Opticalresolution

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Opticalresolutiondescribestheabilityofanimagingsystemtoresolvedetailintheobjectthatisbeingimaged.

Animagingsystemmayhavemanyindividualcomponentsincludingalensandrecordinganddisplay
components.Eachofthesecontributestotheopticalresolutionofthesystem,aswilltheenvironmentinwhichthe
imagingisdone.

Contents
1 Lateralresolution
2 Lensresolution
3 Sensorresolution(spatial)
4 Sensorresolution(temporal)
5 Analogbandwidtheffectonresolution
6 Systemresolution
7 Ocularresolution
8 Atmosphericresolution
9 Measuringopticalresolution
9.1 Interferogram
9.2 NBS1010a/ISO#2target
9.3 USAF1951target
9.4 NBS1952target
9.5 EIA1956videoresolutiontarget
9.6 IEEEStd2081995target
9.7 ISO12233target
9.8 Randomtestpatterns
9.9 Monotonicallyincreasingsinusoidpatterns
9.10 Multiburst
9.11 Discussion
10 Seealso
11 References
12 Externallinks

Lateralresolution
Resolutiondependsonthedistancebetweentwodistinguishableradiatingpoints.Thesectionsbelowdescribethe
theoreticalestimatesofresolution,buttherealvaluesmaydiffer.Theresultsbelowarebasedonmathematical
modelsofAirydiscs,whichassumesanadequatelevelofcontrast.Inlowcontrastsystems,theresolutionmaybe
muchlowerthanpredictedbythetheoryoutlinedbelow.Realopticalsystemsarecomplexandpractical
difficultiesoftenincreasethedistancebetweendistinguishablepointsources.

Theresolutionofasystemisbasedontheminimumdistance atwhichthepointscanbedistinguishedas
individuals.Severalstandardsareusedtodetermine,quantitatively,whetherornotthepointscanbedistinguished.
Oneofthemethodsspecifiesthat,onthelinebetweenthecenterofonepointandthenext,thecontrastbetween
themaximumandminimumintensitybeatleast26%lowerthanthemaximum.Thiscorrespondstotheoverlapof
oneairydiskonthefirstdarkringintheother.ThisstandardforseparationisalsoknownastheRayleighcriterion.
Insymbols,thedistanceisdefinedasfollows:[1]

where

istheminimumdistancebetweenresolvablepoints,inthesameunitsas isspecified
isthewavelengthoflight,emissionwavelength,inthecaseoffluorescence,
istheindexofrefractionofthemediasurroundingtheradiatingpoints,
isthehalfangleofthepenciloflightthatenterstheobjective,and
isthenumericalaperture

Thisformulaissuitableforconfocalmicroscopy,butisalsousedintraditionalmicroscopy.Inconfocallaser
scannedmicroscopes,thefullwidthhalfhalfmaximum(FWHM)ofthepointspreadfunctionisoftenusedto
avoidthedifficultyofmeasuringtheAirydisc.[2]This,combinedwiththerasteredilluminationpattern,resultsin
betterresolution,butitisstillproportionaltotheRayleighbasedformulagivenabove.

Alsocommoninthemicroscopyliteratureisaformulaforresolutionthattreatstheabovementionedconcerns
aboutcontrastdifferently.[3]TheresolutionpredictedbythisformulaisproportionaltotheRayleighbased
formula,differingbyabout20%.Forestimatingtheoreticalresolution,itmaybeadequate.

Whenacondenserisusedtoilluminatethesample,theshapeofthepenciloflightemanatingfromthecondenser
mustalsobeincluded.[4]

Inaproperlyconfiguredmicroscope, .

Theaboveestimatesofresolutionarespecifictothecaseinwhichtwoidenticalverysmallsamplesthatradiate
incoherentlyinalldirections.Otherconsiderationsmustbetakenintoaccountifthesourcesradiateatdifferent
levelsofintensity,arecoherent,large,orradiateinnonuniformpatterns.

