Identify the roles of enzyme in metabolism, describe their chemical composition and use a simple

model to describe their specificity on a substrate:

- They are organic compounds acting as a catalyst speed up reaction or bring about a chemical
change
- They are proteins and amino acids folded and linked together.
- Lock and key model where one small part of the enzyme forms a complex with a substrate,
in an area called the active site.

Identify the PH as a way of describing the acidity of a substrate:

- PH is a scale related to the amount of hydrogen ions in a solution

- PH 7 is a neutral
- >PH 7 is a basic solution
- <PH 7 is an acidic solution

Explain why the maintenance of a constant internal environment is important for optimal metabolic
efficiency

- Enzymes control all metabolic process in the body

- Enzymes optimum efficiency happens when there optimum temperature and conditions are
met.
- If these conditions are not met then the enzymes fail to work at all.

Describe homeostatic as the process by which organism maintains a relatively stable internal
environment.

- Homeostatic is when the internal environment is the same no matter the changes in the
external environment.
- It includes temperature, PH gas levels, and water and salt concentrations.
- Allows the body to be kept as stable as possible

Explain that homeostasis consists of two stages:

o detecting charges from the stable state
o counteracting changes from a stable state
- A receptor detects changes in an organisms internal/external environment, sends a signal
via the PNS to the hypothalamus.
- The hypothalamus sends the signal back to the effector which can be a muscle or anything
which response to the stimulus and counteracts it.
- An example is the temperature gets to cold outside. The thermo receptors in your skin
(receptors) send a signal back to the hypothalamus. Then from there another signal is sent
to the muscles in your skin (effectors) which shiver and produce heat.

Outline the role of the nervous system in detecting and responding to environmental changes

- The nervous system contains two sub systems: the central nervous system (CNS) and the
peripheral nervous system (PNS).
 - CNS is the nerves in the spinal cord and the brain, PNS consists of the effector and receptors,
nerve impulse pass this information from the receptor to the effector neurons to the
effector.
- Blood vessels sweat glands, endocrines glands and muscles.

Compare responses of named Australian ectothermic and endothermic organisms to change in the
ambient temperature and explain how these responses assist temperature regulation.

Endotherms:

- The red kangaroo licks its paws, the skin is thinner and the blood is closer to the surface, so
heat is easily dumped outside. Evaporation of saliva promotes heat loss in blood.
- The rabbit-eared bandicoot have big ears which have a large surface area to pass excess
heat from the body to the outside

Ectothermic:

- Magnetic termites use insulation wood to keep their mounds warm in the morning and
afternoon and also keep it cool during the day.
- Bogong moths supercool there tissue to prevent ice crystals from destroying their cells.
- Insects in alpine areas are darker and smaller and bask in sunlight whenever possible to keep
warm.
- Antarctic ice fish produce antifreeze (glycoprotein) that prevents ice formation.

Identify some response of plants to temperature change

- Plants will be damaged when the temp changes, enzyme structure are altered or
membranes change.
- Cold conditions cause plants to dehydrate, so they change their solute concentrations which
stop the number of ice crystals forming in cells.
- In hot conditions, plants tend to keep their stomatas open and keeping cool by respiration,
this risks the plant dying from dehydration.

Identify the forms in which each of the following is carried in mammalian blood:

o Carbon dioxide o Lipids

o Oxygen o Nitrogenous wastes
o Water o Other products of digestion
o Salts
- Most carbon dioxide is carried in water which forms bicarbonate ions (HC03). Some is
attached to the haemoglobin and small percentage is transported in plasma.
- Oxygen attaches to haemoglobin and forms oxyhaemoglobin (HbO2).
- Liquid water is the solvent for 90% of the plasma
- Salt is carried as dissolved ions In plasma
- Lipids are carried in chylomicrons in the form of cholesterol and phospholipids
- Nitrogenous wastes are carried in the plasma
- Other nitrogenous wastes are carried in the plasma also.
Explain the adaptive advantages of haemoglobin

- Oxygen is not very soluble in water

- Organisms with haemoglobin are more efficient at carrying oxygen around their body then
those that dont have haemoglobin.
- In places with little oxygen, more haemoglobin is produced to counter this shortage of
oxygen.

Compare the structure if arteries, capillaries and veins In relation to their function.

