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Scene 2
Air is commonly used as an example of a gas, but its actually a mixture of several gases,
including oxygen, nitrogen, and small amounts of other gases such as carbon dioxide and argon. Air is
used in the internal combustion engine of automobiles and is used to drive power tools, such as
jackhammers. Air is also used to fill car tires, bicycle tubes, air mattresses, balloons, and balls used in
sports and other activities. Air carries sound, such as music or peoples voices. Air also carries scents,
such as the smell of popcorn or food cooking on your neighbors barbeque. Nitrogen gas fills
automobile airbags, which save lives in car accidents. Natural gas is used to heat houses and is used
in gas stoves for cooking. Propane gas is used in your barbeque. Heated gases are what allow hot air
balloons to fly. SCUBA divers use a mixture of gases for breathing underwater.
Without the presence of gases, there would be no life. You must breathe in oxygen gas and
exhale carbon dioxide gas in order to stay alive. Plants are just the opposite. They require carbon
dioxide gas and release oxygen gas. As you can see, gases are a very important part of this world. This
program will explore the properties of gases, the laws that describe the behavior of gases, and how
chemists explain these behaviors.
Scene 3
Before starting an in-depth study of gases, it is important to understand that gases are a form of
matter, and therefore they have mass and occupy space. A couple of simple experiments can be done
to convince you that gases do indeed have mass and occupy space. To show that gases have mass,
weigh a deflated volleyball on a sensitive balance. Fill it with air, and then weigh the inflated volleyball.
The weight of the air inside the volleyball can be found by subtracting the weight of the deflated ball
from that of the inflated one. The weight of the air inside the ball is 5.40 grams. As you can see, air has
mass. Remember from the previous scene that air is a mixture of gases; the total mass of each gas
contributes to the total mass of air.
Scene 4
Do gases also occupy space? An experiment using air as gas shows you that gases do indeed
occupy space. In this experiment, a piece of paper is crumbled up and taped to the bottom of a beaker.
The beaker is inverted and placed in a dish of water. The piece of paper does not get wet because the
air inside the beaker prevents the water from entering the beaker. Tipping the beaker sideways allows
the air inside the beaker to escape and be replaced with water, which wets the paper. The bubbles you
see are evidence of the escaping gas. Air, like all gases, is a type of matter, because it occupies space
and has mass.
Page 1 of 14
Transcript: Honors Chemistry
States of Matter: Gases & Their Properties Tutorial
Scene 5
From the previous demonstrations, you should be convinced that gases have mass and occupy
space. Knowing this, you will start your study of gases by exploring the physical properties common to
all gases. Physical properties are the properties of a substance that can be observed and measured
without chemically changing the substance. To completely describe gases, four factors must be
discussed. These factors are volume, temperature, pressure, and quantity of a gas. They will be
defined, explained, and then used to help you understand the physical properties of gases.
First, when talking about gases, one must specify how much gas they are referring to. This is
called the quantity of a gas, abbreviated n, and is measured in moles. As you may have learned, a
mole contains 6.02 times 1023 particles. Therefore a mole of oxygen gas contains 6.02 times 1023
molecules of oxygen. The number, 6.02 times 1023 particles per mole, is known as Avogadros number.
Scene 6
The next factor used to describe gases is volume, abbreviated V. Volume is the space matter
occupies and is often measured in liters. Earlier you saw experiments that prove gas is a type of matter
because it has mass and occupies space. Furthermore, gases are defined as matter that has indefinite
shape and indefinite volume. Indefinite shape means that gases do not hold their own shape. Instead
they take the shape of their container. This can be seen by blowing air into different shaped balloons.
The amount of gas, in this case air, that fills each balloon is the same, but the shape of the balloon and
therefore the shape of the gas is different. Gases also have indefinite volume. This means that gases
do not have a set volume, but instead completely fill the entire volume of their container. For example, if
a sample of gas is placed in a one liter container, the gas will completely fill the entire liter. If that same
sample of gas is then transferred to a two liter container, it will spread out even more to completely
occupy both liters. Depending on its container, the sample of gas has different volumes. Solids and
liquids, on the other hand, have a definite volume, which means that their volume is always the same,
even if they are placed in a larger container. Because a gas fills up the entire volume of its container,
the volume of a gas is taken as the volume of the container in which it is placed.