Lensresolution
Theabilityofalenstoresolvedetailisusuallydeterminedbythequalityofthelensbutisultimatelylimitedby
diffraction.Lightcomingfromapointintheobjectdiffractsthroughthelensaperturesuchthatitformsa
diffractionpatternintheimagewhichhasacentralspotandsurroundingbrightrings,separatedbydarknullsthis
patternisknownasanAirypattern,andthecentralbrightlobeasanAirydisk.TheangularradiusoftheAirydisk
(measuredfromthecentertothefirstnull)isgivenby:

 where

istheangularresolutioninradians,
Twoadjacentpointsintheobjectgiverisetotwodiffractionpatterns.Iftheangularseparationofthetwopointsis
isthewavelengthoflightinmeters,
significantlylessthantheAirydiskangularradius,thenthetwopointscannotberesolvedintheimage,butiftheir
andDisthediameterofthelensapertureinmeters.
angularseparationismuchgreaterthanthis,distinctimagesofthetwopointsareformedandtheycanthereforebe
resolved.Rayleighdefinedthesomewhatarbitrary"Rayleighcriterion"thattwopointswhoseangularseparationis
equaltotheAirydiskradiustofirstnullcanbeconsideredtoberesolved.Itcanbeseenthatthegreaterthe
diameterofthelensoritsaperture,thegreatertheresolution.Astronomicaltelescopeshaveincreasinglylarge
lensessotheycan'see'everfinerdetailinthestars.

Onlytheveryhighestqualitylenseshavediffractionlimitedresolution,however,andnormallythequalityofthe
lenslimitsitsabilitytoresolvedetail.ThisabilityisexpressedbytheOpticalTransferFunctionwhichdescribes
thespatial(angular)variationofthelightsignalasafunctionofspatial(angular)frequency.Whentheimageis
projectedontoaflatplane,suchasphotographicfilmorasolidstatedetector,spatialfrequencyisthepreferred
domain,butwhentheimageisreferredtothelensalone,angularfrequencyispreferred.OTFmaybebrokendown
intothemagnitudeandphasecomponentsasfollows:

where

and arespatialfrequencyinthexandyplane,respectively.

TheOTFaccountsforaberration,whichthelimitingfrequencyexpressionabovedoesnot.Themagnitudeis
knownastheModulationTransferFunction(MTF)andthephaseportionisknownasthePhaseTransfer
Function(PTF).

Inimagingsystems,thephasecomponentistypicallynotcapturedbythesensor.Thus,theimportantmeasurewith
respecttoimagingsystemsistheMTF.

Phaseiscriticallyimportanttoadaptiveopticsandholographicsystems.

Sensorresolution(spatial)
Someopticalsensorsaredesignedtodetectspatialdifferencesinelectromagneticenergy.Theseinclude
photographicfilm,solidstatedevices(CCD,CMOSdetectors,andinfrareddetectorslikePtSiandInSb),tube
detectors(vidicon,plumbicon,andphotomultipliertubesusedinnightvisiondevices),scanningdetectors(mainly
usedforIR),pyroelectricdetectors,andmicrobolometerdetectors.Theabilityofsuchadetectortoresolvethose
differencesdependsmostlyonthesizeofthedetectingelements.

Spatialresolutionistypicallyexpressedinlinepairspermillimeter(lppmm),lines(ofresolution,mostlyforanalog
video),contrastvs.cycles/mm,orMTF(themodulusofOTF).TheMTFmaybefoundbytakingthetwo
dimensionalFouriertransformofthespatialsamplingfunction.SmallerpixelsresultinwiderMTFcurvesandthus
betterdetectionofhigherfrequencyenergy.

ThisisanalogoustotakingtheFouriertransformofasignalsamplingfunctionasinthatcase,thedominantfactor
isthesamplingperiod,whichisanalogoustothesizeofthepictureelement(pixel).
Otherfactorsincludepixelnoise,pixelcrosstalk,substratepenetration,andfillfactor.

