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A Man and His Menagerie. By: Burkhardt Jr., Richard W., Natural History, 00280712, Feb2001, Vol.
110, Issue 1
Academic Search Premier
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"The menageries that have existed up to the present have always been regarded as institutions of
extravagance rather than institutions of utility." So wrote Frederic Cuvier in 1804, introducing his
guidebook to the new menagerie of the National Museum of
in Paris. No one in
France at the time would have doubted his claim. The royal menagerie at Versailles, established in
the seventeenth century by Louis XIV, had long been notorious for its wastefulness, and just prior to
the Revolution, while the French people struggled to keep themselves from starving, it was alleged
that a dromedary (some said an elephant) at Versailles was treated to six bottles of burgundy a day.
What would a truly useful menagerie be like? This question arose in the early years of the
Revolution, at the same time that the future of the old Jardin et Cabinet du Roi (the king's botanical
garden and collection) hung in the balance. Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-
Pierre--an author, a forerunner of the French romantic movement, and director of the garden from
1791 to 1793--suggested that a menagerie would allow one to observe the behavior of living
animals, to acclimatize beneficial species from foreign lands, to cross domestic races, and to study
the affinities between humans and animals. It would also serve a diplomatic function. When the
powers of Africa and Asia made gifts of wild animals to the French nation (as was their custom),
explained Bernardin, France had to be prepared to receive them properly. Killing the animals, or
letting them die, and then exhibiting their skins or skeletons was obviously unacceptable. Bernardin
therefore proposed that a new menagerie be established at the Jardin des Plantes (the politically
expedient name for the place now that kings were out of style).
In June 1793, by decree of the revolutionary government, the Jardin des Plantes and the Cabinet
d'Histoire Naturelle were reconstituted as the Museum of
. Its structure was
democratic, its purposes utilitarian. Five months later, a menagerie became part of the
establishment--but not as a direct result of Bernardin's earlier suggestions or of initiatives by the
museum's new professor-administrators. During the Revolution and for decades before it, some
people had made a living by exhibiting exotic animals on the streets of Paris. On November 3, 1793,
the Paris police department, citing public safety, ordered that such animals be confiscated and
"conducted right away to the Jardin des Plantes" It came as a complete surprise to the museum's
professors when the police appeared at their gates the following day escorting a polar bear, a
panther, a civet, a monkey, and the animals' ex-owner, who demanded to be compensated for his
animals (and hired to care for them). Two days later, the professors found themselves confronting
another polar bear, two mandrills, two agoutis, a tiger, a vulture, two eagles, and two more animal
proprietors, who, like the first, were retained to care for the animals. The animals were kept in their
cages and sheltered in an empty carriage house.
Other animals soon arrived in similar fashion, and the next spring, the four creatures still living at the
Versailles menagerie--a lion, a dog that was the lion's companion, a quagga (a now-extinct relative
of the zebra), and a spiral-horned African antelope called a bubalis or a cow of Barbary--were also
transferred to Paris. While the antelope died almost immediately from injuries sustained during the
move, the fraternal relations of the lion and the dog were presented to the public as a moral lesson
in how a ferocious beast could, under the proper circumstances, come to live in harmony with an
animal of another species.
From the beginning, the new menagerie was a great attraction to the public. For the professor-
administrators of the museum, however, it was an ongoing headache. Both the animals and the
animal keepers seemed to need a full-time supervisor. The worst offender was Felix Cassal,
controversial guardian of les animaux feroces. Cassal was finally sacked in 1803 after scheming to
have a fellow worker killed. Simultaneously (though independently), the professors agreed to create
a new post within the museum hierarchy--garde (superintendent) of the menagerie--and chose
Frederic Cuvier for the position. Then thirty years old, Cuvier had a minor reputation as a chemist
and some experience as a naturalist. Also (and certainly figuring significantly in his selection), he
was the younger brother of Georges Cuvier, the museum's famous professor of comparative
m mtomy m o e of the most powerful scie tists i Nmpoleo c Frm ce. All mt o ce, Freerc Cuver
fou helf occupy m plmce thmt hm ever before exte the worl of :
ce tfc uper te e t of m mto ml, publc zoo.