Scene 7
If a gas is not held within a closed container, its volume cannot be determined because it
spreads throughout the entire room and eventually into the atmosphere. This happens because each
particle of a gas is constantly moving. Each gas particle moves at a high speed in a straight line,
changing directions only when it collides with something. This constant movement of gas particles
explains why you can smell food when you are far away from it. For example, you can smell popcorn
when you walk near a movie theater because the gas particles responsible for the popcorns smell
move quickly through the air and eventually reach your nose. The ability of a substance to completely
spread out and mix with other substances is called diffusion. One of the properties of gases is that
they diffuse very easily. For example, when you open a container of ammonia, the gas particles quickly
diffuse throughout the room and therefore can be smelled by people on the other side of the room. The
ability of gases to diffuse also explains their indefinite shape and indefinite volume.
Page 2 of 14
Transcript: Honors Chemistry
States of Matter: Gases & Their Properties Tutorial
Scene 8
Because gases do not have definite volume, they can be squeezed or forced into smaller
volumes. The ability to force gases into smaller spaces is a property known as compressibility. A
bicycle pump, for example, works by compressing air as it forces it into bicycle tubes. When the handle
of a bicycle pump is raised, air is drawn into the pump and as the air is pressed down, the air is
compressed or squeeze into a smaller volume. This compressed air then goes into the bicycle tube. A
bicycle pump like this uses physical strength to compress air. Devices that use electrical power to
compress air are called air compressors. Air compressors are commonly used to power tools such as
jackhammers and are used to fill tires, inner tubes, and air mattresses. When camping, many people
sleep on air mattresses because they are more comfortable than sleeping on the ground. The weight of
a person lying on an air mattress forces the air to compress slightly but still allows a soft cushion
between the weight of their body and the uncomfortable rocks and sticks below.
Scene 9
The third factor used to describe gases is temperature, which is abbreviated T. Temperature is
usually measured with a thermometer in degrees Celsius. When studying gases, it is also important to
know the Kelvin temperature scale. Look at the two thermometers. The one on the left is the Celsius
scale and the one on the right is the Kelvin scale. Zero degrees Celsius equals 273K, and 0K equals
273C. It is also important to note that the degree symbol is not used with Kelvin temperatures.
Conversions between degrees Celsius and Kelvins can be made using the formula temperature in
Kelvins equals the temperature in degrees Celsius plus 273. For example, what is the Kelvin
temperature of 25C? Substituting 25 into the degrees Celsius and adding 273, you find that 25C
equals 298K. How many degrees Celsius is 250K? Substituting 250K into the equation, you find that
250K is 23C. You will learn more about the significance of this Kelvin scale later in the program.
Scene 10
The final factor used to describe gases is pressure, abbreviated capital P. You are probably
already familiar with the term pressure. In everyday conversation, perhaps you have talked about tire
pressure, atmospheric pressure, pressure cookers, or water pressure. Perhaps you have experienced
how changes in atmospheric pressure cause your ears to pop when you drive up into or down from the
mountains. Have you ever blown up a balloon? If so, then you have had experience with air pressure.
Air pressure is what gives a balloon its shape, but what exactly is pressure? Pressure is defined as
force exerted on an object per unit area. The pressure inside a balloon is due to the force of the gas
particles striking the inside of the balloon. But what exactly is force? Force is anything that causes an
object to move, change its speed, or change its direction. For example, gravitational force is what
causes objects to move toward the earth. When a book is dropped, the gravity pulls the book toward
the earth. This gravitational pull of the mass of an object is what gives an object its weight. Because
gravity is always acting, the force of an object on earth is known as the weight of the object. Therefore
in the equation for pressure, the weight of an object can be used as the force.
