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Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New Orleans, New Orleans, LA 70148, USA
*Corresponding author, e-mail: wsimmons@uno.edu
Abstract: No one universally accepted model of pegmatite genesis has yet emerged that satisfactorily explains all the diverse
features of granitic pegmatites. Genesis from residual melts derived from the crystallization of granitic plutons is favoured by
most researchers. Incompatible components, fluxes, volatiles and rare elements, are enriched in the residual melts. The presence of
fluxes and volatiles, which lower the crystallization temperature, decrease nucleation rates, melt polymerization and viscosity, and
increase diusion rates and solubility, are considered to be critical to the development of large crystals. A number of new concepts
have shed light on problems related to pegmatite genesis.
Cooling rates calculated from thermal cooling models demonstrate that shallow-level pegmatites cool radically more rapidly
than previously believed. Rapid cooling rates for pegmatites represent a quantum shift from the widely held view that the large
crystals found in pegmatites are the result of very slow rates of cooling and crystal growth.
Experimental and field evidence both suggest that undercooling and disequilibrium crystallization dominate pegmatite crys-
tallization. Londons constitutional zone refining model of pegmatite evolution involves disequilibrium crystallization from an
undercooled, flux-bearing granitic melt. The melt is not necessarily fluxrich and the model does not require the presence of an
aqueous vapor phase.
Experimental studies of volatile- and flux-rich melts and fluid inclusion studies suggest that volatile-rich silicate melts may
persist to temperatures well below 500 C and even down to 350 C.
eschweizerbartxxx
Studies of melt inclusions and fluid inclusions have led some researchers to suggest that the role of immiscible fluids must be
considered in any model regarding pegmatite genesis. Fluid saturation is thought to occur early in the crystallization history of
pegmatites. Two types of melt inclusions along with primary fluid inclusions have been found coexisting in pegmatite minerals.
Advances by Petr Cern in pegmatite classification are in wide use and the fractionation trends of Nb, Ta and other HFSE and
K, Rb, Cs, Li, Ga and Tl are now well understood.
How pegmatitic melts are produced, the types of source rocks involved and how melt generation relates to plate tectonic models
are challenging areas for future investigations. Also, the roles of regional zoning, anatexis, and chemical quenching in pegmatite
genesis are areas for future pegmatite research.
Key-words: pegmatite, pegmatite genesis, thermal modelling, chemical quench, classification, regional zoning.
0935-1221/08/0020-1833 $ 8.10
DOI: 10.1127/0935-1221/2008/0020-1833
c 2008 E. Schweizerbartsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, D-70176 Stuttgart
422 W.B. Simmons, K.L. Webber
Pegmatite Classes
based mainly on depth of formation
Abyssal -AB high grade, high to low pressure
Muscovite -MSC high pressure, lower temperature
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram showing the crystallization of granitic
Muscovite REL -MSREL transitional between MSC & MSREL
magma and withdrawn residual silicate liquid at increasing degrees
Rare-Element -REL low temperature and pressure
of consolidation of a melt initially containing 0.2 weight percent
eschweizerbartxxx
Class
Elements Environment Granite Features
U, Th, Zr, Nb, Ti, Y, (upper amphibolite to) low- to none (segregations of conformable to mobilized Rae and Hearne Provinces, Sask.
