AME

60634
Int. Heat Trans.
Free Convection: Overview
Free Convection (or Natural Convection)
fluid motion induced by buoyancy forces
buoyancy forces arise when there are density gradients in a fluid and
a body force proportional to density arises

Density Gradient
due to temperature gradient
thermally driven flow
Body Force
gravity (function of mass)

Basic Principle: heavy fluid

falls and light fluid rises
creating vortices

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AME 60634
Int. Heat Trans.
Free Convection: Overview
Internal vs. External
free convection can be generated in a duct or enclosure (internal)
along a free surface (external)
in both internal & external cases, free convection can interact with
forced convection (mixed convection)

Free Boundary Flow

occurs in an extensive quiescent fluid (i.e., infinite, motionless fluid)
no forced convection
induces a boundary layer on a heated or cooled surface (Ts T)
can generate plumes and buoyant jets

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AME 60634
Int. Heat Trans.
Free Convection: Dimensionless Parameters
Pertinent Dimensionless Parameters
Grashoff Number
g (Ts T ) L3 buoyancy force As Grashoff # increases: buoyancy
GrL = ~
2
viscous force overcomes friction and induces flow

= kinematic viscosity of fluid

L characteristic length
g gravitational constant
1 # &
thermal expansion coefficient (fluid property) = % ( [K -1 ]
$ T ' p
Recall Reynolds number

VL inertial force
Re L = ~ Gr is analogous to Re
viscous force

Rayleigh Number
g (Ts T ) L3 comparable to Peclet number (Pe) for
RaL = GrL Pr = forced convection

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AME 60634
Int. Heat Trans.
Free Convection: Mixed Convection
Mixed Convection
a condition where both free and forced convection effects are
comparable
free convection can assist, oppose, or act orthogonally to forced
convection

When is mixed convection significant?

an assessment of scales is conducted through a comparison of
free and forced non-dimensional parameters
">> 1 free convection dominates
NuL = f (GrL ,Pr )
buoyancy force GrL $
~ 2 #O(1) mixed convection condition NuL = f (Re L ,GrL ,Pr )
inertial force Re L $
%<< 1 forced convection dominates NuL = f (Re L ,Pr )

Affect on heat transfer
forced and free convection DO NOT combine linearly

# n = 3 assisting/opposing + assisting/transverse
n n n
Nu = Nu L L, forced Nu
L, free $ 7 - opposing
% n = 2 or 4 transverse
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AME 60634
Int. Heat Trans.
Free Convection: Boundary Layers
Transition to Turbulence
similar to forced flows, free convection flows can transition from a
laminar state to a turbulent state hydrodynamic instabilities
in forced convection, the transition is dependant on inertial and
viscous forces
in free convection, amplification of disturbances depends on relative
magnitude of buoyancy and viscous forces

Critical Rayleigh Number

Rax,c 10 9 vertical flat plate

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AME 60634
Int. Heat Trans.
Free Convection: External Flow
Only empirical relations exist for most real geometries
hL
Nu L = = CRaLn
k
Immersed Vertical Plate
average Nusselt numbers

Churchill & Chu correlation: laminar flow (RaL<109)

1
0.670RaL 4
Nu L = 0.68 + 4
"$ % 9 9
1+ (0.492 Pr) ' 16
# &

Churchill & Chu correlation: all flow regimes

( +2
1
* 0.387RaL 6 -
Nu L = *0.825 + 8
-
* "$ 9 % 27 -
16 '
*) #
1+ (0.492 Pr ) & -,

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AME 60634
Int. Heat Trans. Free Convection: External Flow
Inclined & Horizontal Plates
buoyancy force is not parallel to plate
horizontal: perpendicular buoyancy force
inclined: angled buoyancy force

flow and heat transfer depend on

thermal condition of plate: heated or cooled
orientation: facing upward or downward

cooled (Ts<T) cooled (Ts<T) cooled (Ts<T)

inclined horizontal horizontal facing
facing up down

cold fluid jets cold fluid jets

heated (Ts>T) heated (Ts>T)

heated (Ts>T) horizontal horizontal facing
inclined facing up down

warm fluid jets warm fluid jets

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AME 60634
Int. Heat Trans. Free Convection: External Flow
Horizontal Plates
Correlation: heated/horizontal/facing up AND cooled/horizontal/facing
down

