 1:20 4 . LCL.
22S ee th e facsim ile re p r o d u ctio n in F rit/ G u y. T h e L ord s Day' in th e L etter o f Ig n a tiu s to th e M agnesians,"
A U S S 2 (1 9 6 4 ), p late fa cin g p. 8. T h e tex t clearly read s. ", . . x a it t x v p ia x f)v tyovTEg."
23 For d iscu ssion o f th e possibility o f a c o g n a te accusative, se e G u y . op. a t., p a g es 10. 11. 16. In th is ca se the
tran slation could be: N o lo n g e r sab b atizin g, but livin g a life a cc o rd in g to th e L ord s (day].'' T h e specific G reek w ord
for day" is still lack in g fro m th e tex t, o f co u rse.
24A N F 1:62, 63.
R obert A . Kraft, S o m e N o te s o n Sabbath O b serv a n ce in Early C hristianity." A U S S 3 (1 9 6 5 ):2 7 .
86 Pliny. U tte rs x . 9 6 . LCL.
27 G eratv, op. cit., p a g es 8 8 , 89.
28 For a b r ie f d iscu ssio n o f th is m atter, se e K en n eth A . S tran d , T h e Early Christian Sabbath (WTo r th in g to n , O h io ,
1979), p a g es 4 7 -5 0 , 5 2 , 5 3 . T h e Q u a rto d ec im a n C on troversy o f th e late s eco n d centu ry is trea ted in s o m e d eta il in
E u sebiu s Ecclesiastical H istory v. 2 3 -2 5 (N P N F fit 1 :2 41-244).

351
 A P P E N D IX G

Joseph Bates and Seventh-day

Adventist Sabbath Theology*

C. M ervyn M axw ell

S EV EN TH -D A Y A D V E N T IST S constitute by far th e most nu m ero u s g ro u p o f

C hristians observing Friday night an d S aturday as the Sabbath. G eneral
aspects o f the b ackground an d developm ent o f th eir Sabbath theology have been
surveyed in c h a p te r 13. T h e pio n eer contributions o f Jo sep h Bates to this
d ev elopm ent deserve closer analysis.
A lthough, as has been noted in ch a p te r 13, th e Sabbath theology o f
Seventh-day A dventists owes m uch to the views held by Seventh Day Baptists in
the early n in eteen th century. Seventh-day Adventists have constructed a unique
Sabbath theology' by taking w hat they learned from the Seventh Day Baptists and
u n itin g it to a com plex Biblical eschatology. Jo sep h Bates, along with o th er
Seventh-day A dventist 1 pioneers, was guided into this eschatological Sabbath
theology partly as a consequence o f his experience as a leading p ro p o n e n t o f
M illerite A dventism . His step-by-step contributions to Seventh-day Adventism
will be b etter u n d ersto o d a fte r a b rie f look at som e o f th e beliefs o f the M illerite
A dventists .2
M illerite Adventism
T h e M illerite A dvent m ovem ent, u n d e r the leadership o f William Miller, o f
Low H am p to n , New York, was the N o rth A m erican aspect o f a m ore-or-less
w orldw ide p h en o m en o n o f the early n in etee n th century that is som etim es
re fe rre d to as th e G reat Second A dvent Awakening. T h re e them es that especially
identified M illerism w ere (1) th at the 2300 days" o f Daniel 8:14 would term inate
with th e second com ing o f C hrist a ro u n d 1843 o r 1844; (2) that the cleansing o f
the sanctuary m entioned in the sam e verse was to be equated with the Second

* T h is a p p e n d ix e n la r g e s on o n e sign ifican t aspect o f th e trea tm e n t g iv en in ch a p ter 13. T h o u g h d u p lica tio n o f

m aterial has b een a v o id ed as m u ch as p ossib le, th ere m ay be so m e re p e tiiio n h e r e for tn e sak e o f clarity. For th e b road
historical b a ck g ro u n d s, se e ch a p ter 13.

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 J O S E P H BATES A N D SDA S A B B A TH T H E O L O G Y

C om ing and with th e ju d g m e n t scene of Daniel 7:9-14; a n d (3) that th e re fo re the

lime had arriv ed fo r the proclam ation o f the first angels m essage o f Revelation
14:6, 7: T h e h o u r o f his [God's] ju d g m e n t is com e."
W hen Miller reluctantly began to preach in 1831, he discovered to his
su rp rise a warm a n d enthusiastic reception am ong P rotestant pastors. Besides
som e 50,000 to 150,000 lay persons, several h u n d re d m inisters in various
d en om inations a p p e a r to have accepted his views. But d u rin g the sum m er o f 1843
and especially in 1844, while the M illerites were concentrating on their final
spiritual p re p ara tio n for the ju d g m e n t and the Second C om ing, a change o f
feeling cam e about, and large n u m bers o f M illerites w ere disfellow shiped from
th eir P resbyterian. M ethodist, C ongregationalist, Baptist, a n d o th er Protestant
churches.
R eexam ination o f Revelation 14 led the Millerites to the u n d ersta n d in g that
before th e second com ing o f C hrist could take place, the first angel m ust be
followed by a second one (verse 8 ), who declares that "Babylon is fallen, is fallen.
M illerites concluded that Babylon w as a symbol o f the churches that had rejected
the ju d g m e n t-h o u r m essage o f the first angel an d that the tim e had com e to
preach the second angels m essage and to call the tru e people o f God (chap. 18:4)
out o f th eir fallen churches.
T his, briefly, was the core o f the characteristic doctrines held by the
M illeritesJo sep h Bates am ong them w hen Bates received his first ex posure to
the seventh-day Sabbath.
Joseph Batess Initial Sabbath T heology
T h e story o f Jo sep h Batess acceptance o f the Sabbath th ro u g h re ad in g T . M.
P rebles publications in M arch, 1845, has been told in c h a p te r 13. As was also
noted in th at ch ap ter, in A ugust, 1846, Bates cam e o u t with the first edition o f his
influential pam p h let The Seventh Day Sabbath, a Perpetual Sign, From the Beginning, to
the Entering Into the Gates of the Holy City, According to the Commandment.*
T h is initial publication on the Sabbath question by a pio n eer o f the
Seventh-day A dventist m ovem ent contained m any elem ents likely to have been
fam iliar to its M illerite readers; b u t as we shall see in a m om ent, it also contained a
germ o f th e fu tu re , unique. Seventh-day Adventist position.
T . M. Preble h ad reflected Seventh Day B apust theology in his publications; it
is not su rp rising, th ere fo re , th at Batess tract also was essentially Seventh Day
Baptist in content. But it should be rem em bered that th e Seventh Day Baptist
position was itself a m odification o f P uritan Sabbatarian theology' (see ch a p te r 12).
C ongregationalists, Presbyterians, an d Baptists (who in A m erica stem m ed
directly fom Puritanism ), an d M ethodists (who in A m erica were m uch influenced
by it), could ag ree with m any o f Bates's argum ents. T hey could acknow ledge, for
exam ple, th at th e Sabbath co m m an d m en t is m oral an d binding, th at the Sabbath
is holy an d is to be kept strictly, a n d that the handw riting o f ordinances" spoken
o f in Colossians 2:14-17 as having been nailed to the cross was the cerem onial law,
not th e Decalogue.
Even th e re fere n ce to a p erp etu al" Sabbath in Baless title was as P uritan as
Nicholas Bownde him self, for he, in 1595, had contrasted the an n u al Jew ish
Sabbaths o f weekes an d yeares" with the perpetu all Sabbath o f daies" in te n d
ing S unday, o f c o u rse .'Jo n a th a n E dw ards in the early eighteenth century also had
1SISA H -2J OKO
 I H E SABBA TH IN SC R IP T U R E AND HISTORY

def en d e d th e "perpetuity" o f the Sabbath co m m andm ent in a serm on titled "T he

P erpetuity a n d C hange o f the Sabbath."* Even m ore to the point, William Miller
had go n e on re co rd as d e fen d in g the Sabbath as a "p erp etu al sign, once again
with application to S unday .6
As a m atter o f fact, early Seventh-day Adventist Sabbatarianism owed a
twofold debt to Puritanism . As noted in ch a p te r 12, early English Puritanism , with
its em phasis on the fo u rth com m andm ent, led the fou n d ers o f the Seventh Day
Baptists to discover the seventh-day orientation o f the Sabbath, a discover)'
which they later passed on to Seventh-day Adventists. In addition, the em igration
o f early P uritan ideals provided a cu ltu re in m id-nineteenth-century A m erica that
was fam iliar with the concept o f a weekly holy day and which thus facilitated
p ro p agation o f Seventh-day Adventism . F or that m atter, it ap p ears that the
seventh-day Sabbath itself was fairly widely agitated am ong the M illerites d u rin g
the su m m er o f 1844, to the consternation o f th eir chief leaders.
T h u s w hen people read Batess first edition o f The Seventh Day Sabbath, a
Perpetual Sign a n d most o f its read ers w ere M illerite Adventists a good many
found them selves in harm ony with m uch o f what it said, m ost being startled
mainly by its insistence that the Sabbath should be kept holy on S aturday ra th e r
than on Sunday.
But in ad d ition to its fam iliar em phases an d its presentation o f the Seventh
Day B aptist Sabbath, Bates's pam phlet also contained a totally new idea. A fter
Bates h ad begun to keep the Sabbath in M arch, 1845, he noticed som ething that
most M illerites h ad overlooked, nam ely, that before the second com ing o f C hrist,
th e first and second angels o f Revelation 14 w ere to be followed by a th ird angel
with a w arning against the m ark o f the beast. Bates also noticed that Revelation
14:12 describes tbe last-day saints as a people who keep the com m andm ents o f
God, a n d [have] th e faith o f Jesus.
T h is reference to com m andm ent keeping helped confirm Bates in his new
conviction about th e Sabbath. It seem ed to him that in a special sense the tim e had
com e fo r the people who had proclaim ed the first an d second m essages to
recognize th e th ird angels m essage an d to keep the Sabbath o f the T en
C om m andm ents an d he m entioned this briefly in his book."
Batess Correlation o f the Sabbath and the H eavenly Sanctuary
By th e tim e Bates was ready to p re p are th e second edition o f The Seventh Day
Sabbath, a Perpetual Sign, he had ad d ed to his thinking two additional concepts
which also w ere to becom e uniquely characteristic o f the developing Seventh-day
Adventist position. In o rd e r to u n d erstan d them , it will be helpful to lake yet
a n o th e r look at M illerite Adventism .
We have indicated th at the Millerites assum ed that a parallel exists between
the cleansing o f the sanctuary o f Daniel 8:14 (King Jam es Version), the ju d g m e n t
scene o f Daniel 7:9-14, an d the second com ing o f C hrist. In d eed , Miller took
C h rists com ing on clouds to the ju d g m e n t (Dan. 7:13) to be the sam e event as His
com ing on clouds to the ea rth at the en d o f th e present a g e .9T h u s, he seem s to
have given in ad equate attention to the fact that in Daniel 7 the Son o f m an comes
for ju d g m e n t to th e A ncient o f days" ra th e r than to the earth.
But on th e day following the disappointm ent o f O ctober 22, 1844, the
sem inal d ifference h ere was caught by H iram Edson, a M ethodist M illerite laym an

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 JO S E P H BA I ES AND SDA SABBA TH T H E O L O G Y

an d later a Seventh-day A dventist m inister. A ccording to his personal account,

Edson cam e suddenly to u n d ersta n d distinctly, an d clearly, that instead o f o u r
H igh Priest com ing out o f the Most Holy o f the heavenly sanctuary to com e to this
ea rth on [O ctober 22. 1 8 4 4 ]. . . that he for the first lim e en tered on that day the
second a p a rtm en t o f that sanctuary---- T h a t he cam e to the m arriage at th at time;
in o th e r words, to the Ancient o f days to receive a kingdom , a dom inion, and
glory ." 10
T h u s E dson observed thal the Son o f m an goes to the A ncient o f days, no i to
the ea rth , at th e tim e o f the ju d g m e n t in Daniel 7, and that His m arriage to His
kingdom takes place in heaven, not on the earth.
Edson says that he also found himself taking a new interest in Revelation
11:15-19: T h e seventh angel sounded . . . and, the tem ple o f God was o p en ed in
heaven, and th ere was seen in his tem ple th e ark o f his testam ent ." 11 W hen o n e o f
T . M. P rebles publications about th e Sabbath reached Edson's hom e in Port
Gibson, New York, som etim e later, Edson associated the Sabbath o f th e fo u rth
co m m an d m en t with the ark o f the testam ent [that is, the ark containing th e T e n
C om m andm ents] in the heavenly tem ple o r sanctuary. H e began to w onder
w h ether C h rists en try into heavens Most Holy Place in 1844 would result in a new
em phasis on S ab b athkeeping .13
O ver th e en suing m onths Edson studied the Bible with O. R. L. C rosier, a
teacher, and F. B. H ahn, a physician. T h e ir conclusions were published by C rosier
on F ebruary 7, 1846, in the form o f an Extra" edition o f the Day-Star, a M illerite
periodical ed ited by Enoch Jacobs, o f C incinnati, O hio. In this extra. C rosier
arg u ed from S crip ture that the sanctuary o f Daniel 8:14 is indeed the o n e in
heaven, and that in O ctober, 1844, Jesus en tered its Most Holy Place to com m ence
a work o f ato n em en t analogous to the cleansing o f Israel on the ancient Day o f
A tonem ent (see Leviticus 16). W ithout any m ention o f a ju d g m e n t concept,
C rosier p o rtray ed C hrist's contem porary m inistry as the blotting out o f sins (Acts
3:19) in p re p ara tio n for the Second C om ing (verses 20, 21).
As already m entioned, Jo sep h Bates accepted the Seventh Day Baptist
teaching on the seventh-day S abbath from reading T . M. Preble in M arch, 1845.
In February o r M arch, 1846 that is, about as soon as it a p p e are d he also read
C rosier's article in the Day-Star extra. C onvinced by C rosiers arg u m en t that the
sanctuary o f Daniel 8:14 is the o n e in heaven, Bates soon com posed a
thirty-nine-page tract. The Opening Heavens," in which he en dorsed the concept
with observations from the Bible an d from astronom y. (This was still som e five
m onths before he published his first full tract on the Sabbath re fe rre d to above.)
N ear th e e n d o f The Opening Heavens Bates inserted a short section on the
Sabbath question, relating the seventh-day Sabbath to the ark o f the testam ent in
the sanctuary described in the O ld T estam en t. But even though this little work as a
whole dealt with th e heavenly sanctuary an d contained a reference to the Sabbath,
Bates ap p aren tly d id not at this tim e see any connection betw een the Sabbath and
the ark o f th e testam ent in the sanctuary in heaven. It appears that on the Sabbath
issue Bales was still an a d h e re n t o f the Seventh Day Baptist position, not
advancing beyond that theology until several m onths later, w hen, in his Sei'enth
Day Sabbath, a Perpetual Sign (A ugust. 1846), he linked the Sabbath to the third
angels message.
History an d theology cannot m eaningfully be separated in the developm ent

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o f Seventh-day A dventist theology. T h e m arriage o f Jam es W hite an d Ellen

H arm o n in th e sam e m o n th (A ugust, 1846) th at this tract a p p e are d , and their
soo n -after ad o p tion o f the seventh-day Sabbath, provided a congenial foundation
for fu rth e r interaction betw een the W hites an d Bates in the ongoing developm ent
o f Seventh-day A dventism .
A second historically significant event was th e visit Bates m ade about
N ovem ber, 1846, to Edson. H ahn, a n d C rosier in C anandaigua an d Port G ibson,
New Y ork .13 It was evidently while in conversation with these creators o f the
Day-Star ex tra, th e p ap e r which had influenced Bates so effectively earlier in the
year, th at Bates first began to sense a connection betw een the Sabbath an d the
en try o f C hrist in 1844 into the Most Holy Place o f the heavenly sanctuary.
In Jan u a ry , 1847, a fte r his re tu rn hom e to Fairhaven, M assachusetts, Bates
issued a second, en larged e d itio n o f his Seventh Day Sabbath, a Perpetual Sign, the
first edition having been exhausted. He m ade use o f th e o p p o rtu n ity to ex p an d his
exposition o f th e th ird an g els m essage by o fferin g an identification for the m ark
o f th e beast re fe rre d to in that m essage and in Revelation 13:16, 17. Is it not
clear, he asked, that [keeping] the first day o f the week for the Sabbath o r holy
day is a m ark o f the beast ? 17
In this second edition Bales also developed, for th e first tim e in print, E dsons
suggestion, m entioned above, about th e fulfillm ent o f Revelation 11:15-19.
Specifically, Bates noted that m any persons (Preble? J. B. Cook? him self? others?)
h ad recently published m aterial in favor o f the seventh-day S abbath." As a
possible reason for this u p su rg e o f interest in the Sabbath, he proposed that when
th e seventh angel (Rev. 11:15) sou n d ed his tru m p e t and the tem ple o f G od was
o p en ed in heaven and the ark o f the testam ent was spiritually revealed, G o d s
spirit m ade an indelible im pression on peoples m inds to search the scriptures
for th e T estim ony o f G od."
He ad d ed cautiously, I d o not say that this view o f the A rk in Revelation is
positive, but I think the in feren ce is strong. I cannot see w hat else it refers to . '*
T h is was in Jan u a ry , 1847. Batess hesitancy was quickly rem oved. O n M arch
6 , in F airhaven, M assachusetts (probably in B aless ho m e ),*0 and on April 3, in
T o p sh am . M aine (in the hom e o f a n o th e r S abbatarian A dventist ),*1 Ellen W hite,
in a visionary state, saw Jesu s in the Most Holy Place o f the heavenly sanctuary
calling atten tio n to the tables o f the law in the ark a n d to a halo of glory a ro u n d the
fo u rth co m m andm ent. T h ese w ere Ellen W hites first visions concerning the
Sabbath, both o f them seen som e m onths a fte r she becam e a Sabbath k eep er.1*
T h ey convinced Bates th at his Bible study had been divinely led. Soon he
published an account o f th e April 3 vision in volum e 1, N u m b er I, o f A Vision,
d ated April 7, 1847.
Bates, th e W hites, a n d perh ap s a few dozen o r so o th e r persons w ere now
convinced th at the seventh-day Sabbath was the m essage o f the hour. But they
fo u n d it difficult to p ersu ad e ihe o th e r disappointed A dventists to adopt th eir
view. T o th eir dism ay, they realized that alm ost all o f them had ab an d o n ed the
idea th at O ctober. 1844, h ad any significance at all.
T o resto re confidence in th e A dvent experience and, by doing so, to establish
a basis for his S abbatarian em phasis. Bates p ro d u ced in May, 1847, an eighty-page
booklet entitled Second Advent Way Marks and H tgh Heaps, or a Connected View, of the
Fulfillment o f Prophecy, by Gods Peculiar People, From the Year 1840 to 1847.*' From

