Cross-Case Analysis: An Alternative Methodology

Robyn McGuiggan and Geoffrey Lee, University of Western Sydney

Abstract

Cross-case analysis is a qualitative methodology widely used in social science. However,

systematic and rigorous analysis techniques that consistently produce objective and reliable
findings need to be identified. This paper adapts Porters Strategic Group Mapping principles
to form an analysis technique for explanatory research. A cross-case analysis of 18
horticultural retailers was undertaken to investigate antecedent variables associated with a
firms adoption of e-business. From 16 constructs identified in the literature, five independent
variables for adopting e-business were significant, providing support for the use of Strategic
Group Mapping principles in qualitative data analysis. It is suggested that this technique
provides a complementary tool for improving internal reliability in cross-case research.

Introduction and Purpose

Case study methodology is well established and widely accepted in social science studies,
such as management information systems (see Eisenhardt, 1989; Lee, 1989; Miles and
Huberman, 1994; Yin, 1994, 2003). Case studies are suitable for exploratory, descriptive and
explanatory research (Yin, 1994). A number of social science models are usually utilised in
the formulation and building of theory. In contrast, natural science models test existing theory
(Lee, 1989).

Despite its widespread acceptance, case study research, as an interpretive methodology, has
potential limitations in the analysis of evidence, objective reporting and lack of
generalisability; indeed, the analysis phase is the most difficult area of case study
methodology (Eisenhardt, 1989; Yin, 1994;). Researcher bias can lead to a lack of precision,
with the investigation either dismissing certain patterns or identifying non-existent ones (Yin,
1994). There are techniques to reduce researcher bias, such as thematic coding or content
analysis (Hussey and Hussey, 1997), cognitive mapping (Kelly, 1955), development of
matrixes of different categories (Miles and Huberman, 1994), display charts (Miles and
Huberman, 1994) and tabulations and temporal schemes (Yin, 1994). Specialist computer
software such as NVivo, which allows researchers to manage, code and model data
(Richards, 1999) and Leximancer, which uses Bayesian Theory to automatically conceptually
map text data to predict associations (Mena, 2003) also reduce bias through systematic
analysis of large volumes of data. Nonetheless, techniques that are more precise are still
needed for analysing qualitative data (Yin, 1994).

Strategic Group Mapping (SGM) is a device for structural analysis of industries (Porter,
1980). This paper assesses whether SGM principles can be adapted to explanatory research as
a technique to improve internal validity in a cross-case analysis. Miles and Huberman (1994)
suggest that complex networks of conditions and outcomes can be analysed through cause-
and-effect models to antecedent or probable cause variables. This paper uses the principles of
SGM to identify the antecedent causes (independent variables) of an observed phenomenon
(dependent variable).

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 Background

Case studies are a suitable methodology for explanatory research because they answer the
how and why questions, and are useful for analysing contemporary events over which the
investigator has little or no control (Yin, 1994). Qualitative researchers generally rely on few
cases with many variables (Creswell, 1998) and are concerned with the sensitive dynamic
interactions between the case study organisations and their environment (Hussey and Hussey,
1997). A multiple-case or cross-case study strategy explains the causal links in real-life
situations that are too complex for a single survey or experiment (Yin, 1994). Undertaking
multiple case studies can generate explanations and test them systematically (Miles and
Huberman, 1994). The use of multi-case sampling adds to the validity and generalisability of
the findings (Miles and Huberman, 1994) through replication logic (Eisenhardt, 1989; Yin,
1994).

Yin (1994) advocates two general strategies for analysing single or multiple case studies. The
preferred strategy uses theoretical propositions that guide the study and data collection to
focus on specific data. The second strategy develops a descriptive framework for organising
the case study data. Yin (1994) suggests that appropriate causal links can be analysed within
complex case studies using modes of analysis such as pattern matching, non-equivalent
dependent variables as patterns, rival explanation as patterns, and simpler patterns. Simple
pattern matching identifies a certain outcome as a dependent variable and explores how and
why this outcome has occurred in each case, that is, the independent variables. A general
analytic strategy identifies important differences in the patterns observed as a way to develop
a theoretically significant explanation for the different outcomes.