1
Nu L = 0.54RaL 4 10 4 RaL 10 7
1
Nu L = 0.15RaL 3 10 7 RaL 1011

Correlation: heated/horizontal/facing down AND cooled/horizontal/

facing up

1
Nu L = 0.27RaL 4 10 5 RaL 1010
note: smaller than above correlation

What is L in the Rayleigh number? As

L=
Use a characteristic length: P

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AME 60634
Int. Heat Trans. Free Convection: External Flow
Inclined Plates
Correlation: heated/bottom face only AND cooled/top face only
use immersed vertical plate correlations (Churchill & Chu) but
replace g in the Rayleigh number by gcos
gcos (Ts T ) L3
RaL = 0 60

cooled (Ts<T) heated (Ts>T)

top face
top face bottom face bottom face

Correlation: heated/top face only AND cooled/bottom face only

flow is three-dimensional and no correlations exist

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AME 60634
Int. Heat Trans. Free Convection: External Flow
Long Horizontal Cylinder

heated (Ts>T)

Rayleigh number based on diameter of isothermal cylinder

Churchill and Chu correlation: average Nusselt number

( +2
1
* 0.387RaD6 -
12
Nu D = *0.60 + 8
- Ra D < 10
* "$ 9 % 27 -
*) 1+ (0.559 Pr ) 16 ' -
# & ,
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AME 60634
Int. Heat Trans. Free Convection: External Flow
Sphere
Rayleigh number based on diameter of isothermal sphere
Churchill: average Nusselt number
1
0.589RaD4
Nu D = 2 + 4
RaD < 1011; Pr 0.7
"$ 9 % 9
1+ (0.469 Pr) 16 '
# &

D. B. Go
AME 60634
Int. Heat Trans.
Free Convection: Internal Flow
Parallel Plates
similar to internal forced convection, buoyancy-induced boundary layers
develop on both plates
boundary layers can merge to generate fully developed flow
conditions in sufficiently long (L) and spaced (S) channels otherwise
the channel behaves as two isolated plates
channels often considered vertical ( = 0) or inclined
inclined flows more complex and often result in three-dimensional flow
structures

vertical plates
fully developed criteria:

Ra*S S L or RaS S L < 10

isolated plate criteria:
Ra*S S L or RaS S L > 100

D. B. Go
AME 60634
Int. Heat Trans.
Free Convection: Internal Flow
Parallel Plates Vertical Channels
both semi-analytical and empirical correlations exist
symmetry/asymmetry of boundary conditions play a factor
equal or unequal uniform surface temperatures or uniform heat fluxes for
both plates

Isothermal
1 2
$ q A 'S * C1 C2 - boundary C1 C2
Nu S = & ) =, + /
2 12
% Ts T ( k ,+( RaS S L) ( RaS S L) /. Ts,1 = Ts,2 576 2.87
Ts,1, q"s,2" = 0 144 2.87
g (T1 T2 ) S 3
RaS =


Isoflux (Uniform Heat Flux)
+ .
1 2 boundary C1 C2
% q"" ( S C1 C2
NuS,L = ' s
* = - + 0 q"s,1" = q"s,2
" 48 2.51
* 2 5
& Ts,L T ) k -, RaS S L ( Ra*S S L) 0/ q"s,1" , q"s,2
" =0 24 2.51
* gq#s#S 4
RaS =
k
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AME 60634
Int. Heat Trans.
Free Convection: Internal Flow
Only empirical relations exist for most real geometries

Enclosures Rectangular Cavities

characterized by opposing walls of different temperatures with the the
remaining walls insulated
fluid motion characterized by induced vortices/rotating flow

horizontal cavity: = 0,180

vertical cavity: = 90

Rayleigh number a function of g (T1 T2 ) L3

RaL = T1 > T2
distance between heated walls:

Heat transfer across the cavity: q"" = h (T1 T2 )