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 JO S E P H BATES AND SDA SAB BA TH T H E O L O G Y

S cripture, th e a p p a re n t fulfillm ent o f prophecy, the M illerite experience in

g eneral, and th e publications o f M illerite leaders. Bates a rg u ed that G od had most
certainly led th e A dventists to focus on the 2300 days o f Daniel 8:14, an d that the
real significance o f the A dvent A w akening lay in its witness to C h rists entry in
O ctober, 1844, into the Most Holy Place in heaven. (This publication was a review
o f th e M illerite A dvent experience; thus, to anticipate a later Seventh-day
A dventist term , it constituted an "A dvent review.) O n this basis Bates proceeded
to arg u e for the tim eliness o f th e Sabbath in relation to th e th re e angels' messages
an d to the o p en e d tem ple in heaven. H e stated th at "the first m essage [of the th ree
angels in Rev. 14:6-11] th at issued on the com m andm ents cam e from the
p resen tatio n o f th e a r k .. . . T h is was the point o f tim e th at this m essage was urg ed
on G o d s people, to lest th e ir sincerity an d honesty in the whole w ord of G o d . 14
Batess various publications stim ulated a vigorous debate on the Sabbath
question within th e A dventist com m unity, articles on the subject ap p earin g in the
Advent Harbinger o f R ochester, New York, and in the Bible Advocate, o f H a rtfo rd .
C onnecticut. C. Stowe, J. C ro ffu t, J. B. Cook, a n d A. C arp e n te r w ere am ong those
who d efen d ed th e seventh-day Sabbath. T im othy Cole, ed ito r o f the Bible
Advocate, Jo sep h M arsh, editor o f the Advent Harbinger, Jo sep h T u rn e r, G.
N eedham , a n d B arnabas" (possibly Jacob W eston) opposed it.
In th e context o f this d eb ate Jo sep h Bates sat dow n late in the au tu m n o f 1847
to com pose A Vindication of the Seventh-day Sabbath, and the Commandments of God:
With a Further History of God's Peculiar People, from 1847 to 1848*' His own
com m itm ent to th e p ro p ag atio n of Sabbatarianism is attested by the reduction of
his cash resources at this tim e to a York shilling .17
Batess m ost significant theological innovation in A Vindication o f the
Seienth-day Sabbath was the identification o f the sealing process o f Revelation 7
with th e dev elo p m ent o f character. In this docum ent he also associated the
Sabbath m ore intim ately than ever with C hrists new m inistry in heavens Most
Holy Place.
The sealing process. Bates said, had been going on over the previous eight
years, ever since M iller's m ovem ent first attracted wide attention in 1840, an d it
would be com pleted in the upcom ing tim e o f trouble" o f Daniel 12:1, 2.
Specifically, he believed th at the seal o f God applied to the experience o f the
144.000 saints people who would show such a clear developm ent o f C hristian
ch aracter in th eir lives an d shining foreheads (or faces), that it will be clearly
u n d ersto o d that Jesus has red eem ed them from all iniquity, by purifying 'u n to
himself a peculiar people, zealous of good works."""
Bates fu rth e r taught that as Jesus com pletes the w ork o f ato n em en t in
heaven th at is, "in this day o f ato n em en t, while o u r G reat H igh Priest is cleansing
the sanctuary, (blotting out his people's sins,) p re p a rin g his jew els (Mai.
iii: 17)" C hrist's people e n te r in to . . . rest by keeping for th e first tim e the right
Sabbath o f the L ord o u r God in th eir patient waiting, or trying time; resting from
th eir labors, in these messages, from the w orld: . . . waiting for th eir great high
priest to finish th e cleansing o f th e sanctuary, which blots o u t th eir sins, and
purifies them to e n te r into th e holy city .50
For Jo sep h Bates the concept that C hrist e n tered th e Most Holy Place in 1844
was not an exercise in m etaphysics. Bates believed that C hrists new m inistry
im p arted a vital new aw areness o f the privileges a n d responsibilities o f Sabbath

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observance. F or him , C h rists cleansing o f the sanctuary connoted m ore than

rem oving sins from records in a heavenly tem ple; it involved purification o f th e
characters o f th e 144,000 saints on ea rth as the Sabbath m essage, voluntarily
accepted, served to sanctify them an d re n d e r them zealous o f good works in
essential p re p ara tio n for th e second com ing o f C hrist.
Ellen W hite later m ade several references to this sam e concept o f spiritual
developm ent in connection with the Sabbath an d with C hrists m inistry in the
heavenly sanctuary. For exam ple, in The Great Controversy, published in 1888, she
w rote that the people [that is, the M illerite A dventists o f 1844) were not yet ready
to m eet th eir L ord. T h e re was still a work o f p re p ara tio n to be accom plished fo r
them . Light was to be given, directing th eir m inds to the tem ple o f G od in H eaven;
and as they should by faith follow their H igh Priest in his m inistration th ere , new
duties [including Sabbath keeping] would be revealed. A n o th er m essage o f
w arning and instruction [the th ird angels message] was to be given to the church.
. . . T h o se who are living u p o n the ea rth w hen the intercession o f C hrist shall cease
in the sanctuary above, are to stand in the sight o f a holy God w ithout a m ediator.
T h e ir robes m ust be spotless, th eir characters m ust be purified from sin by the
blood o f sprinkling. T h ro u g h the grace o f God and th eir own diligent effort, they
m ust be co n q u erors in the battle with evil. . . . W hen this work shall have been
accom plished, th e followers o f C hrist will be ready fo r his a p p e a rin g .51
Group Study and Confirmation
We have seen en o u g h to know that Bates did not develop his Sabbath
theology in isolation. H e served, ra th e r, as the ex p o n en t o f views developed by a
ban d o f Sabbatarian Adventists that included besides him self Jam es an d Ellen
W hite, H iram Edson, S tephen Pierce, an d som e others. T h is small g ro u p , in the
w ords o f o ne o f them w ritten m uch later, "searched for the tru th " som etim es all
n ight"as for h id d en tre a su re .
H istorical developm ents in 1848, following the Ja n u a ry ap p e ara n ce o f A
Vindication o f the Seventh-day Sabbath, acted to en co u rag e Bates an d his associates in
th eir S abbatarian convictions. T hey also led Bates by the en d o f the year to a
fu rth e r significant in terp retatio n .
A long with the W hites, Bates atten d ed a series o f seven conferences" in 1848
th at w ere organized for the benefit o f those Adventists who were interested in the
Sabbath. T h ese occasions w ere atten d ed by anyw here from a han d fu l to a ro u n d
fifty persons. T h ey convened in private hom es o r in farm buildings in Rocky Hill,
C onnecticut, in A pril and S eptem ber; in Bristol, C onnecticut, in J u n e ; in Volney
an d in Port G ibson, New York, in A ugust; in T o p sh am , M aine, in O ctober; an d in
D orchester, M assachusetts, in N ovem ber.
T h e prim ary function o f the conference series was to unify an d confirm the
laity in th e sanctuary-Sabbath concept. Jam es W hile reviewed the evidence o f
G ods leadership in the A dvent M ovem ent. Bates traced the relation betw een the
sanctuary' an d th e Sabbath. A nd Ellen W hite ex h o rted to a quality o f life
h arm o n io u s with such ideas. (T h e im pressive ag enda som etim es conceived o f fo r
th e series is speculative.) u V arying am ounts of opposition w ere voiced at the first
th re e gatherings. At the th ird an d largest m eeting (in Volney). Bates and the
W hites stated firmly that they had not com e to listen but to teach. T hey u rg e d the
people to co n centrate on th e "great tru th s" before th em .

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 JO S E P H BATES AND SDA SABBAT H T H E O L O G Y

U nity an d confirm ation having been achieved well before the series en d ed ,
the com pany th at g ath ered in T o p sh am in O ctober looked to Bates to produce yet
an o th e r publication on the Sabbath theology. W hile Bales hesitated, he a n d the
W hites m et in D orchester in N ovem ber. T h e re , as the discussion focused on the
seal o f God in Revelation 7, Ellen W hite in vision saw that the seal was the Sabbath
and that Revelation 7:1-3 im plied that the Sabbath m essage would increase in
pro m inence until, like the sun, it shone aro u n d the w orld.
A fter the vision, Ellen W hile indicated that she believed G od w anted h er
husband to launch a periodical and Bates to p re p are a fu rth e r publication (as
som e h ad suggested at the T o p sh am gathering). A fter the g ro u p satisfied itself
that the Bible su p p o rts the view that the seal o f Revelation 7 is the Sabbath, Bates,
in Jan u a ry , 1849, cam e ou t with a booklet entitled A Seal of the Living God. A
Hundred Forty-four Thousand, o f the S en ants of God being Sealed, in 1849.'' In this
work he explicitly linked the seventh-day Sabbath to the eschatological seal o f
Revelation 7. H e also associated this new u n d ersta n d in g o f the seal with his earlier
view th at it re p resen ted ch a rac te r developm ent. H e said th at as Jesu s cleanses the
heavenly sanctuary, H e seals a n d blots ou t the sins o f only those persons who
d em o n strate stren g th o f conviction by stalwart Sabbath observance. H e also
tau g h t that the 144,000 who will be sealed by the Sabbath are the saints, an d the
only saints, who will be alive at the Second Coming.'* T h e prospect that the
Sabbath m essage w ould be spread from a few A m erican towns to the entire
C hristianized w orld and that the n u m b er o f its ad h e ren ts would increase from a
few dozen to 144,000 did n o thing to lessen Batess confidence in the significance
o f his theology!
Jam es W hite, in July, 1849, in augurated The Present Truth, an d in A ugust,
1850, The Advent Review. In N ovem ber, 1850, W hite m erged the th ru st o f both
pap ers into the e n d u rin g Second Advent Review, and Sabbath Herald. T h e title o f the
m agazine had n o th ing to do with the fu tu re second com ing o f C hrist. Instead, it
prom ised th e re a d e r th at the p a p e r intended to keep reviewing the evidence that
God had been in th e A dvent A w akening that had clim axed in O ctober, 1844, and
that th ere fo re C h rists new function in the heavenly sanctuary since that date
provided salient significance to the theology an d practice o f the Sabbath.
The Second Advent Review, and Sabbath Herald was the direct successor to Batess
own series o f publications. Its m asthead carried the nam es o f Jam es W hite an d J.
N. A ndrew s. W ith com m unication now en tru sted to his y ounger colleagues,
Jo sep h Bates closed his service as the principal publisher o f S abbatarian Adventist
theology.
Other Important Concepts in Joseph Batess Sabbath Theology
B efore m oving to a short survey o f the relationship o f Bates's Sabbath
theology to later Seventh-day A dventism , we should pause to summarize what we
have d o n e so far and to note a few additional concepts and developm ents that
deserve at least passing reference.
We have seen how Bates, a fte r ad o p tin g the Seventh Day B aptist theology o f
the Sabbath, ad d ed to it o n e eschatological concept a fte r an o th er. T his
eschatological grow th was ro o ted in his M illerite A dventist background.
Successively Bates related the Sabbath to (a) the th ird angel o f Revelation 14, (b)
C hrist's new m inistry beside th e ark in the heavenly sanctuary, conceived to have

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begun in 1844 in fulfillm ent o f Revelation 11, (c) the "m ark o f the beast o f
Revelation 14:9-11, (d) th e seal o f G od o f Revelation 7, an d (e) the 144,000.
In addition to these concepts, it can be said that Bates was also interested in a
th em e o f T . M. Preble's to th e effect th at S abbathkeepers are the tru e Israel o f
the last days. In the first edition o f The Seventh Day Sabbath, a Perpetual Sign, Bates
concluded that, as the tru e Israel, S abbathkeepers are heirs o f the prom ises an d
obligations o f Isaiah 5 8 :13, 14: " If thou tu rn away thy foot from the s a b b a th ,. . .
th en shalt thou . . . ride u p o n the high places o f the earth ." et ce te ra .40 Bates also
related th e Sabbath to th e restitution o f all things prom ised in Acts 3:21,
com m enting, I u n d ersta n d th at the seventh day Sabbath is not the least one,
am o n g the all things that a re to be restored before the second advent o f Jesus
C h rist ."41
In th e second edition o f The Seventh Dux Sabbath, a Perpetual Sign, Bates
developed logically from th e concept o f restitution in Acts 3 an d the Sabbath
prom ises in Isaiah 58 to th e restitution prophecy o f Isaiah 58:12. In doing this he
presaged an em phasis that was to become characteristic o f Seventh-day
Adventism for m any decades: T h ey that shall be o f T H E E shall build the old waste
places thou shalt raise up the foundation of many generations, and thou shalt be called the
R E PA IR E R / the breach, the RESTORER of paths to dwell in."*1 Bates observed that
in view o f verses 13 and 14, which im m ediately follow this prophecy, "rep airin g
th e breach" refers to the restoration o f the Sabbath.
In A Seal o f the Living God, in Jan u a ry , 1849, an d in an 1850 tract called An
Explanation o f the Typical and Anti-Typical Sanctuary, by the Scriptures. With a Chart,
Bates revived from earlier A dventist literatu re the concept o f a pre-A dvent
ju d g m e n t based on Daniel 7 a n d 8 a n d com m encing in 1844.45
N o t to be overlooked is the use Bates m ade o f ch u rch history in su p p o rt o f his
S abbatarian theology. In both editions o f The Seienth Day Sabbath, a Perpetual Sign
he devoted several pages to the history o f the so-called change o f the Sabbath from
th e seventh to the first day o f the week. In doing this, he followed the Seventh Day
Baptists, who, in tu rn , had evidently taken th eir cue from the early S abbatarian
Puritans. Nicholas Bownde had shored up his theology o f Sunday Sabbatarianism
by attem p tin g to d educe from history that the change from S aturday to S unday
o ccu rred within the apostolic era and hence was Biblically approved. T h e Seventh
Day Baptists an d Bates used history to prove that the change occu rred m uch
later th an th e apostolic era an d hence was not Biblically sanctioned. It was, in fact,
o n the basis th at the ch ange was m ade by the ch u rch in the age o f apostasy that
Bates d em o n strate d that S unday was the characteristic, o r m ark," o f the beast. In
m id -n in eteen th -century A m erica, the first beast o f Revelation 13 was widely
re g ard e d , as it h ad been in R eform ation E urope, as a symbol o f historic apostate
C hristianity.
As lo r Batess u n d ersta n d in g o f the th ird angel o f Revelation 14, it
u n d erw en t a significant shift d u rin g th e years u n d e r observation here. W hen
Bates com m ented on the th ird angels m essage in the first edition o f The Seventh
Day Sabbath, a Perpetual Sign, he lim ited it to Revelation 14:9-11 (om itting verse
12 ), an d he assum ed that, like the m essages o f the first two angels, it had m et its
fulfillm ent within the M illerite m ovem ent. O n this point Jam es W hite disagreed
with him . T h e m atter not yet having been resolved, the identity o f the th ird an g els
m essage ap p ears not to have been discussed at the 1848 conferences. H iram

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Edson leaned at first to Bates's view, but he changed to W hites while w riting on the
subject in 1849. By 1850 Bates, too, had accepted W hite's posiuon, and all th ree
ag reed that w hereas the first two angels' m essages were fulfilled in the M illerite
m ovem ent, th e th ird (including verse 12 ) did not com m ence its fulfillm ent until
after 1844."
T he Course o f Batess Legacy
Bates's co n tribution to subsequent Seventh-day A dventist Sabbath theology
was im m ense a n d has rem ained largely ef fective. Inevitably, o f course, th ere have
been d evelopm ents an d d ep a rtu res.
T h e th ree angels were very soon reg ard e d , for practical purposes, as all flying
cu rren tly with th eir messages, th e first two no longer confined to the M illerite
period. As new people ad o p ted the Sabbath who had not participated in
M illerism, they h ad to be tau g h t the first two m essages in o rd e r to u n d ersta n d the
th ird .4 In 1857 Jam es W hite gave to the pre-A dvent ju d g m e n t the nam e
investigative ju d g m e n t, by which it is still popularly d esig n ated .46
B atess identification o f th e m ark o f the beast with S unday observance
u n d erw en t significant m odification. T heoretical theology notw ithstanding, it
m ade little sense to say that all S undaykeepers have the m ark w hen so m any are
obviously devout. Ellen W hite ef fectively urg ed th at no S undaykeepers should be
th o u g h t o f as having the m ark o f the beast until they have chosen to reject clear
evidence th at S unday stem s from apostate C h risten d o m .47
The quest fo r ever clearer evidence that, in fact, the C hristian observance o f
S unday does have a non-Biblical origin continued to stim ulate interest in
Sabbath-Sunday history. J . N. A ndrew s far surpassed Bates's treatm en t o f the
subject with his scholarly History of the Sabbath and First Day of the Week, which
ap p eared in th ree editions d u rin g his lifetim e. L. R. C onradi did n o t im prove on
A ndrew s work in his fo u rth edition (1912), w hen, unwisely, he followed A dolf
H arnack an d cited G nosticism as a m ajor factor in the change o f the day.4" N or did
C. M. S orenson help m uch w hen, following F ra n / C um ont, he cited M ithraism as
a m ajor cause .49 Ellen W hite sim plyan d defensiblyattrib u ted the change to
incipient worldliness, m isu n d erstan d in g o f the gospel, distaste for Jew ish
legalism, an d the attractiveness o f Sunday in view o f C h rists re su rrectio n .
T h e relationship that Bates stressed betw een the Sabbath an d C hrist's High
Priestly m inistry in developing ch aracter and blotting o u t sins has not been lost
sight o f but has been som ew hat obscured. C o n tem p o rary N o rth A m erican
A dventist writers seem som ew hat m ore interested in A braham H eschels
cath ed ral in tim e" concept th an in Batess sanctuary in h eaven .'1 As early as 1853
Jam es W hite eagerly accepted a Seventh Day B aptist tract, Ehhu on the Sabbath, and
tu rn e d it into a so rt o f instant Seventh-day A dventist classic. It was still being
d istrib u ted at least as late as 1903, by which tim e h alf a m illion copies m ust have
been in p rin t, even though it omits all o f the C hrist-centered sanctuary eschatologv
that characterized Batess Sabbath w orks .58
O bf uscation o f the sanctuary C hrist, re p resen te d by the popularity o f Elihu
and the Sabbath, was paralleled betw een 1850 a n d 1890 by a partial bu t serious
eclipse o f th e crucified C hrist in the presentation o f the Sabbath. Ellen W hite
p leaded with the A dventist m inistry to m ake the b u rd e n o f its m essage the
mission an d life o f Jesu s C h rist." A change was at last in au g u ra ted by the

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 T H E S A B BA TH IN S C R IPTU R E AND HISTORY

C h rist-centered presentations o f Ellen W hite a n d Ellet J. W aggoner at the

G eneral C o n ference session held in M inneapolis in 1888. By O ctober, 1893,
166,000 copies w ere in p rin t o f W. W. Prescott's Christ and the Sabbath,M&work that
em ploys th e nam e o f C hrist m eaningfully som e 260 tim es in its thirty-nine pages.
Its central b u rd e n is that no one can keep th e Sabbath holy w ithout a personal
involvem ent with Jesu s C hrist, the L ord o f the Sabbath.
Summary
In 1845 Jo sep h Bates ad o p ted the Sabbath theology o f the Seventh Day
Baptists and, in a series o f publications over the succeeding five years, w edded it to
a systematic Biblical eschatology that was influenced by his fo rm er experience in
M illerite A dventism . In d o in g this he was associated with H iram Edson, S tephen
Pierce, an d oth ers, an d especially with Jam es a n d Ellen W hite. His spiritual
successors, th e Seventh-day Adventists o f today, still seriously, but not slavishly,
advocate and p ro p ag ate his views.