Drawing and verifying conclusions requires systematic understanding of the case study using
a logical chain of evidence and maintaining theoretical coherence by tactics such as
identifying themes and patterns, establishing plausibility, making metaphors, counting and
clustering (Miles and Huberman, 1994). The clustering technique groups and then
conceptualises objects with similar patterns or characteristics and is suitable for sorting
complex cases into meaningful clusters. Specific cross-case analysis techniques include case-
ordered effects matrix, variable-by-variable, casual models and casual networks (Miles and
Huberman, 1994); a causal model is a network of variables with causal connections among
them, drawn from multiple-case analysis (p.222), where variable A precedes B and there
appears to be a logical connection.

One tactic suggested by Eisenhardt (1989) for searching for patterns within cross-case studies
is identifying dimensions or constructs from the literature, and then looking for within-group
similarities and inter-group differences. The use of a 2x2 cell design can compare several
categories at once and allow graphing of continuous measurement scales. Iterative
comparison of theory to data allows constructs to be identified from multiple sources of
information to provide construct validity.

Yin (1994) identifies four tests for judging the quality of research designs: construct validity,
internal validity, external validity and reliability. Similarly, Denzin and Lincoln (1998)
suggest that qualitative and quantitative research methods should be assessed on their internal
validity, external validity, reliability and objectivity. Validity reflects the accuracy with which
the findings represent what is happening in the field. Undertaking case studies improves
validity by using a wide range of data and making multiple group comparisons (Miles and

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Huberman, 1994). Internal validity is used in explanatory studies through identifying causal
relationships where one condition leads to another (Yin, 1994).

SGM graphically displays competition within an industry, based broadly upon strategic
approach; firms with similar strategic approaches are grouped together. SGM displays the
competitive environment in strategy-space, as opposed to price and volume. Porter (1980)
defines strategy as the matching of a firms strengths and weaknesses (particularly distinctive
competencies) to the opportunities and risks in the competitive environment. SGM can
determine the strategic opportunities (such as the advantages of developing a new strategic
group through new technology), indicate the most appropriate strategic group to enter, and
evaluate the investments required to reposition a firm within a group or to enter other strategic
groups. Firms within each group tend to have the same characteristics and strategies, and so
they tend to be affected by and respond similarly to external events or competitive pressures.
Most industries have multiple strategic groups, although it is possible to have industries with
a single group or, at the opposite extreme, have each individual firm forming its own group.
Strategic group mapping is used by both industry practitioners (for example,
csgstrategies.com, enterprisestrategygroup.com and The Aspen Institute) and academics (for
example, Mehra and Floyd, 1998: Edgar et al., 1994; Pegels et al., 2000).

Method

To assess the use of SGM as an explanatory analysis technique to identify antecedent

variables to a predicted outcome, a cross-case analysis of 18 small- and medium-sized
horticultural retailers (SMEs) was performed. SME retailers have a great deal of flexibility
over strategies and target market selection, and so analysing these businesses avoids the
confounding effects of corporate-level considerations. Studying just one industry has several
advantages: single industries are common, they have long been used for study in strategic
marketing and management disciplines, and they provide greater control of extraneous
variation ( Conant et al., 1993; Eisenhardt, 1989; Weischedel et al., 2005). Furthermore,
Porter (2001) considers no one generic model can fit all organisations, and so the study of the
competitive nature of business must be conducted for specific industries.

A survey of internet retailing literature identified 16 reasons (independent variables (IV)) why
firms adopt websites (Lee and Jordon, 2006). The case studies were conducted using
protocols outlined by Eisenhardt (1989), Miles and Huberman (1994) and Yin (1994), with
evidence collected from multiple data sources: interviews of managers and decision-makers;
examination of the content and functionality of retailers websites; and direct observation of
the retailers premises, customers, suppliers, employees, internal records and industry experts.
Data were organised into several integrated databases. The NVivo software analysis program
was then used to code specific incidents and develop relationships among the constructs by
thematic coding to identify similarities and differences. E-business adoption levels (dependent
variables (DV)) were assessed by inspection and analysis of the firms website. The levels of
e-business adoption were adapted from Goodmans (2000, 2004) four stages of internet use:
no website, catalogue ware, transactional website and transformational website.

