A Nehme 1 en PDF

1.
Forty eight hours to learn

A series of courses in theoretical physics
Abbas Nehme
Professor of Particle Physics
Quantum Mechanics
Foundations
a
b
a
b
|. . . , n, . . .i
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c 2010 Nabatieh, Mount Amel.

All rights reserved to the author. Photocopy is strictly not allowed. Any
form of reproduction, modification, or illegal distribution without the prior
agreement of the author is highly forbidden.
Contents
1 States 7
1.1 Vector spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Banach spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3 Euclidean spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4 Hilbert spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2 Observables 25
2.1 Matrix Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 Bounded linear operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3 Spectral theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.4 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3 Measurement 41
3.1 The uncertainty relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2 The state operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4 Dynamics 51
4.1 Pictures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.2 Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.3 Wave mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.4 Perturbation theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.5 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5 Harmonic oscillator 87
5.1 Number states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.2 Wavefunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.3 Coherent states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
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4 Abbas Nehme
5.4 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6 Angular momentum 101

6.1 Orbital angular momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.2 Spherical harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.3 Spin angular momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.4 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Preface
In the name of Allah, The Clement, The Merciful.
We present to our third-year undergraduate students the course Quantum

Mechanics: Foundations. It is the first course of the series Forty eight
hours to learn covering the Master program in Theoretical Particle Physics.
The course is based on a set of lectures given by the author at the faculty
of Sciences at the Lebanese University. The material presented here is not
original by itself; it has been collected from many textbooks listed in the
bibliography. The originality of the work lies on the way it is presented to
the student and takes into account several points:
The very definition of Quantum Mechanics. In two words, Quantum

Mechanics is the mathematical language of Modern Physics. The best
structure you can give to this course is the traditional mathematical
one based on the notions of theorem, lemma, proposition, etc.
Completeness. As it should be, this course is elementary and aims to

set up the foundations of Quantum Mechanics. We tried our best to
start from the very beginning, from the postulates, and to advance con-
tinuously by logical steps keeping rigour in reasoning. No prerequisites
are needed; all what you need is to count on Allah and on your courage
and patience.
Credibility. To believe on something you have to satisfy simultaneously

your head and your heart. We suppose that, at this level of your
scientific career, you like what you learn, and so the heart is satisfied.
In order to help you satisfying your head, nothing in this course has
been put ad hoc; all is well founded and proofs are worked out in great
detail.
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6 Abbas Nehme
We ask Allah to help us fulfilling our announced commitments.

I would like to thank my wife for her patience and support during the
preparation of this course. To my children I say: Please forgive me for the
time I spent typing this course during school holidays. The main message is
addressed to my students: You have to work hard in order to progress at the
individual and a fortiori at the communal level. The stakes are high and so
should be your preparation!
1States
In this chapter, we shall enunciate the first postulate of Quantum Mechanics

concerning the mathematical description of a quantum system. The formula-
tion of the postulate rests on the idea of a Hilbert space. We shall construct
such a space. To do so, we shall start with a review of linear algebra, es-
pecially the notion of a normed vector space. We then introduce one of the
topological spaces based on the notion of the distance, namely the Banach
space. We pursue with the definition of an inner product, the main char-
acteristic of Euclidean spaces. Finally, we introduce the Hilbert space as a
mixture of Banach and Euclidean spaces based on the simple idea that an
inner product induces a norm.
Postulate 1: The state of a physical system is a description of that system.

If the description is complete, the state is said to be pure. A pure state is
represented by a unit ray in a separable complex Hilbert space.
1.1 Vector spaces

Following Dirac, vectors will be designated by the symbol |i called a ket.
Vectors are subject to two basic operations:
7
8 Abbas Nehme
Addition: A rule for forming the sum |i + |i of two vectors |i and |i.
Multiplication by scalars: A rule for forming the product a |i of a scalar

a belonging to a field F (R or C) and a vector |i .
Definition 1.1 Any set V on which the operations of vector addition and
multiplication by a scalar are defined is said to be a vector space (or linear
space) V over the field F . These two vector operations are required to satisfy
the following axioms for any |i, |i, |i V and any scalars a, b F :
Closure: |i + |i V , a |i V.
Commutativity of addition: |i + |i = |i + |i.
Associativity of addition: (|i + |i) + |i = |i + (|i + |i).
Distributivity of scalar multiplication in the vectors:
a(|i + |i) = a |i + a |i .
Distributivity of scalar multiplication in the scalars:
(a + b) |i = a |i + b |i .
Associativity of scalar multiplication: a(b |i) = a b |i.
Null vector: |i + |nulli = |i.
Inverse under addition: |i + (1) |i = |i + |i = |nulli.
Unit element: 1 |i = |i.
If the field F is the field of real (complex) numbers the vector space is called
a real (complex ) vector space.
Example 1.1 The set C of all one-column complex matrices with a count-
able number of elements
a1

|i = a2
..
.
Abbas Nehme 9
becomes a vector space if the vector operations are defined by

a1 + b1 c a1

|i + |i = a2 + b2 , c |i = c a2 , c C .
.. ..
. .
In fact:

ai , bi C ai + bi C |i + |i V .
Closure.
c, ai C cai C c |i V .
Commutativity of addition. ai + bi = bi + ai |i + |i = |i + |i.
(ai + bi ) + ci = ai + (bi + ci )
Associativity of addition.
(|i + |i) + |i = |i + (|i + |i) .
Distributivity of scalar multiplication in the vectors.
a(ai + bi ) = aai + abi a(|i + |i) = a |i + a |i .
Distributivity of scalar multiplication in the scalars.
(a + b)ai = aai + bai (a + b) |i = a |i + b |i .
a(bai ) = abai
Associativity of scalar multiplication.
a(b |i) = ab |i .
Null vector.

0 a1 + 0 a1

|i + 0 = a2 + 0 = a2 = |i .
.. .. ..
. . .
Inverse under addition.

a1 a1 a1 a1 0
a2 a2 a2 a2 0
+ = = |i+|i = |nulli .
.. .. .. ..
. . . .
10 Abbas Nehme

a1 a1

Unit element. 1 a2 = a2 1 |i = |i .
.. ..
. .
Definition 1.2 A vector |i is a linear combination of the vectors |n i if

it can be expressed in the form
X
|i = cn |n i
n
where the coefficients cn are scalars.
Example 1.2 The elements of the vector space Cn ,

c1
c2

|i = ..
.
cn
are linear combinations of the vectors

0 first row
.. ..
. .

0

|k i = 1 k-th row
..
0 .
.
..
0 n-th row
since n
X
|i = ck |k i
k=1
In fact:

c1 1 0
c2 0 .. X
n
.
|i = .. = c1 .. + . . . + cn = ck |k i .
. . 0 k=1
cn 0 1
Abbas Nehme 11
Definition 1.3 The vectors |1 i , . . . , |n i are said to be linearly indepen-

dent if the relation X
cn |n i = |nulli
n
has c1 = = cn = 0 as the only solution. If one of the vectors |n i can be

expressed as a linear combination of the others then the vectors are said to be
linear dependent. A subset S (finite or infinite) of a vector space V is called
a set of linearly independent vectors if any finite number of different vectors
from S are linearly independent. The maximal number (which can be finite
or positive infinite) of linearly independent vectors in a space is called the
dimension of the space. If the dimension of V is finite and equal to n, then
V is n-dimensional ; (otherwise the dimension of V is +, and V is said to
be infinite-dimensional.
Example 1.3 The vectors |k i of Example 1.2 are a set of linearly inde-
pendent vectors. Cn is an n-dimensional complex vector space. In fact:

c1 0
Xn c2 0

ck |k i = |nulli .. = .. c1 = c2 = . . . = cn = 0 .
k=1
. .
cn 0
Theorem 1.1 If the vector space V is n dimensional (n < +), then there
is at least one set |1 i , . . . , |n i of linearly independent vectors, and each
vector |i V can be expanded in the form
X
|i = cn |n i ,
n
where the scalar coefficients cn are uniquely determined by |i.

Proof We shall consider two cases:
P
1. If |i = |nulli, then |i = n cn |n i, with c1 = c2 = . . . = cn = 0.
P
2. If |i =
6 |nulli, consider then the equation c |i + k ck | Pk i = 0 with
{|k i}n a set of linearly independent vectors. If c = 0 then k ck |k i =
0 and {ck }n = 0. This is a trivial solution.
PThe non-trivial solution
P cor-
responds to c 6= 0. In thatP case, |i = k (ck /c) |P ki k ak |k i.
If |i is written as |i = k bk |k i then |nulli = k (ak bk ) |k i.
Therefore ak = bk k and the {ak }n are uniquely determined by |i.
12 Abbas Nehme
This completes the proof.

Definition 1.4 We say that the (finite or infinite) set S spans the vector
space V if every vector in V can be written as a linear combination
X
|i = cn |n i , |n i S ,
n
of a finite number of vectors belonging to S; if S is in addition a set of linearly

independent vectors, then S is called a vector basis of V.
Example 1.4 The vectors |k i of Example 1.2 are a vector basis of Cn . In
fact: Let

0
..
c1 .

c2 0
n
|i = .. C and |k i = 1 S with k = 1, 2, . . . , n .
.
0
cn .
..
0
Then, by Example 1.2, S spans Cn . Furthermore, by Example 1.3, S is a set
of linearly independent vectors. It follows that S is a vector basis of Cn .
Definition 1.5 A subset V1 of a vector space V is a vector subspace (linear
subspace) of V if it is closed under the vector operations of addition and
multiplication by scalars. A vector subspace V1 of V is said to be nontrivial
if it is different from V and from the set {|nulli}.
Example 1.5 The subset S of matrices of C having 0 in the first row is
a nontrivial subspace of C . In fact:

0 0 0 0
a2 b2 a2 + b2 c2
+ = = S,
.. .. .. ..
. . . .

0 0 0

c a2 = ca2 = b2 S .
.. .. ..
. . .
This proves the closure under vector space operations. On the other hand,
6 C and S =
S= 6 {|nulli}. It follows that S is a nontrivial subspace of C .
Abbas Nehme 13
From the very definition of the dimension of a vector space V we can

conclude that the dimension of a vector subspace V1 of V cannot exceed the
dimension of V.
Definition 1.6 Two vector spaces V1 and V2 over the same field are isomor-
phic if there is a one-to-one mapping of V1 onto V2 which has the properties
that if |2 i V2 and |2 i V2 are the images of |1 i V1 and |1 i V1 ,
respectively, then for any scalar a, |2 i + |2 i is the image of |1 i + |1 i and
a |2 i is the image of a |1 i.
Theorem 1.2 All complex n-dimensional (n < +) vector spaces are iso-
morphic to the vector space Cn .
Proof By Theorem 1.1 and Definition 1.4, Vn possesses at least one basis.
P {|k i}n be that basis. Every vector |i Vn can be written as |i =
Let
k ak |k i where the coefficients ak are uniquely determined by |i. Consider
the mapping f :

a1
X X
f a2
|i = ak |k i
.. = |i = bk |k i Cn with ak = bk .
k
. k
an
P
Under P f , the vector |i = k ck |k i Vn is mapped into the vector
|i = k dk |k i with ck = dk . Since the coefficients ak and ck are uniquely
determined, the mapping f is bijective. Furthermore, the vector in Cn
X X X
|i + |i = bk |k i + dk |k i = (bk + dk ) |k i
k k k
is the image of the vector in Vn

X X X X
(bk + dk ) |k i = (ak + ck ) |k i = ak |k i + ck |k i = |i + |i ,
k k k k
P
and the vector c |i = k cbk |k i Cn is the image of the vector
X X
cbk |k i = cak |k i = c |i Vn .
k k
Therefore Vn Cn .
14 Abbas Nehme
1.2 Banach spaces

Definition 1.7 A mapping kk of a complex vector space V into the set R
of real numbers is called a norm if it satisfies the following conditions:
Positive definite: k|ik 0 , for all |i V , = 0 |i = |nulli.
Uniform scaling: ka |ik = |a| k|ik for all |i V , and a C.
Triangle inequality: k|i + | ik 6 k|ik + k|ik for all |i , |i V.
Definition 1.8 A vector space on which a particular norm is given is called

a normed vector space.
Definition 1.9 An infinite sequence |1 i , |2 i , . . . in a normed vector

space V is said to converge to the point |i V if for any > 0 there
is a positive number N() such that k|i |n ik < for all n > N(). An
infinite sequence |1 i , |2 i , . . . is called a Cauchy sequence (or a fundamen-
tal sequence) if for any > 0 there is a positive number M() such that
k|m i |n ik < for all m , n > M().
Definition 1.10 A normed vector space V is complete in the norm if every

Cauchy sequence converges to an element of V. A normed vector space which
is complete in the norm is called a Banach space.
Theorem 1.3 Every finite-dimensional normed vector space is a Banach

space.
Proof In 1878, Cantor introduced the field R by adding to the field Q its
limits. So R is complete by construction. Consider two Cauchy sequences
{an } and {bn } in R,
am an < , bm bn < .
Since R is complete, {an } and {bn } converge respectively to a and b in R,
an a < , bn b < .
Let
an a
|n i = and |i =
bn b
Abbas Nehme 15
two vectors in R2 and consider the sequence {|n i}. We have

p
k|m i |n ik = (am an )2 + (bm bn )2 < 2 .
This means that {|n i} is a Cauchy sequence. On the other hand,

p
k|n i |ik = (an a)2 + (bn b)2 < 2 .
That is, {|n i} converges to |i R2 and R2 is complete. But R2 and C are

isomorphic. Thus, C is complete. Consider now two Cauchy sequences {n }
and {n } in C,
|m n | < , |m n | < .
We have
|n | < , |n | < , , C .
Let
n
|n i = and |i = .
n
The vectors |n i and |i belong to C2 . Consider now the sequence {|n i}.
We have
q
k|m i |n ik = |m n |2 + |m n |2 < 2 ,
and {|n i} is a Cauchy sequence. On the other hand,

q
k|n i |ik = |n |2 + |n |2 < 2 .
That is, {|n i} converges to |i C2 and C2 is complete. The result can

be generalized and we have that Cn is complete. By Theorem 1.2, every
finite-dimensional normed vector space is complete.
1.3 Euclidean spaces

Definition 1.11 An inner (or scalar ) product on the complex vector space
V is a mapping of the set V V into the set C of complex numbers. It is
denoted, following Dirac, by h|i. The inner product satisfies the following
requirements:
Skew-symmetry: h|i = h|i .
16 Abbas Nehme
Positive semi definiteness: h|i 0 , = 0 if and only if |i = |nulli.

Linearity: h| + i = h|i + h|i , h + |i = h|i + h|i.
Homogeneity: ha|i = a h|i , h|ai = ah|i.
The symbol h| is usually called the bra associated with the ket |i. The
inner product h|i is therefore called a bracket.
Proposition 1.4 If the ket |i is represented by a column matrix, the asso-

ciated bra h| is represented by the complex conjugate of the corresponding
row matrix.
Proof Let
a1
X
|i = a2 = ak |k i ,
..
. k
Then,

X X a1

h| i = k|ik2 = |ak |2 = ak ak = a1 a2 a2 .
..
k k .
Formulated in a compact way, this gives

X X
|i = ak |k i h| = hk | ak . (1.1)
k k

Remark 1.1 This can be viewed as a consequence of the Riesz-Frechet
theorem of functional analysis which associates to every ket |i one and only
one bra h|.
Definition 1.12 An Euclidean (or inner product, or unitary) space E is a

vector space on which an inner product is defined.
Theorem 1.5 Any two elements |i, |i of an Euclidean space E satisfy

the SchwarzCauchy inequality
|h|i|2 6 h|ih|i .
Abbas Nehme 17
Proof Since E is an Euclidean space, h + a| + ai > 0 a. In particu-

lar, let a = h| i/ |h| i| for real . Expanding,
h |i + a h| i + a h| i + |a|2 h| i > 0 ,
h| i h| i h| i h| i
h |i + + + 2 h| i > 0 ,
|h| i| |h| i|
h| i2 + 2 |h| i| + h |i > 0 .
The condition of a non-positive discriminant leads to the inequality.
Theorem 1.6 In an Euclidean space E the inner product h|i induces a

norm in E by the definition
p
k|ik = h|i .
Proof The proof goes in three steps as required by the definition of a norm:
The inner product h| i is non-negative. The square root is non-

negative by definition. It follows that k|ik > 0.
p q p
ka |ik = ha| ai = |a|2 h| i = |a| h| i = |a| k|ik.
We have
k|i + |ik2 = h + | + i = h| i + h| i + h| i + h| i
= h| i + 2 h| i + h| i .
On the other hand, ( h| i)2 6 |h| i|2 6 h| i h| i, by Theorem

1.5. Therefore h| i 6 k|ik k|ik. Then, k|i + |ik2 6 k|ik2 +
2 k|ik k|ik + k|ik2 = (k|ik + k|ik)2 , and k|i + |ik 6 k|ik +
k|ik.
Example 1.6 The space Cn with the inner product defined as

n
X
h|i = ck dk
k=1
18 Abbas Nehme
for
c1 d1
c2 d2

|i = .. , |i = .. ,
. .
cn dn
is an Euclidean space.
Definition 1.13 In an Euclidean space E two vectors |i and |i are called
orthogonal if h|i = 0. Two subsets R and S of E are said to be orthogonal
if each vector in R is orthogonal to each vector in S. A set of vectors in which
any two vectors are orthogonal is called an orthogonal system of vectors. A
vector |i is said to be normalized if k|ik = 1. An orthogonal system of
vectors |n i is called an orthonormal system if each vector in the system is
normalized
hn |m i = nm . (1.2)
Theorem 1.7 (GramSchmidt orthonormalization procedure) If S is a finite
or countably infinite set of vectors |n i in an Euclidean space E and Se is the
vector subspace of E spanned by S, then there is an orthonormal system T
of vectors |n i which spans S, e i.e., for which Te = S;
e T is a finite set when
S is a finite set. The vectors |n i can be constructed from the vectors |n i
following the general procedure
P
|1 i |j+1 i jk=1 hk |j+1i |k i
|1 i = , . . . , |j+1 i =
Pj .
(1.3)
k|1 ik |j+1 i k=1 hk |j+1i |k i
Proof We shall proceed by induction.

|1 i
|1 i = , h1 | 1 i = 1 ,
k|1 ik
|2 i h1 | 2 i |1 i
|2 i = , h2 | 2 i = 1 ,
k|2 i h1 | 2 i |1 ik
h1 |2 i h1 |2 i
k|1 ik
k|1 ik
h1 | 1 i
h1 | 2 i = = 0.
k|2 i h1 | 2 i |1 ik
This is valid up to k = j. To show the validity up to k = j + 1, consider
P
hj |j+1 i jk=1 hk |j+1 ihj |k i
hj | j+1 i = Pj .

|j+1 i k=1 hk |j+1i |k i
Abbas Nehme 19
Since hj |k i = jk up to k = j, we have hj | j+1 i = 0.
1.4 Hilbert spaces

Definition 1.14 A Hilbert space is an Euclidean space which is a Banach
space with respect to the induced norm.
Definition 1.15 A countable set |1 i , |2 i , . . . , |n i , . . . of elements in
a normed vector space V is called a Schauder basis in V, if every element
|i V admits a unique decomposition as the sum of a convergent series

X
|i = cn |n i , cn C , n N . (1.4)
n=1
If {|n i} is a Schauder basis in V it follows in particular that

X
|i = cn |n i = |nulli cn = 0 , n N . (1.5)
n=1
This implies that every finite subset of elements in the basis {|n i} is a
linearly independent set of elements in V.
Definition 1.16 A Hilbert space H is called separable if H admits a finite
basis (finite dimension) or a Schauder basis (infinite dimension).
Theorem 1.8 The set 2 () of all one-column complex matrices with a
countable number of elements

a1

|i = a2
..
.
for which
X
|ak |2 < +
k=1
becomes an infinite-dimensional separable Hilbert space if the inner product
is defined by
X
h|i = ak bk .
k=1
20 Abbas Nehme
Proof The proof goes in six steps:
2 () is a vector space by Example 1.1.
2 () is an Euclidean space. In fact:

P P P
i. h| i = kak bk , h| i = k bk ak , h| i = k bk ak = h| i.
P P
ii. h| i = k ak ak = k |ak |2 < +. That is, h| i is positive
and vanishes iff |i = |nulli.
P P P
iii. h| +i = k ak (bk +ck ) = k ak bk + k ak ck = h| i+h| i.
P
iv. ha| i = Pk (aak ) bk = a h| i,
h| ai = k ak abk = a h| i.
2 () is a normed
Pvector space. In fact, by Theorem 1.6, the scalar

product h| i = k ak bk induces a norm
sX
p
k|ik = h| i = |ak |2 < + .
k
2 () is a Banach space. In fact, consider the vector

a11

|1 i = a21 2 () ,
..
.
and the Cauchy sequence {|n i}n . We have k|m i |n ik < . It

follows that
q
|ami ani | 6 |am1 an1 |2 + . . . = k|m i |n ik < ,
and every component is a Cauchy sequence. But the components belong

to C and the latter is complete. Therefore, the components converge to
elements in C, which can be considered as the components of a vector
|i 2 (). This means that 2 () is complete in the induced norm.
2 () is a Hilbert space from the preceding.