REE, Mo high-P granulite facies anatectic leucosome) cross-cutting veins (Tremblay, 1978); Aldan and Anabar
poor (to moderate) 49 kbar Shields, Siberia (Bushev & Koplus,
mineralization 700800 C 1980); Eastern Baltic Shield (Kalita,
Abyssal
1965)
Li, Be, Y, REE, Ti, high-P, Barrovian none quasi-conformable to cross- White Sea region, USSR (Gorlov,
eschweizerbartxxx
U, Th, Nb > Ta amphibolite facies (kyanite- (anatectic bodies) to cutting 1975); Appalachian Province (Jahns et al.,
poor (to moderate) sillimanite) marginal 1952); Rajahstan, India (Shmakin,
mineralization, micas and 58 kbar and 1976)
Muscovite
ceramic minerals 650580 C exterior
Li, Rb, Cs, Be, Ga, low-P, Abukuma amphibolite to (interior to marginal quasi-conformable to cross- Yellowknife field, NWT (Meintzer,
Nb < > Ta,Sn, Hf, B, P, F upper greeenschist facies to) exterior cutting 1987); Black Hills, South Dakota
LCT poor to abundant (andalusite-sillimanite) (Shearer et al., 1987); Cat Lake-
mineralization, gemstock 24 kbar Winnipeg River field, Manitoba (Cern
Pegmatite genesis: state of the art
Rare - Element
NYF poor to abundant (Simmons et al., 1987); Western Keivy,
mineralization, ceramic Kola, USSR (Beus, 1960)
minerals
Be, Y, REE, Ti, U, Th, Zr, shallow to sub-volcanic interior to marginal interior pods and cross- Pikes Peak, Colorado (Foord, 1982);
NYF Nb > Ta, F 12 kbar cutting dikes Sawtooth batholith, Idaho (Boggs,
poor mineralization, 1986); Korosten pluton, Ukraine
Miarolitic
gemstock (Lazarenko et al., 1973)
423
424 W.B. Simmons, K.L. Webber
Table 3. Relationships between Cerns (1991) pegmatite classes, families, types and subtypes, showing the types and subtypes related to
LCT and NYF families.
Table 4. Petrogenetic aliations (after Cern, 1991), showing geochemical signature, orogenic aliation, granite bulk composition, source
lithologies and granite type (I, S, A).
Li, Cs, Ta
Synorogenic to late Orogenic
Orogenic LCT Peraluminous parent granites: undepleted
Types upper to middle crust
S and I types
Nb > Ta, Y, F, REE, Ti, Sc, Zr, U, Th
Mainly Anorogenic
Anorogenic NYF Types Sub - to - Metaluminous, Peralkaline
granites: depleted middle to lower crust
A and I types
Mixed Cross-bred LCT& NYF Metaluminous to Peraluminous
Mixed protoliths or assimilation
Table 5. The family system of petrologic classification of granitic pegmatites of plutonic derivation. For the complete classification refer to
Cern & Ercit (2005).
*Peraluminous, A/CNK > 1; subaluminous, A/CNK 1; metaluminous, A/CNK < 1 at A/NK > 1; subalkaline, A/NK 1; peralkaline,
A/NK < 1, where A = Al2 O3 , CNK = CaO + Na2 O + K2 O, and NK = Na2 O + K2 O (all in molecular values; Cern 1991).
melts. The fractionation patterns of Nb, Ta and other HFS crease with fractionation in feldspars, micas and other min-
elements in numerous pegmatite systems have been well erals. The trends are apparent in minerals between groups
documented, especially in LCT pegmatites (Cern, 1989a, of pegmatites and within individual pegmatites from mar-
2005; Breaks et al., 2005). The fractionation patterns of K, gins toward cores, with the most fractionated portions of
Rb, Cs, Li, Ga and Tl in feldspars, micas, beryl and other pegmatites containing the greatest enrichments. In complex
minerals have also been described by Cern (2005). The pegmatites with replacement units, enrichments generally
enrichment trends of alkali elements in feldspars and mi- reach their highest levels in minerals within the replace-
cas have proven valuable in understanding pegmatite petro- ment units. Linnen (1998, 2005) has shown experimen-
genesis and the internal fractionation of pegmatites. These tally that manganotantalite is more soluble in granitic melts
relationships and trends have also proven to be especially than manganocolumbite and that the addition of Li and F
helpful in geochemical exploration for pegmatites (Breaks enhances the solubility of manganotantalite in the melts,
et al., 2005; Trueman & Cern, 1982). Examples of some which helps explain the tendency of Ta-rich phases to oc-
cur in the most highly fractionated assemblages (Linnen &
of the more significant trends documented by Cern for the
Cuney, 2005).