Page 3 of 14
Transcript: Honors Chemistry
States of Matter: Gases & Their Properties Tutorial
Scene 11
Take a look at the following examples of pressure and force. Pressure is force divided by area,
and as you learned in the previous scene, the force on an object due to gravity is the weight of the
object. For objects on earth, pressure can be weight divided by area. For example, a bucket of water
might have a weight of 10kg. When this woman puts the bucket on her head, she feels the pressure the
bucket of water exerts against her head. If the area of her head that contacts the bucket is 35 square
centimeters, what is the pressure she feels? The pressure is the weight of the bucket, 10kg, divided by
35cm2. The pressure felt by the woman is 0.29 kilograms per centimeter squared. A child who carries
the same bucket of water feels a greater pressure because the area of the childs head is smaller, while
the weight of the bucket of water is the same. If the area of the childs head is 20cm2, then the pressure
the child feels is about 0.50kg/cm2. Just as the bucket of water exerts pressure on the head of the
person who carries it, gases exert pressure on the containers that hold them. Gas pressure is due to all
the gas particles colliding with the inner surface of the container in which they are held. These gas
particles are moving in all directions and therefore gases exert pressure in all directions.
Scene 12
In the previous two scenes, you saw that gravity acts on all objects and that the measurement of
an objects mass with respect to the pull of gravity gives an object its weight. This weight divided by the
area over which it acts is known as pressure. What about air? At the beginning of the program, you saw
that air has mass. Just like all other objects, gravity pulls air toward the earth. The result of gravity
pulling the particles in the air toward the ground is known as atmospheric pressure. In fact, at sea
level, a force slightly greater than 101,325 Newtons per square meter is exerted on objects, including
humans. A force of 100,000 Newtons is the same as the force exerted by an object with a mass of
9,070kg, or ten tons. You dont feel this force, however, because the human body exerts an equal
outward force. To get an idea of how powerful atmospheric pressure is, take a look at the following
demonstration. Atmospheric pressure is striking this can in all directions. The can does not collapse,
however, because there is air inside the can exerting the same pressure but in the opposite direction.
Watch what happens as water inside the can is boiled creating steam, which displaces the air. When
the can is inverted and placed in water, the steam condenses and returns to the liquid state. This
creates a vacuum and the can is crushed, because the pressure inside the can is less than the
atmospheric pressure outside the can. In effect, the atmospheric pressure striking the can from the
outside is powerful enough to crush it.
Scene 13
Atmospheric pressure is measured with a barometer. A simple barometer like the one seen on
your screen consists of a glass tube sealed at one end, filled with mercury and turned upside down
onto a dish of mercury. The atmospheric pressure pushes down on the mercury and causes the
mercury to rise into the glass tube. The height of the mercury, measured in millimeters of mercury,
indicates atmospheric pressure. The units millimeters of mercury are also called torr, named after
Evangelista Torricelli, who invented the mercury barometer in 1643. Atmosphere, abbreviated atm, is
another unit to measure pressure. One atmosphere of pressure is equal to 760 mm of mercury and 760
torr. In addition, atmospheric pressure is sometimes reported in the unit bar, and one atmosphere
equals 1.013 bar. At sea level, atmospheric pressure is 101,325 Newtons per square meter, or one
atmosphere. But as altitude increases above sea level, atmospheric pressure decreases. For example,
at the top of Mt. Everest, which is about nine kilometers high, atmospheric pressure is approximately
0.3 atm.
Page 4 of 14
Transcript: Honors Chemistry
States of Matter: Gases & Their Properties Tutorial
Scene 14
While barometers are used to measure atmospheric pressure, a different type of instrument
called a manometer is used to measure the pressure of gases in closed containers. An open-end
manometer like the one on your screen is attached to a gas-filled container, and mercury is inside the
u-tube, which is open to the atmosphere. The pressure exerted by the gas in the container is
determined by reading the height of the mercury in the u-tube. If the mercury level is the same on both
sides, then the gas pressure is the same as the atmospheric pressure. If the level of the mercury is
higher on the open end, then the gas pressure is greater than the atmospheric pressure. The value of
the gas pressure is determined by adding the difference of the two heights to the atmospheric pressure.