Abbas Nehme 21
Every element
a1

|i = a2 2 ()
..
.
P
can be written as |i = k ak |k i where

0 first row
.. ..
. .

0
|k i =
1 k-th row
.
0 ..
..
.
P 2 P determined by |i. Furthermore,

and the coefficients ak are uniquely
k |ak | < +. Thus, the series k ak |k i converges. It follows that
2
{|k i}k is a Schauder basis, and () is separable.
Definition 1.17 An orthonormal system S of vectors in a Hilbert space

H is called an orthonormal basis (or a complete orthonormal system) in the
Hilbert space H if every vector |i in H can be expressed as
X
|i = an |n i , an = hn |i . (1.6)
n
The closure relation X

|n ihn | = 1 , (1.7)
n
follows immediately from the definition. In fact:

X X
|i = an |n i hm | i = an hm | n i = am ,
n n
P P P
and |i = n hn | i |n i = n |n i hn | i = ( n |n i hn |) |i.
Theorem 1.9 Every separable Hilbert space H has an orthonormal basis.

22 Abbas Nehme
Proof Since H is separable, it possesses necessarily a basis. From the latter,

we can construct an orthonormal basis using the Gram-Schmidt orthonor-
malization procedure. This completes the proof.
Theorem 1.10 Every separable Hilbert space H of infinite dimension is

isomorphic to the Hilbert space 2 () of square summable sequences.
Proof By Theorem 1.9, H possesses

Pan orthonormal basis {|k i}k and every
|i H can be written as |i = k ck |k i with ck = hk | i are uniquely
determined by |i. We have

X X
|ck |2 = h| k i hk | i = h| i = k|ik2 < + .
k=1 k
It follows that the vector

c1
c2 2
() ,
..
.
and there is a one-to-one correspondence between the elements of H and

those of 2 (), or in other words, H and 2 ( ) are isomorphic.
Definition 1.18 A ray is an equivalence class of vectors that differ by mul-

tiplication by a nonzero complex scalar. Since the vector |i of the Hilbert
space H is normalized, then the corresponding state is given by the ray
ei |i , R. (1.8)
1.5 Problems
1. Consider a three-dimensional vector space.
(a) Are

1 0 0
|Ai = 2 , |Bi = 2 , and |Ci = 0
1 3 5
linearly independent?
Abbas Nehme 23
(b) Show that

1 0 i
|Ai = 1 , |Bi = 0 , and |Ci = i
0 2 i
are linearly dependent.
2. Consider the set of 2 2 matrices:

a b
A=
c d
where a, b, c, d are arbitrary complex numbers. Does this set of ma-

trices form a vector space? If so, find two basis.
3. Let
3i 6i
|ui = , |vi = .
2 4
(a) Find the norm of |ui and the norm of |vi. Are these vectors
normalized?
(b) If a = 4 2i, find a |ui.
(c) Find hu|vi, hv|ui.
4. Suppose that
|Ai = (9 2i) |u1 i + 4i |u2 i |u3 i + i |u4 i .
(a) Find the dual vector hA|.

(b) Assuming that the |ui i are an orthonormal basis, determine the
representation of |Ai as a column vector in this basis.
(c) Find the row vector representing the dual vector.
(d) Compute the inner product hA|Ai and normalize |Ai.
5. Suppose that
|Ai = (2 + 3i) |u1 i + 4 |u2 i , |Bi = 7 |u1 i 8i |u2 i
where {|u1 i , |u2 i} is an orthonormal basis.

24 Abbas Nehme
(a) Normalize the vectors |Ai and |Bi.

(b) Find |A + Bi.
(c) Show that |Ai, |Bi satisfy the triangle inequality.
(d) Show that |Ai, |Bi satisfy the CauchySchwarz inequality.
6. Apply the GramSchmidt procedure to the vectors

1 2 3
|Ai = 2 , |Bi = 8 , and |Ci = 2 ,
1 3 i
to find an orthonormal basis set.

Observables
2
In this chapter, we shall enunciate the second postulate of quantum me-
chanics concerning observable or measurable quantities. The mathematical
formulation rests on the theory of linear operators. We shall start by the
definition of an operator and the algebra to which it belongs. Special em-
phasis will be put on the matrix algebra representing these operators. We
next define bounded linear operators and concentrate on two special kinds
of these operators: Hermitian and unitary. We end with a brief introduction
to the spectral theory of bounded operators and state some results from the
theory of unbounded hermitian operators.
Postulate 2: An observable is a property of a physical system that in prin-

ciple can be measured. In quantum mechanics, an observable is a linear
self-adjoint (or Hermitian) operator .
2.1 Matrix Representation

Definition 2.1 A mapping
|i |i = A
b |i , |i V1 , |i V2 ,
25
26 Abbas Nehme
of the vector space V1 over the field F into the vector space V2 over the same
field F is called a linear transformation if
b (a |i + b |i) = aA
A b |i + bA
b |i
for all a , b F and all |i , |i V1 . In the case that V1 V2 , the mapping

is called a linear operator . For vector spaces V1 and V2 over the field C of
complex numbers, the mapping
|i |i = B
b |i , |i V1 , |i V2 ,
is called an anti-linear transformation (or semi-linear transformation) if
b (a |i + b |i) = a B
B b |i + b B
b |i
for all a , b C and all |i , |i V1 .

Example 2.1 The multiplication by a scalar A b |i = a |i is a linear op-
b |i = h| is an anti-linear operator.
erator while the complex conjugation B
In fact:
b (c |i) = A
A b |ci = a |ci = ac |i = ca |i = cA
b |i A b is linear ,
b (c |i) = B
B b |ci = hc| = c h| = c B
b |i Bb is anti-linear .
Definition 2.2 An algebra over a field F is a linear space U over that

field on which, in addition to the vector operations, an operation of algebraic
multiplication is defined. An algebraic multiplication operation is a mapping
of U U into U having the following properties for all A b, B
b, C
b U and for
each scalar a F:
Associativity: A bBb Cb=A b B bCb ,

b b b b b b b
Distributivity: A + B C = AC + B C , C A + B = Cb b b bAb+C bB,
b

Associativity of scalar multiplication: a A bBb = aA b Bb=A b aB b
We say that the algebra U has an identity and a zero element if there are a
unit operator Ib and a zero operator b
0 satisfying respectively
IbA
b=A
b Ib = A
b, b
0Ab=A
bb0=b
0, (2.1)
b U. The algebra U is said to be commutative if A
for all A bB
b=B bA
b for all
Ab, B
b U. It is called real or complex if the field on which it is defined is
the field of real or complex numbers, respectively.
Abbas Nehme 27
Example 2.2 The space of all the complex n n matrices with matrix
multiplication as the operation of algebraic multiplication form a complex
algebra. Obviously, this algebra is not commutative.
Definition 2.3 Two algebras U1 and U2 over the same field F are isomor-
phic if there is a one-to-one mapping
b1 A
A b2 , b1 U1 , A
A b2 U2 ,
b1 , B
which has the property that for any A b1 U1 and a F ,
b1 + B
A b1 A
b2 + B
b2 , b1 aA
aA b2 , b1 B
A b1 A
b2 B
b2 ,
where Ab2 , B
b2 U2 are the images of A b1 , B
b1 U1 , respectively. Such a
mapping is then called an isomorphism between U1 and U2 . If U2 is an algebra
of matrices then the isomorphism is called a faithful matrix representation of
U1 .
Theorem 2.1 The set U(H) of all linear operators defined on a real (com-
plex) finite-dimensional Hilbert space H is a real (complex) algebra with
identity under the operations of operator summation, multiplication and mul-
tiplication of operators by scalars, with these operations defined, respectively,
by the following relations for all Ab, Bb U(H), a R (C) and |i H:

b+B
A b |i = A b |i + B
b |i ,

bB
A b |i = A b B b |i ,

aAb |i = a A b |i .
If the dimension of H is n, and {|n i}n is any given orthonormal basis in H,

the mapping

a11 a1n
b U(H) A =
A .
.. ..
.
.. ,
. b ji ,
aij = hi |A| (2.2)
an1 ann
with i , j = 1 , . . . , n is a faithful representation of U(H) by the real (com-

plex) algebra of all n n matrices; this representation is called the matrix
representation of U(H) in the basis {|n i}n .
28 Abbas Nehme
Proof The proof goes in two steps:

U(H) is an algebra. In fact:
i. Let (AbB)
b C b |i = (A b |i with |i = C
bB) b |i. But C b U(H)
then Cb is linear. Therefore |i H. It follows that (A b |i =
bB)
bB
A( b |i ) = A(
bB bCb |i) = A(bB b C)
b |i. Since (AbB)
b Cb |i = (A b |i ,
bB)
we have (A bB)
b Cb = A(
bB b C).
b
b + B)
ii. (A b C b |i = (A b + B)b |i = A b |i + Bb |i since |i H
b B
and A, b U(H). But A b |i + B
b |i = AbCb |i + BbCb |i, then
b + B)
(A b C b=A bCb+B b C.
b
iii. a(AbC)
b |i = aA bCb |i = aA b |i = Aa
b |i = A(a
b |i ) = A(a
b C)b |i.
The third equality follows from the linearity of A. b
U(H) is a faithful matrix representation. In fact:
b + B)
i. (A b ij = hi | (A
b + B)b |j i = hi | (A
b |j i + B b |j i) = aij + bij =
Aij + Bij .
b ij = hi | aA
ii. (aA) b |j i = a hi | A
b |j i = a aij = aAij .
bB)
iii. (A b ij = hi | A
bBb |j i = P hi | A b |j i = P ain bnj =
b |n i hn | B
n n
(AB)ij .
Definition 2.4 The trace of an operator A b U(H) is the sum of the

diagonal elements of its corresponding matrix,
n
X X
b=
TrA b ii =
hi |A| aii = TrA . (2.3)
i=1 i
b with respect to a
Definition 2.5 The expectation value of an operator A
vector |i is given by
D E b
Ab = h|A|i . (2.4)
h|i
2.2 Bounded linear operators

Definition 2.6 A transformation Tb of the normed space N1 into the normed
space N2 is said to be continuous at |0 i N1 , if for any > 0 there is an
Abbas Nehme 29
() such that

b
T |i Tb |0 i < for k|i |0 ik1 < () .
2
The transformation Tb is said to be continuous if it is continuous at all points

|0 i N1 .
Definition 2.7 A set S in a normed space N is bounded if there is a constant

C such that k|ik 6 C for all |i S. A transformation Tb of N1 into N2
is called a bounded transformation if it maps each bounded set in N1 into a
bounded set in N2 . The requirement that Tb is bounded is equivalent to the
requirement that there is a constant C such that

b
T |i 6 C k|ik1 for all |i N1 .
2
b is a linear operator on a normed space N , then the supremum

If A

b
b A |i
A = sup , |i N , (2.5)
|i6=|nulli k|ik

is called the bound of the operator A;b obviously Ab b is
> 0. Note that if A

b b b is
bounded, then its bound A is finite. Vice versa, if A < + then A
bounded.
Theorem 2.2 Let H be a Hilbert space and A b a bounded linear operator

b on H, called the
on H. Then there is a unique bounded linear operator A
b defined by
adjoint operator of A,
b |i = h|A|i
h|A b , (2.6)
and satisfying the following properties:

D
b = A
A b , b = A
A b, bB
A b b A
=B b , b = h| A
A b .
Proof The proof goes as follows:

30 Abbas Nehme
(
b |i = h| A
h| (A) b |i = h| A
b |i =
b |i = h| A
b |i ( A)
b = Ab .
h| A
b ) |i = h| A
h| (A b |i = h| A b |i (A b ) = A.
b

h| (AbB)b |i = h| AbBb |i = P h| A b |n i hn | B
b |i =
P P n
b b b b
n hn | A |i h| B |n i = n h| B |n i hn | A |i =
h| B bA b |i (Ab B)
b =B b A
b .
D
b
hA|i = h|Aib = h| A b |i = h| A b |i A b = h| Ab .
Example 2.3 A bounded linear operator A b : Cn Cn is represented

by an n n matrix [aij ] with respect to the canonical basis {|n i} given in
Example 1.2. In terms of the inner product in Cn , the matrix elements are
determined by aij = hi |A| b j i. The matrix elements of the adjoint operator
Ab are then given by a . In general, the matrix representation for the adjoint
ji
linear operator A b is the conjugate transpose of the matrix representation for
b In fact: hi | A
A. b |j i = a .
b |j i = hj | A
ji
b on a Hilbert space H is called

Definition 2.8 A bounded linear operator A
self-adjoint (or Hermitian) if
b = A
A b or b = hA|i
h| Ai b . (2.7)
b H is called skew-Hermitian (or anti-Hermitian)

A bounded linear operator B
if
b = B
B b. (2.8)
Lemma 2.3 Let A b be a bounded, Hermitian (anti-Hermitian) linear oper-

b
ator on a Hilbert space H. Then h|A|i is a real (pure imaginary) number
for all |i H .
Proof If A b is hermitian then A

b = A
b h| A
b |i = h| A b |i =
b |i h| A
D E
h| Ab |i. That is A b is real. On the other hand, if Bb is anti-hermitian,
b b b b b b
E B = B h| B |i = h| B |i h| B |i = h| B |i and
then,
D
b is pure imaginary.
B
Abbas Nehme 31
Lemma 2.4 Let A b be a self-adjoint linear operator on Cn . Then A

b is
represented by a conjugate symmetric matrix.
Proof A b = A b hi | A
b |j i = hi | A b |i i = hi | A
b |j i hj | A b |j i

aji = aij . This completes the proof.
Definition 2.9 A bounded linear operator Ub on a Hilbert space H is called

unitary if
bU
U b = Ub U
b = Ib . (2.9)
Lemma 2.5 A unitary transformation conserves the inner product.

b
U b
U
Proof |i U b |i = | i, |i
Ub |i = | i, h | = h| U
b h | i =
b U
h| U b |i = h| i.
Lemma 2.6 A unitary operator conserves the hermiticity of an operator

under a similarity transformation
b = U
H b H
bUb. (2.10)
The matrix corresponding to H b is diagonal where the elements along the

b The matrix corresponding to U
diagonal are the eigenvalues of H. b is obtained
by forming its columns with the normalized eigenvectors of H.b
b = U
Proof H b H
b U
b=U
b H
bUb=H
b .
b represented by the matrix

Example 2.4 The unitary operator U

1 1 1
U=
2 i i
b represented by the 2 2 rotation matrix
diagonalizes the SO(2) operator R

cos sin
R= .
sin cos
In fact,
cos sin
|R I| = 0 = = ei .

sin cos
32 Abbas Nehme

a
Let v = be an eigenvector of R with eigenvalue . We have
b

cos sin
0 a
(R I)v = = .
sin cos
0 b

i 1 1
For = e , b = ia and v = . This gives
2 i

1 1 1 1 1 i
U= , U = .
2 i i 2 1 i
It is easy to show that
i
1 1 i cos sin 1 1 e 0
U RU = = .
2 1 i sin cos i i 0 ei
Definition 2.10 A bounded linear operator Pb on a Hilbert space H is called

a projector (or projection operator ) if Pb is self-adjoint and idempotent,
Pb = Pb , Pb 2 = Pb . (2.11)
Given any normalized vector |i, the projector Pb is the operator that
projects any vector |i into its component along |i,
Pb = |ih| . (2.12)
In the case of a projection of |i upon a basis {| , ki}gk=1 , the projection

operator takes the following form
g
X
Pb = | , ki h , k| . (2.13)
k=1
b with respect to a
Lemma 2.7 The expectation value of an operator A
normalized state |i can be written as
D E
b = Tr (Pb A)
A b . (2.14)

Abbas Nehme 33
Proof In fact:
D E X
Ab b |i =
= h| A b |m i hm | i
h| n i hn | A

n,m
X
= b |m i
hm | i h| n i hn | A
n,m
X
= hm | Pb A
b |m i = Tr (Pb A)
b .
m

b and B.
Theorem 2.8 Given two operators A b The operators
h i n o
bB
A, b =A
bBbB
bAb, bB
A, b =A
bBb+B
bAb, (2.15)
are called respectively the commutator and the anticommutator of Ab and B. b

The commutator possesses the following properties:
h i h i
1. A,bB b = B, b Ab .
h i h i h i
2. A,bB b+C b = A, bB b + A, bC b .
h i h i h i h i h i h i
b b b b b b
3. A, B C = A, B C + B A, C , b b b b b b b b b b
AB, C = A B, C + A, C B b b.
h h ii h h ii h h ii
4. A,b B,b C b + B, b C, b A
b + C, b A,
bBb =b 0 (Jacobi identity) .
h i h i
5. A,bB b = B b, A
b .

h i h i
b b b b b b b b b
A, B = AB B A = (B A AB) = B, A . b b b
h i
A, b B b+C b = A( bB b + C)
b (B b + C)b A
b=A bBb+A bCb
h i h i
B bA bCbAb = A, b B b + A, b C b .
h i h i h i
b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b
A, B C = AB C B C A + B AC B AC = A, B C + B A, C .b b b b b b
h i h i h i h i h i h i
b b b b b b b b b b
AB, C = C, AB = C, A BA C, B = A, C B+A B, C .b b b b b b b b
34 Abbas Nehme
h h ii

b B,
A, b C
b =A bB
bCbA
bCbB
bB
bCbA
b+ C
bBbA
b,

h h ii +

b C,
B, b A
b =BbC
bAb B
bAbC
bC
bAbB
b+A
bCbB
b,

h h ii +

b A,
C, b B
b =C bAbBbC bB bA b AbBbCb+B bA bCb,

h h ii h h ii h h ii

A, b B, b C
b + B, b C, b A
b + C, b A, b B
b =b 0.
h i h i
b b b b b b b b b b
A, B = (AB B A) = B A A B = B , A . b b
2.3 Spectral theory

Definition 2.11 A complex number is said to be an eigenvalue (or char-
b if there is at least one nonzero vector
acteristic value) of the linear operator A
|i H satisfying the eigenvalue equation
b |i = |i .
A (2.16)
Each vector |i H satisfying the above equation is called an eigenvector
b with eigenvalue . All the eigenvectors with
(or characteristic vector ) of A
the same eigenvalue form a linear subspace H , which is usually referred to
as the eigenspace (or characteristic subspace) corresponding to the eigenvalue
. The set of all eigenvalues of an operator is called its spectrum, which can
take discrete and/or continuous values.
Lemma 2.9 Let A b : Cn Cn be a linear operator with corresponding
b has n eigenvalues (counted with multiplicity) which
matrix A = [aij ]. Then A
are the roots of the characteristic polynomial
P () = det (A I) . (2.17)
Proof Consider the eigenvalue equation A b |i = |i and let v Cn be the

matrix representation of |i. If A is the matrix representing the operator
b we have (A I)v = 0. This equation possesses a non-trivial solution iff
A,
P () = det (A I) = 0.
Abbas Nehme 35
Theorem 2.10 If A b is a self-adjoint linear operator on the Hilbert space

H, then all of its eigenvalues are real numbers. Furthermore, any pair of
eigenvectors corresponding to different eigenvalues are orthogonal.