columbite group minerals, feldspars, beryl and micas are
shown in Fig. 48. In general, in columbite group miner-
als Mn/Fe and Ta/ Nb increase with fractionation, but pat- Exomorphic reactions
terns are strongly related to the composition of the peg-
matite and fluorine also plays an important role in the shape Exomorphic haloes of Be (emerald), B (tourmaline) and Li
of the trends for Nb and Ta (Fig. 4 and 5). Rb and Cs in- (holmquistite) are well established examples of wallrock
426 W.B. Simmons, K.L. Webber
alteration associated with pegmatites in a number of loca- the few nuclei that do survive and begin to grow. Thus,
tions (Simmons, 2007a). In addition, LCT pegmatites have network modifiers act to prevent nuclei formation and at
been shown to have exomorphic haloes of alkali enrich- the same time increase the eectiveness of diusion. These
ment in the surrounding wallrocks. Li, Rb, and Cs enrich- two eects combine to facilitate ion migration over greater
ments have been shown to be associated with rare element distances and promote the growth of the few nuclei that do
pegmatites and soil geochemistry has been successfully manage to form, resulting in fewer, much larger crystals.
used to locate buried rare element pegmatites (Galeschuk
& Vanstone, 2005).
Fluid and melt inclusions
Temperatures of formation Melt inclusions (MI), small blebs of melt that are trapped in
crystallizing minerals at magmatic temperatures and pres-
The proposed temperatures of the final stages of pegmatite sures that become essentially solid at surface temperatures,
crystallization have declined over the last few decades. The may record parental melt compositions at the time of host
Jahns model suggested that pegmatites crystallize at or near mineral growth (Roedder, 1979, 1984; Lowenstern, 1995)
the hydrous minimum melt temperatures of about 600 C and they may monitor the chemical changes of the residual
(Jahns & Burnham, 1969). Based on stable isotopic studies, liquid during magma evolution (Pettke, 2006). Fluid inclu-
Taylor et al. (1979) proposed temperatures of emplacement sions (FI) entrap fluid that remains in large part fluid at
of pegmatite melts at about 700 C to final temperatures surface temperatures (Roedder, 1984). Recent studies per-
of 525 C in the pockets in San Diego County, California taining to FI and MI are extensive (e.g. Lowenstern, 1995,
pegmatites. 2003; Sobolev, 1996; Peretyazhko et al., 2000; Hauri et al.,
Two-feldspar thermometry using reintegrated perthite 2002; Bodnar & Student, 2006). Many additional refer-
compositions from the intermediate zones of pegmatites ences pertaining to igneous systems can be found in Roed-
in the South Platte, Colorado NYF district gave tempera- der (1984, 2003), Samson et al. (2003) and Kontak et al.
tures of 550500 C (Simmons et al., 1987). Two-feldspar (2004). Challenges involved in interpreting MI from fel-
thermometry of feldspars showing no evidence of exsolu- sic plutons are discussed in detail by Webster & Thomas
tion from the Little Three pegmatite, California (Morgan (2006). Thomas et al. (2003, 2006a) looks specifically
& London, 1999) gave temperatures of 400435 C near at MI in felsic aplite and pegmatite systems. Sirbescu &
the margins to 350390 C near the pegmatite pocket zone Nabelek (2003 a and b) focus on FI in pegmatites.
and a sharp decrease to 240275 C in the pockets where
eschweizerbartxxx
Fig. 4. Fractionation trends of Ta/(Ta+Nb) vs. Mn/(Mn+Fe) of columbite group minerals in pegmatites: A-Greer Lake field, Canada; B-
Black Hills, South Dakota and Himalaya pegmatite, California; C-Yellowknife field, NWT, Canada; Altai field, China; Cross Lake field,
Manitoba (after Cern et al., 1986).