Acommonproblemamongnontechniciansistheuseofthenumberofpixelsonthedetectortodescribethe
resolution.Ifallsensorswerethesamesize,thiswouldbeacceptable.Sincetheyarenot,theuseofthenumberof
pixelscanbemisleading.Forexample,a2megapixelcameraof20micrometresquarepixelswillhaveworse
resolutionthana1megapixelcamerawith8micrometrepixels,allelsebeingequal.

Forresolutionmeasurement,filmmanufacturerstypicallypublishaplotofResponse(%)vs.SpatialFrequency
(cyclespermillimeter).Theplotisderivedexperimentally.Solidstatesensorandcameramanufacturersnormally
publishspecificationsfromwhichtheusermayderiveatheoreticalMTFaccordingtotheprocedureoutlined
below.AfewmayalsopublishMTFcurves,whileothers(especiallyintensifiermanufacturers)willpublishthe
response(%)attheNyquistfrequency,or,alternatively,publishthefrequencyatwhichtheresponseis50%.

TofindatheoreticalMTFcurveforasensor,itisnecessarytoknowthreecharacteristicsofthesensor:theactive
sensingarea,theareacomprisingthesensingareaandtheinterconnectionandsupportstructures("realestate"),
andthetotalnumberofthoseareas(thepixelcount).Thetotalpixelcountisalmostalwaysgiven.Sometimesthe
overallsensordimensionsaregiven,fromwhichtherealestateareacanbecalculated.Whethertherealestatearea
isgivenorderived,iftheactivepixelareaisnotgiven,itmaybederivedfromtherealestateareaandthefill
factor,wherefillfactoristheratiooftheactiveareatothededicatedrealestatearea.

where

theactiveareaofthepixelhasdimensionsab
thepixelrealestatehasdimensionscd

InGaskill'snotation,thesensingareaisa2Dcomb(x,y)functionofthedistancebetweenpixels(thepitch),
convolvedwitha2Drect(x,y)functionoftheactiveareaofthepixel,boundedbya2Drect(x,y)functionofthe
overallsensordimension.TheFouriertransformofthisisa functiongovernedbythedistancebetween
pixels,convolvedwitha functiongovernedbythenumberofpixels,andmultipliedbythe
functioncorrespondingtotheactivearea.ThatlastfunctionservesasanoverallenvelopetotheMTFfunctionso
longasthenumberofpixelsismuchgreaterthanone(1),thentheactiveareasizedominatestheMTF.

Samplingfunction:

wherethesensorhasMNpixels

Sensorresolution(temporal)
Animagingsystemrunningat24framespersecondisessentiallyadiscretesamplingsystemthatsamplesa2D
area.ThesamelimitationsdescribedbyNyquistapplytothissystemastoanysignalsamplingsystem.
Allsensorshaveacharacteristictimeresponse.Filmislimitedatboththeshortresolutionandthelongresolution
extremesbyreciprocitybreakdown.Thesearetypicallyheldtobeanythinglongerthan1secondandshorterthan
1/10,000second.Furthermore,filmrequiresamechanicalsystemtoadvanceitthroughtheexposuremechanism,
oramovingopticalsystemtoexposeit.Theselimitthespeedatwhichsuccessiveframesmaybeexposed.

CCDandCMOSarethemodernpreferencesforvideosensors.CCDisspeedlimitedbytherateatwhichthe
chargecanbemovedfromonesitetoanother.CMOShastheadvantageofhavingindividuallyaddressablecells,
andthishasledtoitsadvantageinthehighspeedphotographyindustry.

Vidicons,Plumbicons,andimageintensifiershavespecificapplications.Thespeedatwhichtheycanbesampled
dependsuponthedecayrateofthephosphorused.Forexample,theP46phosphorhasadecaytimeoflessthan2
microseconds,whiletheP43decaytimeisontheorderof23milliseconds.TheP43isthereforeunusableatframe
ratesabove1000framespersecond(frame/s).SeeExternallinksforlinkstophosphorinformation.