D E D E
Ab = A b A b = A b h| A b |i = h| Ab |i. If A
b |i = |i
then = and is real.
(
h| i since A b |i = |i ,
h| Ab |i =
h| i since h| A b = h| A
b = h| .
It follows that ( ) h| i = 0. If 6= then h| i = 0 .
Theorem 2.11 If U b is a unitary operator on the Hilbert space H, then all

of its eigenvalues are uni-modular , that is, of modulus one. Furthermore, any
pair of eigenvectors corresponding to different eigenvalues are orthogonal.

Since U b |i = |i then 1 = h| i = h| U b |i = ||2 and is
b U
uni-modular.

h| i ,
h| i = b U
b |i = h| i since h| U b = h| .
h| U
It follows that (1 ) h| i = 0. If 6= then h| i = 0 .
b can be written as
Theorem 2.12 Any unitary operator U
b = eiHb
U (2.18)
b is Hermitian.
where is real and H

is real = b = eiHb and U
b U
b = I.
b
Proof b is hermitian Hb =H b = U
H
Theorem 2.13 (Spectral Theorem) Let A b be a bounded, self-adjoint linear

operator on a Hilbert space H of finite dimension, or of separable, infinite
dimension. Then H admits a countable orthonormal basis {|n i} consisting
36 Abbas Nehme
b In the basis of eigenvectors, the operator A

of eigenvectors for A. b is described
by,
X
Ab= n |n ihn | , (2.19)
n
b The spectral decomposi-

which is known as the spectral decomposition of A.
tion of any vector |i H takes the form
X
|i = cn |n i , cn = hn |i . (2.20)
n
For unbounded self-adjoint linear operators with continuous spectrum,
b |i = |i ,
Q (2.21)
the closure relation becomes
Z
d |i h| = Ib , (2.22)
the eigenvectors are normalized to Dirac distributions,
h| i = ( ) , (2.23)
and the spectral decomposition reads

Z Z
b=
Q d |i h| , |i = d () |i , () = h|i . (2.24)
Proof Almost all of the formulae in the continuous case are obvious gener-
alizations of the corresponding ones in the discrete case. With respect to the
normalization, we shall look at h| i as a function of and and use the
closure relation on the one hand and the property of Dirac distributions on
the other hand as follows:
R
R
d h| i h | i = d h| if ( , ) ,
f (, ) = h| i = R

d ( )f ( , ) .
It follows that h| i = ( ).
Abbas Nehme 37
Theorem 2.14 (Feynman-Hellmann) Let H() b be a hermitian operator

depending on a parameter , and satisfying the eigenvalue equation
b
H() |()i = E() |()i , k|()ik = 1 . (2.25)
Then,
E() b
H()
= h()| |()i . (2.26)

Proof In fact,
b
E() = h()| H() |()i =

E() b
= h()| H() |()i

b
H()
+ h()| b
|()i + h()| H() |()i

b
H()
= h()| |()i

+E() h()| |()i + h()| |()i

b
H()
= h()| |()i + E() h()| ()i

b
H()
= h()| |()i .

2.4 Problems
b and B
1. If A b are operators,
h i n o
(a) Find BbA
b in terms of A, bB
b and A,
bBb .
(b) Let
b= ,
A b+ .
b = iA
B
x y
h i
bB
Show that A, b = 0. Is f (x, y) = ex+y an eigenfunction of A
b
b?
and B
38 Abbas Nehme
2. Consider the operator

b b tA
b
Fb(t) = etA Be ,
b and B
where the operators A b are represented by N N matrices.
(a) Show that
d b h i d2 b h h ii
b b
F (t) = A, F (t) , b b b
F (t) = A, A, F (t) , ...
dt dt2
(b) Derive the Baker-Campbell-Hausdorff formula
h i 2 h h ii
b b tA
etA Be
b b + t A,
=B b + t A,
b B b A,
b B
b + ... (2.27)
1! 2!
(c) Let h i h i
b B
A, b = iC
b, b C
B, b = iA
b.
Show that
b b itB
b b + (sin t)B
b.
eitB Ae = (cos t)A
h i
b b b b
(d) Assume that A and B both commute with their commutator A, B .
Write down a differential equation for the operator
b = etAb etBb ,
G(t)
and derive the expression
eA+B = eA eB e 2 [A,B] .
b b b b 1 b b
(2.28)
(e) Using the same assumptions, show also that
eA eB = eB eA e[A,B] .
b b b b b b
(2.29)
3. The Pauli matrices are defined by:

0 1 0 i 1 0
x = , y = , z = . (2.30)
1 0 i 0 0 1
(a) Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the Pauli matrices.

(b) Are they Hermitian? Are they unitary?
Abbas Nehme 39
(c) Find [x , y ] and {x , y }.

(d) Express the Pauli matrices in outer product notation.
(e) Use the eigenvectors of x to construct a unitary transformation
such that:
b b 1 0
U x U =
0 2
where 1,2 are the eigenvalues of x .
4. Consider the following matrix:

2 i 0
X = i 2 0 .
0 0 0
(a) Is X Hermitian? Unitary? Find Tr X.

(b) Find the eigenvalues and the normalized eigenvectors of X .
(c) Construct a similarity transformation matrix S, find its inverse and
show that it diagonalizes X.
5. Suppose that {|+i , |i} forms an orthonormal basis for a two-dimensional
vector space.
(a) Find the matrix representations of the operators |+i h+| and |i h| .
(b) Are these operators projection operators?
(c) Let |i = 2i |+i 4 |i . Is |i normalized? If not, normalize the
state. Find the representation of |i as a column vector.
(d) Find the action of |+i h+| and |i h| on the normalized state |i,
using both the outer product notation and by the action of the
matrices representing these operators.
40 Abbas Nehme
Measurement
3
In this chapter, we shall enunciate the third principle of quantum mechanics
concerning the measurement of observables. The outcome of a measurement
is not unique. It depends on the experimental apparatus used in the prepara-
tion of a given system on the one hand, and on the fact that a given observ-
able can take many values on the other hand. The mathematical formulation
rests on probability and statistical theory. We shall start with the definition
of the uncertainty accompanying any measurement process and introduce
the famous uncertainty relation. We then show, through the notion of the
statistical mixture, that a quantum state, in general, cannot be completely
described by a vector in a Hilbert space, and that the only mathematical
actors able to describe states and observables are the operators.
Postulate 3: In quantum mechanics, the numerical outcome of a measure-

ment of the observable A b is an eigenvalue n of A;b right after the mea-
surement, the quantum state is an eigenvector |n i of A b with the measured
eigenvalue n . Suppose that n is g-fold degenerate with corresponding eigen-
vectors {|n , 1i, . . . , |n , gi}. If the quantum state just prior to the measure-
41
42 Abbas Nehme
ment is |i, then the outcome n is obtained with probability

g
X
Pr(n ) = h| Pbn |i = |hn , k|i|2 (3.1)
k=1
and the normalized quantum state become
Pbn |i
|im = q . (3.2)
h|Pbn |i
For a mixture, the probability of obtaining the measurement n is given by

X
Pbn ) =
Pr(n ) = Tr (b hn , k| b |n , ki (3.3)
k
with b the state operator representing the mixture.
Remark 3.1 If the measurement is immediately repeated, the same out-

come is attained again, with probability one. In fact, Pbn |im = |im and
h| Pbn Pbn |i
m h| Pbn |im = q Pbn q = 1.
b
h|Pn |i b
h|Pn |i
We say that the state of the system collapses to one of the eigenstates.
3.1 The uncertainty relation

b is defined by
Definition 3.1 The uncertainty for an observable A
D E 2 1/2
b=
A b b Ib
A A . (3.4)
Lemma 3.1 A useful formula for the uncertainty is

2 D E D E2
b = A
A b2 A
b . (3.5)
Abbas Nehme 43

2 D E 2
b
A = b
A A b Ib
D E D E2 D E D E2
b2
= A 2 A A+ A b b b Ib = A b .
b2 A
Lemma 3.2 A vector |i is an eigenvector of an observable A b if and only

b = 0 . Dispersion-free states are referred to
if it is dispersion-free, that is A
as pure states with respect to the observable A b.
Proof The necessary condition:

D E
b |i = |i = A
A b = h| A
b |i = ,
D E
b 2 |i = 2 |i = A
A b 2 = 2 ,
rD E D E
2
A b= b2 A
A b = 0.
The sufficient condition: Let
b |i = |i ,
A b=A
A b , k|ik = 1 .
D E

Ab 2 = h| A b |i = h| i = k|ik2
bA

b b
h| = h| A = h| A h| i

h b
A i = h| b
A |i = h| i = h| i

|h| i|
D E 2
b=0
A b 2 = hA
A b i k|ik = |h| i|
k|ik k|ik = |h| i| .
This is a particular case of the Schwarz-Cauchy inequality valid if |i is

b |i = |i . This completes
proportional to |i . Let |i = |i , then, A
the proof.
44 Abbas Nehme
Theorem 3.3 (The Generalized Uncertainty Relation) Given any two op-
b and B,
erators A b we have:
Dh iE
A b 1 A,
b B b .
bB (3.6)
2
Proof Let
D E D E
|1 i = Ab A
b Ib |i , |2 i = Bb B
b Ib |i .
We have: p
k|1 ik = h1 | 1 i = Ab , k|2 ik = Bb,
D E D E D E D ED E
h1 | 2 i = h| A b A b Ib B b B b Ib |i = A bB
b Ab Bb .
Then, by the Schwarz-Cauchy inequality,
b B
A b = k|1 ik k|2 ik > |h1 | 2 i|

1
> | h1 | 2 i| = (h1 | 2 i h2 | 1 i)
2i
1 D b b E D bE D b E D b bE D b E D bE
> AB A B B A + B A
2
1 Dh b b iE
> A, B .
2
Definition 3.2 A pair of observables Q b and Pb are said to be complementary

if they satisfy the canonical commutation relations,
h i
Q, P = i~Ib .
b b (3.7)
b and Pb satisfy the

Lemma 3.4 Any pair of complementary observables Q
Heisenberg uncertainty relation,
b Pb ~ .
Q (3.8)
2
Abbas Nehme 45
Proof The proof is an immediate consequence of Theorem 3.3,
b b 1 Dh b biE 1 D bE ~
Q P Q, P = i~I = .
2 2 2
Definition 3.3 An observable A b on a Hilbert space H is said to be complete

if its eigenvectors form an orthonormal basis for H.
Theorem 3.5 A pair of complete observables A b and Bb commute if and

only if there exists a complete set of common eigenvectors. Such observables
are said to be compatible.
Proof The necessary condition:

b |n i = n |n i ,
A b |n i = n |n i .
B
)
bB
b |n i = A
b n |n i = n A
b |n i = n n |n i h i
A b Bb =b
bAb |n i = B
b n |n i = n Bb |n i = n n |n i A, 0.
B
The sufficient condition:
h i
b |i = |i ,
A b b
A, B = b
0.

bB
A b |i = B
bAb |i = A
b B b |i = Bb |i ,
b |i is an eigenvector of A
and B b with eigenvalue . But Ab is complete. Then
b |i must be proportional to |i . Let B
B b |i = c |i = |i.
3.2 The state operator

Definition 3.4 A mixed state (or a mixture) is the quantum state of an
ensemble of similarly prepared systems. It can be real or conceptual.
Example 3.1 Consider a system formed by a single electron. An example

of a real mixture is that representing the ensemble whose members are single
electrons, each having the same momentum, but distributed uniformly over
all positions. An example of a conceptual mixture is that representing a
polarized photon, a two-level atom, or an electron with spin.
46 Abbas Nehme
Definition 3.5 Consider a quantum system having probability p of being

in the state | i, member of the mixture {| i , | i , . . .} . The members are
assumed to be normalized but not necessarily orthogonal. The state operator
describing this quantum system is defined to be
X X
b = p | i h | , 0 6 p 6 1 , p = 1 , h | i = 1 . (3.9)

If the state of the system is completely known (pure state), one of the p s
is one and all others are zero, and
Pure state: b = |i h| = Pb . (3.10)
We can say that a mixture is an ensemble of different pure states, each

occurring with a given probability.
Lemma 3.6 The expectation value of an observable in the mixture is given

by the formula
D E
Ab = Tr (b b .
A) (3.11)
Proof
X X
Tr (b b =
A) b |n i =
hn | bA b |n i
p hn | i h | A
n n,
X X
= b |n i hn | i =
p h | A b | i
p h | A
n,
X D E D E
= b
p A b .
= A

Theorem 3.7 The state operator

is hermitian, b = b ,
has unit trace, Tr b = 1 ,
is a positive operator, h| b |i > 0 for any |i .
satisfies b | i = | i with 0 6 6 1.
Abbas Nehme 47
satisfies Tr b 2 6 1 with equality holding for pure states.

Since the p s are real and | i h | are projectors, b is hermitian.
Taking A b = Ib in Equation 3.11, we obtain the second property.
P
h| b |i = p |h | i|2 > 0 .
P P
h | b | i = p |h | i|2 6 p k| ik k| ik = 1 , by Schwarz-
Cauchy inequality. On the other hand, since the p s are non-negative
as well as the modulus, we have the fourth property.
The last property is obtained using Equation 3.11 and the Schwarz-
Cauchy inequality:
X
2 ) = hb
Tr (b i = p h | b | i

X X
= p p h | i h | i = p p |h | i|2
, ,
X X
6 p p k| ik k| ik = p p 6 1 .
, ,
Remark 3.2 To test the purity of a quantum state, it is worth trying to

2) .
compute Tr (b
Definition 3.6 A completely mixed state is one for which the probability
of each state is equal to all others.
Lemma 3.8 In an n-dimensional Hilbert space, a completely mixed state

is characterized by
1b 1
Completely mixed state (n dimensions): b = I, 2) =
Tr (b . (3.12)
n n
As a consequence of the preceding,

1
2) 6 1 .
6 Tr (b (3.13)
n
48 Abbas Nehme
Proof From P the definition of aP completely mixed state, all the p s are equal
and b = p | i h | = p | i h | = (1/n)Ib. On the other hand,
b 2 = (1/n)2 Ib and Tr (b
2 ) = (1/n)2 Tr Ib = 1/n .
Theorem 3.9 (Bloch vector ) For a two-level system, the state operator can
be represented by the matrix
1
= I + ~b ~ , (3.14)
2
where ~b is called the Bloch vector and the i s are Pauli matrices. The Bloch
vector satisfies
k~bk 6 1 , (3.15)
with equality only for pure states. The preceding formula can be inverted
through
bi = Tr ( i ) . (3.16)

1 1 + bz bx iby
= , = , Tr = 1 .
2 bx + iby 1 bz
1
det ( I) = 0 = 1 k~bk .
2
0 6 6 1 k~bk 6 1 .
!
1 1 + 2bz + k~bk2 2(bx iby ) 1
2 = ~ 2
, Tr (2 ) = (1 + k~bk2 ) .
4 2(bx + iby ) 1 2bz + kbk 2
Tr (2 ) = 1 k~bk = 1 .
!
1 h i 1 X 1X
Tr (i ) = Tr (~b ~ )i = Tr bj j i = bj Tr (j i ) = bi .
2 2 j
2 j
In the last equation, the property Tr (j i ) = 2ij of the Pauli matrices has
been used. This completes the proof.
Abbas Nehme 49
3.3 Problems
b in four dimensions is defined
1. An orthonormal basis of an observable H
as follows
b |ni = nE |ni .
H
A system is in the state
|i = 3 |1i + |2i |3i + 7 |4i .
(a) If a measurement of the spectrum is made, what results can be

found and with what probabilities?
(b) Find the average of the outcome.
2. Suppose an observable Hb has a basis |ui i such that
b |u1 i = E |u1 i , H
H b |u2 i = E |u2 i ,
b |u3 i = 2E |u3 i , H
H b |u4 i = 4E |u4 i .
The system is in the state

1 1 1 1
|i = |u1 i + |u2 i + |u3 i + |u4 i .
6 2 2 12
(a) Write Hb in outer product notation.

(b) Write the projection operator Pb that projects a state onto the sub-
space spanned by {|u1 i , |u2 i}.
(c) The spectrum of H b is measured. What values can be found, and
with what probabilities?
(d) Suppose that the outcome of the measurement is E. What is the
state of the system after measurement?
3. We work in a two-dimensional vector space with basis {|0i , |1i} . Con-
sider an ensemble of systems prepared in the following way. We have
two quantum states

2 1 3 1
|Ai = |0i + |1i , |Bi = |0i + |1i .
5 5 2 2
In the preparation of the ensemble, 3/4 of the states are prepared in
state |Ai and 1/4 of the states are prepared in state |Bi .
50 Abbas Nehme
(a) Write down the density operator for each individual pure state |Ai,
and |Bi .
(b) Write down the density operator for the ensemble.
(c) Express the density operator as a matrix with respect to the {|0i , |1i}
basis.
(d) Compute the trace.
(e) If a particle is drawn from the ensemble and a measurement is
performed, what is the probability it is found in state |0i ? What is
the probability it is found in state |1i ?
(f) Suppose there is another measurement with basis states
1 1
|+i = (|0i + |1i) , |i = (|0i |1i) .
2 2
A particle is drawn from the ensemble and a measurement is made
in this basis. What is the probability of finding |+i and what is the
probability of finding |i ?
4. A density operator for some system is represented by

2/3 1/6 i/3
= .
1/6 + i/3 1/3
(a) Find the components of the Bloch vector.

