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For Electricians
Introduction .....................................................................................................2
Learning Tasks
Self Tests
Self Test Questions .....................................................................................13
Self Test Answers ........................................................................................14
CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
Most CTs are located on the bushings of circuit breakers and power
transformers but they may also be free standing.
For proper relay operation, it is important that CTs do not produce any
significant ratio or phase shift errors. CTs are rated according to their
accuracy. For relays to operate properly, CTs must be able to handle 100
amps of secondary current for specified burden without exceeding the
specified error. As shown in Figure 2, a CT with an accuracy class of 10L400
must produce 400 secondary volts at a secondary current of 100 amps
without exceeding the 10% ratio error. In other words, this CT can handle a
burden of 4 ohms. If the burden was 8 ohms and the secondary current was
100 amps, this CT would not be able to produce the required 800 volts
without saturating. Once the CT saturates, it can no longer accurately reflect
system current.
CT secondary circuits must never be open circuited when primary current is flowing
because voltage pulses as high as 5000 volts can result. These are dangerous to both
personnel and equipment.
For relays that detect faults in only one direction, it is critical that the relay is connected
to the CT with the correct polarity. If a relay intended to detect line faults in a forward
direction was connected with the wrong polarity, it would detect faults in the reverse
direction.
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
Formerly called PTs or potential transformers, voltage transformers or VTs are used to
provide relays, meters and control circuits with a low value of voltage proportional to
system voltage. Figure 4 shows a VT used to step down a voltage of 138 kV to 120 volts
for relay sensing.
Like the VT, this device provides relays with a low voltage quantity proportional
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to system voltage. In addition, it may also provide coupling between power line
carrier communication equipment and the power line. It is also used with the
FLAR fault locating system used to locate faults on the 500 kV system. The CVT
is generally less expensive than a VT but may be inferior in performance. As
shown in Figure 5, the voltage for the relay is obtained from a capacitor divider
and a voltage transformer.
Until the 1960s, all relays were electromechanical and many of these remain in
service today. Some of the older models have been removed from service because
replacement parts are no longer available.
In the late 1960s came the introduction of solid state relays. As power systems
became more complex, electromechanical relays did not respond fast enough. Some of
these early solid state relays were unreliable and utilities were reluctant to adopt them
on a large scale.
In late 1980s, microprocessor-based relays were introduced. Today, most new line
and feeder protections are equipped with microprocessor-based relays. It is
anticipated that microprocessor-based relays will replace many of the existing relay
systems over the next few years. Some of the major advantages of microprocessor
relays include:
smaller packaging
self-checking
event reporting
fault locating .
less expensive
Generally, protective relays do not directly trip the circuit breaker. Instead the
protective relay operates auxiliary DC relays, usually rated at 125 VDC, which in
turn initiate and maintain a breaker trip signal for a set time. They may also
initiate other action such as automatic reclosing and breaker failure protection.
A typical protection circuit with auxiliary DC relays is shown in Figure 1.
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to speed up tripping
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protection.
Example 1
A directional relay at X sees the fault but can't determine if the fault is in
the line or beyond. Likewise, the directional relay at Y sees the fault but
can't determine if the fault is in line. However, by communicating with one
another, they can determine that fault is in line and initiate tripping
Transformer protection sees the fault and initiates tripping of breaker X. To clear
the fault, the breaker at Y must also be tripped. Transformer protection cannot trip the
breaker at Y directly because it is at another substation. However, it can be tripped
using communications.
METHODS OF COMMUNICATION
microwave
power lines carrier (PLC)
telephone pair
The circuit breaker is a crucial part of the protection scheme. It is the critical
final link in the chain. If it fails to trip, the rest of the protection system is for
naught.
2. It may saturate