NOTES
1 T h e n a m e S ev en th -d a y A d ven tist" w as n o t a d o p te d officially u n til O c to b e r, 1860. For c o n v e n ie n c e , h o w e v er,
it is u sed in th is a p p e n d ix for a p p r o p r ia te p erso n s. e \e n t s . an d id ea s p rio r to that d ate.
2 T h e best stu a v o f W illiam Miller an d th e M iUerites is Francis I). N ic h o is T he M id n ig h t Cry (W a sh in g to n . D .C .,
1944). S ee also C. M ervyn M axw ell. T ell I t to the W orld (M ou n ta in V iew , C a lif.. 1 976), ch ap s. 1-16.
5 N ew B ed fo rd [M a ss.I
4 T he D octrine o f the Sabbath, b la tn eh laycie forth, a n d soundly proved try testimonies both o f H o b Scripture, a n d also of olde
a n d neu ecclesiastical writers. 2 vols. (L o n d o n . 1595), 1:21. S ee th e d iscu ssio n o f this w ork in ch a p ter 12. p. 4 9 3 .
'J o n a th a n E d w ards. Twenty Serm ons on Various Subjects (E d in b u rg h . 1789). p. 208.
u W illiam M iller. L ectu re on th e G reat Sabbath" L ife a n d Views, p. 1 5 7 . in T . M. P reb le. A Tract, Show ing T h a t the
Seventh Day Should Be O b se n rd as the Sabbath. Instead o f the First D ay. "According to the C om m andm ent" (N a sh u a ' (N H.?]
1845K p p . 3 . 5.
' >ec ed ito ria ls in The M id n ig h t Cry, A u g . 2 2 . S ep t. 5 . an d S ep t. 15. 1844
* The Seventh Day Sabbath, a P erpetual S ign. p. 24
9 S ec. e .g .. W illiam M iller, Exndence From Scripture a n d H is to n of the Second C om ing o f Christ, About the Year IN 4 3 ,
S eco n d A d v en t Library. N o . 2 (B o s to n . 1840). esp . p p. 4 5 * 4 7 ,55-i>7. in his th ird serm o n . 'T h e T w o T h o u sa n d T h ree
H u n d red Days.**
10 H iram E d son . m an u scrip t fr a g m e n t, d e p o site d in th e H erita g e R oom , J a m es W'hite Library. A n d re w s
U n iversity, B errien S p r in g s. M ich igan
11 Ibid. P
12 Ibid.
IS Hi* article w as en title d T h e Law o f Moses."
14 The O pening H eavens, or A Connected View of the Testimony o f the Prophets arui Apostles, (.o n cem in g the O pening
H eavens. C om paredW ith Astronom ical O bservations, and o f the Present arui F u tu re Location of the S e w Jerusalem , the Paradise
o f G od (N ew B e d fo r d [M ass ). 1846), esp . p. 25.
15 T h is visit is re fe rre d to in E d so n , op. cit.
16 N ew B ed fo rd (M ass.).
17 2 d ed . p p . 5 8 , 59.
** Ibid.. p p . iii. iv.
19 Ibid
20 In 1860, Ellen W'hite located th is first sanctuary-Sab b ath vision in N ew B e d fo r d , th e city ac ross th e river fro m
F airh avcn . S e e E llen G . W'hite. S p iritu a l G ifts. 4 vols. (B attle C reek . M ic h . 1 8 5 8 -1 8 6 4 ), 2 :8 2 . H o w ev e r, in th e
R em arks" J o s e p h B ales attach ed to his p u b lication o f th e sim ilar A p ril 3 vision , h e said that "at a m e e tin g in
F airh aven . 6 th o f last m o n th . I saw h e r h ave a sim ilar v isio n . T h e co n te m p o r a n e o u s n e ss of B ates's sta tem en t, n o t to
m en tio n that h e lived in th e area, ju stifies a ssig n in g p r e fe r e n c e to his d ata T h e first vision a p p e a rs to Ix* th e o n e
d escrib e d in Spiritual G ifts. 2 :8 2 , an d in Ellen G. W h ite .L ife Sketches o f F.llen G . W hite (M o u n ta in V iew . C a lif.. 1 9 1 5 ). p p
9 5 . 96.
21 S ee A Vision, A pril 7. 1847; r e p r in te d , w ith ed ito ria l c h a n g e s, in E llen W h ile. L ife Sketches, p p. 1 0 0 -1 0 3 .
22 C f. E llen G . W h ite letter 2. 1874: It w as m o n th s a fter 1 had c o m m c n c c d k eep in g th e Sabbath b e fo r e I was
sh ow n [in vision ] its im p o rta n ce a n d its p lacc in th e th ird an gel's m essage."
2* N ew B ed fo rd (M ass.). T h e p u b lic a tio n d a te o f May is in fer red , in p a rt, fro m p age 7 3 . w hich re fe rs to a co p y o f
th e Voice o f T ruth for A p ril 2 8 . 1 8 47. as h avin g ju st c o m e to h a n d . J a m e s W h ite, in a letter d a ted May 2 1 . f t 4 7 .
r e p o r te d m at B ro th er B a te s is o u t w ith a Ix >>k on o u r past ex p er ien ce.''
24 B ates. W ay M arks, p p. 7 2 . 73.
25 A rticles o n th e Sabbath q u e stio n a p p e a red in th e A difent H arbinger, June* 2 9 , 1847. a n d th e Bible Advocate, A u g
2 6 , Sept 2 , 16, 2 8 . O ct. 2 1 . N ov. 4. 1 1, a n d D ec 2, 9 . 16, 2 3 . 3 0 . 184 7 . a n d )an 13. 1848.
26 N ew B ed fo rd (M ass.). G o d fre y T . A n d er so n d isco v er ed a copy in 1 976. in th e B o sto n C ity Library.
27 J a m es W h ite. L ife Incidents in Connection W ith the G reat A d i'en t M ovem ent, as Illustrated by the Three A ngels o f

362
 JO S E P H BATES AND SDA SAB BA TH T H E O L O G Y

R n v U a u m X I I (Bank* C reek . M ich . 1868). p 2 6 9

" B a in , Vindication. p 9 6 .
" I M . p p 7 3 . 74.
^ I b id . p 108
11 Ibid.. p p 4 2 4 . 4 2 5
%1 E llen ( . W h ile. Selected M enage* From the Hn t a n o f E llen C . W hite. 2 v o b (W a sh in g to n . D .C .: 1 958). 1:206.
M ( .on tem p orary a n d r r m im v c n i d ata cm th e 1848 co n fe r e n c e s bs p r r m n i w h o a tten d ed th e m ca n b e fo u n d in
lam e W hite letters. July 2 . A u g 2 6 . an d O ct. 2 . 1848. a n d in fcllen C . W h ite letter. Mav 2 9 . 1848. A lso in lam e
W h ite. L ife I undent*. p p 2 7 0 . 2 7 1 . 2 7 4 . 2 7 5 . a n d in E lk W h ite. Spiritu a l G ifts. 2:91 108; U e Skeithe*. p p 1 0 7 -1 1 5 .
a n d J o s e p h Bate. A Seal the L in n * G od A H u n d re d Forty-Four Thousand, o f the Ser\<*nts o f G od B ein g Sealed, m 1 8 4 9
(N ew B ed fo rd (M aw J. 1849). p p 5 4 -2 7 . 3 2 G o r d o n O . M a m n b o r o u g h . " T h e B e v in n m n o f a T h e o lo g o f th e
Sabhath A m o n g A m erican Sabbatarian A d ven tists. 1842-1850** (M .A . th esis. I.ona L in d a C n isc r s its . 197b). o ffe r s
h elp fu l insight
M S ee. lo r e x a m p le . l.eR c E dw in F ro o m . The Prophetic Faith of O ur Foiherx. 4 s o ls (W a sh in g to n . D .C ..
1946 1 954). 4 1030-1 &4H
M B oth J a m es W h ite (" T h e W ork o f th e L o rd . R e tseu a n d H erald. M as 6 . 1 8 5 2 . p 5 ) a n d Ellen W h ite i S p iritual
G ifts, 2 :9 9 ) sa> that E llen W h ite u rg ed th e p e o p le to u n ite o n th e th ird a n g el %m essa g e " T h is is certa in ls an
in terp reta tio n , 1Miking I w k fro m th e tim e w h e n u n its h ad b e e n reach ed , that th e third a n g el's m essa g e d id in fact
m c o n p M i whM B a t t i m d th e Whin . - roH M
w B ates. A Seal of the t .n i n g (,od. p p. 2 4 -2 6
S ee n o tes 3 3 . *6
w Ibid , p p . 2 0 . 37.
10 Ibid . p 54.
40 Idem . P erpetual Vir*. 1st e d . p. 44.
" I b i d . p. 2
4< Ibid., 2 d e d . . p . 6 0 .
** Idem , Seal. p. 39; idem. A n explanation of the T xpual an d Anti Typical S a n e tu a n , b\ the S erttturex W ith a < hart ( N rn
B ed fo rd (M ass |. 1850). p. 10. (a im p are J a m es W h ite. T h e D as o f J u d g m en t." The A d ven t R e x ie u . S ep tem b er. 1850.
p IB
44 S ee B ales. Way M arks (1 8 4 7 ). p p 19. 2 7 . 6 1 . 6 2 . 6 8 . 7 2 . J a m e s W h ite. T h o u g h ts o n R ev ela tio n 14. in Ja m es
W h ite. E llen (' W h ite, an d J o sep h B ates. A W ord to the "Little Flock" (B ru n sw ick (M e I. 1 847). p p 10. I I ; B ates. Seal
(1 8 4 9 ). p p. 3 3 -3 7 . 6 1 . H iram Faison. The Tim e o f the E n d . I h B eginning. P r o g m itv e E vents. a n d F in a l Term ination A
Ihscourxe (A u b u rn [N Y .J . 1849). p 20.
45 S ee. for e x a m p le . E llen G. W h ite m an u scrip t 11. 1850. an d |a m e * W h ite. B a in Io n . Rexteu a n d H erald. J u n e
10. 185 2 . p. 2 0 .
46 J a m es W h ite. T h e J u d g m e n t. R exteu a n d H erald. Jan 29. 185 7 . p p 1 0 0 -1 0 2
4T E llen W h ite. The G reat Controirrsy (M ou n tain V iew , ( a l l ! 1888 ). p 4 4 9
4* J . N . A n d rew s an d U R C on rad i. H utory of the Sabbath a n d First Day o f the Week. 4th e d . res a n d e n l
(W a sh in g to n . D .C .. 1912). p p 2 3 2 -2 3 7
49 L n p u b lish c d p r o c e e d in g s o f th e S ev en th -d a s A d ven tist B ib le C a in leren ce, T a k o m a Park. W a sh in g to n . D .C .,
1919.
40 S e e e s p E llen W h ite. The (,reat C ontroveny. p p 52. 53. C f tb*d . p p 4 3 .6 2 . 3 8 4 . 4 4 4 . 5 7 7 . a n d idem. The Aft* of
the Apostles (M ou n tain V iew . C alif : 1 9 1 1), p p. 5 3 . 587
A b raham )o sh u a H e sc h e l. The Sabbath, e x p a n d e d e d (C levela n d . O h io . 1951. 1952). ( X r e fe r e n c e s m a
so p h istica ted A dventist p u b lica tio n . Jack W P rovon sh a. God 11 W ith U i (W a sh in g to n . D C .. 1 9 7 4 ). p. 3 4 . a n d in a
tren d s s o u th ra d io p r o d u c tio n . T h e S ab b ath . H ts W ay. ca ssette 13 (C h a rlo tte. V C .. 1975).
S ee R. F C ottrell. "A Visit to B roth er E lih u ." R exteu a n d H erald. A p r il I. 188 0 . p. 2 1 0 ; idem. E h h u on the
Sabbath. B ib le S tu d en ts la b r a r s. N o 42 (M o u n ta in V iew . C a lif.. ( k t . 15. 1889). in tro d u ctio n , a n d a cop y o f th e tract
p rin ted bs th e Review a n d H erald P u b lish in g A ssociation s o m etim e a fter its 1 9 0 3 m o v e to T a k o m a Park.
W a sh in g to n . D C ., o n h ie in th e H e rita g e R oom . A n d rew s I'n iversits
M E llen G . W h ile. T h e W ork o f th e M inister.' Rex%eu a n d H erald. S ep i 11. I# 8 8 . p. 5 78.
14 Rev e d . T h e R elig io u s la b er ts U b r a r s . N o. 14 (B attle C reek . M ien , 1893).
 A PPEN D IX H

The Sabbath on a Round World

Raym ond F. Cottrell and Lawrence T. Geraty*

S U N S E T -T O -SU N SE T Sabbath on a ro u n d w orld is d eterm in ed by the

A natu ral p h en o m en o n o f a spherical planet rotating on its axis in relation to
the sun. T h is process o f n a tu re results in the night-day sequence, which is m arked
o ff by altern atin g sunset an d sunrise.
R eck o n in g T im e on a R o u n d W orld
As th e ea rth tu rn s on its axis from west to east, the sun ap p ears to rise in th e
east an d set in the west, m aking one com plete revolution a ro u n d the ea rth in
approxim ately tw enty-four h o u rs (m ore precisely, about tw enty-three hours,
fifty-six m inutes, an d fo u r seconds o f m ean solar o r clock time). W hereas clock
tim e is calculated according to tim e zones that have been established and that are
based on longitude, the precise moments of sunrise and sumet vary not only with
lo n g itu d e but also with latitude n o rth o r south o f the eq u ato r, with altitude, and
with th e season o f the year. T h e se m om ents o f sunrise and sunset are constantly
m oving along the day-night line" that divides light from darkness. T his
day-night line" encircles the earth at right angles to the sun an d is known as the
term in ato r."
In o rd e r to reckon tim e on o u r spherical rotating planet, it is obviously
necessary to th in k o f each tw enty-four-hour day as m oving continuously w estward
as the earth tu rn s eastw ard on its axis. In term s o f clock time, with days reckoned
m idnight to m idnight, the place w here any day (Sunday, M onday, T uesday, et
cetera) first begins (at m idnight) an d term inates tw enty-four h ours later (at
m idnight) is know n as the international d ate line.
T h e In tern atio n al Prim e M eridian C onference o f 1884 in W ashington, D.C.,
designated th e m eridian o f G reenw ich as the w orld's prim e m eridian, o r 0
longitude. Halfway a ro u n d the w orld, the 180th m eridian is the d ate line." W hen
it is noon along the prim e m eridian, it is m idnight along the d ate line.
U seful as the date line is for d eterm in in g days on a m idnight-to-m idnight
basis, th e inclination o f th e earth 's axis 23 2 7 p erp en d icu lar to the ecliptic, o r

Q n tr c ll is ih c prin iarv au th or; G eraiv a u th o r ed m ost o f th e last sectio n ( In th e I-and o l th e M id n igh t Sun")

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 T H E SA B BA TH ON A ROUND WORLD

plane o f the ea rth 's orbit about the sun, m akes it im possible to use the 180th, o r
any o th e r, m eridian as a basis fo r d eterm in in g the beginning an d en d in g o f days
m easured sunset to sunset. At the sum m er solstice (June 21), fo r instance, w hen the
sun sets at th e intersection o f a given m eridian with the eq u a to r at 6:00 p . m ., it will
set approxim ately five an d a h a lf hours later at the sam e m eridian ju s t south o f the
Arctic Circle and five and a h a lf ho u rs earlier on the sam e m eridian ju st n o rth o f
the A ntarctic Circle, a d ifferen ce o f about eleven hours. Only at the sp rin g and
au tu m n equinoxes are day a n d night o f equal length everyw here .1
T h u s, to d eterm in e th e arrival o f a day on the basis o f m idnight, it is necessary
simply to note th e m om ent o f m idnight in the particular tim e zone within which a
person lives. But to d eterm in e the anticipated arrival o f the sundow n-to-sundow n
Sabbath, it is necessary to ascertain in advance the m om ent o f sunset at each
p articu lar location. For this inform ation Seventh-day Adventists and various
o th e r observers o f the seventh-day Sabbath re fe r to sunset tim e given in
m eterological tables fo r any given location, o r the tim e is co m puted specifically for
this p u rp o se an d published in ch u rch periodicals.
T o attem p t to synchronize observance o f eith er the Sabbath o r S unday the
w orld a ro u n d w ould be. fo r all practical purposes, impossible. N or is th e re any
Biblical basis for do ing so. W hen the apostle Paul was in Jeru salem , for instance,
he obviously observed th e Sabbath from sunset to sunset Jerusalem tim e, and
when he was in C o rinth he evidently did so w hen the sun set at C o rin th a
d ifferen ce o f ab out twenty-five m inutes. For early C hristians, w herever they
were, sunset local time d eterm in ed the com m encem ent o f the Sabbath.
Function o f the International Date Line
T h e facts o f geography, th e m igrations o f peoples east an d west, tran s-Pacific
voyages o f discovery an d com m erce, acceptance in 1884 o f th e m eridian o f
G reenw ich as th e p rim e m eridian, and international usage w ere all involved in the
eventual acceptance by all nations o f the international d ate line, generally
coinciding with th e 180th m eridian, as the place w here each calen d ar day first
begins.
G eographically, the 180th m eridian is the logical location for the d ate line
because it passes th ro u g h few er habitable land areas (the far eastern tip o f Sibera
an d th e n o rth e rn island o f New Zealand) than any o th e r direct line that m ight be
draw n betw een th e N orth and S outh Poles. In o rd e r to avoid inconveniencing the
people o f Siberia, th e A leutian Islands, and New Zealand, the date line deviates
locally at those places a short distance east o r west from the m eridian.
Every d eg ree o f longitude east o r west (a distance o f about fifty miles in
m id tem p erate latitudes) translates into a d ifference o f fo u r m inutes o f clock time.
W hen o n e travels eastw ard, th e sun rises an d sets fo u r m inutes earlier with every
d eg ree o f longitude. O n the o th e r han d , w hen one travels westward, the sun rises
and sets fo u r m inutes later for each d eg ree o f longitude. People traveling from a
point in E urope o r Asia eastw ard to the Pacific O cean an d people traveling
westward from the same point o f origin until they reach the longitude o f San
Francisco, C alifornia, in the U.S.A. w ould, by resetting th eir watches, have
accum ulated a d ifference o f som e sixteen clock hours (two th ird s o f a calendar
day).
Expressed in a n o th er way, the sun looks directly dow n on San Francisco