(b) Is this state mixed or is it a pure state?
(c) A measurement of spin is made in the z-direction. What is the
probability that the measurement result is spin-down? spin-up?
4
Dynamics
In this chapter, we enunciate the fourth postulate of quantum mechanics

concerning the time evolution of quantum systems. There are three ways for
describing this evolution known as the Schrodinger, Heisenberg and Dirac
pictures. We shall start by a detailed analysis of these pictures. We then
move to the study of the coordinate and the momentum representations.
These are primordial to introducing the notion of a wavefunction. The re-
lation between invariance and symmetry is then evoked through Wigners
theorem, and a brief introduction to gauge invariance is initiated. We next
formulate all the ingredients constituting what is called wave mechanics and
end with a treatment of perturbation theory in its time-independent and
time-dependent versions.
Postulate 4: Time evolution of a quantum state is unitary,
b (t, t0 ) |(t0 )i ,
|(t)i = U b = U
U b 1 , (4.1)
where U b is the time-evolution operator . Time evolution is generated by

an observable H,b called the Hamiltonian. The spectrum of H b gives the
total energy of the system. In the Schrodinger picture of dynamics, the
51
52 Abbas Nehme
vector describing the state of the system moves in time as governed by the
Schrodinger equation
b |(t)i = i~ d |(t)i .
H(t) (4.2)
dt
4.1 Pictures
Theorem 4.1 The time evolution of the state operator is governed by the
equation
d h i
b
i~ b(t) = H(t), b(t) . (4.3)
dt
Proof In fact,
d X X d
i~ p | (t)i h (t)| = p i~ | (t)i h (t)|
dt
dt
X
d
p | (t)i i~ h (t)|

dt
X
= b | (t)i h (t)|
p H(t)

X
b
p | (t)i h (t)| H(t)
h i
b
= H(t), b(t) .
Theorem 4.2 The time-evolution operator satisfies the following proper-

ties:
b (t0 , t0 ) = Ib .
1. U
b (t2 , t0 ) = U
2. U b (t2 , t1 ) U(t
b 1 , t0 ) .
b b U b (t, t0 ) .
3. i~ U(t, t0 ) = H(t)
t
Rt
i b )
b (t, t0 ) = Tb e ~ t0 d H(
4. U , where Tb is the time-ordering operator, which
orders subsequent factors from right to left consecutively in time.
Abbas Nehme 53
Proof The proof goes in four steps:

b 0 , t0 ) |(t0 )i U(t
From Equation 4.1, |(t0 )i = U(t b 0 , t0 ) = Ib .
From the same equation,
)
b 1 , t0 ) |(t0 )i
|(t1 )i = U(t
b (t1 , t0 ) |(t0 )i
b 2 , t1 )U
|(t2 )i = U(t
b 2 , t1 ) |(t1 )i
|(t2 )i = U(t

|(t2 )i = Ub (t2 , t0 ) |(t0 )i
b 2 , t0 ) = U
= U(t b (t2 , t1 ) U(t
b 1 , t0 ) .
From Equations 4.1 and 4.2,
b U
H(t) b (t, t0 ) |(t0 )i = i~ d U
b (t, t0 ) |(t0 )i
dt
b U
= H(t) b (t, t0 ) = i~ U(t,
b t0 ) .
t
Taking the time derivative,
b ~i Rtt d H(
b ) i
Rt
b )
b Tb e ~ t0 d H(
i~ Te 0 = H(t)
t
b b U(t,
b t0 ) .
= i~ U (t, t0 ) = H(t)
t
Theorem 4.3 The time-evolution of expectation values is given by

* +
d Db E i Dh b b
iE b
A(t)
A(t) = H(t), A(t) + . (4.4)
dt ~ t

d Db E d b |(t)i = d b |(t)i
A(t) = h(t)| A(t) h(t)| A(t)
dt dt dt
b b d |(t)i .
+ h(t)| A(t) |(t)i + h(t)| A(t)
t dt
54 Abbas Nehme
b |(t)i = i~ d |(t)i h(t)| H(t)

H(t) b d
= i~ h(t)| .
dt dt
Combining the two equations,
* +
i b
A(t) i
b A(t)
h(t)| H(t) b |(t)i + b H(t)
h(t)| A(t) b |(t)i =
~ t ~
* +
d Db E d Db E i Dh b b
iE b
A(t)
A(t) A(t) = H(t), A(t) + .
dt dt ~ t
bH defined by
Definition 4.1 The operator A
bH (t) = U
A b (t, t0 )A(t)
b U(t,
b t0 ) (4.5)
is called the Heisenberg operator associated with the Schrodinger operator

b
A(t).
Theorem 4.4 Let A(t) b be an observable and |(t)i is a normalized state.

In the Heisenberg picture of dynamics, the time evolution is given by
!
d b i hb b
i b
A(t)
AH (t) = HH (t), AH (t) + . (4.6)
dt ~ t
H

d b b b U(t,
b t0 )
AH (t) = U (t, t0 ) A(t)
dt t
!
b
A(t)
+Ub (t, t0 ) b (t, t0 ) + U
U b U
b (t, t0 )A(t) b (t, t0 )
t t
i b b A(t)
b U(t,
b t0 )
= U (t, t0 )H(t)
~ !
b
A(t)
+Ub (t, t0 ) b (t, t0 ) i U
U b (t, t0 )A(t)
b H(t)
b U
b (t, t0 )
t ~
i b b U b (t, t0 )U
b (t, t0 )A(t)
b U b (t, t0 )
= U (t, t0 )H(t)
~
Abbas Nehme 55
!
b
A(t) i b
+ U b U
(t, t0 )A(t) b (t, t0 )U
b (t, t0 )H(t)
b U b (t, t0 )
t ~
H
!
i b b
A(t) i b
= bH (t) +
HH (t)A A b
H (t)HH (t)
~ t ~
H
!
h
i b i b
A(t)
= bH (t) +
HH (t), A .
~ t
H
b is said to be conserved (or a constant

Definition 4.2 An observable A(t)
of motion) if and only if:
b
It does not depend explicitly on time, i.e. A(t)/t =b0;
h i
b
It commutes with the Hamiltonian, i.e. H(t), b
A(t) =b0.
Theorem 4.5 The Schrodinger and Heisenberg pictures of dynamics are

equivalent provided that
b (t, t0 ) |(t)i .
|iH = |(t0 )i = U (4.7)
D
E D E
b bH . That is,
Proof The two pictures are equivalent iff A(t) = A
H
b |(t)i = h(t0 )| U
h(t)| A(t) b (t, t0 )A(t)
b U b (t, t0 ) |(t0 )i = h(t0 )| A
bH |(t0 )i .
b |(t)i =
h(t)| A(t) Hh| AH
b |i |i = |(t0 )i = U
b (t, t0 ) |(t)i .
H H
Theorem 4.6 Suppose that the Hamiltonian H(t) b can be separated into
b
a time independent part H0 and a (possibly time-dependent) perturbation
Vb (t),
b
H(t) b 0 + Vb (t) .
=H (4.8)
56 Abbas Nehme
The time-evolution of vectors and operators in the so-called interaction pic-

ture (or Dirac picture) of dynamics is given by
d
VbI (t) |(t)iI = i~ |(t)iI ,
dt
! (4.9)
d i hb i b
A(t)
AI (t) = H0 , AI (t) + ,
dt ~ t
I
where by definition,
b bI (t) = eiHb 0 t/~A(t)e
b b 0 t/~
|(t)iI = eiH0 t/~ |(t)i , A iH
. (4.10)

b b b b
VbI (t) |(t)iI = e(i/~) tH0 Vb (t)e(i/~) tH0 e(i/~) tH0 |(t)i = e(i/~) tH0 Vb (t) |(t)i .
On the other hand,
d d b
i~ |(t)iI = i~ e(i/~) tH0 |(t)i
dt dt
= Hb 0 e(i/~) tHb 0 |(t)i + i~e(i/~) tHb 0 d |(t)i
h dt i
b b0 b0 b
= H0 e (i/~) tH
|(t)i + e(i/~) tH
H0 + Vb (t) |(t)i
b
= e(i/~) tH0 Vb (t) |(t)i ,
b 0 commutes with the latter. The same goes for:
since any function of H
d b d (i/~) tHb 0 b b i b (i/~) tHb 0 b b
AI (t) = e A(t)e(i/~) tH0 = H 0e A(t)e(i/~) tH0
dt dt ! ~
b0
b
A(t) b i b b
+e (i/~) tH
e(i/~) tH0 e(i/~) tH0 A(t) Hb 0 e(i/~) tHb 0
t ~
!
i b b b
A(t) i b
= H0 AI (t) + A I (t)H0
b
~ t ~
I
!
h
i b i b
A(t)
= H0 , AI (t) + .
~ t
I

Abbas Nehme 57
4.2 Representations
Definition 4.3 Consider the eigenvalue equations for the position and lin-
ear momentum operators,
b
~r |~r i = ~r |~r i , b
p~ |~p i = p~ |~p i , (4.11)
respectively. The wavefunction in the position space is defined as the pro-

jection of a state vector on the {|~r i} basis
(~r, t) = h~r |(t)i . (4.12)
The wavefunction in the linear momentum space is defined as the projection

of a state vector on the {|~p i} basis
(~p, t) = h~p |(t)i . (4.13)
Theorem 4.7 (Wigners Theorem) Any continuous transformation (de-

pending on a continuous real parameter ),
|i = U
b () |i , b = U
A b ()A
bUb 1 () , (4.14)
that preserves the inner product may be implemented by a unitary operator

b () = eiQb . The Hermitian operator Q
U b is called the generator of the family
of unitary operators.
Proof From the following diagram,

b
A
|i
|i
b
U() b ()
U
b
A
|i |i
we have,
(

b
U() b A
|i = U() b |i , following the upper path,
|i = b |i = A
b U
b () |i ,
A following the lower path.
58 Abbas Nehme
The equivalence of the paths leads to

b ()A
U b=A
b U
b () = A
b = U
b ()A
bUb 1 () .
On the other hand, the invariance of the inner product follows from the
b . That U
unitarity of U b is unitary follows from the hermiticity of Q,
b being
real.
b
Theorem 4.8 The generator of time translation is the Hamiltonian H,
b = e(i/~)tHb .
U(t) (4.15)
Proof Let be a small time interval and consider an infinitesimal transfor-

mation (time translation). We have by Schrodingers equation,
b )
U( d
|(t)i |(t)i = |(t + )i = |(t)i + |(t)i + O( 2 )
dt
i b
= |(t)i H(t) |(t)i + O( 2 )
~
i
= Ib H(t)
b + O( ) |(t)i
2
~
b ( ) |(t)i .
= U
The generalization to a finite transformation is obvious.
Theorem 4.9 The following propositions are equivalent.

The generator of space translation is the linear momentum b
p~,
b (~a) = e(i/~)~abp~ .
U (4.16)
The representation of the linear momentum in the coordinate basis is
h~r |b
p~ |~r i = i~~r (~r ~r ) ,
(4.17)
d
hx | pbx |x i = i~ (x x ) .

dx

Abbas Nehme 59
The necessary condition: For an infinitesimal space translation, ~a, we

have,

i
b (~a) |~r i =
U
Ib + ~a bp~ + O(a ) |~r i
2
~
i
= |~r i + ~a b
p~ |~r i + O(a2 ) .
~
i
h~r | U (~a) |~r i = (~r ~r ) + ~a h~r |b
b
p~ |~r i + O(a2 ) .
~
On the other hand,
b a) |~r i = h~r |~r + ~ai = (~r ~r ) + ~a ~r (~r ~r ) + O(a2 ) .
h~r | U(~
The matrix elements of the linear momentum operator in the coordinate

basis are then obtained by comparing the last two equations.
The sufficient condition: For an infinitesimal space translation, ~a, we
have,
b a)
U(~
(~r, t) (~r , t) = (~r + ~a, t) = (~r, t) + ~a (~r, t) + O(a2 )
i
= (~r, t) + ~a bp~ (~r, t) + O(a2 )
~
b i b 2
= I + ~a ~p + O(a ) (~r, t)
~
b (~a)(~r, t) .
= U
Lemma 4.10 The operators x

b and pbx are hermitian.
Proof In fact:
Z Z
hb
x| i = dx(x) = dx x = h| x

bi ,
Z
d
hb
px | i = dx i~ = i~ |+

dx
Z
d
i~ = h| pbx i .
dx
60 Abbas Nehme
Proposition 4.11 We have:
h~r | pb 2 |~r i = ~2 ~r (~r ~r ) . (4.18)
Proof In fact,
Z
2
h~r | pb |~r i = d3 r h~r | b
p~ |~r i h~r | b
~p |~r i
Z
= d3 r [i~~r (~r ~r )] h~r | b
p~ |~r i
= i~~r h~r | b
p~ |~r i = ~2 ~r (~r ~r ) .
Remark 4.1 We note that the matrix elements of the linear momentum
operator in the coordinate basis are operators. So, these quantities should be
handled with great care especially the order they come in a given expression.
Theorem 4.12 The wavefunction Schrodinger equation for a particle of

mass m with potential energy V (~r, t) reads

~2
i~ (~r, t) = + V (~r, t) (~r, t) . (4.19)
t 2m
Proof In fact,
d
i~ (~r, t) = i~ h~r | (t)i = i~ h~r | |(t)i
t t Z dt
b |(t)i = d3 r h~r | H(t)
= h~r | H(t) b |~r i h~r | (t)i
Z
pb 2
= 3
d r h~r | + Vb (~r, t) |~r i (~r , t)
2m
Z
3 ~2
= dr ~r + V (~r, t) (~r ~r )(~r , t)
2m
2

~
= + V (~r, t) (~r, t) .
2m

Abbas Nehme 61
Theorem 4.13 The observables b

~r and b
p~ are complementary,
ri , pbj ] = i~ ij Ib .
[b (4.20)
Proof In fact,
ri , pbj ] |~r i = h~r | rbi pbj |~r i h~r | pbj rbi |~r i
h~r | [b
Z
= d3 r h~r | rbi |~r i h~r | pbj |~r i
Z
d3 r h~r | pbj |~r i h~r | rbi |~r i
Z
= d3 r ri (~r ~r ) h~r | pbj |~r i
Z

+i~ d3 r (~r ~r ) h~r | rbi |~r i
rj

= ri h~r | pbj |~r i + i~ h~r | rbi |~r i
rj

= i~ ri (~r ~r ) + i~ ri (~r ~r )
rj rj
b ij (~r ~r )
= i~ ri (~r ~r ) + i~I
rj

+i~ ri (~r ~r )
rj
= i~Ib ij (~r ~r ) .
Theorem 4.14 We have

h i
b
f (~r ), pbj = i~Ib f (~r ) . (4.21)
rj
Proof In fact,
h i
h~r | f (b
~r1 ), pbj |~r i = h~r | f (b
~r1 ) pbj |~r i h~r | pbj f (b ~r1 ) |~r i
Z
= d3 r h~r | f (b
~r1 ) |~r i h~r | pbj |~r i
62 Abbas Nehme
Z
d3 r h~r | pbj |~r i h~r | f (b
~r1 ) |~r i
Z
= d3 r f (~r ) (~r ~r ) h~r | pbj |~r i
Z

+i~ d3 r (~r ~r ) h~r | f (b ~r1 ) |~r i
rj

= f (~r ) h~r | pbj |~r i + i~ h~r | f (b ~r1 ) |~r i
rj

= i~ f (~r ) (~r ~r ) + i~ f (~r )(~r ~r )
rj rj

b f (~r )
= i~ f (~r ) (~r ~r ) + i~I (~r ~r )
rj rj

+i~ f (~r ) (~r ~r )
rj

b f (~r )
= i~I (~r ~r ) .
rj
Theorem 4.15 (Ehrenfest) If x b and pbx do not depend explicitly on time
then,

d d dV (x)
m hb xi = hb
px i , hb
px i = , (4.22)
dt dt dx
where m is the mass of a particle subject to a potential energy V (x).
Proof Since xb does not depend explicitly on time, hb x/ti = 0, and
d i Dh b iE
hb
xi = H, x b ,
dt ~
by Equation (4.4). But Hb = pb 2 /(2m) + Vb (x). Therefore,
x
d i
2 i 1
hb
xi = pbx , x
b = hb
px [b
px , x
b] + [b b] pbx i = hb
px , x px i .
dt 2m~ 2m~ m
The same goes for pb. Since hbpx /ti = 0,

d i Dh b iE i Dh b iE dV (x)
hb
px i = H, pbx = V (x), pbx = .
dt ~ ~ dx
Abbas Nehme 63
Theorem 4.16 (Virial ) If b ~r and b p~ do not depend explicitly on time we

have the following
2 D
d Db bE pb E
~r p~ = b~r V (~r ) , (4.23)
dt m
where m is the mass of a particle subject to a potential energy V (~r ).
Proof Since b ~r and b
~p do not depend explicitly on time, we have by Equation
(4.4),
d Db bE i Dh b b biE
~r p~ = H, ~r ~p .
dt ~
The commutator is calculated as follows
h i 2 h i
b b pb b b
b
H, ~r ~p = , ~r p~ + Vb (~r ), b ~r b
p~
2m
1 X 2 X h i
= pbi , rbj pbj + rbi Vb (~r ), pbi
2m i,j i
1 X 2 X
= pbi , rbj pbj + i~ rbi V (~r )
2m i,j i
r i
1 X
= (b
pi [bpi , rbj ] pbj + [b pi , rbj ] pbi pbj ) + i~ b
~r V (~r )
2m i,j
i~ X
= ij pbi pbj + i~ b ~r V (~r )
m i,j
pb 2
= i~ + i~ b
~r V (~r ) .
m
Remark 4.2 If the expectation value is taken with respect to stationary
states, we obtain the classical version of the virial theorem
D E
2 hT i = ~r F~ .
Theorem 4.17 The projection of the linear momentum basis upon the
coordinate basis is nothing else than the spatial component of a De Broglie
wave
1 i~k~
r ~k = p~ .
h~r |~p i = e , (4.24)
(2~)3/2 ~
64 Abbas Nehme
Proof In fact,
Z
h~r | b

p~ |~p i = d3 r h~r | b
~p |~r i h~r | ~p i
Z
= i~ d3 r ~r (~r ~r ) h~r | p~ i
= i~~r h~r | p~ i .
On the other hand, h~r | b

p~ |~p i = ~p h~r | ~p i . By comparison, we obtain the
following differential equation,
i
~r h~r | ~p i ~p h~r | ~p i = ~0 ,
~
whose solution is
~
r
h~r | p~ i = Ce(i/~)~p .
The integration constant C is determined by the normalization condition,
Z
d3 r (i/~)(~p ~p )~r
h~p | p~ i = (~p p~ ) = e
(2~)3
Z Z
= d r h~p | ~r i h~r | p~ i = d3 r h~r | p~ i h~r | ~p i
3
Z

= d3 r |C|2 e(i/~)(~p ~p )~r .
This means that, up to a phase, C = 1/(2~)3/2 .
Theorem 4.18 The matrix elements of the position operator in the linear
momentum basis are given by
h~p |b
~r |~p i = i~p~ (~p p~ ) . (4.25)
Proof In fact,
Z Z
h~p |b
~r |~p i = d r h~p |b
3
~r |~r i h~r | p~ i = d3 r ~r h~p |~r i h~r | p~ i
Z
d3 r
= 3
~r e(i/~)(~p~p )~r ,
(2~)
Abbas Nehme 65
Z
d3 r
p~ (~p p~ ) = 3
p~ e(i/~)(~p~p )~r
(2~)
Z
i d3 r
= 3
~r e(i/~)(~p~p )~r
~ (2~)
i
= h~p |b
~r |~p i .
~
Theorem 4.19 The wavefunctions in the coordinate and linear momentum

spaces are Fourier transforms,
Z
d3 r
(~p ) = e(i/~)~p~r (~r ) ,
(2~)3/2
Z (4.26)
3
dp
(~r ) = e(i/~)~p~r (~r ) .
(2~)3/2
Proof In fact,
Z Z
3 d3 r
(~p ) = h~p | i = d r h~p | ~r i h~r | i = e(i/~)~p~r (~r ) ,
(2~)3/2
Z Z
3 d3 p
(~r ) = h~r | i = d p h~r | ~p i h~p | i = 3/2
e(i/~)~p~r (~r ) .
(2~)
4.3 Wave mechanics

Theorem 4.20 (The Continuity Equation) For a particle of mass m, the
probability density
(~r, t) = (~r, t) (~r, t) , (4.27)
and the probability flux vector (or probability current)
~j(~r, t) = i~ [ (~r, t)(~r, t) (~r, t) (~r, t)] , (4.28)

2m
66 Abbas Nehme
satisfy the continuity equation

(~r, t) + ~j(~r, t) = 0 , (4.29)
t
which expresses the conservation of probability.
Proof In fact,
Z Z
1 = h(t)| (t)i = 3
d r h(t)| ~r i h~r | (t)i = d3 r |(~r, t)|2 ,
justifies the identification of (~r, t) with a probability density since the prob-
ability of presence of the system in all the space is equal to unity. On the
other hand, if is a finite volume, we have,
Z Z
d 3 2 3
d r |(~r, t)| = dr (~r, t) (~r, t) + (~r, t) (~r, t) ,
dt t t

