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R. Michael Brown is Psychology Professor, Eric Dahlen is a former student, Cliff Mills is a former student,
Jennifer Rick is a former student, and Arturo Biblarz is SociologyProfessor, Department of Psychology, Pacific
Lutheran University, Tacoma, Washington.
Address correspondence to R. Michael Brown, Department of Psychology, Pacific Lutheran University,
Tacoma, WA 98447.
Portions of this research were presented at the seventh annual meeting of the Human Behavior and
Evolution Society, Santa Barabra, California, June, 1995.
Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, Vol. 29(1), Spring 1999
58 0 1999 The American Association of Suicidology
BROWN ET AL. 59
TABLE 1
Correlates of Suicide-Related Measures
Suicide variables
Ideation and
Correlates Depression Hopelessness behavior
Individual reproductive potential -.29*** -.04 -. 19*
Benefit to kin -.44*** - 5o*w -.28***
Reproductive potential of kin -.08 .01 -.20**
Parents -.47*** -.27*** -.38***
Friends -.39*** -.38*"* -.18*
Internal locus of control -.21** -.14 -.08
Powerful Others locus of control .23** -.03 .22**
Chance locus of control .35*** .08 .28***
-
Note. All probability levels are two-tailed.
*p < .05; **p < .01;***p < ,001.
on external locus of control measures were tions of one or more of the Y Lvariables
more likely than others to score high on one when compared with other relevant and
or more of the suicide-related measures. traditionally potent predictors (see Table
2). Compared to the other seven predictor
Intercorrelations variables, benefit to kin was the strongest
predictor of depression, accounting for
As expected, the three suicide-related nearly 25%of the variance. Moreover, ben-
measures were positively correlated with efit to kin was the only significant pre-
one another. For depression and hopeless- dictor of hopelessness, accounting for just
ness, 4171) = .20, p < .008;for depression under 20%of the variance. Individual re-
and suicide ideation and behavior, r(170) productive potential was a significant pre-
= .45, p < .001;and for hopelessness and dictor of depression, and reproductive po-
suicide ideation and behavior, r(172) = .13, tential of kin was a significant predictor
p < .079. As for the Yi variables, subjects of suicide ideation and behavior. The other
with lower individual reproductive poten- significant predictors were quality of rela-
tial scores were more likely than others tionships with parents and the chance lo-
to report poor relationships with parents, cus of control measure. Each of these vari-
r(143) = .26, p < .001, and with friends ables reliably predicted both depression
r( 143) = .22, p < .008. Similarly, subjects and suicide ideation and behavior. Results
with lower benefit-to-kin scores reported of the discriminant analysis indicated that
poorer relationships with parents, 4171) six of the eight predictor variables reliably
= 5 7 , p < .001, and with friends r(171) = differentiated suicide attempters from
5 2 , p < .001. Finally, subjects with low nonattempters (see Table 3). Reproductive
benefit-to-kin scores tended to score low potential of kin was the most potent of the
on internal, and high on external, locus significant predictors based on an exami-
of control: Internal, 4172) = .21, p < .005; nation of correlations between the
Powerful Others, 4172) = -.16, p < .035; discriminant scores and the predictor (in-
Chance, r(172) = -.23, p < .002. Reproduc- dependent) variables. Compared to nonat-
tive potential of kin showed no significant tempters, attempters had significantly
intercorrelations. fewer close kin with high expected fertility
and good health. Interestingly, compared
First Regression Analysis to nonattempters, attempters had signifi-
cantly higher individual reproductive po-
Results of multiple regressions of each cri- tential scores. The two groups did not dif-
terion variable underscore the contribu- fer significantly on the benefit-to-kin
64 SUICIDE AND LIFE-THREATENING BEHAVIOR
TABLE 2
First Regression Analysis: Stepwise Multiple Regressions Comparing the Effects of Y,
Variables with Those of Other Relevant Predictor Variables
Suicide variable Step F Adj. R2 Predictor P t
Depression 1 46.28*** .25 Benefit to kin -.29 -3.61***
2 36.93*** .34 Chance .29 4.23***
3 29.16*** .38 Parents -.21 -2.58*
Individual repro-
ductive
4 23.66*** .39 potential -. 15 -2.18*
Hopelessness 1 42.50*** .20 Benefit to kin -.45 -6.52***
Ideation and
behavior 1 19.02*** .ll Parents -.29 -3.8 1***
2 16.90*** .19 Chance .26 3.40***
Reproductive
3 13.65*** .21 potential of kin -. 18 -2.44*
Note. All probability levels are two-tailed.