Pyroelectricdetectorsrespondtochangesintemperature.Therefore,astaticscenewillnotbedetected,sothey
requirechoppers.Theyalsohaveadecaytime,sothepyroelectricsystemtemporalresponsewillbeabandpass,
whiletheotherdetectorsdiscussedwillbealowpass.

Ifobjectswithinthesceneareinmotionrelativetotheimagingsystem,theresultingmotionblurwillresultin
lowerspatialresolution.Shortintegrationtimeswillminimizetheblur,butintegrationtimesarelimitedbysensor
sensitivity.Furthermore,motionbetweenframesinmotionpictureswillimpactdigitalmoviecompression
schemes(e.g.MPEG1,MPEG2).Finally,therearesamplingschemesthatrequirerealorapparentmotioninside
thecamera(scanningmirrors,rollingshutters)thatmayresultinincorrectrenderingofimagemotion.Therefore,
sensorsensitivityandothertimerelatedfactorswillhaveadirectimpactonspatialresolution.

Analogbandwidtheffectonresolution
Thespatialresolutionofdigitalsystems(e.g.HDTVandVGA)arefixedindependentlyoftheanalogbandwidth
becauseeachpixelisdigitized,transmitted,andstoredasadiscretevalue.Digitalcameras,recorders,anddisplays
mustbeselectedsothattheresolutionisidenticalfromcameratodisplay.However,inanalogsystems,the
resolutionofthecamera,recorder,cabling,amplifiers,transmitters,receivers,anddisplaymayallbeindependent
andtheoverallsystemresolutionisgovernedbythebandwidthofthelowestperformingcomponent.

Inanalogsystems,eachhorizontallineistransmittedasahighfrequencyanalogsignal.Eachpictureelement
(pixel)isthereforeconvertedtoananalogelectricalvalue(voltage),andchangesinvaluesbetweenpixels
thereforebecomechangesinvoltage.Thetransmissionstandardsrequirethatthesamplingbedoneinafixedtime
(outlinedbelow),somorepixelsperlinebecomesarequirementformorevoltagechangesperunittime,i.e.higher
frequency.Sincesuchsignalsaretypicallybandlimitedbycables,amplifiers,recorders,transmitters,and
receivers,thebandlimitationontheanalogsignalactsasaneffectivelowpassfilteronthespatialresolution.The
differenceinresolutionsbetweenVHS(240discerniblelinesperscanline),Betamax(280lines),andthenewerED
Betaformat(500lines)isexplainedprimarilybythedifferenceintherecordingbandwidth.

IntheNTSCtransmissionstandard,eachfieldcontains262.5lines,and59.94fieldsaretransmittedeverysecond.
Eachlinemustthereforetake63microseconds,10.7ofwhichareforresettothenextline.Thus,theretracerateis
15.734kHz.Forthepicturetoappeartohaveapproximatelythesamehorizontalandverticalresolution(seeKell
factor),itshouldbeabletodisplay228cyclesperline,requiringabandwidthof4.28MHz.Iftheline(sensor)
widthisknown,thismaybeconverteddirectlyintocyclespermillimeter,theunitofspatialresolution.

B/G/I/Ktelevisionsystemsignals(usuallyusedwithPALcolourencoding)transmitframeslessoften(50Hz),but
theframecontainsmorelinesandiswider,sobandwidthrequirementsaresimilar.
Notethata"discernibleline"formsonehalfofacycle(acyclerequiresadarkandalightline),so"228cycles"
and"456lines"areequivalentmeasures.