~2
i~ (~r, t) = + V (~r, t) (~r, t) ,
t 2m

~2
i~ (~r, t) = + V (~r, t) (~r, t) ,
t 2m
Z Z
d 3 2 i~
d r |(~r, t)| = d3 r [ (~r, t)(~r, t) (~r, t) (~r, t)] ,
dt 2m
[ (~r, t)(~r, t)] = [ (~r, t)] (~r, t) + (~r, t)(~r, t)

[(~r, t) (~r, t)] = [(~r, t)] (~r, t) + (~r, t) (~r, t)
[ (~r, t)(~r, t) (~r, t) (~r, t)] = (~r, t)(~r, t) (~r, t) (~r, t) ,

Z Z
d 3 2 i~
d r |(~r, t)| = d3 r [ (~r, t)(~r, t) (~r, t) (~r, t)] .
dt 2m
The last equation introduces ~j(~r, t) as required by the continuity equation.
Abbas Nehme 67
Lemma 4.21 The mean value of the velocity operator ~b

v=b
p~/m is equal to
the integral over space of the probability current,
D E Z
~b
v = d3 r ~j(~r, t) . (4.30)
Proof In fact,
D E Z
b b 1
~v = h(t)| ~v |(t)i = d3 r d3 r h(t)| ~r i h~r | b
~p |~r i h~r | (t)i
m
Z
i~
= d3 r d3 r (~r, t)~r (~r ~r )(~r , t)
m
Z
i~
= d3 r (~r, t)(~r, t)
m
Z
i~
= d3 r (~r, t) (~r, t) .
m
The last equality has been obtained performing an integration by part. The
last step consists on writing,
D E 1 DbE DbE
~b
v = ~v + ~v
2 Z
i~
= d3 r [ (~r, t)(~r, t) (~r, t) (~r, t)]
m
Z
= d3 r ~j(~r, t) .
Lemma 4.22 The wave function (~r, t) and its spatial derivative (~r, t)
should be continuous functions.
Proof From Schrodingers equation, the wavefunction is twice derivable,

from which follows the continuity.
Theorem 4.23 (The Minimal Coupling Theorem) Invariance of the theory

under the abelian gauge transformation,
iq
(~r, t) = e ~c (~r,t) (~r, t) , (4.31)
68 Abbas Nehme
implies the interaction of a particle of electric charge q with the electromag-

netic field via the minimal coupling,
b q~
p~ b
~p A , (4.32)
c
~ the potential vector.
with A
Proof Under the gauge transformation, the density transforms as,

iq iq
= = e ~c e ~c = = ,
and the current as,
~j = i~ ( )
2m
i~ iq iq iq iq
= ( e ~c e ~c e ~c e ~c )
2m
i~ iq iq
= () + +
2m ~c ~c
q
= ~j + .
mc
It is obvious that the density is conserved but the current isnt. The extra
term figuring in the expression of the transformed current contains a gradient.
The point is that if we want to construct an invariant current under the gauge
transformation, the extra gradient should be absorbed somewhere. Let us
write the transformed current like

~j = i~ + iq () + iq () . (4.33)
2m ~c ~c
We see that one possible way to get rid of the extra term is to absorb it in
the gradient and start from the following correct expression of the current,
~ r , t) = i~ [ (~r, t)D(~r, t) (~r, t)D (~r, t)] ,

J(~ (4.34)
2m
where D is some operator to be determined. To guarantee the invariance
of the current J~ under a gauge transformation, we force D to transform
covariantly,
iq
D (D) = e ~c (~r,t) D . (4.35)
Abbas Nehme 69
On the other hand, the transformed D should contain the extra term figuring
between brackets in Equation 4.33. Fortunately, we know from electrodynam-
ics that the potential vector is defined up to a gradient
~ (~r, t) = A(~
A ~ r , t) + (~r, t) . (4.36)
So, we seek for D the following form,

~,
D = + aA
where the constant a to be determined from the transformation law of Equa-

tion 4.35. I fact,
iq iq
(D) = + aA ~ = e ~c ~ + ()]e ~c
+ a[A

iq iq iq iq
~ ~c + a()e ~c iq
= ()e ~c + e ~c + aAe

~c

iq
= e ~c + aA ~ + a + iq ()e ~c iq

,
~c
from one side, and
iq

(D) = e ~c
~
+ aA ,
from the other side. By comparison we see that
iq
a+ = 0,
~c
and
iq ~ q~
D= A, or i~D = i~ A . (4.37)
~c c
Theorem 4.24 For time-independent potential energy V (~r ), the spatial

wavefunction (~r ) satisfies the time-independent Schrodinger equation
2
b r ) = ~ (~r ) + V (~r )(~r ) = E(~r ) ,
H(~ (4.38)
2m
where E is the energy of the system. If the Hamiltonian is a complete
operator with discrete spectrum,
b n (~r ) = En n (~r ) ,
H (4.39)
70 Abbas Nehme
then the general solution of the Schrodinger equation is given by

X
(~r, t) = cn n (~r )eitEn /~ . (4.40)
n
For eigenkets, we have
b |n i =
H En |n i ,
X
|(t)i = cn eitEn /~ |n i ,
n (4.41)
X
|(0)i = cn |n i .
n
Proof If V (~r, t) = V (~r ), then,

2
b = ~ + V (~r ) ,
H
2m
and we can apply the method of separation of variables,
(~r, t) = (~r ) (t) ,
to solve the time-dependent Schrodinger equation,
d ~2
i~ (~r ) (t) = (t)(~r ) + V (~r )(~r )(t) .
dt 2m
Divided by (~r, t), the last equation becomes
i~ d ~2
= +V =E, (4.42)
dt 2m
where the constant E has the same dimension as V and will be identified
with the total energy of the system. The first equality in Equation (4.42) is
a linear first-order homogeneous differential equation whose solution is
(t) = (0) e(i/~)tE .
The second equality in Equation (4.42) is written as
2m
(~r ) + [E V (~r )](~r ) = 0 . (4.43)
~2
Abbas Nehme 71
If V is constant, Equation (4.43) reduces to a Helmholtz equation. If V is

the Coulomb potential energy and m is the mass of the electron, Equation
(4.43) describes the dynamics of the Hydrogen atom. If V is the harmonic
potential energy, Equation (4.43) describes the dynamics of the harmonic
oscillator and so on. In all cases, the solution shows a discrete spectrum,
E = En , = n ,
and the general solution follows the superposition principle. For a detailed
solution of Equation (4.43) in the afore cited three cases, the student is
referred to our course Math for physicists 2 in the same series. The last
equation in the text of the theorem follows immediately from the formulae,
n (~r ) = h~r | n i , (~r, t) = h~r | (t)i .
4.4 Perturbation theory

Theorem 4.25 (time-independent non-degenerate perturbation theory) Con-
sider a system described by the Hamiltonian H b (0) satisfying the eigenvalue
equation
b (0) |n i = En |n i ,
H n N, (4.44)
where the Schauder basis {|n i} is orthonormal, that is,
hn |m i = nm . (4.45)
The system is subject to a perturbation such that the perturbed Hamiltonian

( is a dimensionless parameter)
b =H
H b (0) + H
b (1) , 1, (4.46)
satisfies the eigenvalue equation
b |n i = En |n i .
H (4.47)
The energy and state of the perturbed system are written respectively as
X X
En = k En(k) , |n i = k |n i(k) , (4.48)
k>0 k>0
72 Abbas Nehme
where the states are normalized like

hn | n i = 1 . (4.49)
This choice of normalization is justified by the fact that the perturbed and
non-perturbed states differ slightly. We have, to zeroth order in the pertur-
bation,
En(0) = En , |n i(0) = |n i . (4.50)
We have, to first order in the perturbation,
X hj |H
b (1) |n i
b (1) |n i ,
En(1) = hn |H |n i(1) = (0) (0)
|j i . (4.51)
j6=n En Ej
We have, to second order in the perturbation,

2
b (1) |n i
X hj |H
(2)
En = (0) (0)
,
j6=n E n E j

X X hk | H b (1) |n i hj | H
b (1) |k i
|n i(2) = h ih i (4.52)
En
(0)
E
(0)
En
(0)
E
(0)
j6=n k6=n k j

b (1) |n i
b (1) |n i hj | H
hn | H
h i2 |j i .
(0) (0)

En Ej
The normalized perturbed state is written as

1/2
|n inorm = Zn |n i , (4.53)
where the renormalization constant is obtained from
Zn1/2 = hn | n inorm , (4.54)
and represents the probability of the perturbed state to be found in the
unperturbed one. We have,
2
b (1) |n i
1 X h j | H
Zn = = 1 2 h
3
i2 + O( ) . (4.55)
hn | n i (0) (0)
j6=n En Ej
Abbas Nehme 73
Proof From Equations (4.46) to (4.48),

Hb (0) + Hb (1) |n i(0) + |n i(1) + 2 |n i(2) + O(3 )

= En(0) + En(1) + 2 En(2) + O(3 ) |n i(0)

+ |n i(1) + 2 |n i(2) + O(3 )
Zeroth order results are easily obtained by taking the = 0 limit. Equating
terms with same power of :

0
: b (0)
H En |n i = |nulli , (4.56)

1 : b (0) En |n i(1) = En(1) H
H b (1) |n i , (4.57)

2 : b (0) En |n i(2) = E (1) H
H b (1) |n i(1) + E (2) |n i . (4.58)
n n
From Equations (4.48) and (4.49),

(1) 2 (2) 3
hn | |n i + |n i + |n i + O( ) = 1 .
It follows from Equation (4.45),
hn | n i(k) = 0 k > 0 . (4.59)
Multiplying Equation (4.57) by hn | from the left,
b (0) |n i(1) En hn | n i(1) = E (1) hn | H

hn | H b (1) |n i .
n
The first of Equations (4.51) then follows from Equation (4.44). The next
step consists on multiplying Equation (4.57) by hj | from the left with j 6= n,
b (0) |n i(1) En hj | n i(1) = E (1) hj | n i hj | H

hj | H b (1) |n i
n
b (1) |n i ,
(Ej En ) hj | n i(1) = hj | H
or
b (1) |n i
hj | H
hj | n i(1) = . (4.60)
En Ej
74 Abbas Nehme
Now, expand |n i(1) in the |n i basis and using Equations (4.59) and (4.60):
X
|n i(1) = hj | n i(1) |j i
j
X
= hn | n i(1) |n i + hj | n i(1) |j i
j6=n
X hj |H
b (1) |n i
= (0) (0)
|j i .
j6=n En Ej
Multiplying now Equation (4.58) by hn | from the left and using Equations
(4.44) and (4.59) as well as the second of Equations (4.51),
X hj |H
b (1) |n i
b (1)
|nulli = hn | H |j i + En(2)
(0) (0)

j6=n En Ej
2
b (1) |n i
X hj |H
= (0) (0)
+ En(2) ,
j6=n En Ej
from which the first of Equations (4.52) follows. Now, multiply Equation
(4.58) by hj | from the left with j 6= n,
b (0) |n i(2) En hj | n i(2) = E (1) hj | n i(1) hj | H

hj | H b (1) |n i(1)
n
b (1) |n i(1) ,
(Ej En ) hj | n i(2) = En(1) hj | n i(1) hj | H
or
(1)
b (1) |n i(1) En hj | n i(1)
hj | H
hj | n i(2) =
En Ej
X hk | H b |n i hj | H
(1) b (1) |k i
= h ih i
(0) (0) (0) (0)
k6=n E n E k En E j
b (1) |n i hj | H
hn | H b (1) |n i
h i2 . (4.61)
(0) (0)
En Ej
where Equation (4.60) and the second of Equations (4.51) have been used
in the last step. Now, expand |n i(2) in the |n i basis and using Equations
Abbas Nehme 75
(4.59) and (4.60):

X
|n i(2) = hj | n i(2) |j i
j
X
= hn | n i(2) |n i + hj | n i(2) |j i
j6=n

X X hk | H b (1) |n i hj | H b (1) |k i
= h ih i
E
(0)
n E
(0)
E
(0)
n E
(0)
j6=n k6=n k j

hn | Hb (1) |n i hj | H b (1) |n i
h i2 |j i .
(0) (0)

En Ej
With respect to the renormalization constant, multiply Equation (4.53) by

hn | from the left and use the normalization condition of Equation (4.49) to
obtain Equation (4.54). From Equation (4.53)
1= normhn | n inorm = Zn hn | n i =
h ih
Zn1 = hn | + (1)hn | + 2 (2)hn | + O(3 ) |n i
i
(1) 2 (2) 3
+ |n i + |n i + O( )
= 1 + 2 (1)hn | n i(1) + O(3 )
2
b (1) |n i
X hj |H
= 1 + 2 h
3
i2 + O( ) .
(0) (0)
j6=n En Ej

Theorem 4.26 (time-independent degenerate perturbation theory) Let the
unperturbed system satisfies the eigenvalue equation
b (0) |n , ri = En(0) |n , ri ,
H r = 1, 2, . . . g , (4.62)
where the degenerate unperturbed states corresponding to the n-th level are
taken to be orthonormal
hn , r|m , si = mn rs . (4.63)
76 Abbas Nehme
The perturbed Hamiltonian
b =H
H b (0) + H
b (1) , (4.64)
satisfies the eigenvalue equation
b |n , ri = Enr |n , ri .
H (4.65)
The perturbed wave function and energy are written to the first order in the
perturbation as
|n , ri = |n , ri(0) + |n , ri(1) , (0)

Enr = Enr (1)
+ Enr . (4.66)
We have at zeroth order,
(0) (0)
Enr = En ,
g
(0)
X (4.67)
|n , ri = ars |n , si ,
s=1
and at first order,

X
|n , ri(1) = cnr,ms |m , si , (4.68)
m,s
where
b (1) |n , si Enr (1)
det hn , u| H us = 0 ,
X
b (1) (1)
ars hn , u| H |n , si Enr us = 0 ,
s X (4.69)
(0)
cnr,ms Em En(0) |m , si
m,s
X
+ ars Hb (1) Enr (1)
|n , si = 0 .
s
Proof The n-th level is g-fold degenerate in the absence of the perturbation.
This means that there are g linearly independent eigenvectors |n , ri with
(0)
r = 1, . . . , g corresponding to one and only one eigenvalue En as dictated
by Equation (4.62). The eigenvectors |n , ri form an orthonormal basis with
respect to the index n. For a given n, the g linearly independent eigenvectors
Abbas Nehme 77
need not be orthogonal among themselves. Applying the Gram-Schmidt

orthonormalization procedure, it is always possible to construct from linear
combinations of them an orthonormal basis, Equation (4.63). Equations
(4.64) to (4.66) give

b (1) |n , ri(0) + |n , ri(1) =
b (0) + H
H

(0)
Enr (1)
+ Enr |n , ri(0) + |n , ri(1) .
Equating terms with zeroth power of , we obtain,
b (0) |n , ri(0) = E (0) |n , ri(0) .

H (4.70)
nr
Equating terms with one power of , we have,
b (0) |n , ri(1) + H
H b (1) |n , ri(0) = En(0) |n , ri(1) + Enr
(1)
|n , ri(0) . (4.71)
(0)
Now, putting = 0 in the second of Equations (4.66), we see that Enr
represents the energy of the n-th level in the absence of the perturbation.
But in the latter case, the n-th level is characterized by a unique energy,
(0)
En , and the first of Equations (4.67) follows. On the other hand, putting
= 0 in the first of Equations (4.66), we see that |n , ri(0) represents the
state of the n-th level in the absence of the perturbation. But in this case
the n-th level is described by a set of g linearly independent states |n , ri.
It follows that |n , ri(0) belongs to the subspace indexed by n and created
by the degeneracy. Thus, it should be written as a linear combination of the
g states |n , ri,
X X
|n , ri(0) = hn , s| n , ri(0) |n , si = ars |n , si ,
s s
and the second of Equations (4.67) follows. Due to the presence of the
perturbation the degeneracy is broken. This means that the sublevels mix
together in general. Formally, the expansion of the perturbed eigenvectors is
now made with respect to both indices,
g
(1)
XX
|n , ri = |m , si hm , s| n , ri(1)
m s=1
78 Abbas Nehme
X X
= hm , s| n , ri(1) |m , si = cnr,ms |m , si .
m,s m,s
Equations (4.71), (4.68) and the second of Equations (4.67) give

X X
b (0)
H b (1)
cnr,ms |m , si + H ars |n , si
m,s s
X X
= En(0) (1)
cnr,ms |m , si + Enr ars |n , si ,
m,s s
and the third of Equations (4.69) follows. Multiply now this same equation
by hn , u| from the left,
X
(0)
cnr,ms Em En(0) hn , u| m , si
m,s
X n o
+ ar,s b (1) (1)
hn , u| H |n , si Enr hn , u| n , si = 0 =
s
X
(0)
cnr,ms Em En(0) mn us
m,s
X n o
+ b (1) |n , si E (1) us = 0 ,
ar,s hn , u| H nr
s
and the second of Equations (4.69) follows. A non-trivial solution of this

same equation is only possible if the corresponding determinant vanishes.
This fact results formally in the first of Equations (4.69).
Definition 4.4 Consider a system at time t0 in a well-defined initial sta-
tionary state |i i satisfying the eigenvalue equation
b 0 |i i = Ei |i i .
H (4.72)
At a later time t > t0 the system performs a transition to another stationary

state |f i with energy Ef ,
b 0 |f i = Ef |f i .
H (4.73)
The transition probability between the initial and final states is defined by
2
b (t, t0 ) |i i .
P(t, t0 ) = hf | U (4.74)
Abbas Nehme 79
Proposition 4.27 The transition probability can be written equally as

2
b
P(t, t0 ) = hf | UI (t, t0 ) |i i , (4.75)
where
bI (t, t0 ) = e(i/~)tHb 0 U
U b (t, t0 )e(i/~)t0 Hb 0 . (4.76)
Proof In fact,
2 2
b b0 b
(i/~)tH (i/~)t0 Hb0
hf | UI (t, t0 ) |i i = hf | e U(t, t0 )e |i i
2
b (t, t0 ) |i i
= e(i/~)t(Ef Ei) hf | U
2
b t0 ) |i i .
= hf | U(t,
Theorem 4.28 (time-dependent perturbation theory) If the system is sub-

ject to a time-dependent perturbation such that the perturbed Hamiltonian
reads
b
H(t) =H b 0 + Vb (t) , (4.77)
then, to zeroth order in the perturbation (known as the Born approximation),
the transition probability takes the form:
Z t 2
1

P(t) = b
d hf | V ( ) |i i e(i/~)(Ef Ei )
i~ 0 . (4.78)
In the case of a constant perturbation, Vb (t) = Vb0 , the transition probability

per unit time is given by Fermis golden rule,
1 2 2

P(t) = hf | Vb0 |i i (Ef Ei ) . (4.79)
t ~
In the case of a harmonic perturbation, Vb (t) = Vb0 eit + Vb0 eit , the transi-
tion probability per unit time for the stimulated emission is
1 2 b
2

P(t) = hf | V0 |i i (Ef Ei + ~) , (4.80)
t ~
80 Abbas Nehme
and for absorption,
1 2 b
2