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 T H E SA B BA TH IN S C R IP T U R E AND HISTORY

sixteen h o urs a fte r it has d o n e so above Shanghai, C hina, o n the opposite side o f
th e Pacific, a n d eight h ours before it will do so again. T h u s, w hen it is high noon in
San Francisco, it is already 4:00 a . m . the following calendar day in S hanghai.
A ccordingly, a person in San Francisco is two th ird s o f a calendar day behind a
person in Shanghai, figured a ro u n d the w orld from east to west as the sun travels.
If th e p erson in San Francisco w ere to cross th e Pacific w ithout om itting a calendar
day from his reckoning, to com pensate for th e calendar tim e lost, he w ould be a
full calen d ar day behind S hanghai w hen he arrived there.
F o r this reason a person m oving across the date line in a westerly direction
m ust om it one calen d ar day from his reckoning, while a person going in the
opposite direction m ust insert an additional calendar day by rep eatin g o n e day. It
becam e custom arv fo r ships traversing the Pacific O cean to m ake this adjustm ent
in th eir calen d ar reckoning in m idocean, originally at noon but eventually at
m idnight, im m ediately afte r crossing the 180th m erid ian .
T h e first travelers to becom e aw are o f the loss o f a calen d ar day in
circum navigating th e globe from east to west w ere those who sailed with M agellan
on his fam ous voyage, 1519 to 1522. H aving kept an accurate record o f th e days en
ro ute, they arrived at the C ape V erde Islands on what was, to them , W ednesday,
July 9, 1522. Im agine th eir consternation u p o n discovering that it was T h u rsd ay ,
July 10, local tim e, in the islands! W hen they m ade port at Seville, Spain, on what
they th o u g h t was S aturday, S eptem ber 6 , it was actually already Sunday,
S ep tem b er 7, in Seville. T hey had lost an en tire calendar day from th eir
reckoning w ithout know ing it, th o u g h the actual elapsed tim e was the sam e for
them as for those who had rem ained in Spain.*
Similarly, w hen Sir Francis D rake re tu rn e d to Plym outh, E ngland, afte r
sailing aro u n d the w orld in 1580, again east to west, it was S unday. S ep tem b er 26,
ab o ard his ship but M onday, S eptem ber 27, in Plymouth."
If these p io n eer globetrotters had jo u rn ey e d in the opposite direction from
west to east they would have gained a day o f calendar time.
D uring th e n in eteen th century most m issionaries and colonists from E urope
to the islands o f the Pacific sailed eastw ard a ro u n d the C ape o f G ood H ope. M any
o f them located on islands east o f the 180th m eridian w ithout realizing th e need to
add a day into th eir reckoning by repeating o n e day. T his was tru e o f those w ho
located on Pitcairn Island anti o f m issionaries to the Society, Sam oan. Cook, and
F riendly islands, fo r instance .7 It was also tru e o f the Russian colonists w ho settled
Alaska." As a result, C hristians on these islands and in Alaska w ere actually
observing S atu rday, thinking the day to be S unday (as it actually was, ju st across
th e d ate line a n d in Europe)." Decades later, Alaska and all o f these islands except
T o n g a m ade th e official change in o rd e r to coordinate th eir calen d ar days with
th eir geographical location east o f the 180th m eridian.'"
In contrast, th e Philippine Islands were colonized by S paniards who sailed
w estw ard across th e Atlantic a n d the Pacific. T h u s their S unday actually fell on
M onday, until the p ro p e r adjustm ent was m ade."
I n th e U nited States the general public becam e aw are o f the reality o f a d ate
line" with th e p urchase o f Alaska from Russia in 1867. As m entioned earlier, the
location o f this d ate line was stabilized as the 180th m eridian by the International
Prim e M eridian C o n feren ce o f 1884.
In th e closing decades o f the n in eteen th en tu ry , b u rg eo n in g travel and

366
 T H E SA B BA TH O N A ROUND WORLD

com m erce betw een the west coast o f N orth A m erica and the O rient intensified an
aw areness o f th e existence o f a date line, a n d ill-inform ed critics o f the
seventh-day Sabbath latched o n to the date-line enigm a, then in the public eye, as a
convenient ruse fo r confusing the Sabbath issue, th o u g h at least som e o f them
were evidently honestly confused in th eir own m inds as well.12
It is interesting to note that w hereas p rio r to 1867 th ere had been only fo u r
articles about th e Sabbath on a ro u n d world in The Advent Review and Sabhath
Herald,15 in th at o n e year th e re w ere th re e .14T h e climax cam e fo u r years later, in
1871, with tw enty-one articles o n the subject I'*
T h e p u rp o se o f this spate o f articles was to clarify the fact that d ro p p in g o r
inserting a calendar day in crossing the Pacific has no effect on real time, despite the
fact th at those m aking the jo u rn e y have one week with only six calendar days if
th eir direction o f travel is east to west, o r a week with eight calen d ar days if they are
going in the opposite direction. T h e solution to the problem , according to the
articles, was th at th e Bible re q u irem en t o f a seventh-day Sabbath can be kept on a
ro u n d world w hen it is observed from sunset to sunset, local time, wherever a person
may chance to be.
Especially notew orthy is th e pro tracted series o f eight lengthy front-page
articles on the subject by J. N. A ndrew s, from May 30 to A ugust 22, 1871.16 He, as
well as o th e r w riters, repeatedly pointed out that critics o f the S aturday Sabbath
who substituted th e m ore general seventh-part-of-tim e concept for the m ore
specific, G od-ap p o in ted seventh day o f each week faced the very sam e dilem m a o f
having o n e week with only six days if going west, o r a week with eight days going
east.
In the Land o f the M idnight Sun
Above the Arctic Circle (66 33' n o rth latitude) o r below the A ntarctic Circle
(66 33' south latitude), observance o f the Sabbath is com plicated by the fact that
for a period o f tim e each su m m er the sun rem ains above the horizon continuously
without setting, while for a com parable period o f tim e each w inter it rem ains
below th e horizon w ithout rising, for several days, weeks, o r m onths (depending
upon latitude).
Most Seventh-day Adventists residing in the Arctic begin the Sabbath d u rin g
these periods o f p erp etu al light o r darkness at the tim e th e sun reaches its lowest
point (i.e., its nadir) always above the horizon in the su m m er an d below the
horizon in the w in ter .17 Since th e sun is never seen d u rin g the w inter, these times
are calculated an d p rinted in "sunset tables for th eir respective locales. O th ers
begin th eir Sabbath at the sam e h o u r as the last visible sunset (which is identical
with th e first visible sunset at th e close o f these periods).1" In so doing they apply
the Biblical evening-to-evening requirem ent to the actual earth-sun relationship.
D epending on latitude, th e last visible w inter sunset occurs about Friday noon,
and th e last visible su m m er sunset about Friday m id n ig h t.1 Still others, d u rin g the
w inter w hen the su n is not visible, em ploy the "twilight theory." A ccording to this
practice, th e Sabbath is b o rd e red by the tim e betw een twilight (the dim inishing o f
light) an d th e arrival o f full darkness.
I n recent years a 6:00 p.M.-to-6:00 p . m . view fo r the observance o f Sabbath has
been su ggested .21 In o rd e r to b rin g about g re ater unity o f practice, the N o rth e rn
E u ro p e an Division o f Seventh-day A dventists ap p o in ted a study com m ittee to

367
 T H E SAB BA TH IN S C R IP T U R E AND HISTORY

review th e history o f practice, to research th e Biblical an d theological data thai

have a bearing on the borderlines o f the Sabbath, an d to m ake recom m endations
with re g ard to its findings. A fter a February 28 to M arch I, 1980, m eeting at
Skodsborg, D enm ark, the com m ittee concluded lhat from a study o f the Biblical
m aterial th e following points becom e evident: Evening (H ebrew 'ereb) m arks the
b eg inning an d th e en d in g o f the tw enty-four-hour day. Evening is the
transitional period (not point) betw een light an d darkness. W ithin "evening," sunset
is th e most specific point m arking this transition. Thus th e cycle o f the
tw en ty -fo u r-h o u r day (including the seventh-day Sabbath) is governed by natural
phen o m en a. Since Ellen G. W hite, by both statem ents an d practice, d em o n strated
h er su p p o rt a fte r 1855 fo r sunset as the point o f tim e that m arks the beginning
an d e n d in g o f th e S abbath, a n d since this has been th e traditional teaching an d
practice o f Seventh-day Adventists, even in Arctic regions, the com m ittee
reaffirm ed sunset to be the tim e for the beginning an d en d in g of Sabbath.
H owever, it was recognized that the Biblical d ata d o o ffer som e flexibility in
defining evening," m aking it cover the period of dim inishing light p rio r to actual
darkness. C onsequently, fo r areas w here this dim inishing o f light, ra th e r th an a
visible setting o f th e sun, provides the observable natural p h en o m en o n that
indicates th e e n d o f the tw enty-four-hour day, it was recognized that use o f this
sort o f S abbath-evening b o rd e r line" m eets the spirit o f the Biblical injunction
given in Leviticus 23:32. T h e com m ittee th e re fo re recom m ended that in those
regions this p erio d o f dim inishing light be used as a guideline for beginning and
en din g th e S abbath, ra th e r than fixing upon an arbitrary, rigid rule. F u rth e r
m ore, it u rg ed m inisterial w orkers an d lay m em bers to respect one an o th er's
conscience, looking with g en u in e C hristian love upon those who conscientiously
d iffer in re g a rd to the tim e fo r beginning and en d in g the Sabbath, particularly
d u rin g th e w inter period o f darkness.
T h is a rra n g e m e n t may seem stran g e to people unaccustom ed to life in the
Arctic, but it is an entirely logical application of the Bible req u irem en t even to
even" to reality in th e land o f the m idnight sun. F u rth erm o re , it provides for
continuity in Sabbath observance based on natural ph en o m en a, w ithout resort to
eith er artificial astronom ical tables o r clocks. This arran g e m e n t occasions no m ore
difficulty for persons accustom ed to it than the m ore conventional p ro c e d u re does
in the rest o f th e w orld.
T h e principle has been aptly stated by a Seventh-dav Adventist authority:
God m ad e His Sabbath for a ro u n d w orld; and w hen the seventh day com es to us
in lhat ro u n d w orld, controlled by the sun that rules the day, it is the tim e, in all
co u n tries an d lands, to observe the S ab b ath ."*

NO TES
1 W hat is k n ow n at th e e q u a tio n o f lim e ih e (ac t that th e tu n m as a itu a lh b e. at tim e t, a t m u ch a t alio u t
se v e n te e n m inute* fa lte r th an m ean su n tim e , an d at oth er tim es that m u ch d o w n , b eca u se o f th e a cc eler a tio n o l
Planet Earth as it a p p r o a ch es p er ih e lio n a n d c o r r e s p o n d in g d e ce lera tio n as it a p p r o a ch es a p h e lio n in tro d u ces still
fu rth er m in or variation s in s u n n s e a n d su n set tim e.
1 A favorite p lo t o n c e u sed bv critics o f th e s c \e n th -d a s Sabbath h eld that it had to b e o b s c n e d s sn c h r o n o u sls
a ro u n d th e w orld , w ith su n set in P alestin e. Laris articles in The A d ven t Rexiexi a n d Sabbath H erald (h erea fte r. RexneuJ
o fte n p o in ted ou t th e fallacs o l this p lo s S ee. for e x a m p le . I riah S m ith . H ow C an th e Sabbath B e K ept at th e N o rth
Pole? Feb. 2 8 . 1 8 56. p . I ? 2 . F J B u le le r . T u r n in g th e W orld I 'p s id e D o w n , * M arch 2 1 . 1871. p. 111. I riah
S m ith , " U n ca lled -for S o lic itu d e . A u g 9 . 18 8 7 . p. 50d.
* D iscu ssed by I 'r u h S m ith , " l im e o n a R ou n d W orld.' Rexte u \ O c t. 15. 1889, p. 6 4 8
* R o b e n I x o O d o m . T he Ijrrd 'i t k n an a R o u n d W orld (N a sh v ille. T e n n , 1970). p 7 0
1Hnd

368
 T H E SA B B A TH O N A RO U N D WORLD

6 Ibid . p . 73.
I I h d . pp. 105, 118, 139. 145. 164.
HIbid., p. 128. F ollow in g ih c p u r ch a se o l A laska by th e U n iic d S tates in 1 867, th e n u m e r o u s a rticles in th e Revieu
d ea lin g with th e S ab b ath -S u n d av p rob lem in c lu d e d , e .g .. J. M A ld rich . Winy.**J u ly 2 . 1 867. p. 4 4 ; U ria h S m ith , A
V ers P oor Jok e." J a n . 17. 1871, p. 36; uiem, T h e Facts in th e Case.** Feb. 2 1 . 187 1 . p. 76; I. N . A n d re w s. T h e
A d v a n ta g es o f th e S u n d ay-S ab b ath in B ein g EasiK K ept A ll C h e r th e G lo b e / A u g . 2 2 . 1 871. p p. 7 3 , 74.
9 S ee n o te 8.
10 (W n m .op. ctl., p p . 105, 128, 164; K. H. W o o d ,From th e E d itor s M ailb ag. R eview , M ay 16, 196 8 . p. 13; L. A.
S m ith . "It M akes a D iffere n c e," Rexnew. N ov. 18, 1902, p. 6
II S e e "Date B ou n d ary Line." R eview . Feb. 10. 1891. p. 8 7 , from Scientific Am erican For a m a p s h o w in g th e d a te
lin e cu rv in g w est o f th e P h ilip p in e Islan d s, s e e U riah S m iu i. " T im e o n a R o u n d W orld." Rexnew, O ct. 1. 1 8 8 9 . p. 6 1 6 .
12 N u m e r o u s articles in th e R e view s o u g h t to ab ate th e co n fu se d a n d c o n fu sin g a r g u m e n ts a d v a n ced by critics o f
th e sev en th -d a y Sabb ath . For e x a m p le : U riah S m ith . " T h e Sabbath in th e A rctic R egion s," S ep t. 9 . 186 2 . p p. 1 17,
1 18; " D e fen se o f th e T r u th in Syaginaw
agin aw C o.. M ich.."
ich .. Jlu
u lv 16. 1867. p. 7 4 ; J. I. H . W aggoi
a g g o n er. A D a \ A ll A r o u n d th e
W orld." Feb. 2 8 . 1 8 71, p. 85; F .J B id eler. T u r n in g th e W orld U p s id e D o w n . M arch 2 1 . 1 *71. .p. 11 I l l ; J . N.
A n d rew s. "Solution o f P rob lem s R elatin g to th e D a \ L ine." J u lv 4 , 1 8 7 1 .p p. 17. 1 8 ;C . W. S to n e . " Ai C u rio r io u s F a c t/
May 10. 1877. p . 148; U riah S m ith . Im p o te n t O p p o sitio n ." A pril 4 . 187 8 , p. 108; idem, U *......................
n c a lle d -fo r -S o licitu
d e,"
A ug. 9 . 1887. p. 505; G .B . T h o m p so n . " T h e 1 4 4 .0 0 0 o f R evelation 14." O ct. 8 ., I1889, pp. 6 2 7 ,6 2 8 ; L. A. S m ith , T h e
Sabbath and th e C alen d ar." A pril 2 6 , 1906. p 5.
15 A. H . H u tch in s. T h e Sabbath." Rexneu. Jan. 6 . 1 8 53. p. 134; U riah S m ith . " T h e Sabbath in th e Arctic
R egions." Review . S ep t. 9 . 1862. p p 117. 118; J N . L o iu g *h *b o r o u g h * . T h e Sabbath o n a R oun d W orld," Reinew , O ct.
1 1 , 1 8 6 4 ,p n . 1 5 7 .1 5 8 ; U riah S m itn , H o w C an th e Sabbath B e Kept at th e N o rth Pole?" Rexnew, Feb. 2 8 .1 8 5 6 , p. 172.
14 J. M. A ld rich. W itty," R eview . J u lv 2 . 1867, p. 44; " D e fen se of th e T r u th in Saginaw C o ., M ic h ./'/t m e u , July
16, 1867. p. 74; U riah S m ith . "W here d o e s th e D ay B egin?" R eview . A pril 2 . 1867. p. 2 0 1 .
15 T w e lv e by J. N . A n d re w s, in c lu d in g a special s e n e s o f e ig h t articles, and n in e by o th er a u thors.
16 Each article in th is s e n e s b o re a sep arate title. N o e x p la n a tio n acc o m p a n ie s th e series, but th e le n g th o f the
articles a n d th e p o sitio n o f p r o m in e n c e a cc o rd ed th em reflects co n sid era b le agitation o v er th e subject.
17 O ral c o m m u n ica tio n fro m Finn H. O p sa h l. secretary-treasu rer. West N o r d ic U n io n C o n fe r e n c e o f
S ev en th -d a y A dventists. Feb. 2 8 . 1980. T h is tim e can be as early as 10:30 a .m . on Friday b ecau se o f th e attem p t in
N orw ay to k e e p th e en tir e co u n try o n o n e tim e zo n e e v e n th o u g h it stretch es th ro u g h th r e e fro m B e r g e n in th e west
(lo n g itu d e 5) to K irk en es in th e east (lo n g itu d e 30*).
O d o m . op. cit.. p. 2 0 1 .
19 Ibid
2(1 T h is view , ev e r y w h e r e ap p licab le, was ad v o ca ted by th e N o rth ern E u rop ean D ivision c o m m itte e o n Mav 18.
1955. a fter h avin g b een p r o p o se d as early as 1951 by local c o n fe r e n c e a n d u n io n c o m m itte e s in N orw ay.
21 Especially an article by H . N o r d n e s in A dvent-inform . N o v em b er. 1979.
22 T h is p aragrap h fo llo w s closely th e w o rd in g o f th e co m m itte e m in u tes that w ere su b seq u en tly a cc ep te d by th e
G e n e ra l C o n fe r e n c e C o m m ittee.
23

1901. p. 3 4 4 . H askell an d Sm ith both report e d co n v er sa tio n s with p erm a n en t residents n orth o f th e A rctic C ircle w ho
told h ow th ey kept a cc o u n t o f "sunrise a n d sunset" a n d th e b e g in n in g and e n d in g o f th e d a y . a n d w h o e x p r e sse d
surprise that a n v o n c sh o u ld b eliev e it d iffic u lt to d o so.
24 Ellen G. W hite le tter 167. 1900