eschweizerbartxxx
Fig. 5. Tantalum and Manganese enrichment trends in fluorine-rich Fig. 7. Na/Li vs. Cs weight percent for late beryl from granite peg-
and fluorine-poor pegmatites (after Cern, 1989b). matites: A- barren and beryl-type pegmatites; B- beryl-columbite
and beryl-columbite-phosphate pegmatites; C- albite-spodumene
and complex pegmatites; D- Li, Cs, Ta-rich complex pegmatites-
spodumene, petalite, amblygonite and lepidolite subtypes (modified
from Cern, 2002).
the type B inclusions decreases from 43.8 to 27.8 wt.% uniformly from dike margin to center (Cashman, 1990).
over the same temperature range. Complete miscibility is In contrast, most sheet-like pegmatite-aplite dikes display
attained at the critical point of 712 C and 21.5 wt.% H2 O changes in crystal size from < 0.1 mm in aplites, to > 10 cm
at 1 kbar. Thomas et al. (2000) conclude that at the criti- (or indeed meter size) for crystals in the hanging wall, core
cal point conditions detailed above, a P-, B-, and F-bearing zone, and pockets. In addition, the grain size does not al-
silicate melt may dissolve unlimited quantities of H2 O and ways increase consistently from the margins to the core.
that upon cooling, the silicate melt will separate into two Pegmatite-aplite dikes typically have a fine-grained foot-
melts each of which has very dierent physical properties wall, coarse-grained hanging wall, and a core zone with
that will readily separate from one another and fractionate miarolitic cavities. Footwall aplites can be layered or non-
incompatible elements dierently. layered, layered aplites can alternate with pegmatite, and
Veksler & Thomas (2002) conducted experiments with aplites can occur in an irregular distribution throughout the
a synthetic peraluminous pegmatite (H2 O-saturated, 0.1 footwall. Clearly, changes in grain size of 5 or more or-
0.2 GPa) spiked with 5 wt.% each of P2 O5 , B2 O3 and F, ders of magnitude, and an irregular distribution of grain
1 wt.% each Rb2 O and Cs2 O and 0.5 wt.% Li2 O, to simu- size with respect to the dike margins and centers, indi-
late the most enriched compositions found in natural MI cate that crystallization parameters such as nucleation and
in pegmatite quartz (Thomas et al., 2000). Aluminosili- growth rates are not consistent during the crystallization
cate melt, low-density hydrous fluid, and hydrosaline melt history of many pegmatites.
strongly enriched in Na3 AlF6 and H3 BO3 components, Another striking feature of pegmatites is the textural het-
were observed coexisting in all experimental charges. erogeneity they display with respect to crystal morpholo-
Thomas et al. (2006a) and Veksler & Thomas (2002) sug- gies. The experimental studies of Swanson & Fenn (1986,
gest that evidence for the stable coexistence of three im- 1992), MacLellan & Trembath (1991) and Fenn (1977,
miscible phases aluminosilicate melt (consisting of SiO2 , 1986) on quartz and feldspar crystallization in granitic
Al2 O3 , FeO, K2 O, Na2 O, Li2 O and other, less abundant melts demonstrated that skeletal and graphic morpholo-
oxides), hydrosaline melt (borates, phosphates, fluorides gies reflect rapid crystal growth from a highly under-
and chlorides of alkaline and alkaline earth elements), and cooled melt. The experimental work of Lofgren (1974,
lower salinity aqueous fluid (volatiles, primarily H2 O and 1980) demonstrated that crystal morphology varied from
CO2 ) both experimentally and in MI and FI from pegmatite euhedral to skeletal to radial with increasing degree of
minerals should be considered an important factor con- liquidus undercooling. London (1992) found that mineral
tributing to the internal dierentiation of pegmatite bodies. zoning patterns, sharp changes in grain size, mineral tex-
eschweizerbartxxx tures, and oriented fabrics that typify pegmatites could
all be replicated experimentally from undercooling vapor-
Rapid cooling rates and disequilibrium crystallization undersaturated Macusani glass and that at progressively
larger liquidus undercooling of a hydrous silicate melt,
Pegmatites by definition have crystals that average 2 cm crystal orientations changed from random to increasingly
or more in diameter. In actuality, many pegmatites display anisotropic, oriented (comb structure) fabrics.