P(t) = i 0 f (Ef Ei ~) .
h | V | i (4.81)
t ~
Proof We shall work in the interaction picture of dynamics,
b
|(t)iI = e(i/~)tH0 |(t)i . (4.82)
We recall the Schrodinger equation

d
i~ |(t)i = H b 0 + Vb (t) |(t)i . (4.83)
dt
Taking the time derivative of Equation (4.82),
d b 0 |(t)i + e(i/~)tHb 0 H(t)
b |(t)i
i~ |(t)iI = H I
dt
b 0 |(t)i + e(i/~)tHb 0 H
= H b 0 |(t)i + e(i/~)tHb 0 Vb (t) |(t)i
I
b 0 |(t)i + e(i/~)tHb 0 Vb (t)e(i/~)tHb 0 |(t)i ,
b 0 |(t)i + H
= H I I I
or,
d
i~ |(t)iI = VbI (t) |(t)iI , (4.84)
dt
where
b b
VbI (t) = e(i/~)tH0 Vb (t)e(i/~)tH0 . (4.85)
On the other hand, Equation (4.82) gives
b b t0 ) |(t0 )i = e(i/~)tH0 Ub b
b (t, t0 )e(i/~)tH0 |(t0 )i ,
|(t)iI = e(i/~)tH0 U(t, I
or,
bI (t, t0 ) |(t0 )i .
|(t)iI = U (4.86)
I
Combining Equations (4.84) and (4.86), we obtain

d b
i~ UI (t, t0 ) |(t0 )iI = VbI (t)U
bI (t, t0 ) |(t0 )i ,
I
dt
or,
b i
UI (t, t0 ) + VbI (t)U
bI (t, t0 ) = b0. (4.87)
t ~
Abbas Nehme 81
The solution of the last equation is given by the series,

Z t
bI (t, t0 ) = Ib i
U dt1 VbI (t1 )
~ t0
(4.88)
2 Z t Z t1
i
+ dt1 VbI (t1 ) dt2 VbI (t2 ) + . . .
~ t0 t0
known as Dyson series. Taking the matrix elements of the series and limiting
ourselves to the first two terms,
Z
b i t
hf | UI (t, t0 ) |i i = hf | i i d hf | VbI ( ) |i i
~ 0
Z
i t
= d hf | e(i/~) Ef Vb ( )e(i/~) Ei |i i
~ 0
Z
1 t
= d hf | Vb ( ) |i i e(i/~)(Ef Ei ) .
i~ 0
In the case of a constant perturbation, Vb (t) = Vb0 , the last equation becomes
Z t
bI (t, t0 ) |i i = 1
hf | U hf | Vb0 |i i d e(i/~)(Ef Ei )
i~ 0
(i/~)(Ef Ei )t
1 e 1
= hf | Vb0 |i i ,
i~ i(Ef Ei )/~
and the transition probability is
1 2 e(i/~)(Ef Ei )t 1 2

P(t) = 2 hf | V0 |i i
b
~ (Ef Ei )/~
1 2 e(i/~)(Ef Ei )t 1 e(i/~)(Ef Ei )t 1

= 2 hf | Vb0 |i i
~ (Ef Ei )/~ (Ef Ei )/~
2
1 4 sin [(Ef Ei )t/(2~)]
2
= 2 hf | Vb0 |i i
~ (Ef Ei )2 /~2
t 2 1 sin2 [t(E E )/(2~)]
f i
= 2 hf | Vb0 |i i .
~ t [(Ef Ei )/(2~)]2
Now we can use the following representation of the Dirac distribution
1 sin2 (tx)
lim = (x) , (4.89)
t tx2
82 Abbas Nehme
to write for sufficiently large time,

1 2

P(t) = 2 hf | Vb0 |i i ((Ef Ei )/(2~))
t ~
2 2

= hf | Vb0 |i i (Ef Ei ) ,
~
where the scaling property
1
(ax) = (x) , (4.90)
|a|
has been used. Finally, in the case of a harmonic perturbation, Vb (t) =

Vb0 eit + Vb0 eit , the transition probability reads
2
1 b ei(f i +)t 1 b e
i(f i )t
1
P(t) = 2 hf | V0 |i i + hi | V0 |f i ,
~ f i + f i
with
Ef Ei
f i = . (4.91)
~
Each term in the last expression for the probability is identical to the one
considered in the case of a constant perturbation. So, the same treatment
holds here, especially for the following two cases:

Stimulated emission, f i + = 0 Ef Ei + ~ = 0 ,
Absorption, f i = 0 Ef Ei ~ = 0 .
The calculation of the transition probability per unit time for each process
is performed in the same way as previously.
4.5 Problems
1. Suppose that a particle of mass m in a one-dimensional box is described
by the wavefunction
r x r
1 (i/~)tE1 1 2x (i/~)tE2
(x, t) = sin e + sin e .
a a a a
Abbas Nehme 83
(a) Find the probability current for this wavefunction.

(b) Check to see if the continuity equation is satisfied.
2. A particle in an infinite square well of dimensions 0 6 x 6 a is in a
state described by
r x r
3 (i/~)tE1 1 3x (i/~)tE3
(x, t) = i sin e + sin e .
a a 2a a
(a) Is (x, t) normalized?
(b) What values can be measured for the energy and with what prob-
abilities?
(c) Find hb xi and hb
pi for this state. Is the equation
d
m hb
xi = hb
pi
dt
satisfied?
3. Consider the one-dimensional coordinate and momentum operators, x b
and pbx , respectively.

(a) Evaluate the commutator x b, e(i/~)abpx .
(b) Prove that the state e(i/~)abpx |x i is an eigenstate of the coordinate
operator.
(c) Prove that
Z

hp | x
b |i = i~ (p ) , h| x b |i = dp (p )i~ (p ) ,
p p
where (p ) = hp | i and (p ) = hp | i are momentum-space
wavefunctions.
(d) What is the physical significance of e(i/~)bx where is some number
with the dimension of momentum?
4. Consider an electron of charge e, mass m, and spin 12 . The Hamiltonian
of the electron in a magnetic field B pointing in the z-direction is given
by
b = ~ eB
H b, = ,
2 mc
where b is the observable measuring spin in the z-direction. The eigen-
value equations for b are
b |+i = |+i ,
b |i = |i ,

84 Abbas Nehme
where the eigenvectors {|+i , |i} form an orthonormal basis. Let +

and denote the projections
+ (t) = h+|(t)i , (t) = h|(t)i ,
of the state |(t)i of the electron upon that basis.

(a) Write b and the identity operator Ib in outer product notation. Give
the matrix representations of these operators.
(b) Give the time-evolution of |(t)i in terms of + (0), (0), and
by solving the Schrodinger equation for |(t)i.
(c) Write down the expression of the time-evolution operator U b (t, 0).
Deduce the time-evolution of the electron state.
(d) Show that b is a conserved quantity.
(e) Give the expression of the Heisenberg state |iH . Deduce the ex-
pectation value hb i.
5. A particle of mass m is constrained to stay in a one-dimensional infinite
square well
for x < 0 , x > L ,
V =
0 for 0 6 x 6 L .
Find the first correction to the energy and the first correction to the
wave function of the particle if the well is modified according to
x
b (1)
H = sin , 1.
L
6. A two-dimensional isotropic harmonic oscillator has the Hamiltonian
2
b (0) ~2 2 1
H = 2
+ 2 + m 2 (x2 + y 2 ) .
2m x y 2
(a) Show that the energy levels are given by
Enx ny = ~(nx + ny + 1) , nx , ny N .
What is the degeneracy of each level?

(b) If the oscillator is perturbed by an interaction of the form
b (1) = xy ,
H 1,
find the first-order correction to the energy of the first excited level.
Abbas Nehme 85
7. A particle of mass m is initially (at t = 0) in the ground state of a

one-dimensional infinite potential well with boundaries at x = 0 and
x = a. At later time (t > 0) the particle is subject to a perturbation
Vb (t) = x2 et/b .
Find out the transition probability to the first excited state.

86 Abbas Nehme
Harmonic oscillator
5
In this chapter, we study the most fundamental physical system: The har-
monic oscillator. We first present the operator method which allows the
introduction of two important operators, namely, the creation and annihi-
lation operators. These, together with the vacuum state (the state with
minimum energy), constitute the first building blocks in the construction of
any quantum-mechanical system. We then solve the oscillator equation in
order to obtain the wavefunctions. Finally, we construct a kind of quasi-
classical states for the oscillator, introduced by Glauber, and known as the
coherent states.
5.1 Number states

Definition 5.1 A one-dimensional harmonic oscillator is a particle of mass
m and potential energy 12 m 2 x2 . It can be studied in terms of a dimensionless
operator
1
a=
b (ib
px + mb x) , (5.1)
2m~
a , the creation operator .
called the annihilation operator and its adjoint b
87
88 Abbas Nehme
Lemma 5.1 Creation and annihilation operators satisfy the commutation

relation,

b a = Ib .
a, b (5.2)
Proof In fact,
1
b a =
a, b [ib
px + mb x, ib
px + mb x]
2m~
1
= {im [b x, pbx ]} = Ib.
b] im [b
px , x
2m~
Lemma 5.2 The Hamiltonian for the harmonic oscillator,
2
b = pbx + 1 m 2 x
H b2 , (5.3)
2m 2
can be written as
b= b 1b
H N + I ~ , (5.4)
2
b is the self-adjoint dimensionless operator,
where N
b =b
N ab
a, (5.5)
called the number operator .
Proof In fact
b = b 1
N ab
a= (ibpx + mb x) (ib
px + mb x)
2m~
1 2
= pbx + m2 2 x
b 2 + im [bx, pbx ]
2m~ 2
1 pbx 1 2 2 1 b
= + m x b ~ I .
~ 2m 2 2
Lemma 5.3 The operator Nb satisfies the following commutation relations,
h i h i
Nb, b
a = ba , Nb, b
a = b a. (5.6)
Abbas Nehme 89
Proof In fact,
h i
N,b b
a = bab a = b
a, b a b a + b
a, b a,ba b a ,
a=b
h i
b
N, b
a = bab
a, b a [b
a =b a, b
a] + b
a,b a = b
a b a.
Theorem 5.4 We have the following eigenvalue equations:
b |ni = n |ni ,
N n N,

b 1
H |ni =n + 2 ~ , (5.7)
a |ni = n |n 1i ,
b a |0i = |nulli ,
b
a |ni = n + 1 |n + 1i .
b
Proof In fact,
b |ni = n |ni = n = hn| N

N b |ni = hn| b
ab a |nik2 > 0 .
a |ni = kb
Putting n = 0 in the last equation, we have, kba |0ik = 0. This is only possible
a |0i = |nulli. On the other
if the vector itself is equal to the null vector, b
hand,
h i
b, b ba |ni b (b
N a |ni = b a |ni nb = N a |ni) = (n 1) (b
a |ni) .
Nb a |ni
b with eigenvalue (n 1). But |n 1i is eigen-

a |ni is eigenvector of N
Thus, b
vector of Nb with the same eigenvalue. It follows that b a |ni = C |n 1i.
Multiply the last equation by its adjoint from the left,
a |ni = |C|2 hn 1| n 1i = |C|2 =

ab
hn| b
p q

|C| = ab
hn| b a |ni b |ni = n = C = ei n .
= hn| N
In the same manner,
h i
a
b |ni
b, b
N
a |ni = = b b
N a
|ni = (n + 1) a
b
|ni .
b a |ni nb
Nb
a |ni
90 Abbas Nehme
Thus, b b with eigenvalue (n + 1). But |n + 1i is

a |ni is eigenvector of N
eigenvector of Nb with the same eigenvalue. It follows that b
a |ni = C |n + 1i.
Multiply the last equation by its adjoint from the left,
hn| ba |ni = |C|2 hn + 1| n + 1i = |C|2 =

ab
r
p
|C| = hn| ba |ni = hn| N
ab b + Ib |ni = n + 1 = C = ei n + 1 .
Thus, under the action of the creation and annihilation operators, the eigen-
value n increases and decreases by steps of unity. This, together with the
condition n > 0 proved at the very beginning, show that n N. Finally,

b |ni = N 1
b + Ib ~ |ni = ~ n + 1
H |ni .
2 2
5.2 Wavefunctions
Proposition 5.5 The matrix elements of the annihilation operator in the
position basis are
r
~ m
hx| b
a |x i = + x (x x ) , (5.8)
2m x ~
and those of the creation operator are

r
~ m
hx| b
a |x i = + x (x x ) . (5.9)
2m x ~
Proof In fact,
1
a |x i =
hx| b (i hx| pbx |x i + m hx| x
b |x i)
2m~
1
= ~ + mx (x x ) ,

2m~ x
1
a |x i =
hx| b (i hx| pbx |x i + m hx| xb |x i)
2m~
Abbas Nehme 91

1
= ~ + mx (x x ) .

2m~ x
Theorem 5.6 The wavefunction for the ground state of the harmonic os-
cillator is given by
m 41 m 2
0 (x) = e 2~ x . (5.10)
~
The wavefunctions for the excited states are then deduced by induction
thanks to the recurrence relation
1 m 12 ~
n+1 (x) = 1 + x n (x) . (5.11)
(n + 1) 2 2~ m x
a |0i = |nulli, we have hx| b

Proof Since b a |0i = 0. Therefore,
Z
0 = dx hx| b
a |x i hx | 0i
Z r
~ m
= dx + x (x x )0 (x )
2m x ~
r
~ m
= + x 0 (x) ,
2m x ~
and the ground-state wavefunction satisfies
d0 m 1 2
+ x 0 = 0 = 0 = Ce 2 (m/~)x .
dx ~
The constant C is determined from the normalization condition,
Z Z
h0| 0i = 1 dx h0| xi hx| 0i = 1 dx |0 (x)|2 = 1 =
Z + Z
2 (m/~)x2 2 2
|C| dx e = 1 2 |C| dx e(m/~)x = 1 .
0
Using now the formula of gaussian integration
Z r
x2 1
dx e = , (5.12)
0 2
92 Abbas Nehme
we obtain for C the following expression

m 1/4
C= ei .
~
On the other hand,

a |ni = n + 1 |n + 1i hx| b
b a |ni = n + 1 hx| n + 1i =
1
n+1 (x) = a |ni
hx| b
n+1
Z
1
= dx hx| b
a |x i hx |ni
n+1
Z r
1 ~ m
= dx + x (x x )n (x )
n+1 2m x ~
1 m 12 ~
= 1 + x n (x) .
(n + 1) 2 2~ m x
Theorem 5.7 The wave functions for the harmonic oscillator are given by
r
1 m 14 m m 2
n (x) = Hn x e 2~ x , (5.13)
2n n! ~ ~
where Hn are the Hermite polynomials satisfying the following properties:

Z +
2
Hm (u)Hn (u)eu du = 2n n! mn ,

Hn+1 (u) = 2uHn (u) 2nHn1 (u) ,
dHn
= 2nHn1 (u) ,
du
H0 (u) = 1 , H1 (u) = 2u .
Proof The time-independent Schrodinger equation for the oscillator reads
~2 d 2 1
2
+ m 2 x2 = E .
2m dx 2
Abbas Nehme 93
Introducing the dimensionless variable,

r
m
u= x,
~
the equation becomes
d2 2E
2
+ (k u2 ) = 0 , k= .
du ~
When x , the equation reduces to
d2 2 u2 /2 u2 /2
u , u (u) C 1 e + C 2 e .
du2
The second term is physically forbidden since it is not square integrable as
it should be. Therefore, the behaviour of for large values of the variable is
dictated by the decreasing exponential. Let us find a solution of the form,
2 /2
(u) = CH(u)eu .
Then, the functions H(u) satisfy the equation,
d2 H dH
2
2u + (k 1)H = 0 ,
du du
known as the Hermite equation. The solution of this equation, which is given
in terms of Hermite polynomials, is worked out in details in the course Math
for physicists 2 belonging to the same series. To determine the constants
Cn , we use the normalization condition,
Z + r Z +
2 ~
dx |(x)| = 1 du |n (u)|2 = 1
m
r Z +
~
|Cn |2
2
du Hn2(u)eu = 1
m
r
~ 1 m 1/4 i
|Cn |2 2n n! = 1 Cn = e .
m 2n n! ~
94 Abbas Nehme
5.3 Coherent states

Lemma 5.8 The n-th excited state of the oscillator can be expressed in
terms of the ground state according to
1 n
|ni = b a |0i . (5.14)
n!

a |ni =
Proof We shall use b n + 1 |n + 1i and proceed by induction,
1
a |0i =
b 1 |1i |1i = b a |0i
1!
1 2
ba 2 |0i = b
a |1i = 2 |2i |2i = b a |0i
2!
1 3
a 3 |0i = 2 b
b a |2i = 2 3 |3i |3i = b a |0i
3!
..
.
Assume that the formula is true for n 1, that is,
1
|n 1i = p a n1 |0i ,
b
(n 1)!
a ,
and apply the operator b
1 1
a |n 1i = p
b a n |0i n |ni = p
b a n |0i =
b
(n 1)! (n 1)!
1 n
|ni = b a |0i .
n!
Lemma 5.9 The following commutation relations

n
b a n = n b
a, b a n1 , a ,b
b a n1 ,
a = nb (5.15)
hold.
Abbas Nehme 95

Proof We shall use b a = Ib and proceed by induction,
a, b

a 2 = b
a, b
b a b a + b
a, b a b
a, b a
a = 2b
2
a 3 = b
a, b
b a b a 2 + b
a, b a b
a, b a 2
a = 3b
..
.
Assume that the formula is true for n 1, that is,

a n1 = (n 1) b
a, b
b a n2 =
n1
a n = b
a, b
b a b a n1 + b
a, b a b
a, b a a n1 .
= nb
The same goes for the second identity.
Definition 5.2 The Glauber (or coherent) states of the oscillator are de-
fined as
1 2
|i = e 2 || e ba |0i , C. (5.16)
Lemma 5.10 The coherent states can be written as a linear superposition

of the number states,
1 2 X n
|i = e 2 || |ni . (5.17)
n>0
n!
Proof Start from the definition, expand the exponential in a Taylor series,
and use Equation (5.14) to obtain,
X n X n
21 ||2 b
a 21 ||2 n 21 ||2
|i = e e |0i = e a
b |0i = e n! |ni .
n>0
n! n>0
n!
Theorem 5.11 The coherent states |i are normalized but not orthogonal
and are eigenvectors of the annihilation operator,
h| i = 1 , h| i =
6 0, a |i = |i .
b (5.18)
96 Abbas Nehme
Proof In fact,
2 X m n
h| i = e|| hm| ni
m,n m!n!
X ||2n
||2 2 2
= e = e|| e|| = 1 ,
n
n!
1 2 1 2
X m n
h| i = e 2 || e 2 || hm| ni
m,n m!n!
2 X ( )
n
1 2 1
= e 2 || e 2 ||
n
n!
1 2 1 2
= e 2 || e 2 || e 6= 0 ,
2 X 2 X
n n
1 1
a |i = e 2 ||
b b a |ni = e 2 || n |n 1i
n>1
n! n>1
n!
1 2
X n1
= e 2 || p |n 1i
n>1 (n 1)!
2 X
n
1
= e 2 || |ni = |i .
n>0
n!
Theorem 5.12 The unitary operator,
b = e ba ba ,
A (5.19)

is a creation operator for the coherent state, that is,
b |0i .
|i = A (5.20)

Proof Apply Equation (2.28),
eA+B = eA eB e 2 [A, B ] ,
b b b b 1 b b
b with A
to the operator A b = b
a and Bb = b
a. Then,

h i
A, B = ||2 b
b b a,ba = ||2 Ib .
Abbas Nehme 97
On the other hand,

a |0i = |nulli = 0 |0i = e ba |0i = e0 |0i = |0i .
b
It follows that,
b |0i = e ba ba |0i = e ba e ba e 21 [A,