- Arteries carry oxygenated blood from the heart under high pressure, have thick elastic walls,
they do not pump blood.
- Veins carry deoxygenated blood to the heart, not as high pressure as arteries so have to
have valves to prevent back flow.
- Capillaries are one cell thick to allow diffusion of materials through the walls

Describe the main changes in the chemical composition of blood as it moves around the body and
identify tissues in which these changes occur.

- Pulmonary system carries the blood from the heart to the lungs and back
- Systemic system carries the blood from the heart to the rest of the body and back.

Outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain why removal of carbon dioxide from cells is
essential

- Cells require oxygen in the process of:

Glucose + oxygen = carbon dioxide + water + energy

- Carbon dioxide is a waste product and should be removed in order to maintain constant PH.
- Prevents a build-up of carbonic acid, happens when carbon dioxide dissolves in water.

Describe current theories about processes responsible for the movement of materials through plants
in xylem and phloem tissue

- Xylem transports water and mineral ions upwards only, has thick walls stiffened with lignin.
- Phloem transports food and sugars up and down the plant, has walls with perforations and
cells have ends.

Explain why the concentration of water in cells should be maintained within a narrow range for
optimal function
 - Water is the solvent for metabolic reactions in cells
- Most cells die when water concentrations change in a cell
- It is a transport medium in plants, sugars for phloem and ions for xylem.
- Isotonic is concentrations of solutes is equal outside and inside the cell
- Hypertonic is when the concentration is greater inside than outside
- Hypotonic is when the concentration is lower inside than outside the cell

Explain why the removal of wastes is essential for continued metabolic activity

- If left in the body, it will disturb the homeostasis of organisms

- Nitrogenous wastes will cause PH levels to rise in the body resulting in a more alkaline
solution
- Carbon dioxide will make the blood more acidic
- Osmotic imbalance

Analyse information from secondary sources to compare and explain the differences in urine
concentration of terrestrial mammals, marine fish and freshwater fish

- Mammals conserve water and salts when required so the urine concentrations vary. One
major variable is the environment they live in. Produce and excretes Urea, happens via
active and passive movements.
- Marine Fish tend to loose water by osmosis, they urinate less to conserve water, excrete
excess salt and wastes in the form of urea and ammonia, small glomeruli for water
conservation
- Fresh water fish excrete water, this is because they are surrounded by water, have large
glomeruli to help excrete water, preserve salts and very dilute waste, ammonia

Explain why process and osmosis are inadequate in removing dissolved nitrogenous wastes.

- They are passive transports, relying on random movements of particles

- Diffusion is too slow and osmosis only deals with the movement of water, so it would only
allow water to move out of the body not nitrogenous wastes.

Distinguish between active and passive transport and relate these to process occurring in the
mammalian kidney.

- Active transport involves expenditure of energy, substance moves against the concentration,
where salt moves from a high concentration to a low concentration
- Passive transport no expenditure of energy, particles moves randomly from a high gradient
to a low gradient, osmosis and diffusion.
- Bowmans capsule, water returns via interstitial fluid from the tubule capillary, this is
osmosis.
- Ions in the blood, are transported to the tubule, drugs are also eliminated in this manner,
active transport, (Na, K, Cl, H) are the ions.

Explain the process of filtration and reabsorption in the mammalian nephron regulates body fluid
composition.
 - Filtration occurs in the Bowmans capsule where high pressure blood forces small molecules
out of the blood into the capsule.
- Water, Urea, glucose, ions, amino acid and vitamins, blood cells and proteins are too large.
- Many valuable components must be recovered by reabsorption.
- Reabsorption takes place along the proximal tubule, loop of Henle and distal tubule, occurs
to a select few valuable components.
- Ions, sodium, potassium, calcium, chlorine, bicarbonate, are reabsorbed. Active transport is
required with some of these components.
- The amount of water reabsorbed depends on the feedback of the hypothalamus.
- Chemical composition is controlled by the reabsorption of the glomerular filtrate.

Outline the role of the hormone, aldosterone and ADH (anti diuretic hormone) in the regulation of
water and salt levels in blood.

- Aldosterone is secreted by the adrenal gland, used to regulate the transfer of sodium and
potassium ion in the kidney.
- When sodium levels are low, Aldosterone are released to pass more sodium back into the
blood, water then flows from the nephron onto the blood by osmosis,
- Homeostatic balance of blood pressure.
- ADH or Vasopressin controls water reabsorption in the nephron
- When fluid levels drop, pituitary glands release the hormone which increases the
permeability of the ducts which collect water, more water is allowed to be reabsorbed from
the urine.
- When too much fluid in the body, the hypothalamus stops the release of ADH, therefore
urine more dilute and lower blood volume.