an enormous range in crystal size from mm-size crystals Thus the textural relationships of minerals in pegmatites
up to large crystals that are 10s of meters in length. It reflect the degree of pegmatite undercooling, nucleation
has often been assumed (particularly in introductory level rate and growth rate. Strong undercooling is required to ex-
geology textbooks) that crystal size in igneous rocks is plain the textural characteristic of many pegmatites, includ-
a direct indicator of crystal growth rates and magmatic ing skeletal and dendritic crystal morphologies, elongated,
cooling history, i.e., small crystals grow quickly from a and sometimes wedge-shaped crystals, and the develop-
rapidly cooling magma producing fine-grained (aphanitic) ment of comb structure along the contacts between peg-
textures, whereas large crystals grow more slowly from a matite and country rock. More elongate crystal forms (nee-
slowly cooling magma, producing coarse-grained (phaner- dle like, skeletal, branching, wedge-shaped) are favored
itic) textures. Clearly this paradigm does not hold in many by rapid rates of cooling, larger degrees of undercooling,
pegmatites, particularly when looking at genetically re- higher growth rates and fewer nucleation sites, whereas
lated coarse-grained pegmatites and fine-grained aplites in tabular to equant forms are favored by slower cooling rates,
pegmatite-aplite dikes, without invoking great variability smaller degrees of undercooling, lower growth rates, and
in the cooling history within an individual pegmatite body abundant nucleation sites.
(i.e., rapid followed by slow cooling and crystallization). Yet even with textural evidence that seems to clearly in-
Pegmatites display striking variability in terms of size dicate rapid crystal growth rates, it wasnt until the cooling
of the pegmatite itself, from thin sheet-like dikes with histories were quantitatively evaluated for the Harding peg-
diameters in terms of < 1 m to 20 m or so, to ellip- matite, New Mexico (Chakoumakos & Lumpkin, 1990);
soidal or teardrop shaped pegmatites, many of which show the George Ashley, Mission, Stewart and Himalaya dikes,
pronounced large-scale zonation and often display well- San Diego County, California (Webber et al., 1997, 1999);
developed quartz cores. The country rock into which peg- and the Little Three dike, Ramona, California (Morgan &
matites are emplaced also varies widely from brittle, rela- London, 1999) that it became clear that these pegmatites
tively cold, country rock to hotter migmatitic terranes. In cooled rapidly (in days to months, not in thousands to
most dikes or sills, variations in grain size are small (2 to millions of years as previously believed) thus constrain-
3 orders of magnitude), and grain size generally increases ing crystal growth rates to the cooling history of the peg-
430 W.B. Simmons, K.L. Webber
Fig. 11. Cooling curve for the George Ashley dike calculated with
latent heat of crystallization, emplacement temperature of 650 C
into 150 C country rock. Half-width of the dike is plotted with the
Fig. 10. Layering in the George Ashley aplite (line rock). The dark dike center at 0. The position of the contact between the country
layers are enriched in garnet, and the light layers in albite and quartz. rock and the dike is shown. The interval where layered aplite (line
K-spar megacrysts are in the center of some of the nested loops. rock) occurs within the dike is between the 2 heavy lines (Webber
et al., 1997).