A
b Bb]
|0i

1 2b 1 2
= e ba e ba e 2 || I |0i = e 2 || e ba e a
b
|0i
21 ||2 a
b
= e e |0i = |i .
Lemma 5.13 The uncertainty in measuring the number operator in a co-

herent state is given by
N = || . (5.21)
Proof In fact,
D E
Nb b |i = h| b
= h| N aba |i = h| |i = ||2 ,

D E
b 2 2 b b
N = h| b
ab ab
ab a |i = h| b a |i = || h| N + I |i
ab

D E
= ||2 N b + 1 = ||2 ||2 + 1 ,
rD E D E
2
N = Nb2 N b

q
= ||2 ||2 + 1 ||4 = || .
Lemma 5.14 The uncertainties in measuring the position and linear mo-
mentum operators in a coherent state are given respectively by
r r
~ 1 m~
hb
xi = ( + ) , hb
px i = ( ) . (5.22)
2m i 2
Proof In fact,
1 1
a=
b (ib
px + mb
x) , a =
b (ib
px + mb
x) =
2m~ 2m~
98 Abbas Nehme
r r
~ 1 m~
x
b= a ,
a+b
b pbx = b a .
ab (5.23)
2m i 2
It follows that
r r
~ ~
hb
xi = h| b a |i =
a |i + h| b ( + ) ,
2m 2m
r r
1 m~
1 m~
hb
px i = h| b
a |i h| b
a |i = ( ) .
i 2 i 2
Proposition 5.15 The following commutators,
h i ~ h i
b x
H, b = pbx , b pbx = i~m 2 x
H, b, (5.24)
im
hold for the harmonic oscillator.
Proof In fact,
h i 2
b pbx 1 2 2 1 2 ~
H, xb = + m x
b,x b = pbx , x
b = pbx ,
2m 2 2m im
h i 2
pbx 1 1 2
b
H, pbx = 2 2
b , pbx = m 2 x
+ m x b , pbx = i~m 2 x
b.
2m 2 2
Theorem 5.16 The position operator in the Heisenberg picture of dynam-

ics is given by
pbx
x
bH (t) = cos(t) x
b + sin(t) , (5.25)
m
and its expectation value with respect to a coherent state reads
r
2~
hb
xH (t)i = || cos (t arg ) . (5.26)
m
Abbas Nehme 99
Proof Apply formula (2.27) to obtain
i b
tH b
~i tH it h b i
x
bH (t) = e~ x
be =xb+ H, x b
~
1 i2 t2 h b h b ii 1 i3 t3 h b h b h b iii
+ H, H, x b + H, H, H, x b + ...
2! ~2 3! ~3
t pbx (t)2 (t)3 pbx
= x
b+ x
b + ...
1! m 2!
3! m
(t)2 t (t)3 pbx
= 1 + ... xb+ + ...
2! 1! 3! m
pbx
= cos(t) x b + sin(t) .
m
Now taking the expectation value in a coherent state,
hb
px i
hb
xH (t)i = cos(t) hb
xi + sin(t)
r m r
~ 1 ~
= ( + ) cos(t) + ( ) sin(t)
2m i 2m
= A cos (t + ) = A cos cos (t) A sin sin (t) .
It follows that
q
A cos = ~
2m
( + ) A2 cos2 = ~
2m
( + )2 ,
q
A sin = 1
i
~
( ) A2 sin2 = 2m
2m
~
( )2 ,

||2 ,
2~ i arg ei arg
A2 = m
tan = i + = i eei arg +e i arg = tan arg .
5.4 Problems
1. Suppose that a particle is in the state
1 1
(x, 0) = 0 (x) + 1 (x) .
2 2
Write down the state at time t and show that hb
xi oscillates in time.
100 Abbas Nehme
2. At time t = 0, a wave function is in the state

1 1 1
|i = |0i + |1i + |2i .
2 3 6
(a) If the energy is measured, what values can be found and with what
probabilities?
(b) Find the average value of the energy.
(c) Find the explicit forms of the i (x) , the basis functions for this
expansion, and write the form of the wave function at time t .
3. A Harmonic oscillator is in the state
1 1
(x, 0) = 0 (x) + 1 (x) + A2 (x) .
8 2
(a) Find A so that the state is normalized.
(b) A measurement is made of the energy. What values can be found?
What is the probability of obtaining each value?
(c) Find the state of the system at a later time t .
4. Consider a one-dimensional harmonic oscillator.
(a) Construct a linear combination of |0i and |1i such that hb xi is as
large as possible.
(b) Suppose the oscillator is at t = 0 in the state constructed previously.
What is the state vector for t > 0 in the Schrodinger picture?
Evaluate the expectation value hb xi as a function of time for t > 0
using the Schrodinger picture.

(c) Evaluate (x)2 as a function of time using Schrodinger and Heisen-
berg pictures.
Angular momentum
6
In this chapter, we introduce the angular momentum as a generator of the ro-
tation group in external space (orbital) and in internal space (spin). We first
work out the algebra generated by the orbital angular momentum operators
and then construct the corresponding eigenfunctions known as the spherical
harmonics. We then study the action of the rotation group on scalar, vec-
tor and spinor fields, thus introducing the notions of bosons and fermions.
Finally, we consider the addition of angular momenta in general and con-
centrate particularly on the addition of orbital and spin angular momenta.
6.1 Orbital angular momentum

Definition 6.1 The operators,
bi = ijk rbj pbk ,

L (6.1)
101
102 Abbas Nehme
are called orbital angular momentum operators. Here ijk is the completely
antisymmetric LeviCivita tensor ,

+1 for even permutations of (123) ,
123 = 1 , ijk = 1 for odd permutations of (123) , (6.2)

0 otherwise ,
satisfying the product property,

ia ib ic

ijk abc = ja jb jc .
(6.3)
ka kb kc
Lemma 6.1 Some particular cases of the product property are:
ijk ibc = jb kc kb jc ,
ijk ijc = 2kc , (6.4)
ijk ijk = 6 .
Proof In fact,

ii ib ic 3(jb kc kb jc )

ijk ibc = ji jb jc =
ib (ji kc ki jc ) =
ki kb kc +ic (jikb ki jb )
3(jb kc kb jc ) (jb kc kb jc ) + (jc kb kc jb ) = jb kc kb jc ,
ijk ijc = jj kc kj jc = 3kc kc = 2kc ,
ijk ijk = 2kk = 6 .

~b
Theorem 6.2 The generator of rotation is the angular momentum L,
b
~L
b ~ = e(i/~) ~
U . (6.5)
Abbas Nehme 103
Proof For an infinitesimal rotation, ~, a vector ~r is transformed into

~r ~r + ~ ~r .
Then, we have:
b ~
U ()
(~r, t) (~r , t) = (~r + ~ ~r, t)
= (~r, t) + (~ ~r) (~r, t) + O(2 )
= (~r, t) + ~ (~r ) (~r, t) + O(2 )
i
= (~r, t) + ~ (~r b~p ) (~r, t) + O(2 )
~
b i ~ ~b 2
= I + L + O( ) (~r, t)
~
b (~)(~r, t) .
= U
Theorem 6.3 We have the following identities:
x n , pb ] = n i ~ x
[b b n1 , [b x, pb n ] = n i ~ pb n1 ,
x n , pb 2 i] = 2n i ~ x
h[b b n1 pb +h n(n i1)~2 x b n2 , (6.6)
Lbm , rbk = i ~ mkj rbj , bm , pbk = i ~ mkj pbj .
L
Proof We shall proceed by induction to prove the first two relations.

x, pb ] = i~Ib ,
[b

x 2 , pb ] = x
[b b [bx, pb ] + [b
x, pb ] xb = 2i~b x,

..
.

[bx n1 , pb ] = (n 1)i~ x b n2 =

(n 1)i~ x b n1 + i~b
x n1

[b n
x , pb ] = x b [b n1
x , pb ] + [b x, pb ] xb n1
= n1
= ni~x b ,

[bx, pb ] = i~Ib ,

[bx, pb 2 ] = pb [b
x, pb ] + [b
x, pb ] pb = 2i~b p,

..
.

[bx, pb n1 ] = (n 1)i~ pbn2 =

(n 1)i~ pb n1 + i~bp n1

[b x, pb n ] = pb [b
x, pb n1 ] + [bx, pb ] pb n1 = n1
= n i ~ pb ,
104 Abbas Nehme
With respect to the third relation,

n 2
x
b , pb = pb [bx n , pb ] + [b
x n , pb ] pb = ni~ x
bn1 pb + ni~ pb x
b n1 .
On the other hand,

n1
x
b b n2 pb x
, pb = (n 1) i ~ x b n1 = xb n1 pb (n 1) i ~ x
b n2
n 2
x
b , pb = 2n i ~ x b n1 pb + n(n 1)~2 x b n2 ,
Concerning the last two relations,
h i
Lbm , rbk = [mab rba pbb , rbk ] = mab rba [b
pb , rbk ] + mab [b
ra , rbk ] pbb
= i~mab rba kb = i~mak rba = i~mkj rbj ,
h i
Lbm , pbk = [mij rbi pbj , pbk ] = mij rbi [b
pj , pbk ] + mij [b
ri , pbk ] pbj
= i~mij ik pbj = i~mkj pbj .
Definition 6.2 An operator who commutes with all the generators of a

symmetry group is called a Casimir operator
Theorem 6.4 We have the following commutation relations:

h i h i
Lbi , L
bj = i~ijk L
bk , Lb 2, L
bi = b
0. (6.7)
b2 is a Casimir operator with respect to the

The second relation means that L
rotation group.
Proof In fact,
h i h i
bi , L
L bj = L bi , j rb pb
h i h i
= j L bi , rb pb + j rb Lbi , pb
= j i~ ia rba pb + j i~ ib rb pbb
= i~j ia rba pb i~j ib rb pbb
= i~(jia i ja )b ra pb i~(ji b i jb )b
r pbb
Abbas Nehme 105
= i~(ji rba pba rbj pbi ) i~(ji rbb pbb rbi pbj )
= i~b
~r b
~pij i~b rj pbi i~ij b
~r b p~ + i~b
ri pbj
= i~bri pbj i~brj pbi = i~(i j j i )b
r pb
bk ,
= i~ijk k rb pb = i~ijk L
h i h i h i h i
b 2 b b b b b b b
L , Lj = Li Li , Lj = Li Li , Lj + Li , Lj L b b bi
bi L
= i~ijk L bk + i~ijk L
bk L
bi
bi L
= i~ijk L bk + i~kji L
bi L
bk (i k in the second term)
bi L
= i~ijk L bk i~kij L
bi L
bk = b0.
Theorem 6.5 We have the following relation

2
b 2 2 2 b b b b
L = rb pb ~r p~ + i~ ~r ~p , (6.8)
and commutation relations

h i h i
b2 , b
L ~b b
~r = 2i~L ~r 2~2b
~r , Lb2 , b ~b b
p~ = 2i~L p~ 2~2b
~p . (6.9)
Proof First, we have,

b
p~ b r pb i~ ) = b
~r = pb rb = pb rb = (b ~r b
p~ 3i~Ib. (6.10)
Next,
b2 = L
L bi Lbi = i rb pb i rb pb = ( )b r pb rb pb
= rb pb rb pb rb pb rb pb = rb (br pb i~ )b
p (b
p rb + i~ )b
r pb
= rb pb i~b
2 2
~r b
p~ pb rb rb pb i~b ~r b
~p
= rb2 pb 2 2i~b ~r b
p~ pb rb rb pb = rb2 pb 2 2i~b ~r b
p~ b
p~ b
~r b
~r b
~p
= rb2 pb 2 2i~b ~r b
p~ (b~r b
p~ )2 + 3i~b ~r b
~p
2
= rb 2 pb 2 b ~r b
p~ + i~ b ~r b
p~ ,
h i h i h i
Lb2 , rbi = L b L b , rbi + L b , rbi L b = i~i L b rb + i~i rb L b
b rb + i~i (L
= i~i L b rb i~ rb )
106 Abbas Nehme
b rb + i~i L
= i~i L b rb + ~2 i rb
b rb ~2 i rb
= 2i~i L

b rb 2~ rbi = 2i~ L
2 b b
~ ~r 2~2 rbi ,
= 2i~i L
i
h i h i h i
Lb , pbi = L
2 b L b , pbi + L b , pbi Lb = i~i L b pb + i~i pb L
b
b pb + i~i (L
= i~i L b pb i~ pb )
b pb + i~i L
= i~i L b pb + ~2 i pb
b pb ~2 i pb
= 2i~i L

b b b
~
= 2i~i L pb 2~ pbi = 2i~ L p~ 2~2 pbi .
2
6.2 Spherical harmonics

Theorem 6.6 The orbital angular momentum operators satisfy the eigen-
value equations,
b2 |l, ml i = ~2 l(l + 1) |l, ml i ,

L bz |l, ml i = ~ml |l, ml i ,
L (6.11)
where the quantum numbers l and ml take the following values:

l = 0, 1, 2, . . . , ml = l, l + 1, . . . , l 1, l . (6.12)
The corresponding eigenfunctions,
Yl,ml (, ) = h, | l, ml i , (6.13)
are called the spherical harmonics and are given by

r s
2l + 1 (l ml )! ml
Yl,ml (, ) = P (cos ) eiml ,
4 (l + ml )! l
Yl,ml (, ) = (1)ml Yl,m

l
,
where Plml are the associated Legendre polynomials
(1)ml 2 ml /2 d
l+ml
Plml (x) = l
(1 x ) l+m
(x2 1)l
2 l! dx l
Abbas Nehme 107
satisfying
Z +1
m 2 (l + ml )!
dx Plml (x)Pl l (x) = ll ml ml .
1 2l + 1 (l ml )!
The spherical harmonics constitutes an orthonormal basis for the angular
momentum operator
Z

d Yl,ml
(, ) Yl,ml (, ) = ll ml ml , d = sin d d .
The first few spherical harmonics read

r
1 3 i
Y0,0 = , Y1,1 = e sin ,
4 8
r r
3 3 i
Y1,0 = cos , Y1,1 = e sin .
4 8
Proof We shall introduce the ladder operators
b = L
L b1 iL
b2 . (6.14)
We have
b = L
L b1 iL
b2 = L
b , (6.15)
and h i h i h i h i
Lb , L
b3 = Lb1 iL
b2 , L
b3 = Lb1 , L
b3 i Lb2 , L
b3 =
b2 i(i~)231 L
i~132 L b1 = i~L b 2 ~L
b1 = ~(L
b1 iL
b2 ) =
h i
b , L
L b3 = ~L b . (6.16)
Furthermore,
b L
L b = (L
b1 iL
b2 )(L
b1 iL
b2 ) = Lb2 iLb1 L
b2 iL
b2 L
b1 + L
b2 =
1 2
h i
b2 L
L b2 i L b1 , L
b2 =
3
b L
L b = L b2 Lb 2 ~L
b3 . (6.17)
3
h i
On the other hand, we have L b2 , L
b3 = b b2 and L
0. This means that L b3 are
b2 and L
compatible. It follows that L b3 possess a complete set of common
108 Abbas Nehme
eigenvectors. Let |, mi denote such eigenvectors with eigenvalues taken for

convenience as
b2 |, mi = ~2 |, mi ,
L b3 |, mi = ~m |, mi .
L (6.18)
Then, ( )
h i b |, mi
b b ~L
L , L3 |, mi = b L
b3 |, mi L
b3 L
b |, mi =
L

b b b
L3 L |, mi = ~(m 1) L |, mi .
This means that L b |, mi is an eigenvector of L

b3 with eigenvalue ~(m 1).
But |, m 1i is an eigenvector of Lb3 with the same eigenvalue. Therefore,
Lb |, mi = C |, m 1i h, m| L b |, mi = |C|2 =
b L
p
|C|2 = ~2 ~2 m2 ~2 m C = ei ~ m(m 1) =
p
b |, mi = ~ m(m 1) |, m 1i .
L (6.19)
The last equation means that L b are raising and lowering operators since m
is raised and lowered by steps of unity. Let m< be the minimum value of m
and m> the maximum value. Consequently,
b+ |, m> i = |nulli ,
L b |, m< i = |nulli .
L (6.20)
Then,
b L
L b+ |, m> i = |nulli (L
b2 L
b 2 ~L
b3 ) |, m> i = |nulli =
3
~2 ~2 m2> ~2 m> = 0 = = m> (m> + 1) .

In the same manner,
b L
L b+ |, m< i = |nulli (L
b2 L
b 2 + ~L
b3 ) |, m< i = |nulli =
3
~2 ~2 m2< + ~2 m< = 0 = = m< (m< 1) .

The equality of the two expressions for gives
m> (m> + 1) = m< (m< 1) m2> + m> m2< + m< = 0 =
(m> + m< )(m> m< ) + m> + m< = 0 (m> + m< )(m> m< + 1) = 0 .
Abbas Nehme 109
But m> > m< then

m> m< + 1 > 0 m> + m< = 0 m> = m< .
m> m< > 0 Let m> m< = > 0 m> + m> = =

m> = 2 and m< = 2 .
If we use the notation l = /2 then m> = l, m< = l and = l(l + 1). It

follows that
p
b |l, mi = ~ l(l + 1) ml (ml 1) |l, l 1i ,
L (6.21)
and
b2 |l, ml i = ~2 l(l + 1) |l, ml i ,
L bz |l, ml i = ~ml |l, ml i ,
L
On the other hand,
m< 6 m 6 m> l 6 ml 6 +l ,

l = /2
l is half-integer or integer .
>0
Let us calculate now the matrix elements of the observable L bz in the coordi-
nate basis,

bz |~r i = i~ h~r | b
h~r | L ~r b
p~ |~r i = i~3jk h~r | rbj pbk |~r i
3

= i~3jk rj h~r | pbk |~r i = ~2 3jk rj (~r ~r )
rk
= i~ (~r r )3 (~r ~r )

1
= i~ ~e ~e (~r ~r ) .
sin 3
But,
~er = sin cos ~i + sin sin ~j + cos ~k ,
~e = cos cos ~i + cos sin ~j sin ~k , (6.22)
~e = sin ~i + cos ~j ,
in spherical coordinates. Then
bz |~r i = i~ (~r ~r ) .
h~r | L (6.23)

110 Abbas Nehme
As a consequence,
bz | , i = i~
h , | L ( )( ) .

It follows that
bz |l, ml i = ~ml |l, ml i h, | L
L bz |l, ml i = ~ml Yl,m (, ) =
l
Z
bz | , i h , | l, ml i = ~ml Yl,m (, ) =
d h, | L l
Z

i~ d ( )( )Yl,ml ( , ) = ~ml Yl,ml (, ) =

i~ Yl,ml (, ) = ~ml Yl,ml (, ) Yl,ml (, ) = Ceiml P () .

