Transcript: Honors Chemistry

Chemical Reactions: Formulas, Equations, and Stoichiometry

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The study of chemistry includes the properties, structure and reactions of matter. The
mathematics of chemistry is used to determine chemical quantities involved in compounds and in
chemical reactions. Experiments you conduct in the laboratory illustrate chemical reactions for learning
purposes, so you practice the mathematics of chemical equations on a small scale basis. However,
industries that manufacture chemical products are large scale businesses. The accuracy of chemical
calculations on an industrial scale directly affects a companys profit margin. Understanding the
chemistry of compounds is essential to such ventures as medicine, agriculture, and environmental
science. Throughout this program, we will use the ideas and terms presented in the programs
Introduction to Matter and Naming Chemical Compounds. Therefore, it might be helpful to go back
and review those programs before starting this one.

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Accurate chemical calculations depend on properly balanced chemical equations. In this
program, youll learn how to interpret and balance chemical equations and use mathematics to describe
them. The mathematics of chemistry is referred to as stoichiometry. Stoichiometry will be explored in
this program after youve learned to write and balance chemical equations.

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Before you learn to balance equations, it will help to review some properties of matter.
Compounds are substances that contain two or more elements, chemically combined in a fixed
proportion. Compounds are described using chemical formulas. Chemical formulas consist of element
symbols that indicate the atoms in a compound and numerical subscripts that indicate the number of
each atom in that compound. For example, the chemical formula for aluminum oxide indicates there are
two aluminum atoms for every three oxygen atoms. Look at the chemical formula for carbon dioxide.
Youll notice there is no subscript indicating the number of carbon atoms. When no subscript is
provided, it should be understood there is only one atom of that element in the compound.

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A chemical formula indicates how many atoms of each element are in a compound. A more
specific term molecular formula describes the composition of one molecule of a molecular
compound, such as water, written as H2O. Ionic compounds, composed of positive and negative ions,
are expressed in terms of formula units, not molecules. Comparing examples of molecular and ionic
substances is a good way to learn the difference between molecules and formula units. Can you see
how molecules of water form individual interacting units? In a sample of an ionic compound, such as
sodium chloride, you cannot distinguish between individual units of interacting atoms, even though you
know the compound consists of one sodium cation for every chloride anion.

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The actual weight of an atom in grams is an incredibly small number. For example, an atom of
carbon 12, which contains six protons, six neutrons, and six electrons, weighs only 2.009 x 10-23 grams.
Since these tiny numbers are difficult to work with, chemists have defined a new unit, the atomic mass
unit or amu, for comparing the atomic weights of the approximately 112 known atoms. In 1961, the
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry set a particular carbon atom, carbon 12, as the
standard by which the weights of all the atomic elements are compared. By definition, one atomic mass
unit or amu, is defined as 1/12 of the mass of a carbon 12 atom. Since most of the mass of the carbon
12 atom is in the six protons and six neutrons of its nucleus, one atomic mass unit is approximately the
mass of one proton or neutron.

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 Transcript: Honors Chemistry
Chemical Reactions: Formulas, Equations, and Stoichiometry
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Look at the value for the atomic mass of carbon as listed on the Periodic Table. You probably
expect to see an atomic mass of 12 since you just learned the standard atomic mass is based on a
carbon 12 atom. Actually, the atomic mass reported for carbon is 12.01. The reason for this
discrepancy is because many elements, including carbon, occur naturally as several different isotopes.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have different atomic masses. Isotopes possess the same
number of protons, but differ in the number of neutrons in the nucleus. In the heavier isotope of carbon,
carbon 13, one additional neutron increases the mass of the atom to approximately 13 amu. The atomic
mass numbers as reported on the Periodic Table reflect the weighted average of the masses of all the
naturally occurring isotopes of that element. Although 98.9% of all naturally occurring carbon atoms
contain six neutrons in their nuclei, 1.1% contain seven neutrons in their nuclei. Much like one very tall
basketball player raises the average height of a team, the contribution of these heavy carbon atoms
increases the average atomic mass of the element carbon.