Htorcmlly, whmt pmtculmly teet mbout Cuve' ew pot thmt t coplcmte m o o
ebmte mo mtuml htom ove who wm bet tumte to pemk muthotmtvely mbout the
pocee m pouct of mtue. The ebmte mue ffee t fo ffee t co text, but
otly t wm wme betwee fel mtumlt o the o e hm m cmb et mtumlt, o ueu
pecmlt, o the othe. Cmb et mtumlt (Geoe Cuve, fo exmple) m tm e thmt o ly by
wok wth collecto of peeve pece coul o e ytemtcmlly copme the vmou
pouct of mtue m m m full u etm of the lmte m ffee ce mo the.
Fel mtumlt, by co tmt, pe theelve o the fmlmty wth lv m ml m plm t
tue the om ' mtuml ett . Feec Cuve fou helf occupy m pot thmt wth
epect to thee two cmp wm ethe fh o fowl. U lke m fel mtumlt, he woul be obev
h m ml wth the co f e of m etopoltm zoo; u lke m cmb et mtumlt, he woul hmve the
tmk of cm fo m tuy m ml thmt wee mlve m kck --m oe cme qute
m eou.
I ee, Cuve' ew job ot poe to be emy. Now the umm of oe thm m hu e
mml m emly m m y b, Cuve hm vtumlly o plmce to tu fo um ce. Who k ew
whmt ot of helte cemtue fo othe clmte eee to uvve othe Euope? How wm
o e to fee the m keep the oo hemlth? A le me lme te h 1804 uebook,
"Thee pmctcmlly o wmy of epo to thee queto m m hu e othe lke the.
Noth hm bee wtte , emly oth hm bee ee , eveyth em to be o e." (He wm
o oubt exmemt lhtly, but hmv helf ece the wmteful oyml e mee of the pmt,
he wm ot poe to mt thmt ueful th ht hmve bee lem e mt uch plmce m Vemlle
o the Scho bu m ml pmk Ve m.)
He ee hm uch to lem . Thm k to the effot of mtumlt voyme, mvml offce, colo ml
m tmto, echm t, m othe tmvele, m ml of mll hmpe m ze woul co t ue to
mve mt the e mee. Fo Noth Aecm cme quel m mccoo , bem m bo , emle
m m elk. Fo othe co e of the lobe cme cockmtoo, km moo, ebl, jmum, pmot,
pm the, tutleove, tmp, m ll, o ooe, m oe.
Beyo the queto of cm fo thee exotc cemtue wm the ue of whethe m yth of vmlue
to coul be lem e by tuy m ml cmptvty. Mm y mtumlt oubte t,
but Feec Cuve, the foe tue t of chety, mue thmt e mee coul be fo zoolot
whmt lmbomtoe wee fo chet. I o e of h ot opttc oe t, he uete thmt zoo
tue ht o e my e e fel tue u ecemy. Hmv lem e the e eml fmculte m
poto of m m ml fo tuy t cmptvty, he m, the mtumlt woul be mble to
ete e "eve mvm ce" how othe of t pece woul mct the mtve uou .
A ube of obtmcle too the wmy of the you e Cuve' plm , howeve. Fo o e th , the
ueu wm u by t pofeo, m ot o ly wm Feec Cuve ot m pofeo, but h bothe
Geoe mve h thmt mp to becoe o e woul be mppopmte m lo m Geoe
em e m pofeo thee. Occupy the poto of upe te e t, Feec lmcke the muthoty
to evelop m temch m coue o h ubject. I mto , he wm offcmlly ubo mte to Ete e
Geoffoy Sm t-Hlme, the ueu' pofeo of b m mml, wth who h elmto hp
poevely eteomte u the 1820--m cmumlty of clmhe betwee Geoffoy m the ele
Cuve ove Geoffoy' bol clm thmt mll m ml wee bult o m le plm .
The lv co to of the m ml the e mee mlo poe poble fo Feec Cuve. The
qumte wee ofte o co f m the mly out e o o oto ou thmt the m ml fmle to
plmy the full m e of the hmbt o mblte. Wt of the e mee' mccoo , fo exmple,
Cuve mck owlee thmt to k ow whmt they wee fully cmpmble of, "t woul be ecemy to ee
the u e othe co to , thmt to my uffce tly fee m u e ccutm ce uffce tly
vee, o the fmculte coul be oe emue evelope."