Table 6. Calculated conductive cooling times for three pegmatites in San Diego County, California and the Animikie Red Ace pegmatite,
Wisconsin. Pegmatite emplacement temperature and country rock temperature was varied in the conductive cooling equations to observe
the eect on cooling times.
eschweizerbartxxx
Fig. 12. Photograph of the upper Himalaya dike exposed in the Himalaya Mine. Large wedge-shaped schorl crystals, some over 10 cm in
length, can be seen growing out in a comb structure from the pegmatite hanging wall-country rock contact. The dike has a width of 1 m.
the initiation of line rock formation could be caused by tons formed in continental or oceanic rift zones. His classi-
a number of triggers, including a thermal, chemical or fication has three main categories based on aluminum satu-
pressure quench. Morgan & London (1999) proposed con- ration of the parent granite, peralkaline, metaluminous, and
stitutional zone refining for the Little Three pegmatite, Cal- peraluminous. Within each group, pegmatite types are dis-
ifornia. Frindt & Haapala (2004) proposed that diusion- tinguished by mineralogical and geochemical characteris-
controlled oscillatory nucleation and rapid growth from tics. This classification is comprised of 6 types and 9 sub-
undercooled melt, coupled with changes in vapor pressure types. His classification relates NYF pegmatite mineralogy
could explain the layered aplites and undercooling textures to variations in the alkalinity of the parental granitic melts.
from the Gross Spitzkoppe stock, Namibia. Cerny & Ercit (2005) introduced a revised petrogenetic
We believe that aplite line rock forms by oscillatory nu- classification in which three families are distinguished: an
cleation and crystallization that can be initiated by a high NYF family with progressive accumulation of Nb, Y and
degrees of undercooling alone or by an external forcing fac- F (besides Be, REE, Sc, Ti, Zr, Th and U), fractionated
tor such as pressure reduction produced by dike dilatancy from subaluminous to metaluminous A- and I-granites that
(fracture propogation). Any event that results in strong un- are generated by a variety of processes involving depleted
dercooling has the potential to initiate line-rock formation. crust and/or mantle contribution; a peraluminous LCT fam-
Emplacement of melt into relatively cool country rocks ily marked by prominent accumulation of Li, Cs and Ta
(thermal quench), or a chemical quench resulting for ex- (besides Rb, Be, Sn, B, P and F) derived mainly from S-
ample from crystallization of tourmaline that eectively granites, less commonly from I-granites; and a mixed NYF
removes boron from the melt (Rockhold et al., 1987), or + LCT family of diverse origins (e.g., NYF plutons con-
dike rupture or dike dilatancy (pressure quench), can all in- taminated by digestion of undepleted supracrustals).
crease the degree of melt undercooling and act as a trigger Ercits (2005) report on REE-enriched granitic peg-
to destabilize the crystallization dynamics of the pegmatite matites elaborates on the Cerny & Ercit (2005) classifi-
system. Such events can initiate rapid heterogeneous nucle- cation. He reports that Cern rejects the use of the term
ation and oscillatory crystal growth, the development of a LCT and NYF in a purely geochemical sense for in-
layer of excluded components in front of the crystallization dividual pegmatites as opposed to granite-pegmatite suites
front, and the formation of line rock. (families). LCT, NYF and Mixed are families of granitic
pegmatite suites.
In examining more than 500 pegmatite descriptions, Ercit
Areas for future research (2005) found a low degree of correlation between acces-
eschweizerbartxxx
mantle rocks, which may have been previously metasomat- studies of rhyolitic ash-flow tus such as the Bishop Tu
ically altered. (Hildreth, 1979). The more fractionated melts at the top of
It is clear that a trend toward a petrogenetic classification the zoned magma chamber could then move farther into
is emerging. We feel that a petrogenetic classification that the surrounding country rocks than melts derived from the
can relate pegmatites to tectonic regimes and the related lower portions of the zoned magma chamber. However, this
magma generating processes is ultimately essential in order would seem to require rather highly zoned plutons which
to advance our understanding of pegmatite genesis within have not been documented. The zoning proposed in plu-
the larger-scale earth processes. This is an area for much tons as evidenced by ash-flow tus is not nearly as extreme
needed future research. as would seem necessary to produce the most fractionated
LCT melts. Furthermore, the best examples of highly frac-
tionated rhyolites such as the topaz and red beryl rhyolites
Chemical quenching in deeper seated pegmatites in Utah, are from anorogenic settings and not orogenic.