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By simply looking at the atomic weights as provided on the Periodic Table, you can determine
that one hydrogen atom is about twelve times lighter than a carbon atom, and that a magnesium atom
is approximately two times heavier than a carbon atom. With the exception of the hydrogen atom, an
atoms mass is roughly double the value of its atomic number. Although these terms sound similar, you
must keep their meanings clear in your mind. Atomic numbers reflect only the number of protons in an
atoms nucleus, and therefore they are always whole numbers. Remember, the atomic mass values as
reported on the Periodic Table reflect an average atomic mass of all naturally occurring isotopes of that
element.

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The weight or mass of a compound is determined by adding up the atomic weights of the
individual atoms within the compound. The term molecular mass describes the mass of individual
molecules, such as a water molecule. The term formula mass describes the mass of a formula unit of
an ionic compound, like sodium chloride. An all-encompassing term known as the molar mass
describes the weight in grams of exactly one mole of any pure substance. You will learn more about the
mole shortly.

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The relative mass of each element in a compound compared to the entire mass of a compound
is known as its percent composition. The percent composition of a compound can be determined from
its chemical formula. Lets look at the chemical formula for sodium chloride, NaCl. To determine the
percent composition for each element, first determine the molar mass of the compound. To calculate
the molar mass of a compound, simply multiply the atomic mass of each atom by the number of atoms
in the formula and report your answer in grams. Now, divide the molar mass of each element by the
molar mass of the compound and multiply by one hundred to get a percent. Finally, check your work to
make sure you have accounted for the entire mass of the substance.

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 Transcript: Honors Chemistry
Chemical Reactions: Formulas, Equations, and Stoichiometry
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Chemical formulas describe the type and number of atoms in a compound. Compounds may
also be described using empirical formulas. You can think of an empirical formula as an abbreviated
chemical formula. Empirical formulas describe the type of atoms and their ratios, but usually do not
describe exactly how many atoms of that element are in the compound. Empirical formulas are easier
to comprehend if you consider how they can be used to describe everyday situations around you.
Consider the number of male and female students in a classroom. Imagine there are five males,
abbreviated M, and 15 females, abbreviated F. The complete chemical formula for this class would
be M5F15, whereas the empirical formula for this class would be MF3, which describes a ratio of three
female students to every one male student. The empirical formula MF3 reflects a constant ratio of three
female to every male student, but does not tell us exactly how many male and female students there
are in the class.

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Lets see how empirical formulas can be used to determine the chemical formula of some
unknown substance. Acetylene, C2H2, is a gas used in the welding industry, where as benzene, C6H6,
is a liquid solvent. Both compounds share the same empirical formula, CH, indicating a ratio of one
carbon atom to every hydrogen atom in both of these compounds. Say you know the formula mass of
one of these compounds is 78.11. By knowing the empirical formula CH, you can determine an
empirical formula mass of 13.02. To determine the chemical formula for the unknown, simply divide the
given formula mass of 78.11 by the empirical formula mass of 13.02, and you get a ratio of six.
Because the empirical formula CH indicates a one to one ratio of carbon to hydrogen, there must be six
carbon atoms and six hydrogen atoms in the molecular formula of the unknown compound, which in
this case is benzene.

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Suppose you want to make molecules of water, H2O, from a supply of hydrogen and oxygen
molecules in such a way that no hydrogen and oxygen molecules are leftover. If you took ten molecules
of oxygen and 20 molecules of hydrogen, you could make exactly 20 molecules of water. This may
seem easy until you actually try to do it. Have you ever seen an atom? Atoms are too tiny to count
individually; therefore, a unit called the mole was established to count out atoms by weighing them. In
chemistry, a mole is not a small furry rodent; instead, the mole concept serves as a bridge between the
invisible universe of atoms and the visible world, where you measure quantities of atoms with a
balance, or scale.

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A dozen eggs is a collection of 12 eggs, and a decade is a collection of ten years. A collection of
particles known as a mole can consist of either atoms, molecules, or formula units. The number of
particles in a mole has been determined as 6.02 x1023 particles, commonly referred to as Avogadros
Number. Keep in mind our comparison there are ten years in a decade and 12 eggs in a dozen.
Similarly, there are 6.02 x 1023 particles in a mole.

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The mole concept is credited to an Italian chemist and physicist, Amadeus Avogadro.
Interestingly, Avogadro did not actually determine the number associated with his name. Avogadros
famous number, 6.02 x 1023, was actually determined several years after his death, but named in his
honor in recognition of his development of the mole concept. Among his many contributions to
chemistry, Avogadro determined that any gas occupies a volume of 22.4 liters at standard temperature
and pressure; that is, zero degrees Celsius and one atmosphere of pressure.

