23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena

Auckland, New Zealand

1922 November 2012

Modelling of frost growth and densification on flat surfaces revisited:

Analytical solution
C.J.L. Hermes
Centre for Applied Thermodynamics, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Paran
81531990 Curitiba-PR, Brazil, chermes@ufpr.br

Abstract Subscripts
a Moist air
This paper advances an algebraic model to predict the frost f Frost layer
growth and densification on flat surfaces. The model was put s Frost surface
forward based on macroscopic heat and mass balances in the sat Saturation
frost layer, which were written according to a dimensionless v Water vapour
formulation and solved analytically to obtain an algebraic w Plate surface
expression for the time evolution of the frost thickness as a
function of the Nusselt number, the supersaturation degree and Introduction
the air-to-surface temperature difference. The model predictions
for the frost thickness were compared with experimental data Frost is observed in several engineering applications, spanning
obtained elsewhere, when a good agreement was observed. An from aircrafts to refrigeration products. In general, the presence
assessment of the model sensitivity to key heat and mass transfer of frost is undesired since it is associated with either the
parameters is also reported. deterioration of the equipment performance (e.g., evaporator
clogging [1,2]) or critical safety aspects (e.g., in-flight wing icing
[3]). Thus understanding and predicting frost growth and
Nomenclature densification through simulation models are up-to-date issues for
Roman modern engineering design.
Bi Biot number, Bi=hxs/kf Different frost growth and densification models have been
cp Specific heat of moist air, J kg-1 K-1 proposed in the past two decades [4-10]. Among the most
D Diffusivity of water vapour in air, m2 s-1 influential studies lies the one of Lee et al. [7], who presented a
Df Effective diffusivity of water vapour in air, m2 s-1 simplified algebraic model for frost growth and densification
h Heat transfer coefficient, W m-2 K-1 over a flat plate. The model accounted for both molecular
hm Mass transfer coefficient, kg m-2s-1 diffusion and vapour ablimation within the frost layer. The initial
isv Latent heat of ablimation (=2.83106), J kg-1 condition for frost density, the Lewis number and the heat
Ja Modified Jakob number, Ja=cpT/a1isv transfer coefficient were all adjusted to enhance the model
k Thermal conductivity of moist air, W m-1 K-1 predictions that, at the end, agreed with experimental data
kf Effective thermal conductivity of frost layer, W m-1 K-1 satisfactorily. The model of Lee et al. [7] was later improved by
L Plate length, m Cheng and Cheng [8], who incorporated the empirical correlation
Le Lewis number, Le=k/cpD for frost density devised by Hayashi et al. [11], so that the frost
m Mass flux, kg m-2 s-1 layer thickness became the only dependent variable. Through
Nu Nusselt number, Nu=hL/k such an approach, they not only solved the issue related to the
Pr Prandtl number, Pr=cp/k initial condition for frost density but also enhanced the model
q Sensible heat flux, W m-2 predictions for frost densification, reporting improvements in
Re Reynolds number, Re=uaL/ comparison with the original model. Later, Kandula [9] carried
t Time, s out a study in which advanced correlations for frost density and
T Temperature, C thermal conductivity were used with a numerical model based on
ua Air velocity, m s-1 that of Cheng and Cheng [8] to predict experimental data from
X Dimensionless frost thickness, X=xs/L different researchers.
xs Frost thickness, m
In a prior publication [10], the author and co-workers put forward
Greek a theoretical and experimental investigation of the frost accretion
on flat surfaces focusing on the most important factors affecting
T Air-to-surface dimensionless temperature difference
the frost growth and densification phenomena, such as the
Supersaturation degree, kgv kg-1
surrounding air temperature, humidity and velocity, and the
Dimensionless temperature surface temperature. The processes of frost growth and
Dimensionless thermal conductivity densification were investigated experimentally in order to
Ablimation coefficient provide a physical basis for the development of a theoretical
Viscosity, Pa s model to predict the variation of the frost layer thickness with
Density of moist air, kg m-3 time. The governing equations for mass and heat diffusion were
f Space-averaged density of frost, kg m-3 integrated analytically, coming up with a formulation which
Dimensionless time, =ft/kfcpL2 requires numerical integration of only one time dependent
Relative humidity, =pv/psat ordinary differential equation. When compared with experimental
Humidity ratio, kgv kg-1 data, the model predictions of the frost thickness as a function of
time agreed to within 10% error bands.
Despite the abundant literature in the field, there is still a need for tortuosity of the frosted medium, isv is the latent heat of
an explicit, algebraic relationship between the frost thickness and sublimation, and is the ablimation coefficient to be determined
the factors affecting the frost formation process. This paper puts from the solution of eq. (2) with =w and d/dx=0 at x=0, and
forward a dimensionless model based on heat and mass balances =s at x=xs. Similarly, eq. (3) can be solved considering a
in the frost layer, which was solved analytically to obtain an prescribed temperature condition at the plate surface, T=Tw, and
algebraic expression for the frost thickness as a function of time. the following heat flux continuity at x=xs:
The model predictions for the frost thickness were compared with
experimental data obtained from [12], when a very good dT (4)
kf = q + mi sv
agreement between calculated and measured counterparts was dx x = xs
observed. The model was also used to assess the sensitivity of the
frost thickness to key heat and mass transfer parameters, where q=h(Ta-Ts) is the heat flux from the air stream to the frost
deepening the understanding of the factors affecting the frost layer. The solution of eq. (3) yields [10]:
formation phenomena.
q + mi sv + D f a ( w s )i sv (5)
Ts = Tw +
General Frost Growth and Densification Model kf

