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English

Modal Verbs
Obligations
We can use have to + infinitive and must + infinitive to express obligation.
Examples:
 She must study so hard to pass the exams.
 They mustn’t smoke here, because it is an urgency room.
 I have to obey all the mother’s rules.

Recommendations
We can use should + infinitive to express recommendations
Examples:
 He should read the text twice to understand better.
 We should wear coats and scarves because there are dark clouds
 They should call her to advice about the new game time.

Speculations
We can use may + infinitive, could + infinitive and might + infinitive, to express
speculations
Examples:
 I may buy a new computer next month
 He might go back to home to pick up his uniform.
 The car could run faster for the new gas.

Science
Ecosystem
Ecosystem is a functional unit consisting of living things in a given area, non-
living chemical and physical factors of their environment, linked together
through nutrient cycle and energy flow.

A lentic ecosystem is the ecosystem of a lake, pond or swamp.


A lotic ecosystem is the ecosystem of a river, stream or spring.

Ecology is the scientific study of the distributions, abundance and relations of


organisms and their interactions with the environment. Ecology includes the
study of plant and animal populations, plant and animal communities and
ecosystems.
Biological interactions result from the fact that organisms in an ecosystem
interact with each other. In the natural world, no organism is an autonomous
entity isolated from its surroundings. It is part of its environment, rich in living
and non-living elements, all of which interact with each other in some fashion.

Neutralism describes the relationship between two species which interact but
do not affect each other. It describes interactions where the fitness of one
species has absolutely no effect whatsoever on that of the other. True
neutralism is extremely unlikely and impossible to prove.

Amensalism between two species involves one impeding or restricting the


success of the other while the other species has no effect on it. It is a type of
symbiosis. Usually this occurs when one organism exudes a chemical
compound as part of its normal metabolism that is detrimental to another
organism. It is the contrast of commensalism.

Competition is an interaction between individuals or populations that is


mutually detrimental.

Synnecrosis is a particular case in which the interaction is so mutually


detrimental that it results in death, as in the case of some parasitic
relationships. It is a rare and necessarily short-lived condition as evolution
selects against it. The term is seldom used.

Predation is an interaction between organisms in which one organism captures


biomass from another. It is often used as a synonym for carnivory but in its
widest definition includes all forms of one organism eating another, regardless
of trophic level (e.g. herbivory), closeness of association (e.g. parasitism and
parasitoidism) and harm done to prey (e.g. grazing).

Commensalism benefits one organism and the other organism is neither


benefited nor harmed. It occurs when one organism takes benefits by
interacting with another organism by which the host organism is not affected. A
good example is a remora living with a shark. Remoras eat leftover food from
the shark. The shark is not affected in the process as remoras eat only leftover
food of the shark which doesn't deplete the sharks’ resources.

Mutualism is an interaction between two or more species, where species


derive a mutual benefit, for example an increased carrying capacity. Similar
interactions within a species are known as co-operation. Mutualism may be
classified in terms of the closeness of association, the closest being symbiosis,
which is often confused with mutualism.
Symbiosis can be used to describe various degrees of close relationship
between organisms of different species. Sometimes it is used only for cases
where both organisms benefit, sometimes it is used more generally to describe
all varieties of relatively tight relationships, i.e. even parasitism, but not
predation. Some even go so far as to use it to describe predation. It can be
used to describe relationships where one organism lives on or in another, or it
can be used to describe cases where organisms are related by mutual
stereotypic behaviors.

Social
Canada is a country occupying most of
northern North America, extending from
the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the
Pacific Ocean in the west and northward
into the Arctic Ocean. It is the world's
second largest country by total area.
Canada's common border with the United
States to the south and northwest is the
longest in the world.

A federation consisting of ten provinces


and three territories, Canada is governed
as a parliamentary democracy and a
constitutional monarchy with Queen
Elizabeth II as its head of state. It is a
bilingual nation with both English and
French as official languages at the federal
level.

One of the world's highly developed


countries, Canada has a diversified
economy that is reliant upon its abundant
natural resources and upon trade—
particularly with the United States, with
which Canada has had a long and
complex relationship. It is a member of the
G8, G-20, NATO, OECD, WTO,
Commonwealth, Francophonie, OAS,
APEC, and UN.
Céline Marie Claudette Dion (born March 30, 1968) is a Canadian singer,
occasional songwriter, actress, and entrepreneur. Born to a large, impoverished
family in Charlemagne, Quebec, Dion emerged as a teen star in the French-
speaking world after her manager and future husband René Angélil mortgaged
his home to finance her first record. In 1990, she released the anglophone
album Unison, establishing herself as a viable pop artist in North America and
other English-speaking areas of the world.

"My Heart Will Go On" is the theme song of the 1997 blockbuster film Titanic.
With music by James Horner, lyrics by Will Jennings, and production by Walter
Afanasieff, it was recorded by Céline Dion
Dion's Let's Talk About Love and the Titanic soundtrack, "My Heart Will Go On"
appears on several other albums, including Au cœur du stade, All the Way… A
Decade of Song, A New Day... Live in Las Vegas, Complete Best and My Love:
Essential Collection. It was also included on the following DVDs: Au cœur du
stade, All the Way… A Decade of Song & Video and Live in Las Vegas - A New
Day....

Math
ORDINAL NUMBERS
In linguistics, ordinal numbers are the words representing the rank of a number
with respect to some order, in particular order or position (i.e. first, second, third,
etc.). Its use may refer to size, importance, chronology, etc. They are
adjectives.
They are different from the cardinal numbers (one, two, three, etc.) referring to
the quantity.
CARDINAL NUMBERS
In mathematics, cardinal numbers, or cardinals for short, are a generalization of
the natural numbers used to measure the cardinality (size) of sets. The
cardinality of a finite set is a natural number – the number of elements in the
set. The transfinite cardinal numbers describe the sizes of infinite sets.

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