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 Transcript: Honors Chemistry
Chemical Reactions: Formulas, Equations, and Stoichiometry
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Comprehending the number of atoms represented by Avogadros Number can be mind-
boggling. One way to imagine a number as large as 6.02 x 1023 is to associate each particle
represented by Avogadros Number with some small object youre familiar with. Then multiply that
objects mass by Avogadros Number. For example, imagine an atom being the size of one grain of
sand. In order to obtain Avogadros Number, or a mole, of sand grains, it would be necessary to dig the
entire surface of the Sahara Desert, which is slightly smaller than the United States, to a depth of two
meters, about six feet. A sand pile six feet deep and the size of the United States would represent one
mole of sand. If Avogadros Number of sheets of paper were divided into a million equal piles, each pile
would be so tall that it would stretch from the earth to the sun and beyond. Counting at a rate of one
particle per second for 48 hours per week, it would take the entire population of the world ten million
years in order to reach Avogadros Number. Compare these examples to a mole of carbon atoms, or a
mole of water molecules. Can you see how the mole provides chemists with a convenient quantity to
work with in the laboratory?

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You may recall atomic masses range from about one amu for the lightest atom, hydrogen, to
238 amu for the heaviest of natural atoms, uranium. Compare a light metallic atom, such as aluminum,
with the egg of a small songbird, and a uranium atom to an ostrich egg. A dozen ostrich eggs would
obviously weigh more and occupy more space than a dozen smaller eggs, but both collections contain
the same number of units, 12 eggs. Again, though molar masses of different elements vary, the number
of particles in a mole is always 6.02 x 1023. Logically, a mole of a heavy element such as uranium
would weigh more and occupy more space than a mole of aluminum, but the number of atoms in a
mole of uranium and a mole of aluminum are the same. How many atoms are in a mole of uranium or
aluminum? By now youve probably guessed Avogadros Number, 6.02 x 1023, and you would be
correct.

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A compound is just a specific arrangement of atoms to which chemists have assigned an
appropriate name. For example, a molecule that consists of three carbon and eight hydrogen atoms is
called propane. Propane is a common gas used to heat homes. To calculate the molecular weight of a
propane molecule, simply multiply the number of each atom by its atomic weight, then add up the
combined weights of all the atoms in the molecule. Do you see why propane has a molecular weight of
44.1? The term molar mass indicates the mass of one mole of a molecular compound; in this case,
the weight of 6.02 x 1023 propane molecules. Since one mole of propane molecules consists of 3 moles
of carbon and eight moles of hydrogen, we can simply report the molecular weight of propane in grams
to arrive at molar mass of 44.1 grams.

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When a sample of any element is measured so that its mass in grams is equal to the elements
atomic mass, the same will always contain Avogadros number of atoms. Therefore, 12.01 grams of
carbon has the same number of atoms as 196.97 grams of gold. This relationship also extends to
compounds. For example, the molecular weight of water is 18.02 grams, so 18.02 grams of water will
have the same number of molecules as 44.1 grams of propane, because the molecular weight of
propane is 44.1 grams. How many molecules are in 18.02 grams of water, or 44.1 grams of propane
gas? Again, the answer is Avogadros number, 6.02 x 1023.

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 Transcript: Honors Chemistry
Chemical Reactions: Formulas, Equations, and Stoichiometry
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Now you will see how to determine the molar mass of a more complex compound, such as
magnesium nitrate. The chemical formula for magnesium nitrate is Mg(NO3)2. The subscript two is used
to multiply each atom in parenthesis by two. Can you see how the chemical formula for magnesium
nitrate describes a compound composed of one magnesium atom, two nitrogen atoms, and six oxygen
atoms?
Now were ready to determine the molecular weight of the compound. First, multiply the number
of each atom in the compound by its atomic mass. Then combine the weights of all the atoms in the
molecule. The result is a molecular weight of 148.314. To obtain the molar mass of this compound,
simply report your findings in grams. The molar mass of magnesium nitrate would therefore be 148.314
grams.