Define Enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in response to

variation in the environment and discuss its importance to estuarine organisms in maintaining
appropriate salt concentration.

- Enantiostasis is the maintenance of normal metabolic and physiological functioning, in the

absence of homeostasis, the organism is experiencing variation in the environment.
- Organisms in an estuary experience, large changes in salt concentration, and these
organisms are called Euryhaline.
- One strategy is to allow the bodys osmotic pressure to change with the environment, these
organisms are called Osmoconformers.
- Osmoregulators are mammals and fish that maintain homeostasis regardless of external
osmotic pressure
- Osmoconformers body functions are affected, such as activity of enzymes. For normal
function, another body function has to be changed.
- An example is when the salt concentration changes and in the body, a way to compensate
this is too change the PH which increase the efficiency of the enzyme.

Describe adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian plants that assist in minimising water loss.

- Stomatas or small pores that exchange gases essential for respiration. These gases include
oxygen and carbon dioxide and water vapour.
 - If the stomatas are kept open, the plant will experience transpiration and evaporation,
which could lead to dehydration.
- In hot conditions, hard and leathery leaves with reduced surface area, Needle shapes leaves,
use of phyllodes for photosynthesis rather than leaves, the orientation of the leaves, waxy
cuticle of leaves and bi-pinnate leaves help keep moisture and reduce water loss via
evaporation.

Gather, process, and analyse information from secondary sources to compare the process of renal
dialysis with the function of the kidney

- People with kidney problems who cannot remove wastes such as Urea and nitrogenous
wastes have to undergo dialysis
- There are different types of dialysis, haemodialysis, Renal and Peritoneal Dialysis
- Haemodialysis is done via a machine outside the body called a dialyser, takes 5 hours and
must be done 3-4 times a week, is done when a solution similar to blood is the medium for
the nitrogenous wastes to move into it via diffusion. Anti-blood clotting drugs are added also
- Peritoneal dialysis is when the lining of the peritoneal is used to filter the blood, only the
waste is removed out of the body. Repeated with new fluid every three weeks.
- Renal Dialysis uses passive transport; artificial membrane is used to filter out wastes. Slow
process, some ions may accumulate.

Present information to outline the general use of hormone replacement therapy in people who
cannot secret aldosterone.

- Aldosterone controls the reabsorption of salts and water in the distil tubule.
- Addisons disease occurs when Aldosterone is not secreted, therefore affecting blood
pressure and fluid levels.
- This can be replaced with fludrocortisone tablet once a day indefinitely
- Careful monitoring must be maintained for blood pressure and fluid levels

Use available evidence to explain the relationship between the conservation of water and the
production and excretion of concentrated nitrogenous wastes in a range of Australian insects and
mammals.

- Ammonia is a very toxic compound while urea is less toxic as it is made from amino acids.
- Uric acid is the least toxic which is slightly soluble, little water is lost with every excretions
 - Spinifex hopping mice excretes concentrated urea to preserve water
- Grasshoppers excrete paste, like uric acid to conserve water

Discuss processes used by different plants for salt regulation in saline environment

- Grey mangroves excrete salt into the water, it accumulates into old leaves that drop, so that
salt is out when they fall off
- Salt bushes store salt in swollen leaves which drop of, ridding the plant of salts
- Palmers grass washes away the salt which accumulates on the surface of the leaves

Perform a firsthand investigation to gather information about structure in plants that assist in the
conservation of water

- Eucalyptus have waxy and hard leaves, reduce water loss by reducing rate of transpiration,
hang down vertically
- Banksia sunken stomatas, reducing transpiration
- Wattle small and hairy, reduce size of evaporation, hairy leaves reduce transpiration by
trapping water
- Grevillia plants have narrow leaves to reduce the surface area, reducing transpiration

Outline the impact on the evolution of plants and animals

- Competition, physical and chemical changes in the environment impact on the evolution of
plants and animals
- To survive, an organism must have the ability to obtain crucial resources. If these are not
met, the organism might go extinct or change biologically. There have been evidence of
mass extinction and then a period of diversification of surviving organisms.
- The environment changing will affect the evolution of plants and animals to be better suited
to the task at hand of surviving. An example is peppered moths,
- Chemical change in the environment impact on the evolution of organisms, when DDT was
used on mosquitoes