In line with the recommendations of Eisenhardt (1989), relationships between the independent
and dependent variables were conducted for each case. Sixteen tests were carried out by
plotting the DV and IV for each case on a modified SGM. The matrices used 4x4 grids to
reveal patterns in the qualitative data. The development of the matrix constructs followed
principles proposed by Porter (1980). First, variables considered key drivers to e-commerce

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initiatives were taken from the literature (n=16). Second, the constructs did not have clear
relationships where A would be a function of B (such as a sales and price relationship). Third,
the axes for the mapping were non-monotonic continuums, that is, not continuous interval
data. Because the scaling was ordinal, rather than continuous (Porter 1980), the relative
positioning between cases and variables was schematic in nature. The replicated testing of
these patterns for each case study supported the validity of the results, as the variables not
attributable to individual case studies were systematically eliminated (Yin 2003).

Findings

Of the 16 matrix tests completed using the SGM principles, five matrices demonstrated
clustering patterns: strategic application of e-business, consumer shopping motivations,
consumer service requirements, consumer horticultural knowledge, and customer lifestyle
attributes. Figure 1 displays the clustering of firms into four groups based upon the strategic
application of e-business.

Figure 1.
Strategic impetus for website adoption or non-adoption using SGM principles

The relative positioning on the axis of ad hoc and strategic adoption of e-business was
grounded in the analysis of the case data coding using NVivo. Groupings or clustering were
initially identified visually and were then modified using NVivo to check if the cases in each
group displayed commonalities. The grouping function in NVivo allows discrimination of
fine detail between cluster members and between groups. The resulting groups were grounded
through the examination of case data, and were identified by dashed ellipses. To compare and
contrast the groups, the cases were assigned to their respective set and an analysis was
completed based on the NVivo node website impetus and reasons not adopting e-business.

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The cases fell into four groups. Strategic Group 1 (n=5) demonstrated both the highest level
of internet adoption and the highest proactive reasoning for adoption. Two themes that
recurred were accessibility to new markets and the ability to boost existing resources to
improve profitability. Group 2 (n=5) were reactive insofar as they primarily set up their
websites because customers had asked for an internet presence, or to act as a new channel for
distribution, or to keep up with the trends. Group 3 (n=3) had adopted the wait and see
approach, not yet having a website because they perceived that other strategies showed
greater potential for return on investment, or they considered that plants are not commodities
or that their customers are not suited for e-business. Group 4 (n=4) were also reactive in their
approach, as they had developed their websites to take advantage of contra deals with clients
or as a decision based on minimal research or logical reasoning. The outlier case (Case 20)
analysed requirements for a website but had deliberately chosen not to adopt one, because it
would not meet customer expectations, it was regarded as high maintenance and the potential
for customers to compare prices was unappealing.

Discussion and conclusion

The purpose of this study was to assess if SGM principles can be adapted as an analysis
technique for explanatory research to improve internal validity in a cross-case analysis. The
findings from the analysis of horticultural retailers show that SGM can identify antecedent
causes (independent variables) to a predicted outcome (dependent variable) by testing a range
of propositions that are grounded in the literature to identify salient constructs. SGM
facilitates cross-case replication of findings to identify patterns across the cases to improve
external validity. In this study, simple pattern matching (Yin, 1994) identified some of the
underlying variables (both dependent and independent) unique to each firm and between the
cases. This method allowed differences to be contrasted, and it produced outcomes that could
be explained theoretically.

This technique also allows the identification of clusters of firms (Miles and Huberman, 1994)
who demonstrate similar patterns of behaviours whilst simultaneously discriminating between
groups through data displays (non-monotonic matrices), a visual format that allows the user to
draw systematic conclusions. Additionally, the graphical nature of SGM is advantageous in
distilling and communicating a wide range of cross-case study data that form complex
phenomena inherent in qualitative social research.

Researchers using cross-case methodology have to make sense of masses of qualitative data
from multiple sources to ensure findings are objective, reliable and valid. Thus, SGM may be
a valuable alternative and complementary technique to improve internal validity, a criterion
often used in explanatory studies to establish relationships where certain conditions lead to
other outcomes (Miles and Huberman, 1994; Yin, 1994). Used as an integrated part of an
explanatory research methodology, SGM complements other qualitative analysis strategies by
offering another technique for cross-case analysis. Further research is required to assess the
application of SGM principles to other industries and other social contexts.

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