369
GLOSSARY
 Glossary
\o tr . D efinitions given below a re n ot in te n d e d to include th e full range o f dictionary d efinitions o f th e
term s listed, but ra th e r reflect the specific o r special m eanings o f those term s as used in the ch ap ters
a n d a p p en d ix es o f the presen t volum e.
Aggadah An A ram aic fo rm of Haggadah (see
rtaggadak).
Akkadian An extinct Semitic language o f the
M esopotam ian region, used by the Assyrians
and Babylonians.
Anagogica) H aving a spiritual m ean in g o r a
sense re fe rrin g to th e heavenly life. M edieval
in te rp re ta tio n also saw in S c rip tu re th re e o th e r
m eanings: literal, allegorical, a n d tropological
(the last p ertain s to m orality o r m oral life).
A n thropom orphism A ttr ib u tio n o f h u m a n
sh ap e o r characteristics to (>od.
A n tin o m ian s O p p o n e n ts o f (G od's) law, usually
in th e sense that faith alone brings salvation
a n d that obedience to the D ecalogue is u n n e c
essary.
Apocryphal U ncanonical: o f d o u b tfu l a u th e n
ticity o r auth o rity . O fte n re fe re n ce is m ade to a
c o rp u s o f m aterial know n as "O ld T esta m en t
A p o cry p h a o r New T estam en t A p o cry p h a.
d e p e n d in g on tim e w hen w ritten a n d fram e o f
reference. T h e "O ld T esta m en t A pocrypha"
(often simply called "A pocrypha" a n d includ
ing 1 a n d 2 fcsdras. T obit. I a n d 2 Maccabees,
an d o th e r works) norm ally no lo n g er a p p e a r in
P ro testan t Bible translations, th o u g h th e King
Ja m es V ersion originally inclu d ed them .
A podictic T h e form o f legal statem ent that
expresses general tru th o r obligation but does
not detail specific causes o r indicate (usually)
sanctions (see also Casuistic).
Astral P ertaining to th e planets a n d stars or
"starry heavens." In ancient tim es th e sun and
m oon w ere also tre a te d as p a rt o f th e astral
family.
Bruchae M onstrous legendary anim als.
Casuistic T h e form o f legal statem ent (i.e..
372
statem ent o f laws) th a t d eals with specific cases
a n d th e ir special o r individual sanctions.
Casuists Persons e x p e rt in, o r inclined to resort
to, casuistry . In both Ju d a ism a n d C hristianity,
casuists w ere e x p erts in law who refin ed a n d
redefined legal re q u ire m e n ts to m eet the
situations c u rre n t in th e ir tim e a n d place.
Catechumens Persons, especially adults, receiv
ing instruction in th e fu n d a m e n ta ls o f C hristi
anity be fo re baptism .
Codices Plural o f codrx. a m anuscript in book
form (as c o n trasted with a scroll). T h e te rm is
used especially o f those copies o f S c rip tu re o r
o f classical texts th at a p p e a re d in this form .
Coptic P ertaining to the Clopts (natives o f Egy pt,
d e scen d ed from th e ancient in h ab itan ts o f that
country), th e ir language, c u ltu re, et cetera.
Coracle A sh o rt, wide boat m ade o f a w a terp ro o f
m aterial stretch ed o ver a w icker o r w ooden
fram e.
Crypto Jews Jew s who practiced th eir religion
secretly a n d not by public avowal.
Cubits (2,000) A n ancient m easu re of length,
about 18 to 2 2 inches; originally, the len g th o f
the a rm from th e e n d o f th e m iddle fin g er to
the elbow. T h e "S abbath-dav's jo u m e v " o f
2.000 cubits w ould th e re fo re b e a b o u t three-
fifths o f a mile.
Cushitic D esignating o r p e rta in in g to a g ro u p of
languages spoken in E thiopia a n d East A frica,
constituting a subfam ily o f th e A fro-A siatic
family o f languages.
Decretalists D ecretalrelating to o r co n tain in g a
d ecree; hence, specialists in th e study o f
d ecretals, particularly papal decrees.
Diaspora Jews A term to indicate the w idespread
settlem ent o f |ew s outside Palestine.
 GLOSSARY
E n th u sia sts R eligious fanatics o r zealots, o ften
believing them selves to be in sp ired o r pos
sessed by a divine pow er o r spirit. In C hristtan-
itv these have a p p e a re d th ro u g h o u t th e history
o f th e c h u rch . M ainstream R eform ers o f the
sixteenth c en tu ry (e.g.. L u th er) co n sid ered
various radical re fo rm e rs, in cluding A n ab ap
tists. as "enthusiasts."
E q u in o c tia l R elating to e ith e r o f the equinoxes
(spring o r a u tu m n ), w hen n ig h t a n d day are
equal in length.
E rastian A dvocating th e su p re m e au th o rity o f
th e state in c h u rc h m atters.
E so teric In te n d e d fo r o r u n d e rsto o d by only a
chosen few, as an in n e r g ro u p o f disciples o r
initiates; said o f ideas, d octrines, lite ratu re, et
cetera.
E tiological m y th T h e concept th at a story is
created a n d told to assign o r seek to assign a
cause for som e m o n u m e n t, lan d m a rk , stru c
tu re , b o u n d ary , e t cetera.
F am ilists M em bers o f a mystical a n d som ew hat
a n tin o m ia n sect o f s ix te e n th - a n d sc v e n -
teen tli-cen tu ry E u ro p e who believed that law
was som ehow restricting to o n e s personal
relationship with G od.
Form c ritic ism A m eth o d o f Biblical criticism
th at seeks to classify units o f S c rip tu re into
literary p a tte rn s (as love poem s, parables,
sayings, elegies, legends) anil that a tte m p ts to
trace each type to its p e rio d o f oral transm is
sion in an eff o rt to d e te rm in e the original form
and th e relationship o f the life a n d tn o u g h t o f
th e p e rio d to the d evelopm ent o f th e literary
tradition.
Haggadah N onlegal lore o f Ju d a ism , including
anecdotes, historical accounts, a n d o th e r illus
trations o f legal principles.
H alakah (H alachah) T h e a u th o rize d a n d n o rm
ative law o f Jew ish religious life, based p rin ci
pally u p o n the Mosaic law to g eth e r with the
post-Biblical Rabbinic codes a n d in te rp re ta
tions.
H a sid ism A belief th at em phasizes joyful w or
ship o f a n im m an en t G od by m em bers o f a sect
o f Jew ish mystics th at o rig in ated in Poland in
th e e ig h te en th century.
Imago Dei T h e im age o f G od (Gen. 1:26, 27).
m itatio Dei Im itation o f God.
In te rd ic tio n A n official prohibition o r restraint.
In terte sta m e n ta l O f. relating to, o r being the
p eriod o f several c en tu rie s betw een th e co m p o
sition o f th e last canonical book o f the O ld
T esta m en t a n d th e w riting o f th e books o f the
New T esta m en t.
K enites A nom adic o r sem inom adic tribe o f
sm iths, who in th e la tte r h a lf o f th e second
m illennium b .c . a p p e a r to have m ad e th e ir
livelihood as m etal craftsm en a n d lived in the
n o rth e rn p art o f th e Sinai Peninsula.
K id d u sh c u p In Ju d a ism , used d u rin g a b e n e
diction recited o ver w ine o r b re ad o n th e eve o f
th e Sabbath o r a festival.
L ev irate A custom o f th e Jew s in Biblical tim es by
w hich a d e a d m an's b ro th e r was obligated to
m arry the widow if th e re w ere n o sons.
373
L ib e rtin e s F reeth in k ers, especially in religious
m atters.
Logia M axims a ttrib u te d to a religious leader:
especially sayings a ttrib u te d to Jesus.
M enology A c alen d a r o f the m onths, with th eir
events.
M onotheism B elief that th e re is only o n e God.
Mysles O n e initiated in to the m ysteries.
N im bus A bright cloud supposedly s u rro u n d in g
gods o r goddesses a p p e a rin g o n e a rth ; o r. an
a u ra o f sp le n d o r a bout any person o r thing.
O g d o ad T h e n u m b e r eig h t; o r any g ro u p o r
series o f eight. In the early C hristian cen tu ries,
c e r t a i n G n o s tic h e r e t ic s r e f e r r e d to th e
"O gdoad" in th e ir a n tim a tte r m ythology (the
V alentinians. e.g., had a n O g d o ad , a D ecad.
and a D odecad m th e ir system o f aeons).
O straca Pottery frag m e n ts co n tain in g w riting.
P a ra en e sis An ex h o rta to ry com position
P e n tec o n tad Based o n fifty; specifically, an
ancient system o f calendation su p p o sed to have
been stru c tu re d u p o n fiftv-day periods.
P h ilo Hellenistic Jew ish p h ilo so p h er o f A lexan
d ria . who lived f. 20 b . c . - a . d . 50.
P h y la cte ry E ith e r o f two sm all lea th er cases
holding slips inscripted with S c rip tu re pas
sages: o n e is fastened with lea th er th o n g s to the
fo reh e a d a n d o n e to th e left arm by O rth o d o x
o r C onservative Jew ish m en d u rin g m o rn in g
p ra y er o n weekdays (see D eut. 6:4-9).
Piel (p i'el) A H ebrew verbal form th at intensifies
the m eaning o f th e w ord.
P ro le p tic O f. relating to, o r exem plifying pro-
lepsis, i.e., an ticipation o f an event. Especially,
prolepsis can be the describing o f a n ev en t as
taking place before it could have d o n e so. or
the tre a tin g o f a fu tu re event as if it h a d already
h ap p en e d .
Pseudepierapha A g ro u p o f early w ritings not
included in th e Biblical canon o r th e A pocry
pha, som e o f which w ere falsely ascribed to
Biblical characters. (See also A pocryphal.)
P u n ic T h e N o rth w e s t S e m itic la n g u a g e o f
ancien t C a rth a g e, a dialect o f P hoenician. It
survived until c. a . d . 500.
Q u a d rig a In ancient Rom e, a tw o-w heeled c h a r
iot draw n by fo u r horses abreast.
Q u a rto d e c im a n P ertaining to observance o f the
Passover celebration o n the basis o f the fo u r
teenth o f N isan as th e day w hen the Paschal
lam b was killed. In early C hristian history, the
C hristians w ho celebrated th e ir an n u al com
m em oration o f C h rists d e a th a n d resu rrectio n
o n th e basis o f this sort o f reckoning w ere
called Q u a rto d ec im a n s ("F o u rteen th ers").
Q u o tid ia n Daily; re c u rrin g every day; usual o r
o rdinary.
Rebbes In Ju d a ism . H asidic rabbis (singular,
Rebbr).
R e d ac to rs E ditors those w ho a rra n g e in p ro p e r
form fo r publication.
S arc o p h ag u s A m ong th e ancient G reeks and
Rom ans, a lim estone coffin o r tom b, often
inscribed a n d elaborately o rn a m e n te d .
S atrap T h e g o v ern o r o f a province in ancient
Persia.
 T H E SA B BA TH IN S C R IP T l'R E AND HISTORY
Septuagint T h e l ir a venacular translation ol the
O ld T estam ent. T h e translation was m ade tn
th e G re ek language in the th ird a n d second
cen tu ries B.C.
Sola Scriptura T h e fam ous P rotestant principle
e n u n ciate d by L u th e r o f "T h e Bible a n d the
Bible alone."
Soteriology P ertaining to. o r the stud> of.
salvationespecially th e salvation believed m
C hristian theology to have been accom plished
th ro u g h Je su s C hrist.
Spinoza D utch Jew ish ph ilo so p h er (1632-1677)
w ho tau g h t th at th e re is out o n e infinite
substance. C o d (or N ature), having infinite
a ttrib u te s o f which only th o u g h t a n d extension
a re knowable.
S yncretistic C om bining o r reconciling d ifferin g
beliefs o r practices in religion, philosophy, et
cetera, o r an a tte m p t to effect such com pro-
Teleological H aving the n a tu re o f o r relating to,
design, p u rp o se, final in ten tio n , o r cause.
TuuUlik In Ju d a ism , a H asidic saint o r holy m an.
Ugaritlc P ertaining to U garit, an ancient city-
state n e ar the M e d ite rran e a n coast in n o rth e rn
Syria (n e ar the m o d ern Ras Sham ra), w here
vastly im p o rta n t C an aan ite m aterials were
fo u n d . Frequently th e term "U garitic" is used
fo r th e ancient Semitic language know n from
U garit.
Uncial D esignating o r p e rta in in g to a form o f
large, ro u n d e d I n t e r used in th e script o f
G reek a n d L atin m anuscripts betw een a . d 300
a n d 900 ("capital letters").
Vernal equinox O ccurs a bout M arch 21. O n e o f
the two tim es w hen th e sun crosses th e e q u ato r,
m aking night a n d day o f equal length in all
p arts o f th e e a rth
SCRIPTURE
INDEX
 Scripture Index

3 1 :1 3 .................. ... 3 4 . 3 5 . 3 6 . 51 16:10 46

G E N E SIS 3 1 :1 3 -1 7 . .. ........................... 30 20 :20 76
1:1 .... ...................................... 23 3 1 :1 3 , 14. 16 . ............. 3 4 . 3 6 2 3 :2 5 95
1 24
........................................... 31:14 .................. ..................... 2 4 . 25 2 9 :1 . 1 .......................... 33
1 3 1 .. ....................................... 23 3 1 :1 4 . 15 ......... ..................... 2 4 . 25
2 1 .. ...................................... 23 3 1 :1 5 .................. ............ 2 9 . 3 3 . 34
1 SA M UEL
2 :1 -3 . ..................................2 4 . 35 3 1 :1 6 .................. ......... 3 4 . 36. 2 8 3 2 1 : 1-6 95
2:2 ...................................... 23 3 1 :1 7 .................. *)*) 04
................3 5 . 3 6 . 87
2 K IN G S
2*2*4
..................................2 3 . 24 ....... .................... 33 4 :23 .. 5I
2 :3 .... .. 2 4 . 2 5 . 4 9 . 2 3 5 . 2 8 2 3 4:21 .................. ..................... 3 3 . 95
2:4 .... ..................................... 23 3 4 :2 8 .................. ........................... 33
2 C H R O N IC L E S
9 :1 3 . ....................................... 36 3 5 :2 ..................... ... 2 4 . 2 5 . 2 9 . 33 36:21 52
9 :1 3 . 117 ....................................... 36
9 :1 5 . ....................................... 35 L EV ITIC U S N E H E M IA H
17:11 ....................................... 36 18:4 ___ 7 7 9 :1 4 .......... 52
2 3 :1 -3 . ...... 4 6 1 3 :1 7 . 18
EXOD US 2 3 :2 ... ___ S3
16:5 . ....................................... 2 6 23:2-4 . ..... 102 E CCLESIA STES
16:5. 2 9 ............................... 27 2 3 :3 .... ....... 2 9 11 2 143
16:13. 14, 2 6 . 2 7 .................... 102 2 3 :4 -1 5 ....... 4 6
16:22 ....................................... 2 6 23:11 .. ...... 3 2 6 ISA IA H
16-22 3 27 2 3 :1 5 . 16 ...................................... 3 2 6 1:10-20 47
16:23 ................2 5 . 2 6 . 2 7 . 34 2 3 :1 5 -2 2 . 46 1:13 .... 16
16:23. 25 ............................... 2 9 . 33 2 3 :2 3 -2 5 46 6:3 74
16:23. 2 5 . 2 6 . 2 9 .................... 27 2 3 :2 6 -3 2 46 3 0 :1 5 72
16:23. , 3 0 ............................ 27 2 3 :3 3 -4 3 . 46 4 3 :1 2 72
16:25 .................................2 6 . 27 2 6 :4 2 . 4 5 47 5 6 :2 . 47
16:25. 26 ...................................... 2 6 56:4 . 47
16:26 ....................................... 27 NU M BERS 5 6 :6 . 47
16:26. 27, 2 9 . 3 0 .................... 27 1 5 :3 2 -3 6 ..... 83 5 8 :1 2 ______ ________________ 360
16:28 ........................ 2 6 . 2 7 . 30 2 8 :2 6 ............ 46 5 8 : IS ...................................... 48, 127
16:29 .............................. 2 6 . 102 5 8 :1 3 , 14 ................... 4 7 . 48. 360
16:30 ....................................... 2 6 DEUTERONOM Y 6 6 :2 3 _________ _____ 15, 19, 216
2 0 :2 . ...................................... 234 5 :12 .......................... 2 5 . 3 0 , 31 , .32
2 0 :8 ........................ 2 5 . 2 9 . SO. S2 ____ 3 3 . 34 , 49
JE R E M IA H
...................... .... S S. 4 9 . 7 2 85 5 :12. 14. 15 49 7 :1 -8 . 3 0 ............................. .......... 4 9
20 : 8-10 .......................................... ... 2 8 2 5 :12. 15 ........ 34 17:2 2 . 2 4 .................. ............ ...... 4 9
20:8. 10. II ......................... ... 49 5:13 IS 17:27 .............................................- 49
20:8. II .......... ................. .... 29 5 :13. II 32 74
.... 2 9
2 0 :9 .................................................. 5:14 2 4 . 31 , 32 2 7 :2 1 . 2 2 . 2 4 ............................. 4 9
2 0 :9 . 10 2 4 . 49 ........ 33 , 49 31:31 ..... !...................................... 156
20:10 2 4 . 2 9 . S 2. SS. 127. 2 3 5 5:14 15 31
2 0 :11 .....................2 2 . 2S . 2 4 . 29 5 :1 5 S I. 32, 298 L A M E N T A T IO N S
S2. 3 5 . 282 5:15 ie 73
2 0 :1 6 ...... 35 7:8. 9 . 12 33
2 3 :1 2 ...... 33 9 :9 . I I . 15 ............................. 33