If the level of mercury is higher on the side with the enclosed gas, then the gas pressure is less than
the atmospheric pressure. The value of the gas pressure is found by subtracting the difference of the
two heights from the atmospheric pressure.
Scene 15
In our discussion of barometers and manometers, you have seen that pressure can be
measured in units of millimeters of mercury, torr, atmosphere, and bar. The System International, or SI
unit, for pressure is the Pascal, abbreviated Pa, which has units of force per area. One Pascal equals
one newton divided by one square meter. The unit Pascal clearly illustrates the definition of pressure as
force divided by area, because newton is a unit of force and meter squared is a unit of area. One
atmosphere is equal to 101,325 Newtons per square meter, or 101,325 Pascal. Since the Pascal is
very small, kilopascals are generally used instead. 101,325 Pa equals 101.325 kPa. You may be
familiar with pressure gauges that report pressure in psi, which stands for pounds per square inch.
One atmosphere is equal to 14.7 psi.
Because there are so many different units for pressure, it is very important to be able to convert
between different units of pressure. For example, suppose you need to know how many atmospheres
there are in 950 mm Hg. As you will see in the next scene, this can be done using conversion factors.
Scene 16
To determine how many atmospheres there are in 950 mm Hg, you must know that 1 atm is
equal to 760 mm Hg. To do the conversion, organize the information as shown on the screen. In the top
left-hand corner, write what you are starting with, in this case 950 mm Hg. Now, place the conversion
factor in the right-hand side of table, placing the units you want to determine, in this case atmospheres,
on top, and the unit you are trying to get rid of, in this case mm Hg, on the bottom. Just like numbers,
units that are the same on the top and bottom cancel.
Now do the math. 950 mm Hg times 1 atm divided by 760 mm Hg is 1.25 atm. Therefore, 950
mm Hg is equal to 1.25 atm.
The trick for doing conversions is to set them up so that the unwanted units cancel, leaving you
with the units you need in your answer on top. Once that is done, do the math and youll have the
answer.
Scene 17
Here are two more examples.
How many kilopascals are in two atmospheres of pressure? The conversion factor is 1 atm
equals 101.325 kPa. Start with the information you are given, two atmospheres. Now multiply by the
conversion factor arranged so that atmospheres are on the bottom and kilopascals are on top.
Canceling the units and doing the math, you find that 2 atm equal 203 kPa.
Suppose you are asked to convert 1520 torr to bars. Start with the information you are given.
Now use conversion factors to get your answer into bars. Since the table does not contain the direct
conversion from torr to bar, you must first convert torr to atmosphere, then covert atmosphere to bar so
that all units cancel. Doing the math shows that 1520 torr equals 2.026 bar.
Page 5 of 14
Transcript: Honors Chemistry
States of Matter: Gases & Their Properties Tutorial
Scene 18
Remember that one of the properties of gases is that they exert pressure. Another property of
gases is that the pressure a given amount of gas exerts depends on the temperature of the gas. Have
you ever noticed the warning on aerosol cans stating never dispose of the can in a fire? The label is
placed on the can because a heated can rupture violently and cause injury to those near the explosion.
This happens because as the gases inside increase in temperature, the pressure inside the can
increases. Eventually the internal pressure overcomes the strength of the can, causing it to explode.
Similarly, on very hot days the increased air pressure causes the pressure in automobile tires to
increase; on very cold days, the opposite happens. A car owner may have to add air to the tires
because the decrease in temperature causes the air pressure to decrease. From these examples you
can see that the pressure exerted by a gas increases with temperature, therefore pressure and
temperature are related.