In general, the following key simplifying assumptions have been In addition, empirical information for the frost density and
considered for modelling the frost accretion on flat surfaces: (i) thermal conductivity of the frost layer are required, which are
the processes of mass and heat diffusion within the frost layer are usually in the following form [10,11]:
treated as quasi-steady and one-dimensional; (ii) the frost
thickness is uniform along the plate length; (iii) the air pressure is f = a 0 exp(a 1Ts + a 2 ) (6)
uniform in the air stream and within the frost layer; and (iv) the
k f = k fo + f (7)
Lewis analogy is applicable. Thus, most frost growth and
densification models available in the open literature [4-10] have
The formulation provides a way to determine the time evolution
been formulated based on the following mass balance in the frost
of the frost thickness, which in addition to requiring numerical
layer represented in Fig. 1: calculations do not provide a straight indication of the parameters
d s
x
dx d affecting the frost formation process. The present study revisits
(1)
m=
dt 0
(x )dx = f s + x s f
dt dt
the model of Hermes et al. [10], invoking additional assumptions
and adding further simplifications so that an algebraic, explicit
expression for xs(t) is put forward.
where m=hm(a-s) is the mass flux of water vapour going into
the frosted medium, f is the space-averaged frost density, xs is
Proposed Analytical Solution
the frost thickness, and hm is the convective mass transfer
coefficient, related to the heat transfer coefficient, h, through the The model simplification starts by recognizing that the
Lewis boundary layer analogy, hm=h/cpLe2/3, where Le is the temperature profiles in the frost layer (see Fig. 1) are fairly linear
Lewis number (1). [10], hence eq. (4) can be re-written as follows:
Ts Tw i (8)
kf = h (Ta Ts ) + h (a s ) sv
xs cp

where s=sat(Ts) and w=sat(Tw), so that the porous medium

formed within the frost layer has no need to be modelled.
Defining the Biot number as Bi=hxs/kf, eq. (8) can be written as

Ts Tw s i sv (9)
= = Bi1 + a
Ta Ts
Ta Ts c p
Additionally noting that a variation in the supercooling degree is
proportional to a variation in the supersaturation degree [10], it
follows that
a s a w (10)