*p < .05;**p < .01;***p < ,001.
variable, though the group means were to kin, or reproductive potential of kin x
in the expected direction, with attempters benefit to kin. However, for each of the
showing lower scores ( M = 23.625) than suicide-related measures, at least one of
nonattempters ( M = 24.632). the Y ivariables attained significance as
a predictor (see Table 4).As in the first
regression analysis, benefit to kin was a
Second Regression Analysis significant predictor of both depression
Results of multiple regressions of each sui- and hopelessness. Individual reproductive
cide-related measure using only the Yz potential also predicted depression signif-
variables as predictors showed no support icantly. Reproductive potential of kin was
for the two hypothesized interactions: in- the only significant predictor of suicide
dividual reproductive potential x benefit ideation and behavior.
TABLE 3
Discriminant Analysis: Differentiation of Suicide Attempters from Nonattempters
~~~ ~ ~
TABLE 4
Second Regression Analysis: Multiple Regressions Evaluating the Effects of the
Variables and Hypothesized Interactions among These Variables
Suicide variable F Adj. R2 Predictor s t
Depression 10.71*** .35 Benefit to kin -.38 -4.50***
Individual reproductive
potential -.17 -2.34*
Hopelessness 7.55*** .27 Benefit to kin -.55 -6.56***
Reproductive potential
Ideation and behavior 6.58*** .24 of kin -.19 -2.50"
Note. All probability levels a r e two-tailed.
*p < .05; **p < .01;***p < ,001.
rare in our study. The mean total benefit- tive behavior. Maris (1992) has noted that
to-kin score was high (24.75 out of a possi- nonfatal suicide attempts may confer on
ble 301, while the mean total depression the attempter benefits as well as costs.
score was low (3.905 out of a possible 16). Benefits include attention from family
These data do not support the conclusion members, friends, and professionals, and
that depression was responsible for rela- short-term elevation of affect. Such bene-
tively low benefit-to-kin scores, but they fits may have reduced feelings of burden-
do not rule out the possibility that changes someness in our attempters. It is also pos-
within the observed range of depression sible that some of our attempters were not
ratings may have influenced the benefit- intent on completing suicide but, rather,
to-kin responses in some way. were motivated by the increased attention
2. When regressing a given dependent they anticipated receiving as a result of
variable (e.g., hopelessness), we partialed their attempt (Kreitman, 1977). In an
out the effects of the other dependent vari- effort to clarify this matter we are now
ables (depression, suicide ideation and be- conducting studies that utilize a revised
havior). Therefore, the observed signifi- questionnaire designed to rate the lethal-
cant regression of hopelessness on benefit ity of any reported suicide attempts.
to kin indicates that benefit to kin made
a unique contribution to the variance in Reproductive Potential of Kin
hopelessness. This argues against the con-
clusion that subjects depression ratings Our data also show that reproductive po-
can explain the predictive relationship be- tential of kin may be an important vari-
tween benefit to kin and hopelessness. able in its own right. It was a significant
3. In a recent study, we (Brown, Brown, inverse predictor of suicide ideation and
Johnson, & Lampert, 1997) manipulated behavior, whether entered alongside all of
experimentally the degree to which a tar- our other predictors, or only with Yi vari-
get person in a scenario represented a ables. Moreover, it did the best job of all
burden to kin, while keeping the target our predictors differentiating suicide at-
persons described level of depression con- tempters from nonattempters, revealing
stant across all conditions of the experi- that attempters had significantly fewer
ment. As predicted, we found that univer- fertile, healthy, and genetically related kin
sity students judged the target person to than were reported by nonattempters. The
be significantly more unhappy, hopeless, direction of this relationship is consistent
and suicidal if, in the scenario, the target with decatanzaros model as long as bk is
was depicted as being a burden (compared assumed to be the same (and not a nega-
to a benefit) to kin. Furthermore, subjects tive value) for both attempters and nonat-
depression levels, as measured by the Beck tempters. Our data provide no reason to
Depression Inventory (Beck, 1967),did not doubt these assumptions. Attempters and
predict their ratings of the target persons nonattempters did not differ significantly
unhappiness, hopelessness, or suicidal in- on benefit to kin scores, and the distribu-
tent. These data show clearly that per- tion of benefit to kin scores was skewed
ceived burdensomeness can have a causal negatively.
influence on ratings of depression, hope- Our reproductive-potential-of-kin vari-
lessness, and suicidal intent in others. able is likely not a proxy for size of an
At first glance, it is perhaps surprising individuals immediate family (parents
that benefit to kin, so strongly associated and siblings), even though family size is
with our continuous suicide-related mea- reflected in calculating reproductive po-
sures, failed to differentiate suicide at- tential of kin. Our questionnaire mea-
tempters from nonattempters. However, sured family size in a separate item, and
this failure may have occurred in part the pattern of correlations between it and
because of the difficulties inherent in tak- other variables was not consistent with
ing retrospective measures of self-destruc- the reproductive-potential-of-kin pattern.
BROWN ET AL. 67
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