376
S C R IPTU R E INDEX

377
GENERAL
INDEX
 Ge ner a l Index

A A nahita, 316
A nastasius: anti-Sabbath position, 156
A n d rew s. J o h n N evins: articles in n w , 255
A b e lard , P eter, 203 in T ransylvania. 224
A cra, 62 investigation o f beginning o f Sabbath. 252
A d d re ss to the C h ristia n N obility o f the G erm an o n Sabbath conferences. 250
N ation (L uther), 216 publisher. 359
A dom nan (b io g rap h er o f C olum ba). 194 rep resen tativ e to Seventh Da\ Baptist G eneral
A dvent A w akening ( 19th re n t ): in A m erica. Srt C o n feren ce. 253
M illerites Sabbath history classic, 251. 361
A dvent H a rb in g er: Bale's Sabbath articles in. w ritings o n Sabbath. 367
357 A nglicans: position o n S abbath. 229
A dvent R eview , T h e: its beginning. 359 A n n a eu s, 63
its role, 251 A n n als (T acitus). 333
A dvent R eview a n d Sabbath H e ra ld , T h e, 367 A nselm o f A lessan d ria: on sandal w earing o f
A dv en tist R eview , 251 W aldenses. 208
A gainst th e Je w s (Dionysius), 156 A nte-N icene F ath ers, 347
A gainst the Jew s, C o n c ern in g th e Sabbath i |o h n A nthology (Valens): sequence o f stars in relation
of Dam ascus). 156 to days o f week. 140
A g ric u ltu ra l w ork: fo rb id d en o n Sabbath, 95 A n tin o m ia n s, 239
perm itted on S abbath, 328 A ntio ch u s E p ip h a n es: a n d Sam aritans. 67
A g rip p a II, 65 Jew s o p p re sse d by. 62. 6-1
A haz, 52 A ntio ch u s I E p ip h a n es: a u th o r o f M ithraic rock
A him elech gave T em p le bread to David. 95 reliefs. 3 17
A hura-M azda, 315, 316 A ntio ch u s V II S idetes, ti3
A kiba: his rule. 75. 76, 83 A n to n in u s, 86
m arty red , 73 A p h ra h at, 154-155
on circum cision. 75 A pion: e x p lan atio n for S abbath. 67
A ksum : C hristianity in. 174 A pocalypse: "th e L ord's day" in, 125. 126
fo re ru n n e r o f E thiopia. 174 A po cry p h al books (N T ): Acts o f Jo h n , 347. 350
Sabbath a n d Sunday observance in, 185 Acts o f P eter, 347
A lan o f L ille: verbal attack against W aldenses. Epistle o f th e Apostles, 347
208 G ospel o f P eter, 347
A lcu in , 191 A pollo: in sy nag o g u e for w orship, 134
A le x an d e r o f H ales, 205 A pollonios, 62
A le x a n d e r III, 204 A postolic C a n o n s, 153, 176. 179
A llen, W. C., 102 A p o s to lic C o n s t i tu t i o n s ( p r e s c r ip tio n s l o r
A lm agest (Ptolcm v): as earl astronom ical bible. Sabbath a n d S unday), 153. 155. 179, 194,
312 324-325, 329, 330. 348
A lopen: arrival in C hina. 159 A postolic T ra d itio n (IliutioU tus). 173, 179.335
A lt, A., 28 A quinas, T h o m a s. 205-206
A lvarez, F rancisco: mission to E thiopia, 180 developed Sunday observance fo r C atholic
A m abili ecclesiae c o n co rd ia, De (E rasm us). 209 Churc h. 284
A m brose, 138, 238 A ram aic p a p y ri, 57
A m erican H ebrew (Jewish jo u rn a l), 267 A rm enia: C hristianity in, 162-163
A m os: Sabbath in. 44-45 A rm en ian U n iates: establishm ent of. 162
A nabaptists: a n d the Sabbath. 220-222 A rm stro n g , G a rn e r T ed , 254

380
 GEN E R A L INDEX Carlstadt

A rm stro n g , H e rb e rt W., 254 B axter, R ic h a rd , 236

A rndt, W. F 99 Bede, 191
A rta x e rx e s II. 315-316 Berea: Sabbath in, 109
A sinaeus, 65 B erechiah, 82. 87
A slak Bolt, B ishop, 209 B erenice (sister o f H e ro d the Y ounger), 137
A sochia (G alilee): attacked on S abbath, 63 B erm udez, Jo a o , 180, 181, 185
A ste riu s o f A m asea. B ishop, 152, 325 B ern ard , Ja c q u e s, 218, 219
A strological w eek: in Rom an E m pire, 308-309 B ern ard , R ich a rd : advocates Sunday Sabba
A strology: in H ellenistic age, 312 tarianism , 236-237
influence in W estern lands, 310-314 B eth ha-M id rash , 86
A th an asiu s, B ishop, 142, 174 B ethel, 58
A th a n asiu s A n a p h o ra (E thiopia text). 180 Bezae, C od ex , 97, 103
A tonem ent, Dav of: o fferin g s o n , 75 B ible A dvocate: B ate's Sabbath articles in. 357
on Sabbath, 84 B ie te n h a rd t: g a v e cosm ic a n d m e ta p h y sica l
A ttalus I, 316 m eaning to S abbath. 59
A u g sb u rg er, D aniel, 218. 219, 220 differences betw een Z adokite D ocum ent and
A u g u stin e , 137, 138 Book o f Jub ilees, 61
an d S u n d av k eep in g , 190, 191. 192 B lum enkranz, B.: o n lu d aiz in g c u rre n ts, 196
flexibility o f w orship re q u ire m e n ts, 194 B obiensis, C o d e x , I 15
resu rrec tio n reason for Sunday keeping. 142 B oethusians, 326
A u g u stin e o f H ip p o , 330 B ond, A hva J . C .. 259, 290
A u g ustus, E m p e ro r o f R om e, 309. 310. 314 Book o f S p o rts (Janies 1): cond em n atio n o |
S abbatarianism . 232-233
B orow itz, E ug en e B., 276
B B ow nd. N icholas, 230. 231, 237, 353. 360
prop ag atio n o f tra n s fe r th eo ry . 235-236
B rab o u rn e, T h c o p h ilu s, 234
Baal Shem T ov, 273 defense o f seventh-day Sabbath. 237
B abylon: Fall o f to M edo-Persia, 315 asked to recan t, 238
s y m b o liz in g c h u r c h e s re je c tin g ju d g m e n t- B reaking o f b read : at T ro as, 123-124
h o u r m essage. 353 B row n, D avid, 340
B abylonian: planetary system , 3 1 1 B ruce, F. F., 98. 122, 123, 335
sexagesim al c o u n tin g svstem (hour). 313 B uber, M artin: w ritings on Sabbath, 270-271.
zodiacal year, 311. 312. 272-273, 274
B acchides: Sabbath-day attack o n Jo n a th a n , 63 B ucer, M artin : on strict Sunday observance.
B acchiocchi, S am uele, 343, 348 217-218, 2 2 0 , 226
B aeck, Leo. 270, 271. 274 B udge, E. A. W allis, 176
B all, B ryan W., 239 B u ltm an n , R u d o lf, 279
B am pfield, T h o m as, 238 B u rn t o fferin g (s): o n Sabbath. 53. 341
Bang, B ishop: o n S abbathkeeping revival in
N orw ay. 2 0 9 -2 10
B arabas, Steven, 124
B arkokeba w ar: Jew ish persecutions, 136
c
B arley h a rv est, 326
B arnabas, 6 8 . 133, 142. 143 C ad b u ry , 123
B arnabas: and Paul at |eru sa!em C o n fe ren c e, Calendar(s): o f Jub ilees, 336
I 10 Rom an farm . 309
B arnabas o f A le x an d ria, 330, 350 liturgical o f th e Essenes. 336
Joy o f keeping the e ig h th day, 323 d e te rm in a tio n o f dates, 76
S u n d a \ references. 347 Mitecontad. 2 2
B arnes. A lbert, 340
B arth. K arl: n e o -o rth o d o x theology on Sabbath,
280-284, 292. 300
S u m rn . 67
istu s. B ishop, 137
d ecree for Sabbath fast, 138
B artholom ew , B ishop, 177 C alvin, J o h n : a n d B arth in ag reem en t on
Bates, Jo s e p h , 250, 252 S abbath, 280-282
conversion to A dventism , 248 and Jew ett in disag reem en t on Sabbath. 288
co rrelatio n ol Sabbath a n d heavenly sanctuary , 289
354-355 Sabbath-Sunday theology. 215, 218, 2 2 0
identifies "m ark ol th e beast," 356 Cam D om naig (Law o f Sunday). 200
o ffers ad ditional concepts, 352, 354. 357-360, C annon, W. W ., 30
362 C anones P o e n ite n tia les (A rchbishop P eter o f
Sabbath theology, 352-355 A lexandria). 169
sp eak er at Sabbath conferences, 249 C anons, C ollection of. See t'ethn Sagast
B au m g a rten , 67 C a p itu la (R udolf o f B ourges), 202
B avarian Laws: o n Sunday keeping, 199 C ap itu la (T h eo d u lf o f O rleans). 202
B avinck, 287 C arlstad t, A n d reas: treatise on Sabbath com-

381
Caroli GENERAL INDEX

m an d m en t, 217 C occejus, J o h a n n e s, 287

C a ro li, P ie rre : C atholic-P rotestant C ohen, G ary, 299
d cb ale (1535), 219 C ohen, H e rm an n : set fo u n d a tio n fo r Reform
C assian, J o h n . 1 3 7 ,3 3 0 Ju d a ism thinking. 269, 271. 274
custom s o f m onks, 170-171, 194. 195 C ole, T im o th y , 357
C atech ism u s R om anus: theological position of C olossians 2:16; bibliography on, 341-342
Sundav w orship in C atholic C h u rc h , 284 C olum ba, 194-195
C elsus: his p lanetary lad d e r. 314 C o n fe ren c es (Cassian): on m onks a n d sacra
his seven gates. 315 m ents. 171
C eltic C h u rc h : Sabbath in. 194-195 C o n fe re n c e s" o f 1848: sanctuary-S abbath con
C erem o n ial law , 339 cepts. 358, 360
nailed to cross. 353 C o n g re g atio n alisis, 353
C erem o n ial Sabbaths, Je w ish . See Sabbaths. C o n ra d i, L. R., 224. 251. 361
C erem onial C o n stan tin e: c o n stitu tio n s o f, 140
C e ru la riu s , M ichael, 197 C o n sta n tin e I, 153
C h a fer, L. S., 289 C o n sta n tin e th e G reat. 330
C h a p p iu s, J e a n , 219 his Sunday law" edict, 152, 318, 328
C h a rle m ag n e : a tte m p t to e n fo rc e Sunday rest. C o n stitu tio n o f the H oly A postles (Syria). 151
201-202. 203 C o n tan s II, E m p ero r, 162
C h a rle s, 59 C o n tra Ju d a e o s (Isidore), 191
C h arles I, 237 C onybeare, F. C., 123. 162
C h arles II, 238 C oom bs, K. F., 291
ejection o f P u ritan s from A nglican C h u rch , C optic C h ristia n s. E g y p tia n , 173
233 C optic C h u rc h . 185
C h arles V, 222 in A lexandria, 176
C h elin i, 197, 198 C o rin th , Sabbath in, 109
C h ild e b e rt II: law p ro h ib itin g Sunday w ork, 198 C osm ic w eek, 73, 143
C h rist. See Je su s C hrist See also C reatio n week
C h rist a n d the Sabbath (Prescott), 362 C ottrell, R osw ell F., 247
C h ristia n P ascha. See E aster (Sunday) an d Seventh Da B aptist G eneral C onference
C h ristia n ity T o d ay (m agazine), 286 m eeting. 252
C h ristologv o f th e New T esta m en t, T h e (Cull articles in Review, 255
m an). 288 C o u n cils. See C h u rc h Councils
C h ro n icle s, I a n d II: Sabbath in, 52 C raig, 125
C h ry so sto m , J o h n , 144, 154, 238. 329 C ranfield, C. E. B., 98. 1 14. 1 15
hom ilies, 196 C ra n m e r, T h o m a s, A rc h b ish o p :
C h u rc h C o u n cils: C halcedon, 162 influence o n ch an g e o f S abbath, 234-235
C lerm ont, 207 C ra u tw ald , V alentine: response to Fischer
D abra M itm aq. 177 doctrin e, 221-222
Frioul, 196 C reatio n , 283, 34 1
Laodicea. 175. 196. 329 an d Sabbath, 279, 289, 295, 296
Les E stinnes, 201 covenant betw een G od a n d m an. 2 9 7 .299,300,
Macon. Second, 198 343
M anazkert. 162 early theology of, 142-143
N arb o n n e, 198 relationship to Sabbath. 271-272
Nicea, 175 C re atio n w eek: in Jewish a n d Jew ish C hristian
O rleans. 192. 193 circles. 143
Q uinisext. 154, 162 o f Genesis. 280
C h u rc h D ogm atics, B arth, 280 C ro sie r, O . R. L., 257, 355, 356
C h u rc h H isto ry o f B rita in (Fuller), 237 C ross, F rank, 58
C h u rc h o f J e s u s C h rist o f L atter-day S aints, 291 C rypto-Jew s: first Jew ish settlers in W estern
C irc u m c isio n , 110, 157, 170, 173, 221, 329 H em isp h ere. 2+1
custom co n d em n ed , 137 C u llm a n n , O scar: theology of, 287-288, 292
exem p tio n o f G entiles becom e C hristian. 134 C ult o f Sol In v ictu s, T h e (H alsbergher), 139
no value fo r salvation, 339 C u m o n t, Franz, 3 6 1
observed by W aldenses. 209 C yril, A rc h b ish o p o f A le x a n d ria , 172, 185
on S abbath, 75, 101 C y ril II, 175
C ity o f G od (A ugustine), 191 C y rill I II, 175-176
C larke, A dam : on Sabbath, 340
C la u d iu s, 181
C onfession o f Faith," 181 D
death of. 182
C lem ent V III, 182
C lem ent o f A le x an d ria, 346, 350 D am is, 310
C lem e n tin e R eco g n itio n s, 155 D arius I, K ing: his Megophotua. 315. 316
C liffo rd , Sir L ew is, 209 Dawit, K ing. 177

382
 Farei

Day o f A tonem ent. Srf A tonem ent. Dav of E dson, H ira m , 248. 558. 560-361. 362
Day o f S a tu rn . S et S a tu rn . Day o f on m ark o f the beast. 356
Day o f the L ord. Srr L ord's dav on tru e concept o f sanctuars cleansing. 257.
Day o f th e Sun. Srr S un. Dav of 354-355
Day-Star iM illerite periodical), 355. 356 E du catio n o f the C lergy I M aurus): o n Sundav
Dead Sea sc ro lls, 74 sacredness. 202
D ecalogue: Sabbath dav o f, 278. 282. 296, 301. E dw ards, Jo n a th a n , 355
335, 338. 539 E gyptian C h u rc h O rd e r, 175, 179
a n d A ugustine. 328 E ight-day m arket w eek, 508
not nailed to cross, 353 E ighth day: as endless tim e, 68, 191
D efence o f th a t m ost A n cien t a n d S acred as hrst tlav o f week. 203. 323. 547
O rd in a n c e o f G ods, the Sabbath Dav. A A ugustine a n d . 191
(B rab o u rn e), 237 circum cision o n , 170
D eH aan, R ic h a rd W ., 290 early theology of, 145
D eissm ann, 125, 127 Je ro m e a n d . 145
D ellon, C.: o n Inquisition im p riso n m e n t. 161 m arket holidays, 309
D em etriu s, 63 Eleazar ben A zariah, 76
D engel, S artsa. 182 E lep h an tin e: |cw ish garrison, 62
D eutero nom ic D ecalogue, 279, 282, 28S O straca discovery. 57
D eu tero n o m ic law , 103 E lephantine-S yene: A ram aic p a p \ ri of. 37
D ew in (T evin), S ynod of, 162 E linu on th e Sabbath: Seventh Dav Baptist tract.
D ialogue w ith T ry p h o ( | list in), 141, N 3 361
D iam per, S ynod of, I (>(). 161 Eliot, J o h n , 240
D iaspora, 335 E lizabethan se ttle m e n t, 230. 252
lews in E gypt. 61 E ossi, A n d reas: in au g u ra tio n o f Sabbath m ove
D idache (m anual), I0S m ent, 225
fasting, 336 Sabbath w ritings of, 224
L ord's dav. 547-348. 350 F.piphanius, 155
D idascalla, 175, 179. 182 E pistle o f B arnabas (anti-Judaic), 145. 172
D idascalia A p o sto lo ru m (m anuscripts), 162-165 E rasm us, 209
D ilthev, W ilhelm . 272 E rastians, 252
D im i, <6 E rub, 74, 81. 82
D ionysius B ar Salibi, 156 E ru b in , 74
D isputation o f S e rg iu s th e S tylite against a Jew , E ssenes, 74, 75, 526. 555
T h e , 156 abslinances of, 556-557
D isap p o in tm en t o f O ct. 22, 1844: E ssenism , 555
theological d ivergence on sanctuary following. E tru scan s, 508
257, 554-555. 9 9 6 E tym ologies (Isidore). 191. 192
D isp e n sa tio n a lism , 292 E u ch arist, 125. 127
D ispersion. Ser D iaspora celebration fo rb id d en by C h u rc h o f Rom e, 158
D issertation against th e Je w s (A nastasius), 156 in D id a c h r , 548
D ivine rest: its im plications. 296-297 in E gypt. 171, 175
D octrine a n d C ov en an ts, T h e (M orm on), 291 Sundav celebration, 159
D octrine o f the S abbath, T h e (B ow nd): its W aldenses' u nbelief in. 208
influence. 250-252 E u d o x o s, 5 11
D odd, C. H .. 100. 106. 355 E ugene II, 199
D olabella: m ilitary exem ption ol Jew s. 62. 65 E um enes II, 316
D om inique d e M onb o u so n , 219 E usebius, 135, 141, 172. 518. 529
D om itian, 157 E u th a th iu s. 162. 176. 177, 185
D ugger, A. N., 254 house of. 176-177
D ugm ore, C. W ., 127. 548 E vangelicalism , 292
D um ah (angel). 73 E vangelists, 94
D urand o f H u e sc a. 208 E xile, th e , 52
Exj>lanation o f th e T y p ic a l a n d A n ti-T ypical
S an ctu ary , . . . A n (Bates), S60
E Ezana, K ing, 174
Ezekiel: Sabbath in, 50-51
F asiladas CIEN URAL INDEX