Systemresolution
Therearetwomethodsbywhichtodeterminesystemresolution.Thefirstistoperformaseriesoftwo
dimensionalconvolutions,firstwiththeimageandthelens,thentheresultofthatprocedurewiththesensor,and
soonthroughallofthecomponentsofthesystem.Thisiscomputationallyexpensive,andmustbeperformed
anewforeachobjecttobeimaged.

Theothermethodistotransformeachofthecomponentsofthesystemintothespatialfrequencydomain,andthen
tomultiplythe2Dresults.Asystemresponsemaybedeterminedwithoutreferencetoanobject.Althoughthis
methodisconsiderablymoredifficulttocomprehendconceptually,itbecomeseasiertousecomputationally,
especiallywhendifferentdesigniterationsorimagedobjectsaretobetested.

ThetransformationtobeusedistheFouriertransform.

Ocularresolution
Thehumaneyeisalimitingfeatureofmanysystems,whenthegoalofthesystemistopresentdatatohumansfor
processing.

Forexample,inasecurityorairtrafficcontrolfunction,thedisplayandworkstationmustbeconstructedsothat
averagehumanscandetectproblemsanddirectcorrectivemeasures.Otherexamplesarewhenahumanisusing
eyestocarryoutacriticaltasksuchasflying(pilotingbyvisualreference),drivingavehicle,andsoforth.

Thebestvisualacuityofthehumaneyeatitsopticalcentre(thefovea)islessthan1arcminuteperlinepair,
reducingrapidlyawayfromthefovea.

Thehumanbrainrequiresmorethanjustalinepairtounderstandwhattheeyeisimaging.Johnson'scriteria
definesthenumberoflinepairsofocularresolution,orsensorresolution,neededtorecognizeoridentifyanitem.

Atmosphericresolution
Systemslookingthroughlongatmosphericpathsmaybelimitedbyturbulence.Akeymeasureofthequalityof
atmosphericturbulenceistheseeingdiameter,alsoknownasFried'sseeingdiameter.Apathwhichistemporally
coherentisknownasanisoplanaticpatch.

Largeaperturesmaysufferfromapertureaveraging,theresultofseveralpathsbeingintegratedintooneimage.
Turbulencescaleswithwavelengthatapproximatelya6/5power.Thus,seeingisbetteratinfraredwavelengths
thanatvisiblewavelengths.

Shortexposuressufferfromturbulencelessthanlongerexposuresduetothe"inner"and"outer"scaleturbulence
shortisconsideredtobemuchlessthan10msforvisibleimaging(typically,anythinglessthan2ms).Innerscale
turbulencearisesduetotheeddiesintheturbulentflow,whileouterscaleturbulencearisesfromlargeairmass
flow.Thesemassestypicallymoveslowly,andsoarereducedbydecreasingtheintegrationperiod.

Asystemlimitedonlybythequalityoftheopticsissaidtobediffractionlimited.However,sinceatmospheric
turbulenceisnormallythelimitingfactorforvisiblesystemslookingthroughlongatmosphericpaths,most
systemsareturbulencelimited.Correctionscanbemadebyusingadaptiveopticsorpostprocessingtechniques.

where

isthespatialfrequency
isthewavelength
fisthefocallength
Distheaperturediameter
bisaconstant(1forfarfieldpropagation)
and isFried'sseeingdiameter

Measuringopticalresolution
Avarietyofmeasurementsystemsareavailable,andusemaydependuponthesystembeingtested.

TypicaltestchartsforContrastTransferFunction(CTF)consistofrepeatedbarpatterns(seeDiscussionbelow).
Thelimitingresolutionismeasuredbydeterminingthesmallestgroupofbars,bothverticallyandhorizontally,
forwhichthecorrectnumberofbarscanbeseen.Bycalculatingthecontrastbetweentheblackandwhiteareasat
severaldifferentfrequencies,however,pointsoftheCTFcanbedeterminedwiththecontrastequation.

where

isthenormalizedvalueofthemaximum(forexample,thevoltageorgreyvalueofthewhitearea)
isthenormalizedvalueoftheminimum(forexample,thevoltageorgreyvalueoftheblackarea)

Whenthesystemcannolongerresolvethebars,theblackandwhiteareashavethesamevalue,soContrast=0.At
verylowspatialfrequencies,Cmax=1andCmin=0soModulation=1.Somemodulationmaybeseenabovethe
limitingresolutionthesemaybealiasedandphasereversed.