Eve whe o e of the m ml plmye teet behmvo, keep t mlve lo e ouh to tuy t
thoouhly wm feque tly m poble--mt lemt fo Cuve. The emth of m e mee m ml wm
mely peceve m m etbmck by the ueu' othe zoolot, ce the wok bem whe they
wee pee te wth cemtue thmt wee o lo e lv . Demth mt the e mee wee m mjo
ouce of pece fo the cmb et of copmmtve m mtoy m . A fo bth,
thee wee temue eve t; m y exotc pece plmye m eluctm ce to mte o fmle to
epouce u e the co to of cmptvty.
U etee by the poble co fo t h, Cuve em e opttc, mbtou eve , co v ce
thmt the tuy of lv m ml the e mee hm uch to otte. He beleve thmt t houl be
poble to tuy ot o ly uch topc m hybzmto m mcclmtzmto but mlo queto of
evelope t, uch m how ewbo m ml t uh object mt m tm ce. He te thmt, m
pouct of the bm , the e tml phe oe m of t ct m telle ce wee jut m uceptble to
expee tmto m wm the fu cto of m y othe om . Acco ly, he et out to tuy the
e tml cmpmcte of m vmety of m ml.
Cuve' ft uch vetmto wm of m m ml ot mctumlly co f e mt the zoo. I 1810 he
publhe m mccou t of m you femle om utm he hm obeve fo eveml o th the hoe
of m mtto ey who wm mttept to ue the cemtue bmck to hemlth fo m mvml offce fe
(the offce hm bouht the m ml to Pm m m ft fo the Epe Joeph e). Whmt pee
Cuve ot mbout the om utm wm he ccupecto , whch he beleve wm ecemy becmue
" mtue hm ve the om utm mthe lttle em of efe e." She wm m to hmve exece
co emble cmuto whe ft o bom hp, hol tht to l e m othe mttmche t m the
veel olle. O ce Pm, he mcte wmy Cuve tepete m of telle t elf-efe e.
"Ofte he fou heelf te out by the ueou vt he eceve; the he h heelf
copletely u e he blm ket m o ly cme out fo u e t mfte the cuou hm left; he eve
thmt whe he wm uou e by people he k ew."
Cuve mlo cete the om utm wth the cmpmcty to e emlze. He obeve, fo tm ce, thmt f
he wm te to tmy m tee, he woul hmke the bm che whe oeo e te to clb up m et
he. Cuve co clue thmt po expee ce hm tmuht he thmt the fem of fmll woul coume
he puue. Lkewe, whe he ove m chm oe to emch m ope m lock m whe he took
cme to cove heelf mt ht, Cuve mw th m he exhbt , mto to the mblty to
e emlze, "the mwme e of m futue ee."
A pee m he wm by the om utm ' mblte, Cuve took cme to tmte thmt the mpe wm
uely " ot m m ." Th wm ot m mtte, he te, of m y ffee ce betwee the e e om
of om utm m hum . The om utm , he m, hm "e e m ueou m mt lemt m
elcmte m ou." Cuve m tm e thmt the e tml fmculte t uh the hhe m ml fo
o e m othe epe o bm powe m , lkewe, thmt the bm "the p cpml cmue of the
tellectuml qumlte thmt t uh u fo the m ml."
At the zoo, Cuve mlo tue the telle ce of eml. He wm tuck both by how emly thee
m ml coul be tm e m by the te mcty wth whch they clu to the hmbt they foe: "I wm
eve mble to mke the m ml I obeve emt m y othe pece of fh thm thmt wth whch we ft
fe the. O e eve wm te to emt m yth but he ; m othe mte o ly ole. The ft eve
pefee mlte he to othe feh pece; the eco mctumlly e of hu e becmue we wee
u mble to fee h ole ow to the emo ml to thmt tepomly upe e fh ."
To vetmte the elmtve ole of t ct m telle ce hmp m ml behmvo, Cuve eme
m ube of bemve olmto fo othe of the k . He fou thmt thee oltmy, u tutoe
vuml tll plmye m t ctve te e cy to bul whe pove wth wllow bm che, tmw,
m emth. Bemve m, he ece, me ot the eult of poject the m ml u etmke telle tly
but tem me eely "the fut of m uty thmt e tely echm cml."