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 AME 60634
Int. Heat Trans.
Free Convection: Internal Flow
Enclosures Rectangular Cavities (Horizontal)
heating from below: = 0
critical Rayleigh number exists below which the buoyancy forces
cannot overcome the viscous forces
# RaL < RaL,c no induced fluid motion
RaL,c = 1708 $
% RaL > RaL,c induced fluid motion
RaL< RaL,c: thermally stable heat transfer due solely to conduction

Nu L = 1

RaL,c < RaL< 5104: thermally unstable heat transfer primarily due to induced fluid
motion advection

thermal instabilities yield regular convection pattern in the form of roll cells
1
Nu L = 0.069RaL 3 Pr 0.074
(first approximation)

5104< RaL< 7109: thermally unstable turbulence

1
D. B. Go Nu L = 0.069RaL 3 Pr 0.074
AME 60634
Int. Heat Trans.
Free Convection: Internal Flow
Enclosures Rectangular Cavities (Horizontal)
Heating from above: = 180
unconditionally thermally stable heat transfer due solely to conduction
Nu L = 1
Enclosures Rectangular Cavities (Vertical)
critical Rayleigh number exists below which the buoyancy forces
cannot overcome the viscous forces

3
# RaL < RaL,c no induced fluid motion
RaL,c = 10 $
% RaL > RaL,c induced fluid motion

RaL< RaL,c: thermally stable heat transfer due solely to conduction

Nu L = 1

RaL,c < RaL< 5104: thermally unstable heat transfer

primarily due to induced fluid motion advection
a primary flow cell is induced secondary cells
possible at large Rayleigh numbers

D. B. Go
AME 60634
Int. Heat Trans.
Free Convection: Internal Flow
Enclosures Rectangular Cavities (Vertical)
RaL,c < RaL: thermally unstable
Nusselt number a function of cavity geometry and fluid properties

0.28 14
* 2 < H L < 10 -
" Pr RaL % " H % , /
Nu L = 0.22$ ' $ ' , Pr < 10 5 /
# 0.2 + Pr & # L & 3 10
,+10 < RaL < 10 /.

0.29
* 1< H L < 2 -
" Pr RaL % , /
Nu L = 0.18$ ' , 103 < Pr < 10 5 /
# 0.2 + Pr &
,+10 3 < RaL Pr (0.2 + Pr)/.

0.3
+ 10 < H L < 40 .
1 "H% - 0
Nu L = 0.42RaL 4 Pr 0.012 $ ' -1 < Pr < 2 10 4 0
#L&
-,10 4 < RaL < 10 7 0/

+ 1 < H L < 40 .
1 - 0
Nu L = 0.046RaL 3 - 1 < Pr < 20 0
-,10 6 < RaL < 10 9 0/
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AME 60634
Int. Heat Trans.
Free Convection: Internal Flow
Enclosures Annular Cavities
Concentric Cylinders
heat transfer across cavity
2k eff
q" = (Ti To )
ln( Do Di )

keff is effective thermal conductivity thermal conductivity a stationary fluid

would need to transfer the same amount of heat as a moving fluid
k eff
Ra*c < 100 =1
k
1
k eff # Pr & 4 1
* 7
100 < Rac < 10
k
= 0.386% (
$ 0.861+ Pr '
(Ra )
*
c
4

4
*
Critical Rayleigh number: Rac =
[ln( Do Di )]
RaL L ( Do Di ) 2
3# 3 5 35 &
L % Di + Do (
$ '

D. B. Go
AME 60634
Int. Heat Trans.
Free Convection: Internal Flow
Enclosures Annular Cavities
Concentric Spheres
heat transfer across cavity
k eff Di Do
q= (Ti To )
L

keff is effective thermal conductivity thermal conductivity a stationary fluid

should have to transfer the same amount of heat as a moving fluid

* k eff
Ra < 100
s =1
k
1
k # Pr & 4 1
100 < Ra*s < 10 4 eff = 0.74%
k
(
$ 0.861+ Pr '
(Ra )
*
s
4

Critical Rayleigh number:

LRaL
Ra*s = 5 L ( Do Di ) 2
( Do Di ) #%$ Di 5 + Do 5 &('
4 7 7

D. B. Go