Also, given the evidence for rapid crystallization of peg-
Some pegmatites that formed in deeper seated metamor- matitic melts, how is it possible for even the most fluxed
phic terranes may show skeletal and comb textures indica- melts to travel large distances from the pluton into progres-
tive of rapid crystallization even though it is clear that they sively cooler country rock? High over pressures and very
must cool more slowly than shallow level pegmatites. As rapid injection velocities may be the answer, but there is
discussed above, the mechanism for rapid crystallization little data supporting either concept.
of deeper seated pegmatitic melts, which cool more slowly, We suggest that perhaps in some cases the pegmatitic
may be the removal of a fluxing component, such as boron melts farthest from the pluton are not derived from the plu-
or fluorine, from the melt by a crystallizing phase. Chem- ton by protracted fractional crystallization but are very low
ical quenching can initiate rapid crystallization since the degree partial melts generated in the thermal halo of the
melt is no longer fluxed by that component. Crystallization pluton. In other cases the pegmatitic melts may form in
of tourmaline or fluorine-bearing phases can result in melt migmatitic terranes with no associated pluton. Roda et al.
that is suddenly undercooled even though the surrounding (1999) in a study of pegmatites in the Fregeneda area, Sala-
rocks and the melt itself remain at about the same tempera- manca Spain, proposed that pegmatites surrounding the
ture. Comb structures and tapered crystals, seen in numer- Lumbrales granite, showing a typical regional zoning pat-
ous pegmatites, may have resulted from rapid crystalliza- tern from proximal barren pegmatites to distal enriched
tion initiated by a chemical quench. Evaluating the role of pegmatites, were formed by three dierent paths of frac-
this process is another area for future research. eschweizerbartxxx tional crystallization of melts generated by partial melting
of quartzo-feldspathic rocks and were not derived by frac-
tional crystallization of the granite. More research needs to
Regional zoning be done on the possible causes of regional zoning.
ements will be preferentially partitioned into a low-degree model for pegmatite genesis must reconcile the fact that at
partial melt that can directly form a pegmatite. the outcrop scale the majority of pegmatites are granitic in
Other researchers have also proposed anatexis as a mech- composition and mineralogically simple.
anism for forming pegmatitic melts. Based on oxygen iso-
tope systematics, Nabelek et al. (1992a, b) proposed that
the granite-pegmatite couplets in the Black Hills were de- Acknowledgements: We thank Alexandre Lima, Encar-
rived from partial melting. Falster et al. (1997, 2005) pro- nacin Roda-Robles, Franois Fontan, Frdric Hatert, T-
posed that the Animikie Red Ace and related pegmatites nia Martins and Romeu Vieira for organizing and conduct-
in Florence County, Wisconsin could have formed directly ing the International Symposium on Granitic Pegmatites:
by partial melting of the surrounding metasedimentary the State of the Art. It was an excellent and well or-
and metavolcanic country rocks, possibly aided by evap- ganized meeting that oered an opportunity for pegma-
orites within the metasedimentary package. Roda et al. tologists from around the world to gather and exchange
(1999) in a study of pegmatites in the Fregeneda area, Sala- ideas and visit pegmatites in the field. Thanks to Alexan-
manca Spain proposed that the regionally zoned pegmatites der Falster for discussions and reviewing early versions of
around the Lumbrales granite were anatectic in origin. Ex- this manuscript. Thanks also to Alexandre Lima, Jacques
perimental research on forming pegmatites by direct ana- Touret and Tnia Martins for their careful reviews and
texis is another area of possible future research. valuable comments and suggestions which improved the
manuscript.
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