Figure 1. Physical model for frost growth and densification over Ta Ts Ta Tw
a flat surface
Now defining the dimensionless frost thickness, X=xs/L, and
In addition to the overall mass balance of eq. (1), local mass and noting that Bi=NuX(k/kf), where Nu=hL/k is the Nusselt number
energy balances are invoked to determine the water vapour associated with the boundary layer over the frost surface, it
concentration and also the temperature distribution in the frost follows that
layer, respectively:
= Bi(1 + 1 Ja ) = Nu (1 + 1 Ja )(k k f )X (11)
2
d (2)
Df = where Ja is a modified Jakob number, which can be interpreted as
dx 2 a sensible-to-latent heat ratio [13]:
d 2T (3) Ta Tw c p
kf = a i sv Ja = (12)
dx 2 a w i sv
where Df is the effective diffusivity of water vapour in air in the
frost layer, and kf is the effective thermal conductivity of the Based on eq. (11), it can be noted that the temperature differences
porous medium, being both dependant on the porosity and the involving the frost surface temperature are functions of (X), and
the temperatures Ta and Tw, as follows:
 Ts Tw (13) 2 1
= d1 =
Ta Tw 1 + Nu (1 + T )(1 + 1 Ja ) CT

Ta Ts 1 (14) It can be noted that the positive root of eq. (24) provides the
= following explicit solution for eq. (22),
Ta Tw 1 +

Thus, once X, Ta and Tw are known, the dimensionless d12 + 4d 0 d1 (25)

X=
temperature variation (X) can be determined over time. Further 2
advancements can be incorporated into the model by introducing
In addition, the C-coefficient can be determined by noticing that
the dimensionless time, =ft/kfcpL2, which is a modified Fourier
/X~X/do after the early crystal growth period, thus yielding
number based on the diffusive length xs, where the frost thermal
conductivity is calculated from eq. (7). Noting that kf/f=kfo/f+,
C
(1 + T )(1 + 1 Ja ) (26)
and also that kfo/f>> [14], it follows that kf/fkfo/f, yielding (2 + T )
c p L2 c p L2 (15) so that the coefficients of eq. (25) can be re-written as follows:
dt = f d + d f
k fo k fo
d 0 =
(2 + T )
Thus, eq.(1) can be re-written as follows: (1 + T )(1 + 1 Ja ) (27)

c p L2 d1 =
(2 + T )
(f d + df ) (16)
L f dX + LXd f = m Nu (1 + T )(1 + 1 Ja )
k fo
One can note in eq. (25) that X is a function of , , T, and Nu
In addition, it can be shown that
only, as Ja=cpT/a1isv. Since the solution is a parabola passing
c p L2 Nu through the origin, one should expect X to growth continually
m = L (17)
with 1/2, which is a typical behaviour of diffusive dominant mass
k fo 1+
transfer processes. In this study, the frost density correlation
where =kfo/k is a dimensionless thermal conductivity, and proposed in [10] was adopted, thus the coefficients of eq. (6) are
=a-w is the supersaturation degree. Equation (16) can hence a0=207, a1=0.266, a2=0.615Tw, with 80<f<320 kg/m3 and Tw
be written as follows: in [C]. The effective frost conductivity was calculated based on
the correlation presented in [7] with kf expressed as a function of
Nu df Nu (18) the frost density according to 2nd-order polynomial fit. However,
dX + X = d
1 + f 1+ in the present analysis the quadratic term was removed, so that
the correlation of Lee et al. [7] could be fitted to eq. (7), with
If eq.(6) is used for the sake of frost density calculation, then kfo=0.132 W/mK and =310-4 m4/s3K. Finally, the Nusselt
number was calculated from Nu=0.037Re0.8Pr0.43, valid for
d f dX (19)
= T Re<3107 [15].
f 1+ X

where T=a1(Ta-Tw). Substituting eq. (19) into eq. (18), the Results
following evolving equation for X over time can be derived, Figure 2 compares the model predictions with experimental data
(20) for the frost thickness obtained from [12] for Ta=16C, a=80%,
dX Nu
= and ua=1.0 m/s. It can be clearly seen that the analytical solution
d + Nu (1 + T )(1 + 1 Ja )X NuT (eq. 25) followed closely the experimental trends for different
1+ X surface temperatures, particularly for t>30 min, where the rates of
In addition, one should note, through a scale analysis, that frost growth and densification are equally important.
/(1+)~1 and X~1/2, thus yielding 5.0
analytical solution
(21)
experimental data
CX
1+ X
4.0
-16C
where C is a constant to be determined. Substituting eq. (21) into
eq. (20), one can show that
-12C
dX Nu 3.0
= (22)
d + Nu ((1 + T )(1 + 1 Ja ) CT )X xs, mm -8C