Scene 19
In the previous scene, you saw that pressure and temperature are related. In fact, all the factors
used to describe gases are interrelated. Just as you have become familiar with properties of gases,
scientists in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries were also aware of the physical properties of gases. To
learn more about how gases behave, these scientists conducted many experiments which led to the
discovery of the gas laws that describe the relationships between pressure, volume, temperature, and
the amount of a gas. In science, a law is a way of describing behavior that always works in the same
way under the same conditions. These behaviors are formed into laws only after they have been
observed and tested in many experiments. Scientists found the gas laws could describe the behavior of
most gases.
Scene 20
In the 17th century, Robert Boyle, an Irish chemist, studied the relationship between pressure
and volume in gases. In his experiments, he used a j-shaped tube to measure the volume of trapped
gases at different pressures. His results were similar to the data shown on your screen. As you can
see, when the pressure increases, the volume decreases. The opposite is also true. When the pressure
decreases, the volume increases. These experiments led to Boyles Law, which states that at constant
temperature, the pressure of a given amount of gas is inversely proportional to the volume of the gas.
The term inversely proportional means that when one increases, the other decreases.
Scene 21
Factors that are inversely proportional or directly proportional to each other can be turned into
equations by multiplying by a constant. Boyles Law can be expressed as an equation pressure equals
a constant (CB) times one divided by the volume. One divided by the volume is written because the
pressure and the volume are inversely proportional. Later in the program you will see how variables
that are directly proportional are written. Multiplying both sides by V, you can see that pressure times
volume equals the constant. Take a look at the data given earlier. Does the pressure times the volume
equal a constant? The answer is yes. In each experiment, pressure times volume is constant. In this
case, each trial has the value of six.
Page 6 of 14
Transcript: Honors Chemistry
States of Matter: Gases & Their Properties Tutorial
Scene 22
Boyles Law can be written in another way, which allows you to calculate the pressure or volume
of a gas without having to do an experiment. Take a look at how this is done. First, recall that Boyles
Law states that for a given amount of a gas at a constant temperature, the pressure times volume
equals a constant. This can be written as P1 times V1 equals a constant CB1. Now lets assume you
have a different pressure and volume, but the temperature and the number of moles remain the same.
This new set of data can be written P2 times V2 equals a constant CB2. Because both sets of data were
collected at the same temperature and have the same number of moles, constant one and constant two
are equal. As a result of the constants being equal, P1 times V1 must equal P2 times V2. If any three of
these variables are known, the fourth can easily be calculated.
Scene 23
For an example of how Boyles Law is used, consider the following scenario. If a balloon filled
with 2.50 liters of helium at a pressure of 1 atm is released into the sky, what will the volume of the
balloon be when it rises to an altitude where the pressure is 0.900 atm, assuming a constant
temperature. To solve this problem, you can use the equation P1V1 equals P2V2. Assign each variable
in the equation to its corresponding quantity given in the problem. The initial volume, V1, is 2.50 liters,
and the initial pressure P1 is 1 atm. After the balloon is released and rises high into the air, the
conditions change. Here the new pressure P2 is 0.900 atm, and you want to solve for the new volume,
V2. Now that you have the values of three variables, substitute them into the equation and solve for V2.
Solving for V2, you get 2.50 L times 1 atm divided by 0.900 atm. Doing the math, you will find that the
volume of the balloon at a pressure of 0.900 atm is 2.78 L.
Scene 24
Boyles Law states that, for a given amount of gas at a constant temperature, pressure and
volume are inversely proportional. What is the relationship between volume and temperature for a given
amount of gas when the pressure is held constant? To determine this, a balloon inflated at room
temperature has liquid nitrogen, which has a temperature below -195.8C, poured over it. The balloon
shrinks, or more specifically, the volume of the air inside the balloon decreases, causing the balloon to
shrink. When the balloon is allowed to return to room temperature, the air inside it expands. This
experiment shows that a decrease in temperature causes a decrease in volume, and an increase in
temperature causes an increase in volume. As you can see, volume is directly proportional to
temperature.