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Chemists must be very careful when expressing chemical formulas. For example, just saying a
mole of oxygen could refer to either a mole of oxygen atom or a mole of oxygen gas, and there is a
significant difference. Gases such as nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen rarely exist in nature as single
atoms. These atoms are found in the molecular state as diatomic molecules and are written as N2, O2,
and H2 respectively. One mole of atomic oxygen consists of Avogadros number of oxygen atoms and
has an atomic mass of approximately 16 grams, whereas one mole of oxygen gas consists of
Avogadros number of oxygen gas molecules, each composed of two oxygen atoms. Therefore, one
mole of oxygen gas would have a molecular mass of approximately 32 grams.

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Converting grams to moles and moles back to grams is a mathematical process that chemists
perform on a daily basis. Grams are the practical value that is measured on a laboratory scale. Scales
and balances read in grams, not in moles, so when designing chemical experiments, mole values first
have to be converted to grams. For example, suppose you are told to prepare a 0.25 mole sample of
sodium chloride for an experiment. The formula weight of sodium chloride can typically be found on the
stock bottle from which the sample was obtained. Carefully observe how the calculation is set up so the
mole units cancel. Multiplying the desired mole quantity, 0.25, by the formula weight of sodium chloride
reflects the number of grams of sodium chloride to weigh out on a scale to prepare your sample.

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Suppose a chemistry experiment you want to conduct requires .1 moles of nickel as one of the
reactants, but the stock room is down to its last 5.1 grams of nickel. Does 5.1 grams of nickel metal
contain 0.1 moles of nickel atoms? To find out, set up the calculation so the gram units cancel out by
dividing the amount of metal you have by the molar mass of nickel. Then multiply the numerator, which
is one mole of nickel, to obtain your final answer in moles. Unfortunately, it looks like you do not have
enough nickel to carry out your experiment.

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Suppose you know the weight in grams of a pure substance by measuring it on a laboratory
balance, but want to know the number of atoms or molecules the sample contains. Calculating the
number of particles is a simple two-step process. First, you must convert grams to moles. Then convert
moles to molecules using Avogadros number. Lets determine the number of molecules in ten grams of
the sugar glucose. First, convert grams of glucose into moles of glucose using the molecular weight of
the compound. Then convert moles of glucose to molecules of glucose using Avogadros number. The
final answer will be reported in terms of molecules because glucose is a molecular compound. An ionic
compound such as sodium chloride would be stated in terms of formula units, and an element such as
gold would be given in atoms.

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 Transcript: Honors Chemistry
Chemical Reactions: Formulas, Equations, and Stoichiometry
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You may recall that chemical equations describe chemical reactions. Although reactions can be
described in sentences, writing them out in this manner is cumbersome and time-consuming. In a
chemical equation, an arrow separates the chemical formulas of the reactants on the left from the
resulting chemical formulas of the products on the right. Notice that the letters in parenthesis are used
to indicate the physical state of each substance. The letters (g) and (l) are abbreviations for the terms
gas and liquid. The letter (s) is used to indicate the solid state, and the abbreviation (aq) for aqueous
indicates a substance is dissolved in water.

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Chemical equations must be balanced to accurately portray chemical reactions. In other words,
balanced equations reflect the law of conservation of mass, which states that the products formed in a
reaction have the same total mass as that of the reactants present before the reaction took place. This
is due to the fact that in a balanced equation, each side of the equation contains the same number of
atoms of each element. Take a look at an example of a balanced equation. This equation is in balance
because there is one nitrogen, one chlorine, and four hydrogen atoms are on either side of the
equation. In other words, the types and number of atoms of each element on the reactant side of the
equation equals the type and number of atoms on the product side of the equation.

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Sometimes one unit of each reactant forms one unit of each product. Most of the time, however,
you must adjust the number of units to make the reaction balance. The most efficient way to balance
chemical equations is to perform the following steps. First, determine and write out the correct
unbalanced formula for the reactants and products. Second, count the number of atoms of each
element on the left and right sides of the equation. Then begin balancing the equation by starting with
the elements that appear only once on either side of the equation by using coefficients. A coefficient is
a whole number that appears in front of the chemical formula in an equation. Continue this process until
each substance balances and all coefficients are in their lowest possible ratio.