Describe using specific examples how the theory of evolution is supported by the following areas of
study

- Palaeontology shows that organisms have changed over time, done via fossils. Similar
skeletons of modern and extinct animals show evolution has happened.
- Biogeography is the distribution of living things, throughout isolated places and can look at
distribution patterns and fossil records
- Comparative embryology is when they compare different embryo of vertebras, it suggests
that they had a common ancestor.
- Comparative anatomy provides common structure which support evolution such as the
Penta dactyl limb
- Biochemistry is organisms share some basic biochemistry, contain DNA, RNA, similar amino
acids
- Vestigial organs are then the common ancestor have some function similar to the modern
day species.

Explain how Darwin/Wallaces theory of evolution by nature selection and isolation accounts for
 o Convergent evolution
o Divergent evolution
- Convergent evolution happens when similar changes happen in two or more organisms
when the environment is the same.
- Divergent occurs when one organism changes and experiences an evolution due to a change
in their environment.
- Punctuated equilibrium is when an evolution occurs rapidly followed by a period of stasis,
rapid replacement of one species by another.

Analyse information from secondary sources to prepare a case study to show an environment
changes in a species.

- Climate can cause vegetation change.

- Kangaroos and emus adapted to live in the grasslands
- As the environment changes the animals die out or move away

Perform a first-hand investigation or gather information from secondary sources to observe, analyse
and compare the structure and a range of vertebrate forelimbs

- Homologous structure of animals further support evolution

- Penta dactyl limb used by a variety of animals but has changed and evolved to suit each
organism
- Descendant from a common ancestor

Analyse using a named example, how advances in technology have changed scientific thinking about
evolutionary relationships

- DNA hybridisation allows the scientists to determine evolutionary relationships.

- The degree of matching base pairs indicates the similarities of amino acid sequence between
them.
- DNA is cut, heated to separate the strands, then are allowed to join radioactively with
strands from another species.
- The more similar the Species, the more DNA strands will come together to form a hybrid
- E.g. using DNA hybridisation, it was discovered that Pandas are more closely related to
raccoons then they are to bears. Humans are more closely related to chimpanzees than
chimpanzees are related to gorillas.

Analyse information from secondary sources on the historical development of theories of evolution
and use available evidence to assess social and political influence on these developments.

- Aristotle believed that organisms always existed and that there was a hierarchy called Scala
Naturae where it started with simple organism and concluded with man at the top
- Georges Buffon suggested species might undergo some change over time, these changes
were by a process of degeneration
- Erasmus Darwin species have historical connects with another, animals change to suit the
environment and these offspring carry on these characteristics
- Jean Lamarck species descend from other species, evolution through the inheritance of
acquired characteristics
 - Georges Cuvier proposed catastrophism, where species become extinct by a series of
events and a new species takes over
- Charles Lyell proposed uniformitarian, where the earth is formed gradually over many
years, this provides enough time for evolution to take place
- Charles Darwin many species on earth have evolved from a common ancestor by a process
of natural selection

Outline the experiments carried out by Mendel

- Mendel was an Austrian monk, he selectively bred pea plants and observed how gene
factors worked. The common ratio of 3:1 was Mendels doing

Describe the aspects of the experimental techniques used by Mendel that lead to his success

- he studied a large number of characteristics in the plant

- he carried out a large number of crosses between plants
- he used pure breeding lines so that genotypes were known
- he made exact counts of characteristics producing quantitative data
- he studied separate identifiable characteristics that occur in pairs
- Mendel had 2 groups of peas, short and tall, the parents were crossed and all were tall for
the first generation, the second generation had a ration of tall to short of 3:1
- Law of segregation is that there are two types of genes, one from your mother and one from
your father
- Independent assortment is where pairs of alleles sort out independently from each other

Distinguish between homozygous and heterozygous genotypes in monohybrids crosses

- A homozygous is a genotype containing 2 of the same alleles

- A heterozygous contains 2 different alleles

Distinguish between the term allele and gene using example

- A Gene is a segment of DNA used to code characteristics in living organism, an allele is the
combination of the same gene
- Gene = height, allele = tall and short

Explain the relationship between dominant and recessive alleles and phenotypes using examples

- If any dominant genotype is represented, it will be the only phenotype shown,

- If a recessive is the genotype, the phenotype may be the recessive or be supressed by the
dominant gene.