In the 18th century, a French physicist and balloonist discovered this exact relationship, which is
now known as Charles Law. Charles Law states that the volume of a given amount of gas at constant
pressure is directly proportional to its temperature on the Kelvin scale.
Scene 25
During his research, Charles graphed his data as volume versus temperature and found that the
data for each gas yielded a straight line. When each line was extended to a volume of zero, all the
different gases intersected at -273C. The observation of this unique temperature on the Celsius scale,
at which the volume goes to zero, suggests that a new temperature scale would be helpful. This
temperature is known as absolute zero, since it is theoretically the lowest temperature that can be
reached. In order to have an absolute temperature scale, the Kelvin temperature scale was created
using absolute zero as 0K. A temperature below absolute zero is impossible, because a gas can never
achieve a negative volume or even a volume of zero. Although absolute zero has never been achieved,
experiments have been performed where temperatures within a millionth of a degree above absolute
zero have been recorded. As mentioned earlier, Charles Law states that the volume of a given amount
of gas at constant pressure is directly proportional to its temperature in Kelvins. A proportional
relationship can be changed into an equation by inserting a constant, and Charles Law can be
expressed as volume equals a constant times temperature in Kelvins.
Page 7 of 14
Transcript: Honors Chemistry
States of Matter: Gases & Their Properties Tutorial
Scene 26
Charles Law can be rearranged by dividing both sides by temperature. This gives volume
divided by temperature equals the constant CC. As long as the pressure and number of moles remain
the same, the constant, CC will also be the same, even if volume and temperature change. Therefore V1
divided by T1 equals Cc1, and V2 divided by T2 equals Cc2. Constant 1 and Constant 2 are the same, so
Charles Law can be expressed as V1 divided by T1 equals V2 divided by T2. This equation allows you
to calculate any variable when the other three are known. For example, if a balloon is filled to a volume
of 3.5 L at a temperature of 45C, what will the new volume be when the balloon is taken inside an air
conditioned room at 25C. The starting conditions are V1 is 3.5 L and T1 is 45C. Remember that a
Kelvin temperature must be used, so 45C must be converted to Kelvins, which can easily be done by
adding 273. This yields the temperature 318 K. When the balloon is taken inside, the new temperature
is 25C, which converts to 298 K, so now the new volume can be calculated. Substituting all the
numbers in the equation and doing the math, you find the volume of the balloon inside the air
conditioned building is 3.3 L.
Scene 27
Boyles Law and Charles Law can be combined into an equation called the Combined Gas Law.
The Combined Gas Law is P1V1 divided by T1 equals P2V2 divided by T2. If the temperature is held
constant, you are left with Boyles Law, P1V1 equals P2V2, and if the pressure is held constant, you are
left with Charles Law V1 divided by T1 equals V2 divided by T2. The Combined Gas Law is useful
because it allows you to perform experiments in which the pressure, volume, and temperature change,
but the moles of gas remain constant.
The Combined Gas Law can be used to solve the following problem. Nitrogen gas is stored in a
container with an initial volume of 3 L and a pressure of 1 atm at 25C. Decreasing the volume causes
the pressure to increase to 1.6 atm and the temperature to increase to 45C. What is the new volume?
First, match the numbers in the question to the variables. V1 is 3 L; P1 is 1 atm; and T1 is 25C, which is
298K. After the volume is decreased, the pressure P2 is 1.6 atm and the temperature, T2, is 45C,
which is 318 K. V2 is the new volume, which must be calculated. Second, solve for V2 by moving T2 and
P2 to the other side of the equation. Third, substitute all the numbers into the Combined Gas Law
equation. Using a calculator, you find V2 equals 2 L.
Scene 28
The Combined Gas Law shows the relationship of pressure, volume, and temperature when the
number of moles of gas remains constant. What happens when the number of moles of gas changes?