Whenusingothermethods,includingtheinterferogram,sinusoid,andtheedgeintheISO12233target,itis
possibletocomputetheentireMTFcurve.Theresponsetotheedgeissimilartoastepresponse,andtheFourier
TransformofthefirstdifferenceofthestepresponseyieldstheMTF.

Interferogram
Aninterferogramcreatedbetweentwocoherentlightsourcesmaybeusedforatleasttworesolutionrelated
purposes.Thefirstistodeterminethequalityofalenssystem(seeLUPI),andthesecondistoprojectapattern
ontoasensor(especiallyphotographicfilm)tomeasureresolution.

NBS1010a/ISO#2target

This5barresolutiontestchartisoftenusedforevaluationofmicrofilmsystemsandscanners.Itisconvenientfor
a1:1range(typicallycovering118cycles/mm)andismarkeddirectlyincycles/mm.DetailscanbefoundinISO
3334.

USAF1951target

TheUSAF1951resolutiontesttargetconsistsofapatternof3bartargets.
Oftenfoundcoveringarangeof0.25to228cycles/mm.Eachgroupconsists
ofsixelements.Thegroupisdesignatedbyagroupnumber(2,1,0,1,2,
etc.)whichisthepowertowhich2shouldberaisedtoobtainthespatial
frequencyofthefirstelement(e.g.,group2is0.25linepairsper
millimeter).Eachelementisthe6throotof2smallerthanthepreceding
elementinthegroup(e.g.element1is2^0,element2is2^(1/6),element3
is2(1/3),etc.).Byreadingoffthegroupandelementnumberofthefirst
elementwhichcannotberesolved,thelimitingresolutionmaybe
determinedbyinspection.Thecomplexnumberingsystemanduseofa
lookupchartcanbeavoidedbyuseofanimprovedbutnotstandardized
layoutchart,whichlabelsthebarsandspacesdirectlyincycles/mmusing
OCRAextendedfont. SilverFastResolutionTargetUSAF
1951fordeterminingascanner's
optimumresolution

NBS1952target

TheNBS1952targetisa3barpattern(longbars).Thespatialfrequencyisprintedalongsideeachtriplebarset,so
thelimitingresolutionmaybedeterminedbyinspection.Thisfrequencyisnormallyonlyasmarkedafterthechart
hasbeenreducedinsize(typically25times).Theoriginalapplicationcalledforplacingthechartatadistance26
timesthefocallengthoftheimaginglensused.Thebarsaboveandtotheleftareinsequence,separatedby
approximatelythesquarerootoftwo(12,17,24,etc.),whilethebarsbelowandtothelefthavethesame
separationbutadifferentstartingpoint(14,20,28,etc.)

EIA1956videoresolutiontarget

TheEIA1956resolutiontargetwasspecificallydesignedtobeusedwithtelevisionsystems.Thegradually
expandinglinesnearthecenteraremarkedwithperiodicindicationsofthecorrespondingspatialfrequency.The
limitingresolutionmaybedeterminedbyinspection.Themostimportantmeasureisthelimitinghorizontal
resolution,sincetheverticalresolutionistypicallydeterminedbytheapplicablevideostandard
(I/B/G/K/NTSC/NTSCJ).