which can be integrated straightforwardly, 2.0 Tw=-4C

X X
dX + Nu ((1 + T )(1 + 1 Ja ) CT ) XdX = Nu d (23)
0 0 0 1.0
nd Ta = 16C
thus yielding the following 2 -degree algebraic equation, a = 80%
ua = 1.0 m s-1
X 2 + d 1X d 0 = 0 (24) 0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
with t, min
2 Figure 2. Comparison between model predictions and
d0 =
(1 + T )(1 + 1 Ja ) CT experimental data from [12] for Ta=16C, a=80%, ua=1.0 m/s
At the early stages, the model predictions showed poorer experimental data for the early crystal growth stage, although an
comparisons with experimental data partly because the excellent matching is observed for X>0.01.
approximation kf/fkfo/f breaks down in the crystal growth 0.05
regime. Nevertheless, since the numerical model of Hermes et al. perfect matching
[10] also underpredicted the experimental data for the early model predictions

growth stages, one can conclude that the empirical information

0.04
required for frost density and thermal conductivity calculations
are not suitable for the early crystal growth period.
Figure 3 illustrates eq. (21), where the bullets refer to the term
0.03
/(1+)X calculated from the exact analytical solution of eq.
(20), whereas the lines are linear best fits considering a zero Xcalc
intercept. One can clearly see that /(1+)X behaves linearly
with X, thus corroborating the approximation of eq. (21). 0.02

30
best linear fit -4C
exact value 0.01
-8C
25
-12C

-16C
0.00
20 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

Xexp

15
1+ X Figure 5. Comparison between model predictions and 246
experimental data points from [12]
10 Figure 6 explores the model sensitiveness to , T and Nu,
using the normalized derivatives, (f/X)(X/f), with
f={,T,Nu}={0.005,10,25}. It is clear that both Nu and
5
play important roles upon the frost growth process, whereas T
has a minor influence. A brief look at the coefficients of eq. (25)
0 points out the term (2+T)/(1+T) in both do and d1 coefficients.
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
Since T~10, then (2+T)/(1+T)~1 which explains why the T
X parameter plays a minor influence on X.
Figure 3. Validity of eq. (21) for Ta=16C, a=80%, ua=1.0 m/s 1.0

Figure 4 explores different humidity (50 and 65%), surface

temperature (-9 and -5C) and air temperature (22C) conditions
0.8
with ua=0.7 m/s. Again, a good matching between the predictions
of eq. (25) and the experimental data was found, with differences
within the experimental uncertainty thresholds, thus indicating
that the model is suitable to be used in a vast range of conditions. 0.6

3.0
f X
analytical solution X f Nu
experimental data
0.4
2.5

-9C, 65%
0.2
2.0
-9C, 50%

xs, mm 1.5 0.0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
Tw=-5C, a=50% X
1.0
Figure 6. Sensitivity of X with regard to , T and Nu

0.5 Closing Remarks

Ta = 22C
ua = 0.7 m s-1 A dimensionless algebraic expression was introduced to calculate
the thickness of a frost layer over time as a function of key
0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 independent heat and mass transfer parameters such as the
supersaturation degree, the air-to-surface temperature difference,
t, min
and the Nusselt number (and so the Sherwood number, as Le1).
Figure 4. Comparison between model predictions and The model predictions were compared with experimental data
experimental data from [12] for other working conditions from [12], when it was observed that the model followed closed
the experimental trends. The formulation was used to assess the
Figure 5 compares the predictions of eq. (25) with all influences of , T, and Nu on the frost thickness and surface
experimental data points, where the 45 line indicates the perfect temperature. It was found that the most important players are
matching. Again, it is clear that the model underpredicts the
and Nu, whereas T has a minor influence.
Acknowledgments
Financial support from the CNPq Agency, Government of Brazil,
and the Araucria Foundation, Government of the Paran State
Brazil, is duly acknowledged.
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