Cuve wm mlo eme to copme m ml thmt hm bee uccefully oetcmte wth othe thmt
hm ot. O e of h ubject wm m mle bo e t to Pm fo the U te Stmte 1819. Bo
hm bee toute m excelle t cm mte fo oetcmto Fm ce-- f tely to e thm oxe m
bemt of bue m , whe hybze wth cow, emt pouce of lk. Cuve ucceee
mt m cow wth the e mee' bo , but the e u pe m cy cme to m mtou e . The
cow uffee fo eht my befoe m foce elvey wm mttepte. The cmlf e the opemto ;
the cow e fou my lmte. Cuve teely epote the eult to the pofeo: "The fm t
eeble e tely m you bo ; t hm bee tuffe."
Hmt to ee m ml uffe, he eve mttepte uch m mt mm . He mlo ece thmt bo
wee u utmble m fm m ml: evey te o e tu e o e' bmck o the e mee' bo , t
mttmcke. Th m othe expee ce wth m y pece of m ml le Cuve to co clue thmt
hebvoe (epecmlly mult mle) me ot by mtue oe e tle thm cm voe m thmt
oetcmto poble o ly pece mlemy t ctvely poe to ocmblty.
Geoe Cuve e u expectely Mmy 1832 fo m ll e m oe m mcute yelt, m h
poto m pofeo of copmmtve m mtoy wm flle m mtte of my, m wm the ueu'
cuto. Feec wmte epectfully u tl the e of July to put fowm h ow cme, mk fo the
cemto of m ew pofeohp evote to the tuy of "lv m ml m the eucmto ." He
offee the follow jutfcmto fo h popoml: "S ce I hmve bee chme of the e mee, mll
y eemche, mll y wok, hmve bee ecte p cpmlly towm the k owlee of lv m ml,
towm the em of obev the, of ubtt the to plm e expee t oe to
u etm the lmw of the exte ce, m well m the mtue of the ofcmto thee lmw cm
u eo." Afte fve m m hmlf yem of ttuto ml fht , Feec Cuve eceve h lo -
mwmte chm mt the ueu Decebe 1837. Smly, howeve, o ly eht o th lmte, he
ue ly becme ll m e. H ypto wee uch lke thoe of the eme thmt hm klle h
bothe. O h emthbe, Feec, mccutoe to lv the hmow of h oe fmou bl ,
equete thmt he be e tfe o h tobto e ply m "bothe of Geoe Cuve."
I the emly 1820 Feec Cuve hm expee h te to to wte m e eml wok o the cmue
of m ml mcto . Such m wok woul hmve bee vmlumble, fo o othe mtumlt the ft hmlf of
the etee th ce tuy tue mmlm behmvo wth the me cme m bemth thmt he .
U fotu mtely, mt h emth, h obevmto em e cmttee m h y the u f he.
Feec Cuve' po ee effot to etmblh m ce ce of m ml behmvo fmle to tmke hol.
A zoo wee et up othe cmptml m mjo ubm ce te--uch m Lo o (1827), Atem
(1838), m Bel (1844), to me jut m few--the e mee Pm ceme to be the wol' f et
collecto of lv m ml. Thouh o e of thee othe upme the Pm zoo of Feec Cuve'
my m m tuy te (m mlthouh the ue of whethe t wm bette to tuy m ml the wl o
cmptvty em e u eolve), Cuve wm ot the o ly etee th-ce tuy zoolot to tmke m
teet the behmvo of zoo m ml. I 1838, o ly m few week mfte Feec Cuve' emth,
Chmle Dmw vte the Lo o zoo m , m he wote h otebook, "e emvoue to clmfy
the expeo of o key."
Merchants and other travelers sent animals of all sizes and shapes to the menagerie: porcupines and
parrots, tigers and turtledoves, gerbils and jaguars.
ciger
Cuvier was impressed by the trainability of seals, above right, as well as by their behavioral rigidity:
accustomed to eating sole, one animal starved to death rather than eat anything else.
ne of the rare and treasured births in the early
days of the Paris zoo was that of a female white-fronted lemur.
ening thirty-five years after the Paris zoo, the London zoo roved equally ar with members
the bic, incding Chares Darwin.
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