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Lets work our way through a typical balancing problem. First, write out the correct chemical
reaction for the formation of magnesium oxide. Second, count and list the number and type of each
atom on each side of the equation. You will notice that oxygen is out of balance. Now begin balancing
the equation using coefficients. First, place a two in front of magnesium oxide on the product side to
bring oxygen into balance. Now to balance the magnesium. There are two magnesium atoms on the
right and one on the left, so a coefficient of two will balance this element. Finally, check your work by
accounting for atoms. As you see, there are two magnesium and two oxygen atoms on both sides of
the equation. The equation is balanced.

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As you learned earlier, stoichiometry refers to the mathematical relationships that describe
chemical formulas and chemical equations. Stoichiometry is taken from the Greek term stoikheion,
meaning element, and metron, meaning to measure. Therefore, stoichiometry describes the
process of measuring elements and elemental quantities. The major categories of stoichiometric
problems are mass to mass conversions, mass to volume conversions, and volume to volume
conversions.

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 Transcript: Honors Chemistry
Chemical Reactions: Formulas, Equations, and Stoichiometry
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Most stoichiometric problems are solved in a similar manner. First, you must convert from
grams or liters into moles, then convert moles of reactants into moles of products, and finally convert
moles of the product back to grams or liters. This process becomes more clear when youre actually
given numbers and problems to solve, as the following situations will illustrate.

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In mass to mass problems, youre provided with a known mass of one substance, usually a
reactant, and are required to determine the mass of another substance, usually the product in a
reaction. Watch how this common problem is solved. Your assignment is to determine the amount of
sodium chloride produced by reacting exactly five grams of sodium metal with an excess amount of
chlorine gas. The first step in the process is to make sure the equation is balanced. Then convert the
five grams of sodium into moles of sodium. Next, convert the moles of sodium to moles of the product,
in this case sodium chloride. And finally, convert moles of sodium chloride to grams of sodium chloride
to obtain your answer in units of grams. The final answer shows that reacting five grams of sodium
metal with excess chlorine gas yields 12.71 grams of sodium chloride salt.

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Avogadro was known primarily for his work on gases. Avogadro determined that a mole of any
gas, regardless of its chemical composition, has a volume of 22.4 liters at 0 degrees Celsius and at
atmospheric pressure. Therefore, one mole of gas, regardless of what kind of gas it is, will occupy 22.4
liters of space and contain 6.02 x 1023 molecules. Next you will learn how this fundamental principle
simplifies the process of comparing volumes of different gases.

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Many chemical reactions involve reactants and products in the form of gases. Gases are
measured in terms of volume. The amount of space, or volume, the number of gas molecules occupies
is proportional to the number of gas molecules in that sample. A good example of a mass to volume
reaction is the decomposition of water. Water can decompose when electrical current is passed through
it; that is to say, water molecules break down, forming hydrogen and oxygen gases.

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Lets take 50 grams of water and calculate the volume of oxygen and hydrogen gas that could
theoretically be produced from its complete decomposition. First convert the given 50 grams of water to
moles of water. Then use this number to determine moles of the products oxygen and hydrogen. Then,
knowing the moles of hydrogen and oxygen allows you to calculate the volumes in liters of oxygen and
hydrogen gas produced. Finally, state the answer. The decomposition of 50 grams water results in the
formation of 31.1 liters of oxygen gas and 62.2 liters of hydrogen gas. Our answer makes sense
because there is a two-to-one ratio of hydrogen to oxygen in every water molecule, and one mole of
any gas whether that gas is hydrogen or oxygen occupies the same volume: 22.4 liters.

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Since a mole of any gas occupies a volume of 22.4 liters, volume to volume ratios are the same
as mole to mole ratios. Therefore, balanced equations directly indicate volume ratios. Take for example
the formation of ammonia from hydrogen and nitrogen gas. The balanced equation shows that one
mole of nitrogen reacts with three moles of hydrogen to form two moles of ammonia. Since each of
these species are gases, you can translate the balanced equation into volume ratios and restate the
equation as 22.4 liters of nitrogen would completely react with 67.2 liters of hydrogen to form 44.8 liters
of ammonia.

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 Transcript: Honors Chemistry
Chemical Reactions: Formulas, Equations, and Stoichiometry
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What if you have ten liters of nitrogen gas and needed to know the volume of hydrogen gas
needed to completely react with the nitrogen? Because the molar ratio of hydrogen to nitrogen is three
to one, three times the volume of hydrogen would be required to completely react with the nitrogen.
Therefore, the answer should be three times the volume of nitrogen, which it is. Now determine how
much ammonia, NH3, would be produced as a result of such a reaction. Can you see why the answer is
20 liters? Knowing how molar equivalents relate to volume quantities can save you a lot of time when
calculating volume to volume relationships.