Failada. K ing, 184, 185 C o p p e ll, L eo n ard . 136

F asting: .distention from as Salitwlh observance, C o rg ias, 63
G ospels: n a tu re of, 105
controversy o f Sabbath. 329-330 G reat C o n tro v ersy , T h e (White. 358
F ausset. A. R., 340 G reat Schism o f 054. 196
Feast day(s), 58. 278 G reat Second A dvent A w akening 1 19th ceni.>:
o | Baal. 46 in A m erica. Srr M illeritcs
Feast(s), 46. 52 G reat W ar, 63
icle b ra tio n o f. 51 G re e n h o rn . R ic h a rd : advocate o f S undas Sab-
term in atio n o f a p p o in te d . 50 liatli. 236
Festival(s), 63 G regory IX : de ree lo r Sundas keeping. 204
das Ik- abolished. 210 G regory o f N yssa. 194. 325
of barley harvest, 326 G regorv o f T o u rs. 198. 199
Fetha N agast ("Legislation of th e Kings"). Fthio- G regory th e G re at. 191. 192. 193. 194
pic, 1/5 G ro sh eid e. 125
F ilipos, Abba, 177 G ru n fe ld , Isid o r, 268
Fine el A dom o n itio n e, De (P seudo-E phraim ). G u illa u m e d e R en n es. 206
154 G u n th ra m , K ing: his edict for Sunday o b
F in lan d : Sabbath observance in. 225 servance. 198
I A pology 67 (Justin M artyr). 330-331 G ustavus II A d o lp h u s. K ing, 225
F irst day o f the w eek, 347 T u stav u s I V asa. K ing, 225
in Jo h n . 120-122 G u tb ro d . W.. 110
in L uke. 1 18-11<1
in M ark. 114-116
in M atthew , I lit-1 18 H
m eeting at T ro as, 122-124
offerin g collection on. 124-125
resu rrectio n o f C hrist. 1 15, 290 H ab d alah , S6
w orship on, 289 H a d ria n . 137
F ischer, A n d reas, 221-222 his edict. 135-136
Foakes-Jackson, 123 outlaw s Sahbaihkecping. 136
F o h rc r, G., 28 siege o f. 135
F rankel. Z ech ariah : fo unding ol C onservative H aggadah, 72-74
Ju d aism . 267 H aggai, 87
F reer G ospels, 115 H a h n , F. B.. 355
F rio u l, Synod of, 203 H alakah: Sabbath rules in. 74-75
K rontius, 139 H all. D. P.. 253
F ru m c n tiu s o f T y re , 174 H alsb erg h e. G aston H ., 139
F uente, C o n sta n tin o Ponce d e la, 222. 223. 226 H am p to n C o u rt C o n fe ren c e. 232
F ulbert o f C h a rtre s, 196 H a n in a, Jo se ben , 72. 81, 85
F u ller. T h o m a s, 2 3 1, 237 H a rm o n , E llen, 248
F u rb iiy . G uy, 218-219 H arn ack . A dolf. 361
H a rris. J . R en d el. 348
H asel. G e rh a rd F., 221
G H asid ism . 270. 272-273
H ealin g s on S abbath. Srr Sabbath. H ealings o n
H elena. 181)
G ab riel, Abba, 177 H e lle n istic M ilh raism , 315-318
G aius: dealh of, 65 H ellen istic p e rio d : Sabbath observance. 57-58
G am ble. Sam uel W alter. 2 9 1 H e lle n ists, 134
G ates o f P ra y e rT h e New U n io n Prayerbook, H e n n eq u in o f L angle: d e ath of. 209
275 H en ry o f A u x e rre : ecclesiastical origin ol S u n
G eesink, W ., 285. 287 day sta te m e n t. 203
G em ara, 7 I H e rac liu s, 155. 162
G e n e r a l C o n f e r e n c e : M in n e a p o lis se ssio n H e rc u la n e u m . 139
(1888). 362 H e rin g . J ., 125
G en eral m ee tin g s. Srr Sabbath conferences H esch el, A braham J o s h u a . 275. 302. 361
Geraty, Lawrence T., 3 Is 549 on concept o f bonnes in tim e. 260
G ese. H .. 28 on universality o f S abbath. 273-275
G ilfillan, Ja m es, 237 H eylyn, 233. 235
G iovanni d a Im ola, 180 H ip p a rc h u s. 3 1 1 .3 1 2
G isch ala, 65 H ip p o ly tu s, 137. 138. 324
G lail, O sw ald . 221. 222 H irsc h , Sam son R aphael. 267. 268
G n o stic ism . 361 H isto ria L ausiaca (Palladios). 170
C o d M eets M an: A T heology o f th e Sabbath and H istory o f the .Sabbath a n d F irst Dav o f the W eek
Second A dvent (K uhoi. 260 (A ndrew s). 251. 361

384
 GEN ERA L INDEX K e n ite s

H iyya b a r A bba, 79. 87 . antes I, 232, 233

H o ld h e im , S am uel, 266-267 am ieson, R obert, 340
H om ilia d c Sem entc (Pseudo-A thanasius), 169 a n n ai, 72
H o m ilies (A p h rah at), 154 ' ehoiada: his a rra n g e m e n t o f coup d'Hal, 5 1
H o m ilie s ag ain st th e Je w s (C hrysostom ), 154 e n n i, E rn st, 287, 288, 292
(Jacob o f S e ru g ), 1n4 on Sabbath c o m m a n d m e n t, 282-283
H om ily T w o a g ain st the Je w s (Isaac o f A ntioch),
154
H o n o riu s: law of, 153, 154
j e rem ia h : S abbath in. 49-50
e ro m e o f J e ru sa le m , 97. 141. 152, 154. 192. 196.
328
H ope o f Isra el, as A T ra c t S how ing th a t the Je ru sa le m : battles on Sabbath in. 62
S eventh Day S h o u ld Be O b serv e d as the C o n feren ce a n d Sabbath, 109-111
S abbath, T h e (Preble), 248 destru ctio n of, 135
H orace, 139 not original place o f Sunday w orship, 323
H osea: Sabbath in, 45-46 e su s C h rist: Sabbath o bserver. 93-94, 288. 335
H o u rs: equinoctial, 313 esus-M essiah S utra (docum ent). 159
H ow son, 123 ; ew ett, P a u l K., 94. 288-289. 292
H u itfe ld t, C h risto p h e r: his edict im posing fine ' ew ish re b e llio n , 65
for S ab b ath k eep in g , 225 ew ish re v o lt, 64
H una, 80 ew s: d e n o m in a tio n s of. 70
H u ss, J o h n , 207 m assacre of. 64-65
H ym n fo r S atu rd ay V esp ers (A belard), 203 observance o f Sabbath in conflict situations,
H y rc a n u s, J o h n , 63 61-65
Sabbath religious activities, 66-67
I w elcom ing o f Sabbath, 85-86
Jo h a n a n , 72, 76
I a n d T h o u (B uber): its im pact on Jew ish J o h n o f D am ascus, 65, 156, 190
theology. 272 Jo h n s , A lg e r F., 61
Ibn al-A ssa(, 175 Jo h n s so n , W illiam G., 343
Ib rah im . A hm an ib n : incursions of, 181 Jo n a th a n , 63
Ico n iu m , 107 Jo n e s, A., 182
Ig n a tian E pistles: o n Sabbath observance, 151 J o s e , 75, 86. 101
Ig n atiu s, B ishop, 325, 348-350 Jo s e p h , 61
Ig n atiu s II, 17b Jo se p h u s , F lavius, 60, 62. 63, 64, 66. 67. 103,
In d ia, C h ristia n ity in , 160 116, 308
In n o c en t I, 137 ubilees. Book of, 61, 62, 74, 75
In n o c en t III, 208 u d a h , 71
In q u isitio n , 161, 209, 244 u d ah ben B athyra, 76
In q u isitio n at G oa, T h e (Dellon), 161 | u d ah the P rin c e , 85-86
Insabbati. See W aldcnses ' ud aism , A m erican : C onservative, 244-245. 267
In stitu te s o f th e C h ristia n R e lig io n (Calvin), 220 O rth o d o x , 244-245
In stitu te s o f the C oenobia (Cassian), 170 practice outlaw ed, 1 1 1
In te rn a tio n a l B ible S tu d e n ts A ssociation (Jeho R eform . 244-245
vah's W itnesses), 291-292 Ju d a iz in g C raze, 195-196
u d a s, 63
In te rn a tio n a l date lin e , 364
function of, 365-367 u d ith , 58
In te rn a tio n a l P rim e M e rid ia n C o n fe ren c e o f ; u liu s III, 181
1884: date line established, 365-366 ' ustification by faith , 333
In v in c ib le Sun: least of, 141 ; u stin M a rty r, 347. 348, 350
Ioane d e C alab ria, 180 c o n d em n atio n o f Sabbath, 137
Irela n d : Sabbatarianism lim it re ac h ed . 200 day o f th e S un, 140
Iren a e u s, 116, 346-347 resu rrectio n as basis for Sunday w orship. 133,
Isaac, 84 142
Isaac, E p h ra im , 177 Sunday m eetings, 141, 323, 330
u stin ia n I, 153
Isaiah: Sabbath in. 46-49
Isc h iu s, 238
Ishm ael, 76. 77
j u venal, 137

Ish u -Yab, 158

Isid o re o f S eville, 191-192, 196, 202 K
Isk in d ir, K ing, 180
Islah, 57. 58
K araites, 74, 75
K aro, J o s e p h , 71
J K asem ann, E rn st, 279
K eh ath ites, 52
acob o f S erug, 154 K enite o rig in : theory, 22
jacobite, 163, 176 K enites, 278

385
K erygm a GENERAL INDEX

K erygm a. 106 L o rd 's Day, T h e : A T h eo lo g ica l G u id e to the

K idan. 179 C h ristia n Day o f W o rsh ip (Jewett). 288
K id d u sh (ccrcm ony), 85, 86 L o rd 's Day A llian ce o f th e U n ite d States, 286
K ierk eg aard , 272 L o rd 's S u p p e r: at T ro as. 123
K im b ro u g h , 60 cessation o f in Rom e a n d A lexandria. 323
K ings, I a n d II: Sabbulh in, 5 1-5i2 fo rb id d en in Rom e. 142
K line, M. G., 35 on S unday, 142, 280
K n u d . 202 L ucius, 238
K oelm an, Ja c o b u s, 284-285 L u m in o u s R elig io n (C hina). 159
K o o le .J. L., 287 L u th e r. M artin, 2 15. 2 16-217. 2 2 0 ,2 8 1. 288. 289
K raft, R obert A., 349 L ydia, 108
K ubo, Sakae, 260-261
K uriake (G reek for S unday), 126
K u v p er, A braham , '285, 2H7 M
K yriake (Sunday), 173

M accabean p e rio d , 63
L d efensive w a rfare |K-rm itted o n S abbath. 76
M acG regor, 123
M cKay. D. O . 291
Lake, 123 M a^gid, 275
L am entations: Suhbaih in. 50 M aim onides (Moses lien M aim n). 71. 96
Lam m , N o rm an , 268, 269 M anna a n d th e Sabbath, 26
L aodicea, C o u n cil of: anli-Sabbath ta n o n . I'.Mi M anson, T . W ., 99. 334
L aodicea, S vnod of, 151. 153 M arcio n ites. 138
L aud. W illiam , 233. 237. 238, 240 M arduk. 311. 315
Laws o f th e A lem ani (on Sundaykecping). 199 M ark o f th e beast, <61
L ebna D engel, 180, 185 M arket day(s). 22. 278. 283, 309
his d efeat, 181 M aronites, 152
L eCoq, A. von, 159 M arqos, B ish o p , 180
L enski. R. C. H ., 335 M arsh, J o s e p h , 357
L en tu lu s, C ossus, 309 M artial, 137
Leo the Isa u ria n 153-154 M artin o f B raga, 197
Les E stinnes, C o u n c il of, 2 0 1 M artin. R a lp h . 124
Let G od Be T ru e (Jehovah's W itnesses), 291-292 M artrv d o m o f P o ly c arp , 103
L etter fro m C h rist (on S u n d a \k e e p in g p u n ish M aruthas, B ishop, 15/
m ents). 200 M arvelous W ork a n d a W o n d er, A (Rk hards),
L etter from H eaven (on S undavkceping). 192. 2 t |
193-194, 199. 201 M ashafa B erh an iBook of L ight) (Zara Yaqob),
L etter from J e s u s (woes to Sunday breakers). 200 177. 179
L etter to th e D iscip les o f th e L o rd , A-, 255 M ashafa T o m a r (Book o f th e L eiter), 182
L evi, 72 M altathias, 62
Levi Isaac, 275 M au ru s. R ab an u s, 191, 196. 202-203
L evi, T esta m en t of, 58 M ayence, sy n o d of, 204
Lew is. A. H ., 230. 290 M azdayasnian, 315, 316
L iber A n tih ere sis (E b rard o f B cthune), 208 M eal eatin g : versus vegetarianism ill Knman
L iber ex Lege M oyse I Mosaic com m ands). 200 c h u rch . 334-335
L ic in ia n u s, B ish o p , 192. 193 M edieval In stitu tio n s a n d th e O ld T estam en t
Life o f C olum ba (A doninan). 195 (C hvdenius). 197
L ife o f P a tric k (M u irchu), 195 M eesters. J . H 278
Life o f S everus (Z acharias Scholasiicus). 172 M eg ap h o n ia ( "killing o f the Magi"). 315
L indsell, H a ro ld : o n Stale legislation for "Ix ird s M eir. 70
D as observance. 286 M elakah: m eaning, 78. 82
L ite ra tu re , A nti-Jew ish. 154-157 M elakhah: T alm u d ic concept. 268
L ohse, E d u ard , 96. 102. 104. 107. 117. 278. 279 M e lan ch th o n , P h ilip , 217
L o llard s. 209 M e n d en h all, G ., 28
L o rd 's d a y . 195 M endez, A lp h o n so , 184. 185
a pplied to Sablialh. 172. 238 M enezes, A leix o d e: his d e cre e, 160
a pplied to S u n d a v . 152. 190. 194. 198. 200. M essala: triu m p h of. 309
236, 240, 285, 324. 325, 329. 346. 349. 350 M ethodists, 353
B arth's theologs o f. 281 M etzger, B ru ce, 97
in ap ocryphal sources, 347 M id n ig h t C ry, T h e (M lierile p a p er). 247
in Aboitolu Comtilutwiu. 330 M ikael. Abba. 177
in DuUuhr, 348 M illenary P e titio n (refo rm m easures o f P u ri
in Revelation 1:10. 125-127. 289 tans). 232
re su rrec tio n theologs m otivation, 142. 144 M iller. W illiam , 352. 353. 354

386
 GENERAL INDEX P h ilip III

M illerism , Hi I in Isaiah. 216

M illeritc A dvent m ovem ent: identifying ihcm es, N ican o r, 63
Sabbath attack on Ju d a s, 62
M illerites. :154, 358 N ich o las I, 196
A dventism , 352-353, 3(52 N ietzsche, 272
g ro u p s now exant, 256 N im ru d D a g h : M ith raic a rc h a e o lo g ic a l d is
im m inent A dvent proclam ation, 247 coveries at. 317
sanctuary concept divergence, 258-259, 359 N isan, 76. 104
M illigan. A., 104 N oble. A bel, 241. 245
M inas. 182, 185 N ovatianism , 157
M ingana, A., 157
M inna, 86
M ishnah, 71, 74, 78. 95, 97. 106
o
M ithra (Persian doitv), 315. 316-317
im p o rtan t to sun follow ers, 314 O c tav iu s, 314
origin, 316 O n E aster (Iren aeu s), 347
M ithraca (day o f th e Sun), 140 O n the L o rd s Day (Eusebius). 172
M ithracum (sanctuary): o f th e Seven Portals, 314 O n the Sabbath a n d C irc u m c isio n (A thanasius).
o f th e Seven S pheres, 315 142
M ith raism , 361 180th m e rid ia n : day first begins. 365. 366
b irth o f Hellenistic, 316 127 A postolic C a n o n s, T h e (Arabic). 173
sp re ad of, 3 17 O p e n in g H e av e n s. T h e (Bates). 355
w estern, 315 O pse de sabbaton: in te rp re ta tio n . 1 17
M ithras (Invincible Sun), 141 O ra l law, 70
cult, 310, 314, 317-318 o f rabbis for Sabbat h keeping. 94
M ith rid a tes (P arthian leader), 65 O rig e n , 324
M onophvseism , 162 O rp h ic M ystery, 334
M onroe, E 182 O rth o d o x C h u rc h , 163
M oodv B ible In stitu te , 290 persecutions. 210
M oore, G. F.. 60 O rth o d o x Je w : S abbath is ep ito m e o f existence.
M orris, L eon, 101, 124 268-269
M osaic Law: B arbarians' reliance o n . 197-198 O stra ca , 57, 58
for cerem onial act, 76 O viedo, A n d r de, 181, 182. 185
on crim inal d e a th , 116
M otzaev Shabbath (rabbinic), I 17
M oulton, W. F., 104
P
M uktzeh: Sabbath laws p roh ib itin g thin g s to be
h a n d le d , 79 P ach o m iu s, 170
M u m fo rd, S tep h en : first C hristian Sabbatarian Paez, P e ro F., 182, 185
in New W orld, 245 P agan m y th o lo g ies, 24
S aturday Sabbatarian p ro p a g atio n . 240-241 P a fiad iu s, 170
M u rray , J o h n , 285 P a ra s k e u i (day o f p re p a ra tio n ). 103
P aris, S ynod of, 202, 203
P a rth ia n s, 63
N P assagini. 208, 209
P assover, 104
P aul: a n d B arnabas travels, 106-107
N a p h tali, T esta m en t of, 58 a n d Silas travels, 108
N a rra tiv e o f th e P o rtu g u e se E m bassy to A bys in Ephesus, 109
sin ia (Alvarez). 180 vision o f M acedonian pleading. 107-108
N ath an . 76. 85 P aul V, 184
N azarenes, 135 P aul o f B urgos, 206
N azareth: Sabbath service in, 93-94 P eehi, Sim on (son of Eossi), 223, 224
N e an d e r, 125 P enrose, C. W ., 291
N eh em iah : Sabbath in. 52 P e n tec o n tad c a le n d a r. See C a le n d a rs )
N eill, S te p h en , 160 P entecost, 63
N ero. 317 P ep in th e S h o rt, 2 0 1
d e ath of. 136 P e rsiu s, 137
N e sto rian : C h u rc h . 163 P e ter (A rchbishop o f A lexandria), 169
d o cu m en ts in In d ia. 160 P e to siris (h an d b o o k o f astrology), 312, 313
M onum ent disc o v e n . 159 P e tro n iu s, 137, 139
N e sto rian ism : a d o p tio n o f by Persian C h u rch , P etu ch o w sk i, Ja c o b J ., 275
157 P h a risa ism , 70
New m oon(s), 59, 339 P harisee(s), 75, 303
a n d Sabbath relationship. 4 5 .4 7 .4 9 .5 1.5 2 .6 6 . P h ilip (Abba). 180
76 PhU ip III , 182