IEEEStd2081995target

TheIEEE2081995resolutiontargetissimilartotheEIAtarget.Resolutionismeasuredinhorizontalandvertical
TVlines.
ISO12233target

TheISO12233targetwasdevelopedfordigitalcameraapplications,since
moderndigitalcameraspatialresolutionmayexceedthelimitationsofthe
oldertargets.Itincludesseveralknifeedgetargetsforthepurposeof
computingMTFbyFouriertransform.Theyareoffsetfromtheverticalby
5degreessothattheedgeswillbesampledinmanydifferentphases,which
allowestimationofthespatialfrequencyresponsebeyondtheNyquist
frequencyofthesampling.
EIA1956videoresolutiontarget
Randomtestpatterns

Theideaisanalogoustotheuseofawhitenoisepatterninacousticstodeterminesystemfrequencyresponse.

Monotonicallyincreasingsinusoidpatterns

Theinterferogramusedtomeasurefilmresolutioncanbesynthesizedonpersonalcomputersandusedtogenerate
apatternformeasuringopticalresolution.SeeespeciallyKodakMTFcurves.

Multiburst

Amultiburstsignalisanelectronicwaveformusedtotestanalogtransmission,recording,anddisplaysystems.
Thetestpatternconsistsofseveralshortperiodsofspecificfrequencies.Thecontrastofeachmaybemeasuredby
inspectionandrecorded,givingaplotofattenuationvs.frequency.TheNTSC3.58multiburstpatternconsistsof
500kHz,1MHz,2MHz,3MHz,and3.58MHzblocks.3.58MHzisimportantbecauseitisthechrominance
frequencyforNTSCvideo.

Discussion

Itshouldbenotedwheneverusingabartargetthattheresultingmeasureisthecontrasttransferfunction(CTF)and
nottheMTF.Thedifferencearisesfromthesubharmonicsofthesquarewavesandcanbeeasilycomputed.

Seealso
Angularresolution
Imageresolution,incomputing
Minimumresolvablecontrast
Siemensstar,apatternusedforresolutiontesting
Squaremetersperpixel
Superlens
Superresolution

References
1.http://www.olympusconfocal.com/theory/resolutionintro.html
2.http://www.olympusconfocal.com/theory/resolutionintro.html
3.http://www.microscopyu.com/articles/optics/objectiveproperties.html
4.http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/anatomy/numaperture.html
 Gaskill,JackD.(1978),LinearSystems,FourierTransforms,andOptics,WileyInterscience.ISBN0471
292885
Goodman,JosephW.(2004),IntroductiontoFourierOptics(ThirdEdition),Roberts&Company
Publishers.ISBN0974707724
Fried,DavidL.(1966),"Opticalresolutionthrougharandomlyinhomogeneousmediumforverylongand
veryshortexposures.",J.Opt.Soc.Amer.56:13729
Robin,Michael,andPoulin,Michael(2000),DigitalTelevisionFundamentals(2ndedition),McGrawHill
Professional.ISBN0071355812
Smith,WarrenJ.(2000),ModernOpticalEngineering(ThirdEdition),McGrawHillProfessional.ISBN0
071363602
Accetta,J.S.andShumaker,D.L.(1993),TheInfraredandElectroopticalSystemsHandbook,SPIE/ERIM.
ISBN0819410721
Roggemann,MichaelandWelsh,Byron(1996),ImagingThroughTurbulence,CRCPress.ISBN08493
37879
Tatarski,V.I.(1961),WavePropagationinaTurbulentMedium,McGrawHill,NY

Externallinks
NormanKoren's(http://www.normankoren.com/Tutorials/MTF.html)websiteincludesseveral
downloadabletestpatterns
UCSantaCruzProf.ClaireMax'slecturesandnotesfromAstronomy289C(http://www.ucolick.org/~max/2
89C),AdaptiveOptics
GeorgeOu'srecreationoftheEIA1956chart(http://www.bealecorner.com/trv900/respat/#EIA1956)froma
highresolutionscan
DoSensorsOutresolveLenses?(http://www.luminouslandscape.com/tutorials/resolution.shtml)onlens
andsensorresolutioninteraction

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Categories: Optics

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