The next step consists on calculating the matrix elements of the Casimir
operator L b2 in the position basis,
2
b2 |~r i = h~r | rb2 pb 2 |~r i h~r | b
h~r | L ~r b
~p |~r i + i~ h~r | b
~r b
~p |~r i .
X X
h~r | rb2 |~r i = h~r | rbi2 |~r i = ri 2 (~r ~r ) = r 2 (~r ~r ) ,
i i
X XZ
h~r | pb 2 |~r i = h~r | pbi2 |~r i = d3 r1 h~r | pbi |~r1 i h~r1 | pbi |~r i
i i
XZ
= d3 r1 (i~) (~r ~r1 ) h~r1 | pbi |~r i
i
ri
X
= i~
h~r | pbi |~r i = ~2 r (~r ~r ) ,
i
r i
h~r | rb2 pb 2 |~r i = ~2 r 2 r (~r ~r ) ,

X X
h~r | b
~r b
p~ |~r i = h~r | rbi pbi |~r i = ri h~r | pbi |~r i
i i
X
= i~ ri (~r ~r ) = i~~r r (~r ~r ) ,
i
ri
2
b b
h~r | ~r p~ |~r i = h~r | b
~r b
p~ b
~r b
p~ |~r i
Abbas Nehme 111
Z
= d3 r1 h~r | b
~r b
~p |~r1 i h~r1 | b
~r b
~p |~r i
Z
= i~ d3 r1~r r (~r ~r1 ) h~r1 | b ~r b
p~ |~r i
2
= i~~r r h~r | b
~r b
~p |~r i = ~2 (~r r ) (~r ~r ) .
Now, using the expressions of the differential operator,
1 1
= ~er + ~e + ~e , (6.24)
r r r sin
and of the Laplacian,

1 2 1 2
= 2 r + 2 2 sin sin + , (6.25)
r r r r sin 2
in spherical coordinates, we have:

h i
b2 2
2 2
h~r | L |~r i = ~ r r (~r r ) ~r r (~r ~r )

2 2
= ~ r
r r

1 2
+ 2 sin sin +
sin 2

r r r (~r ~r )
r r r

~2 2
= 2 sin sin + 2
(~r ~r ) .
sin
As a consequence,

b2 ~2

h , | L | , i = 2 sin sin
sin
2

+ 2 ( )( ) . (6.26)

It follows that
b2 |l, ml i = ~2 l(l + 1) |l, ml i h, | L
L b2 |l, ml i = ~2 l(l + 1)Yl,m (, )
l
112 Abbas Nehme
Z
b2 | , i h , | l, ml i = ~2 l(l + 1)Yl,m (, )
d h, | L l
Z
2 1
2
~ d sin sin +
sin2 2
( )( )Yl,ml ( , )
= ~2 l(l + 1)Yl,ml (, )

~2 2
2 sin sin + Yl,ml (, ) = ~2 l(l + 1)Yl,ml (, ) .
sin 2
2 2
2
Yl,ml (, ) = 2
Ceiml P () = m2l Yl,ml (, ) =

1 d d m2l
sin + l(l + 1) P () = 0 .
sin d d sin2
Make the change of variable,
x = cos ,
to obtain the generalized Legendre equation,

d 2 d m2l
(1 x ) + l(l + 1) P (x) = 0 , (6.27)
dx dx 1 x2
whose solution is given in terms of the associated Legendre polynomials and
is worked out in details in the course Math for physicists 2 belonging to
the same series. The last step consists on calculating the constants Clml in
Yl,ml (, ) = Clml eiml Plml (cos ) .
To this end, use the normalization condition,
Z

d Yl,m l
(, ) Yl,ml (, ) = 1 =
Z
2
|Clml | d [Plml (cos )]2 = 1 =
Z +1
2 2 (l + ml )!
2 |Clml | dx [Plml (x)]2 = 1 2 |Clml |2 =1
1 2l + 1 (l ml )!
r s
2l + 1 (l ml )!
Clml = ei .
4 (l + ml )!
Abbas Nehme 113
6.3 Spin angular momentum

b
Definition 6.3 The angular momentum operator J~ is defined as the sum of
~b and the spin angular momentum
the orbital angular momentum operator L
b~
operator S,
b ~b b
J~ = L +S ~. (6.28)
b
~ be the spin angular momentum operator. The com-
Theorem 6.7 Let S
b
~ satisfy the commutation relations
ponents of S
h i
Sbi , Sbj = i~ijk Sbk , (6.29)
and the eigenvalue equations
Sb 2 |s, ms i = ~2 s(s + 1) |s, ms i , Sb3 |s, ms i = ~ ms |s, ms i , (6.30)
where
s = 0 , ms = 0 for scalars (scalar bosons) ,

s = 1 , ms = 1, 0, +1 for vectors (vector bosons) , (6.31)
s = 12 , ms = 12 , + 21 for spinors (spin-half fermions) .
Proof Consider the action of the rotation group on fields. For an infinites-

imal rotation , the position vector (or any vector in general) transforms
as

~r = ~r + ~r , or ri = ri + ijk j rk = (ik + ijk j )rk .
Scalar field The transformation law is
(~r , t) = (~r, t) . (6.32)
It follows that

(~r , t) = (~r ~r, t)

= (~r , t) ( ~r ) r (~r , t) + O(2 )

= (~r , t) (~r r ) (~r , t) + O(2 )
114 Abbas Nehme

= (~r , t) (~r r ) (~r , t) + O(2 )
i
= (~r , t) (~r ~p ) (~r , t) + O(2 )
~
i ~
= 1 L + O( ) (~r , t) ,
2
~
and for a finite rotation,
~
(~r, t) = e(i/~)~L (~r, t) . (6.33)
Vector bosonic field The transformation law in this case is
A ~ r, t) +
~ (~r , t) = A(~ ~
A(~ r , t) + O(2 )
~ r
= A(~
~
~r , t) + A(~ r , t) + O(2 )
~ r , t) (
= A(~
~ r , t)
~r ) r A(~

~
+ A(~ r , t) + O(2 )
~ r , t) i (
= A(~
~ ~
L )A(~r , t)
~

~
+ A(~ r , t) + O(2 ) .
The components transform as

i
~
Ai = Ai ( L )ik Ak + ijk j Ak + O(2 )
~
i
= Ai (j Lj )ik Ak + ijk j Ak + O(2 )
~
i
= Ai j (Lj + Sj ) ik Ak + O(2 ) ,
~
with
(Sj )ik = i~ijk . (6.34)
Then,
A ~ r , t) i
~ (~r , t) = A(~ ~ ~ ~
(L + S)A(~r , t) + O(2 ) ,
~
and for a finite rotation,
~ S)
~ (~r, t) = e(i/~)~(L+ ~ ~ ~~
A A(~r, t) = e(i/~)~J A(~
r , t) . (6.35)
Abbas Nehme 115
The matrix representation of S ~ is easily calculated as follows

0 0 0
(S1 )ik = i~i1k = S1 = i~ 0 0 1 ,
0 1 0

0 0 1
(S2 )ik = i~i2k = S2 = i~ 0 0 0 ,
1 0 0

0 1 0
(S3 )ik = i~i3k = S3 = i~ 1 0 0 .
0 0 0
Consider now the products

0 0 0 0 1 0
S1 S2 = ~2 1 0 0 , S2 S1 = ~2 0 0 0 .
0 0 0 0 0 0
Then we have for the commutator,

0 1 0
[S1 , S2 ] = ~2 1 0 0 = i~S3 ,
0 0 0
and the commutation relations hold. Now calculate the square,

1 0 0
S 2 = S12 + S22 + S32 = 2~2 0 1 0 = ~2 s(s + 1)I ,
0 0 1
with s = 1 . Since s 6 ms 6 +s, then ms = {1, 0, +1}.

Spinors These are two-rows one-column matrices,

+ (~r, t)
Spinors:
~ (~r, t) = . (6.36)
(~r, t)
The action of the rotation group is studied in the same way as for vectors
but here (Sj )ik are matrix elements of 22 hermitian matrices satisfying
the algebra [Si , Sj ] = i~ijk Sk . We know that the Pauli matrices are 22
116 Abbas Nehme
hermitian matrices satisfying the algebra [i , j ] = 2iijk k . Therefore,

our problem is solved if we make the identification,
~
Si = i . (6.37)
2
It follows that
~2 2 3 2
S2 = = ~ I = ~2 s(s + 1)I ,
4 4
with s = 1/2 and hence ms = {1/2, 1/2} .
b
Theorem 6.8 The components of J~ satisfy the commutation relations
h i
Jbi , Jbj = i~ijk Jbk , (6.38)
and the eigenvalue equations
Jb2 |j, mi = ~2 j(j + 1) |j, mi , Jb3 |j, mi = ~ m |j, mi , (6.39)
where
|l s| 6 j 6 l + s , m = ml + ms , (6.40)
and the closure relation reads
m=j
X X
|j, mi hj, m| = Ib . (6.41)
j=0 m=j
b b
For the general case of two angular momenta J~1 and J~2 acting in two different
subspaces, the total angular momentum is given by
b b b
J~ = J~1 + J~2 , (6.42)
where the corresponding quantum numbers satisfy
|j1 j2 | 6 j 6 j1 + j2 , m = m1 + m2 . (6.43)
Abbas Nehme 117
The transformation between the {j1 , m1 , j2 , m2 } and {j, m} basis is provided

by the Clebsch-Gordan coefficients hj1 j2 ; m1 m2 |j, mi ,
X
|j, mi = hj1 j2 ; m1 m2 |j, mi |j1 j2 ; m1 m2 i . (6.44)
m1 ,m2
Proof For the eigenvalue equations the proof goes as for the case of the
orbital and spin angular momenta. For the addition of two angular momenta,
consider
b b b
J~ = J~1 + J~2 Jbz = Jb1z + Jb2z m = m1 + m2 =
mmax = m1max + m2max jmax = j1 + j2 since j 6 m 6 +j .

Now, the dimension of the Hilbert space H is given by either of the two
following quantities
dim H = card (m) = card (m1 ) card (m2 ) . (6.45)
Then,
jmax
X
(2j + 1) = (2j1 + 1)(2j2 + 1) =
jmin
jX
max jmin
X 1
(2j + 1) (2j + 1) = (2j1 + 1)(2j2 + 1) =
1 1

jmax (jmax + 1) (jmin 1)jmin
2 + jmax 2
2 2
(jmin 1) 4j1 j2 2(j1 + j2 ) 1 = 0 = jmin = |j1 j2 | .
Theorem 6.9 We have the following relation:
e(i/2) ~n~ = I cos (/2) i(~n ~ ) sin (/2) , (6.46)
which consolidates the identification of the spin as the generator of the rota-
tion group in the internal space.
118 Abbas Nehme
Proof In fact, adding the two relations
[i , j ] = 2iijk k , {i , j } = 2ij I , (6.47)
we arrive at
i j = iijk k + ij I . (6.48)
It follows that,
(~n ~ )2 = ni i nj j = ni nj (iijk k + ij I) = i~n (~n ~ ) + n2 I = I =
(~n ~ )2n = I , (~n ~ )2n+1 = ~n ~ . (6.49)

Expand now the exponential,
X 1 i n
(i/2) ~n~

e = (~n ~ )n
n>0
n! 2
X 1 2n
i
= (~n ~ )2n
n>0
(2n)! 2
X 2n+1
1 i
+ (~n ~ )2n+1
n>0
(2n + 1)! 2
X (1)n 2n X (1)n 2n+1
= I i(~n ~ )
n>0
(2n)! 2 n>0
(2n + 1)! 2
= I cos (/2) i(~n ~ ) sin (/2) .
6.4 Problems
1. Consider a state of angular momentum |j, mi.
(a) Show that Jbz = 0.
D E D E D E D E
(b) Find J , Jx , Jy and Jbx2 .
b 2 b b
Let now j = 3/2.

(c) What are the possible values of m that can be measured?
(d) Using outer product notation, find a representation of the operators
Jbz , Jb+ and Jb .
Abbas Nehme 119
(e) Construct Jbx from Jb+ and Jb .

Let now j = 1.
(f) Find out the matrix representation of the operators Jb2 , Jbz , Jb , Jbx
and Jby .
2. A particle is in the state
r
3 z iy
(x, y, z) = .
8 r
(a) What is the total angular momentum of the particle?
(b) Suppose Lbz is measured. What are the possible results? What is
the probability of obtaining each result?
D E
(c) Find L b .
3. Show that
p
hj , m | Jb |j, mi = j(j + 1) mm j j m ,m1 .
(a) Use the preceding relation to find the operators Sbx , Sby , and Sbz for
spin 1/2.
(b) Again, using the preceding relation to calculate the 3 3 matrix
representations of Jbx , Jby , and Jbz for angular momentum j = 1.
(c) Show that for j = 1, Jbx , Jby , and Jbz are related to the infinitesimal
generators

0 0 0 0 0 i 0 i 0
Tx = 0 0 i , Ty = 0 0 0 , Tz = i 0 0 ,
0 i 0 i 0 0 0 0 0
by a unitary transformation

1 0 1
1
Ji = U Ti U , U = i 0 i
2 0 2 0
which takes the Cartesian components of ~er to the spherical com-

ponents
120 Abbas Nehme
Bibliography
[1] Peter Szekeres,

A course in Modern Mathematical Physics: Groups, Hilbert
Space and Differential Geometry,
Cambridge University Press, 2004.
[2] Eduard Prugovecki,
Quantum Mechanics in Hilbert Space,
Academic Press, 1971.
[3] Leslie E. Ballentine,
Quantum Mechanics: A Modern Development,
World Scientific Publishing, 1998.
[4] Jun John Sakurai,
Modern Quantum Mechanics,
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1994.
[5] David J. Griffiths,
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics,
Prentice Hall Incorporation, 1995.
[6] Christian Ngo et Helene Ngo,
Physique Quantique, Introduction avec Exercices,
Masson, 1991.
[7] Walter Greiner,
Mecanique Quantique, Une Introduction,
Springer, 1999.
[8] David McMahon,
Quantum Mechanics Demystified,
McGraw-Hill, 2006.
121
Index
absorption, 80 completely mixed state, 47

adjoint operator, 29 completeness in the norm, 14
algebra, 26 conserved observable, 55
algebraic multiplication, 26 constant of motion, 55
angular momentum, 113 continuity equation, 65
annihilation operator, 87 continuous transformation, 28
anti-hermitian, 30 coordinate representation, 57
anti-linear transformation, 26 countable, 8
associated Legendre polynomials, 106 creation operator, 87
Baker-Campbell-Hausdorff, 38 degenerate spectrum, 41

Banach space, 14 dimension of a vector space, 11
Born approximation, 79 Dirac picture, 56
bosons, 113 dispersion, 43
bound of an operator, 29 Dyson series, 81
bounded transformation, 29
eigenspace, 34
bra, 16
eigenvalue, 34
bracket, 16
eigenvector, 34
canonical commutation relations, 44 energy, 51
Casimir operator, 104 Euclidean space, 16
Cauchy sequence, 14 expectation value, 28
Clebsch-Gordan coefficients, 117 faithful representation, 27
closure relation, 21 Fermis golden rule, 79
coherent state, 95 fermions, 113
commutative algebra, 26
commutator, 33 gauge principle, 67
compatible observables, 45 gauge transformation, 67
complementary observables, 44 generalized uncertainty relation, 44
complete observable, 45 generator of a symmetry, 57
complete orthonormal system, 21 Glauber state, 95
122
Abbas Nehme 123
Gram-Schmidt, 18 orbital angular momentum, 102

orthogonal system, 18
Hamiltonian, 51 orthonormal basis, 21
harmonic oscillator, 87 orthonormal system, 18
Heisenberg operator, 54
Heisenberg picture, 54 Pauli matrices, 38, 115
Heisenberg uncertainty relation, 44 perturbation theory
Hermite polynomials, 92 time-dependent, 79
hermitian operator, 25, 30 time-independent
Hilbert space, 19 degenerate, 75
non-degenerate, 71
inner product, 15 probability, 42
interaction picture, 56 probability current, 65
Invariance, 67 probability density, 65
isomorphic algebras, 27 projector, 32
isomorphic vector spaces, 13 pure state, 7, 43
ket, 7 ray, 22
ladder operators, 107 renormalization constant, 72
Levi-Civita tensor, 102 rotation matrix, 31
linear combination, 10 Schauder basis, 19
linear dependence, 11 Schrodinger equation, 52
linear independence, 11 Schrodinger picture, 51
linear operator, 26 Schwarz-Cauchy inequality, 16
linear space, 8 separable Hilbert space, 7, 19
linear transformation, 26 similarity, 31
matrix representation, 27 span of a vector space, 12
minimal coupling, 68 spectral decomposition, 36
mixed state, 45 spectral theorem, 35
mixture, 42, 45 spectrum, 34
momentum representation, 57 spherical harmonics, 106
spin angular momentum, 113
nontrivial vector subspace, 12 state collapse, 42
norm, 14 state operator, 42, 46
normed vector space, 14 stimulated emission, 79
number operator, 88
time-evolution operator, 51
observable, 25 trace, 28
124 Abbas Nehme
transition probability, 78
uncertainty, 42
unimodular eigenvalue, 35
unit ray, 7
unitary operator, 31
vector basis, 12
vector space, 8
vector subspace, 12
velocity operator, 67
wavefunction, 57
Wigners theorem, 57

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1.

Forty eight hours to learn

c 2010 Nabatieh, Mount Amel.

6 Angular momentum 101

In the name of Allah, The Clement, The Merciful.

We present to our third-year undergraduate students the course Quantum

The very definition of Quantum Mechanics. In two words, Quantum

Completeness. As it should be, this course is elementary and aims to

Credibility. To believe on something you have to satisfy simultaneously

We ask Allah to help us fulfilling our announced commitments.

In this chapter, we shall enunciate the first postulate of Quantum Mechanics

Postulate 1: The state of a physical system is a description of that system.

1.1 Vector spaces

Multiplication by scalars: A rule for forming the product a |i of a scalar

Commutativity of addition: |i + |i = |i + |i.

Associativity of addition: (|i + |i) + |i = |i + (|i + |i).

Distributivity of scalar multiplication in the vectors:

Distributivity of scalar multiplication in the scalars:

Associativity of scalar multiplication: a(b |i) = a b |i.

Null vector: |i + |nulli = |i.

Inverse under addition: |i + (1) |i = |i + |i = |nulli.

Unit element: 1 |i = |i.

becomes a vector space if the vector operations are defined by

Commutativity of addition. ai + bi = bi + ai |i + |i = |i + |i.

Distributivity of scalar multiplication in the vectors.

a(ai + bi ) = aai + abi a(|i + |i) = a |i + a |i .

Distributivity of scalar multiplication in the scalars.

(a + b)ai = aai + bai (a + b) |i = a |i + b |i .

Inverse under addition.

Definition 1.2 A vector |i is a linear combination of the vectors |n i if

where the coefficients cn are scalars.

Example 1.2 The elements of the vector space Cn ,

are linear combinations of the vectors

Definition 1.3 The vectors |1 i , . . . , |n i are said to be linearly indepen-

has c1 = = cn = 0 as the only solution. If one of the vectors |n i can be

where the scalar coefficients cn are uniquely determined by |i.

This completes the proof.

of a finite number of vectors belonging to S; if S is in addition a set of linearly

From the very definition of the dimension of a vector space V we can

is the image of the vector in Vn

1.2 Banach spaces

Positive definite: k|ik 0 , for all |i V , = 0 |i = |nulli.

Uniform scaling: ka |ik = |a| k|ik for all |i V , and a C.

Triangle inequality: k|i + | ik 6 k|ik + k|ik for all |i , |i V.

Definition 1.8 A vector space on which a particular norm is given is called

Definition 1.9 An infinite sequence |1 i , |2 i , . . . in a normed vector

Definition 1.10 A normed vector space V is complete in the norm if every

Theorem 1.3 Every finite-dimensional normed vector space is a Banach

Since R is complete, {an } and {bn } converge respectively to a and b in R,

two vectors in R2 and consider the sequence {|n i}. We have

This means that {|n i} is a Cauchy sequence. On the other hand,

That is, {|n i} converges to |i R2 and R2 is complete. But R2 and C are

and {|n i} is a Cauchy sequence. On the other hand,

That is, {|n i} converges to |i C2 and C2 is complete. The result can

1.3 Euclidean spaces

Positive semi definiteness: h|i 0 , = 0 if and only if |i = |nulli.

Proposition 1.4 If the ket |i is represented by a column matrix, the asso-

Formulated in a compact way, this gives

This completes the proof.

Definition 1.12 An Euclidean (or inner product, or unitary) space E is a

Theorem 1.5 Any two elements |i, |i of an Euclidean space E satisfy

Proof Since E is an Euclidean space, h + a| + ai > 0 a. In particu-

The condition of a non-positive discriminant leads to the inequality.