387
P hilo G EN E RA L IND EX

P hilo, 61. 64
discusses synagogue services, 66
on m an n a a n d Sabbath, 67
R
theology o f Sabbath, 67
P h ilo stra tu s, 139, 310 R abast, H ., 28
P icard s, 209 R abbinic J u d a is m , 70
P ierce, S te p h en , 358, 362 d eath penalty of, 61
P irk e d e R abbi E liezer, 73 R abbinic p e rio d , 58
P irm in , 199-200 R abbinic Sabbath: positive observance, 83-87
P isid ian A ntioch: S abbath services in, 106-107 R abin, 59
P ittsb u rg h P la tfo rm o f 1885, 267 R ackm an, E m a n u el, 268
P la cid u s, L actan tiu s, 316 R ad, G e rh a rd von: on divine rest, 297
P la n eta ry w eek, 310, 313-314 R adical R e fo rm a tio n , 220
d istinguishing featu res. 308-309 R am say, W illiam W 118
in ancient Rom e. 140 R eform Je w s, 274, 275
Plato, 310. 346 R eform J u d a is m , 266, 267
P lau t. W. G u n th e r, 275 R eform ra b b in ica l c o n fe re n c e s (1844-1845),
P liny, 350 267
P liny th e Y ounger, 349 R e fo rm a tio n Era: S a bbathkcepers, 223
P lu m m e r, A lfred , 94 R e fo rm a tio n in S pain, 222
P lu ta rc h , 137. 139, 317 R ep u b lic (Plato). 346
P o m p eii, 139 R e su rre c tio n o f J e s u s , 282
P o m p e y , 63, 65, 3 17 a rg u m e n t For Sunday w orship. 326, 330. 361
P opes. See A lex an d er 111; C lem ent V III; E ugene H is a p p e a ra n c e s a fte r, 116, 118-119, 120-121
II; G regory IX ; G regory o f Nyssa; G regory R eview , 252
o f T o u rs; Inn o cen t I: in n o ce n t III; Ju liu s R ic h a rd s, Le G ra n d , 291
III; Sylvester R ic h a rd so n , H e rb e rt W ., 286
P o rten , 57, 58 R ich te r, J u liu s . 160
P ra tt, O rso n , 291 R ig h etti. M ario, 141
P reb le, T h o m a s M., 353. 355, 360 R o b erts. B. H ., 291
im p o rta n ce o f his Sabbath articles. 248 R o b e rtso n , A. T ., 3 4 1
P re sc o tt, W. W ., 362 R o d in so n , M axim e, 174
P re se n t T ru th . T h e: beginnings, 249-250, 359 R o d rig u ez , G o n zales, 18 1
h a rb in g e r o f Sabbath, 251 R om an C ath o lics, 232
P re sto n , R a ch e l O akes: First S ab b a lh k e ep e r to R om an C o u n c il o f 826, 199
becom e A dventist. 247 R o rd o rf, W illy, 279-280, 288, 292
P ro sab b ato n , m eaning. 93 R osenzw eig, F ran z, 271-272. 273. 274
day be fo re Sabbath, 103 R oss, A le x a n d e r, 173
P ro te sta n t S entinel (Seventh Day Baptist), 246 R o u en , S ynod of, 203
P seu d o -A th a n asiu s, 170 R ow ley, H . H ., 28
P seu d o -E p h raim , 154 Roz, F ran cisco , 160
P seu d o -G reg o ry o f N yssa, 155 R u d o lf o f B ourges, 202, 203
Ptolem aic p e rio d , 61 R u les (C ohnnba s For m onks), 195
Jew s as soldiers. 62
Ptolem y (C laudius Ptolem aeus), 312-313
Ptolem y L ath y ru s, 63
Ptolem y S oter, 62
s
P u n ish a b le S ab b ath b reak in g , 82-83
P u rc h a s, S am uel, 152. 157 Sabbata, m eanings, 92. 93. 108, 341
P u ritan (s), 229, 232, 284. 292 S abbatarian: A dventism em e rg en c e . 248
ch an g e o f S abbath, 234 A dventists, 256. 257
c oncept o f the C ovenant, 233-234 A nabaptists, 221
kept Sabbath to h o n o r G od, 241-242 Puritan(s), 230. 239. 360
Sabbatarian theology, 353 Sundav civil e n fo rc e m e n t, 201-202
P u rita n ism , 354 S ab b atarian s (M oravia), 217
P u rk ise r, W. T ., 290 Sabbath, T h e (H e sd iel), 274-275
P u tn a m 's H an d B ook o f U seful A rts, 252 Sabbath: a n d A dvent, im p o rta n ce to each o th er.
P y th ag o ras, 310 256-259
P y th a g o rea n s, 334 and C ovenant, 36, 297
and sign. 33-35, 47, 51. 283
Q a rb itrarin e ss oF, 302-303
as C reatio n o rd in an c e. 280, 284, 287, 2 9 2 .2 9 6
as relativization oF m an's w ork, 301-302
Q u in tilia n , 137 cosmic a n d m etaphysical m ea n in g in th e lubi-
Q u m ra n , 58, 60 lees, 59
Q u m ra n c a le n d a r. See C alcndar(s) d e te rm in a tio n oF begin n in g oF. 251-252

388
 GEN E R A L INDEX Seventh-day Adventist(s)

etym ology of, 67-68 S eventh Day C h u rc h o f G od. 254

evangelical theologies o f tra n s fe rre d . 284 S trangite C h u rc h o f Je su s C hrist o f L atter-dav
illum ination o f m an's attitu d es, 300-301 Saints, 254-255
im p o rtan ce o f to Jew s, 71-72 W orld H cadciuartcrs o f C h u rc h o f G od. 254
in te rp reta tio n s o fo v small d e n o m in a tio n s and W orldw ide C n u rch o f G od. 254
se n s. 290-292 Sabbaths, C erem o n ial: a fte r Israel's deliverance
positive relevance of, 259-260 from E gypt, 336
real n a tu re of, 96 in Colossians 2:16, 338-339, 340
Sabbath in h isto ry : catalyst for unitin g A dvent n u m b erin g of, 67
ist believers. 2^0-251 weekly rest days. 46. 5 1, 52
controv ersies betw een Je su s a n d Jew s, 94 Sabbatius, 157
conflict o f plucking grain o n . 94-95 Sabbato, De (A p h rah at). 155
cooking on. 79. 9 / Sabbaton, 3 4 1
cubits, lim its o n . 81-82 Sabbaton: m eanings. 92, 93. 105, 173
d e a th penalty for desecration o f. 59. 61. 83 Saeki, P. Y., 159
fasting in tro d u c e d by C h u rc h o f Rom e. 138 Saga za-Ab (Zaga Zabo), 180-181
in C arolingian p e rio d . 202 Saint P a tric k , 195
in Philippi. 107-108 Sam bathion, f>8. 61
in T hessalonica. 108-109 S am aritans, 74, 75
pro fan a tio n o f, 47, 51, 52. 60 an d S abbath. 67
pro fan a tio n p e rm itte d . 76 Sam pev, 94
Sabbath c o n fe re n c e s. T h e . 249 Sam uel b a r N achm an, 87
Sabbath davs: historic view o f. a rg u m c n ls. 338 S anctuary, heav en ly : cleansing of
339 equated with Second C om ing, 352. 353
Sabbath d a y 's jo u rn e y , 74. 106 S a n h d rin , 73. 116-117
Sabbath. H ealin g s on: dem oniac, 97 abolished. 136
Jesu s' d efen se of. 100-101 tieginning o f. 70
m an at pool. 99-101 declaration o f first day o f m o n th . 76
m an b orn blind. 101 Satu rd ay -S u n d ay o b serv an ce, 324
m an with d ro p sy . 99 in A rm enia. 162
m an with w ithcrtrd h a n d , 97 in Asia. 151
Peter's m other-in-law , 97 in E gypt. 169-173
w om an with "spirii o f infirm ity," 98-99 in E thiopia. 180-181
Sabbath, H ow to keep, 25. 27, 48, 49 in M m ha/a Hrthan. 177-178
Sabbath In stitu tio n , T h e (M urray), 285 S atu rn . Day of, 140
S abbath, T he: Its M eaning fo r M odern Man S a u n d e rs. H e rb e rt E., 260. 290
(H cschel), 260, 276 Saw ana N afs (R efuge o f th e Soul). 183
Sabbath p ro h ib itio n s: bv Jerusalem C o n feren ce. Saw iros, 175
110 Saw m a. R abban, 159
in Book o f Jub ilees, 58-59 School o f M enasseh. HO
111 Ma.stmfa h r than. 178 S chw enkfeld. C asp er: his response to Glait's
in Z adokite d o c u m e n t. 59-60 theology, 221
rabbinic, 77-82 S c ru tin iu m S c rip tu ra ru m iPaul ol B urgos), 206
Sabbath observance: anti-Judaism Seal o f G od. 258
influence on, 153 Seal o f th e L iving G od, A , . . . (B atesI, 359. 360
early anti-Jcw ish lite ratu re o n . 154-157 Sealing: process of Revelation 7. 357
in the Arctic. 367-368 Second A dvent M ovem ent o f 1844, 254
in R eform ation Era: Second A dvent R eview a n d Sabbath H e rald .
in N orw ay, 224-225 T h e. 247. 2 5 1 ,2 5 5 . 257
in Sw eden, 225 beginning of. 359
m otivations for: Second A dvent W ay M arks a n d H igh H e a p s .. . .
day o f ho p e, 299-300 (Bates). 356
day o f rejoicing, 298-299 Segal. M. H 30
dav o f rest, 297-298 Selected T estim o n ie s fro m th e O ld T estam ent
Sabbath R e co rd e r, T h e, 24ti ag ain st th e Je w s (Pseudo-G regory o f N'vssa).
Sabbath rest: m eaning til, 295-296 155
S abbath, T he: Sym bol o f C reatio n a n d R e cre a S enchus M or (ancient law). 195
tio n (S aunders), 260, 290 Seneca, 137
Sabbathai, ti I S eptu ag in t, 126, 341
S abbathkeeping: A m os on. 45 S ergius, 156
S abbathkeeping sects: A dventist Serm o S ynodalis, 203
C h u rc h o f Prom ise, 255 Seventh-day A d v en tism . 343. 354
C h u rc h o f G od. 254 Seventh-day A d v en tist B ible Com m en ta r * . -
C h u rc h o f C od a n d Saints in C hrist, 254 Seventh-dav A dventist(s). 252 2 '-
C h u rc h o f C od. In tern a tio n a l. 254 257. 2a9. 352. 354. 357. 361. 1 6 i -
G erm an Seventh Dav Baptists, 254 C h u rch . 249

389
Seventh-day B aptist GENERAL INDEX

nam e ad o p te d , 250 cults' influence on C h ristian w orship. 140-141

publication, 251 w orship a n d p lanetary week, 139
Seventh-day B aptist M issionary M agazine, T he, S und ay (m agazine), 286
246 Su n d ay : becom es rest day, 328, 329
Seventh Day B aptist(s), 247, 252-254, 246, 257, ch an g e from Sabbath claim by C atholic m onk.
258, 259, 3.52. 353, 354, 355, 359, 360. 361. 218-219
362 earliest w orship evidence a t A lexandria and
A dventist ind eb ted n ess to, 255 Rom e, 323
ch u rch e s established, 245 early theology of, 142-144
establishm ent in A m erica, 241 ecclesiasticafinsdtution. 204
Sabbath as unification o f w orld peoples. 291 em erg en ce o f its p re d o m in an c e . 326-328
Sabbath observance. 251, 252 first w ork curse. 172
Sabbath theology . 290 legislation in New W orld, 240
Sabbath T ract Series, 255 L ord's day. evidences used for
S aturday-S unday position, 240-241 Dtdarhr (docum ent), 347. 348
Seventh Day Sabbath, A P e rp e tu a l Sign, T h e Ignatius' letter to M agnesians. 347-349
(Bates), 48, 353, 354. 355, 356, 36<f Pliny's letter to T ra ja n . 347, 349, 350
Severus, S ep tim iu s: diffusion of planetary week, substitution fo r Sabbath, 202-203
314 sunset-to-sunset celebration, 203
Shabbath (M ishnah tractate). 94 Sunday observance: as rest day in m edieval
Shabbetha i A ram aic), 341 p e rio d . 192
Shabbethai (Aram aic), 57 C onstantine's law (3 2 1). 152
Sbebuth (laws o f Sabbath rest). 79 d a te o f beginning. 135
S h ep ard , T h o m as, 240 E aster festival, 327, 330
S h e rith Isra e l: first U.S. Jewish c ongregation. in pagan w orld. 314
244 R om an Catholic basis for, 215
S him 'on ben M enasva, 96 S unday S abbath. 2 8 1
S h u lc h an A ruch (Karo): digest o f Jewish law, 7 1 S unday: T h e H isto ry o f the Day o f R est and
S h u n am m ite w om an, 51 W o rsh ip in th e E arliest C e n tu rie s o f the
S iculus, N ich o las, 207 C h ristia n C h u rc h (R ordorf), 279
Silas a n d T im o th y : travels of, 109 S u n d ay , T h e T ru e Sabbath o f G od (G am ble). 291
Sim eon, 82 S usenyos, 185
Sim eon ben L akish, 72 edict against Sabbath w orship. 183
Sim eon ben Y ohai, 72, 83 proclaim s religious freed o m . 184
Sim eon: rebellion of, 183 Sw ete, H . B.. I f t
Sim lai, 85 S ylvester, 137
Sim m el, G eorg, 272 Synagogue p re a c h in g : a n d Sabbath. 106
Sim on, M arcel, 336 S yrus, r.p h ra e m , 329
S in a iticu s (uncial codex). 115
Sinodos, 179
Sm ith, J o s e p h , 291 T
Sm ith, U ria h , 253, 255
sanctuary a n d Sabbath co rrelation, 258
Socrates S ch o lasticu s, 151-152, 157, 171,172, T ac itu s, 136, 137
194 T alm age, J a m e s E., 291
on S aturdav-S undav observance, 323, 3 2 4 .3 2 6 T alm u d , / 1
Sol In v ic tu s d ull), 139 T ang d ynasty: d a te o f first C hristianity in. 159
Sola S c rip tu ra , 219. 222. 288 T an n a itic p e rio d , 76
Solis d ie s (day o f the sun). 314 T ao r, 170
Soloveitchik, Jo s e p h B., 268. 276 T ch e rik o v e r, 57-58
So ren so n , C. M., 361 T ea ch in g o f Ja c o b , T h e (treatise), 156
S o/om en, 152. 171. 172. 323. 324. 326 T e ria n , A braham , 163
Sp ald in g , A rth u r, 249 T e rtu llia n , 138. 140. 315
S picer, W . A., 247 T esta m en t o f o u r L ord, T h e (E d iio p k ). 179
Stahlin, G ustav, 98 T etrab ib lo s (Ptolem y), 312
S tephan iking o f fliin g arv ): bis Sunday edicts, T ex tu s R ecep tu s, 107
202 T h e o d o re t o f C y rrh u s, 152
Stew art, J o h n , 160 T h e o d o siu s I, 157
S trang, J am es J ., 255 e x ten d s Sunday restrictions, 328
Strong, A. H 285 T h e o d u lf o f O rle an s, 202, 203
S u d in es, 316 T h e o p h ilu s, I 19
Sum m a c o n tra H a e re tic o s (Passagini beliefs). T h era peu tae, 66-67
209 T h eses S abbatica (S hepard). 240
Sun, Day of, 328 T h ib a u t, J o h n B aptiste. 348
im p o rtan ce in pagan Rom e, 3 1 4 -3 1 8 T h o m a s ( Abba), 176
Sun: veneration of. 140-141 T h o m a s C h ristia n s, 160-161

390
 G EN ERA L IN D EX Zw ingli

T h re e a n g els' m essages, 2 58, 354. 357. 360. 361

first angel's m essage, 353
w
second angel's m essage, 353
W aggoner, E llet J ., 362
th ird angel's m essage. 249. 356
W aggoner, J . H ., 253
th ird angel's m essage linked to S abbath. 355
W aldenses, 207-209
T h u rin , B erto u l: execution of, 209
W allis, J o h n , 237
T ib e rias (synagogue), 67
W ar: betw een R om ans a n d Jew s, 64-65
T ib e riu s, 140
W a s h i n g t o n , N ew H a m p s h i r e , C h r i s t i a n
T ib u llu s, A lbius, 139. 309
C h u rc h : first S abbatarian A dventist co n g re
T im e reck o n in g : on a ro u n d w orld, 364-365
gation. 247
T im o th e u s I. 1 / 0
W aterm an, G. H ., 23
T in n e u s R u fu s, 73
W elch, C h a rle s H 126
T irid a te s I, 317 W esberry, Ja m e s P., 286
T is b ri, 76 W heeler, F re d e ric k : first A dventist to observe
T ith in g : on Sabbath, 81 Sabbath. 247. 248
T itu s, 65 W hite. E llen G.. 343. 358, 361-362, 368
T o ra h , 71. 76. 79, 87, 157, 244, 338. 339, 272
on divine rest, 297
T ra ja n , 317. 349
re lationship o f Sabbath a n d th re e angels'
T ra n s fe r th eo ry , 234. 235, 237, 292
m essages, 258-259
T ran sy lv a n ia n S a bbatarians, 223-224
visions
T rask , J o h n , 237 confirm ing Sabbath observance, 248
T rav e l: on Sabbath, 102-103 of G od's seal as Sabbath, 359
T re n t, C o u n ter-R e fo rm a tio n C o u n c il of, 215 o f heavenly sanctuary a n d Je su s in Most
T r u e S a b b a th S a t u r d a y o r S u n d a y , T h e Holy Place. 356. 258
(Coom bs). 291 W hite, F ran cis, 238
2300 days, 352, 257 W hite, Ja m es. 248. 252. 253. 255. 358, 360-361
T y an a eu s. A p o llo n iu s, 309-310 fo u n d e r o f Sevcnth-dav A dventist C h u rch .
247
u W hite, Ja m e s a n d E llen, 250. 358, 362
m arriage d a te . 356
speakers at Sabbath conferences. 249
W hv C h ristia n s W o rsh ip o n S unday (D eH aan),
U lle n d o rff, E dw ard, 173-174 290
U n ited A rm e n ia n s. Srr A rm enian U niates W illiam s, A. L ukyn, 154
U n le av e n ed B read, days of. 134
W inter, G. B.. KM
W olff, H a n s W ., 301
W om en: in Jew ish c u ltu re . 114
V preach in g by W aldcnsian. 208
W ycliffe, J o h n , 209
V a eh arsh ab ad . S ynod of, 162
V alens, V ettius, 140, 316 X
V a len tin ia n , C ra tia n : e x ten d s Sunday restric
tions, 328 X erx es I, 315
Van D er V een. R. J ., 287
Van G oudoever, J ., 327
V arthem a, L udovico d i, 160
v
V asco d a G am a, 160
Vaiqob. 176, 177
V aticanus (uncial codex). 115
Y ohannes I, 184. 185
V eloso, M ario, 222
on R eform ation in Seville. 223
V espasian, t>4. 136 z
in tro d u c ed Jew ish tax. 137
V ic to rin u s, 138 Za D engel, 185
V in c en tiu s, 192 edict of, 182
V in d ica tio n o f the S evcnth-dav Sabbath. T h e excom m unicated, 182
(Bates). 357. 358 Z acharias S ch o lasticu s, 172
V iret, P ie rre , 218, 219 Z adokite D ocum ent, 59-61. 74-75
V ision, A (tract). 356 Z ahn, T ., 104
V isser, P., 287 Zara Yaqob, 175, 176, 177, 179. 180, 182. 185
V oetius, G., 285 Z enon, 62
Vos, G., 285 Z erikah, 84
V u ille u m ie r, J e a n . 159 Z oroaster, 315
V ulgate, 126 Z w ingli. H u ld re ic h . 215. 217. 288

391