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Often it is best to introduce new concepts by comparing them to everyday situations that youre
familiar with. Lets say you work in a bike shop, and one of your jobs is to assemble bicycles. You
would like to assemble as many bikes as possible for display in the store, but the shipment of tires
youre expecting has not arrived. You have plenty of time to assemble bikes, and plenty of bicycle
frames, but you are limited in the number of bikes you can put together because of the limited supply of
tires. The same concept can be applied to chemical equations. The amount of the products formed by a
reaction is dependent on the amount of available reactants.

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When the quantities of reactants are combined in the proportions described by a balanced
equation, all the reactants are consumed in the reaction and there are no reactants remaining after the
product is formed. Most of the time, however, one of the reactants will be depleted and others will be
left over. Leftover reactants are described as being in excess. The first reactant to be completely
converted to product is called the limiting reactant. In other words, the reactant you run out of first
limits the amount of product the reaction is capable of forming. Remember, when the supply of tires ran
out, bicycle production came to a halt.

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The first reactant completely converted to product is the limiting reactant. Therefore, the quantity
of product formed in a reaction, known as the yield, is dependent on the quantity of the limiting
reactant. Determining limiting reactants is a four step process. Again, lets examine the familiar sodium
chloride reaction. First, make sure the equation is balanced. Then convert the quantity of each reactant
into moles of each reactant. The third step is to convert moles of each reactant into moles of product.
Moles of product can then be converted back into grams. Finally, compare the amount of product
formed by each reactant. The limiting reactant in this case, chlorine gas is identified as the one
capable of being converted to the least amount of product. The amount of product formed by the
limiting reactant is known as the yield.

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Up to this point you have seen chemical calculations performed as though things never go
wrong in chemical reactions. This assumption is as faulty as assuming you will score 100% on every
test you take. One hundred percent efficiency is a rare achievement for any human endeavor, including
chemistry. Chemists account for inefficiency in chemical reactions by comparing theoretical calculated
yields to actual yield. When the chemical equation is used to calculate the amount of product that will
be formed in a reaction, a value for the theoretical yield is obtained. This is the maximum amount of
product that can be expected to form from the reactants.

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 Transcript: Honors Chemistry
Chemical Reactions: Formulas, Equations, and Stoichiometry
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In contrast to theoretical yield, actual yields reflect the amount of product that is obtained from
laboratory experiments. Different chemical reactions will vary in the actual yield that can be obtained.
Simply put, some experiments can be conducted more efficiently than others. Two of the many factors
that contribute to decreased efficiency are impure reactants and sloppy laboratory procedures.

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The percent yield compares the amount of product expected to the amount of product actually
obtained. For example, in our sodium chloride reaction, the theoretical yield 16.5 grams would be
produced by reacting ten grams of sodium metal with ten grams of chlorine gas. However, after
conducting the experiment, the actual yield of sodium chloride turned out to be only 14.5 grams. Watch
how the percent yield is determined for this reaction. First, divide the actual yield by the theoretical
yield, and multiply by 100 to convert the decimal to a percent. The percent yield for this reaction is
87.9%, meaning that approximately 88% of the theoretical yield was actually obtained.

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In this program you observed how elements can be rearranged to form compounds as
described by chemical equations. While reviewing atomic structure, we considered the fact that atoms
are too tiny to actually count. The mole concept was then discussed in order to bridge the gap between
individual atoms and practical laboratory quantities, as weighed in grams. Stoichiometry involves
calculations that relate quantities of substances. The mole concept allows for a quantity of a substance,
as measured in grams, to be expressed in units of atoms, molecules, or moles.

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A quantity of a given substance as reported in grams is easily converted to units of moles and
vice versa. However, before performing stoichiometric calculations, you must start with a balanced
equation. Balanced equations properly reflect mole ratios between the reactants and products in a
chemical reaction. Since balanced equations reflect mole ratios, you are now capable of calculating the
amounts of product formed from a known quantity of reactants. After all, chemistry is all about the
manufacturing of compounds, researching new and useful compounds, and furthering knowledge of the
structure and properties of matter.

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