An Italian chemist, Amadeo Avogadro, studied the relationship between the number of moles of a gas
and its volume. He found that all gases with an equal number of particles also have equal volumes
when the pressure and temperature are held constant. Increasing the number of gas particles
increases the volume, and decreasing the number of molecules decreases the volume. This led to
Avogadros Law, which states that at constant temperature and pressure, the volume of a gas is directly
proportional to the number of moles of the gas. Avogadros Law can be illustrated by blowing up a
balloon. Blowing air into a balloon increases the number of air particles in the balloon, and as you can
see, the volume of the balloon also increases. Because the volume of the gas is directly proportional to
the number of moles of the gas, Avogadros Law can be expressed as the equation volume equals the
number of moles (n) times the constant CA. This can also be written as volume divided by the number
of moles equals the constant CA. As long as the temperature and pressure remain the same, the
constant CA will always be the same. Avogadros Law can therefore be written as V1 divided by n1
equals V2 divided by n2.
Page 8 of 14
Transcript: Honors Chemistry
States of Matter: Gases & Their Properties Tutorial
Scene 29
For Avogadros Law to apply, temperature and pressure must be constant. To provide a frame
of reference, many measurements are reported at 0C and 1.0 atm of pressure. This specific
temperature and pressure is called standard temperature and pressure and is abbreviated as STP. At
STP, a mole of any type of gas occupies 22.4 L, which is known as standard molar volume. Standard
molar volume and Avogadros number are useful for converting between liters, moles, or particles. For
example, how many oxygen molecules are in 2.3 L of oxygen gas at STP? Using standard molar
volume as the conversion factor, you can determine that 2.3 L contain 0.1027 moles. Avogadros
number is used next to convert from moles to particles. 0.1027 moles of oxygen gas contains 6.18
times 1022 molecules of oxygen.
Scene 30
Standard molar volume can also be used to solve questions, such as what is the volume of
0.402 moles of a gas at STP? Using standard molar volume as the conversion factor, you find that
0.402 moles of a gas takes up a volume of nine liters. These calculations can be taken a step further by
converting between moles and grams. From your previous studies in chemistry, you should recall that
moles can easily be converted to grams using the molecular mass of the substance. How many grams
of oxygen are in 0.103 moles? The molar mass of an oxygen atom is 16 grams per mole, so molecular
oxygen containing two oxygen atoms has a molar mass of 32 grams per mole. Multiplying this by
the number of moles, you find that 0.103 moles of oxygen has a mass of 3.3 grams.
Scene 31
Methane, the chief component of natural gas, reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide, water,
and heat. In a Bunsen burner, how much oxygen is needed to completely burn 12 L of methane?
Because the gas laws can work for a variety of gases, this question can be answered using Avogadros
Law. V1 divided by n1 equals V2 divided by n2. From your previous study of chemistry, you are probably
already aware that the coefficients in the balanced chemical equation represent the number of moles of
each compound. You are given the volume of methane to be 12 L, so assign that value to V1. Looking
at the balanced equation, there is only one mole of methane, so n1 equals one, and there are two
moles of oxygen, so n2 equals two. Now the values can be plugged into the equation and the equation
can be solved for V2, which represents the volume of oxygen needed to completely burn 12 L of
methane. Solving the equation, you should find that 24 L of oxygen are required to completely burn 12
L of methane.
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Now it is time to relate all four factors used to describe gases into one equation. This can be
done by combining the three gas laws you have just learned. Remember, Avogadros Law states that
volume is proportional to number of moles of gas. Charles Law states that volume is proportional to
temperature, and Boyles Law states that volume is inversely proportional to pressure. Putting these
together, you find that volume is proportional to the number of moles times the temperature divided by
pressure. Like all proportions, this can be changed into an equation by inserting a constant. The
universal gas constant, symbolized by the letter R, is inserted, and both sides are multiplied by P to
give PV equals nRT. This equation is called the Ideal Gas Law. The Ideal Gas Law describes the
behavior of ideal gases. As you will learn later in the program, there is no such thing as an ideal gas.
But at pressures of 1 atm or less, and at room temperature, most gases behave ideally.
Page 9 of 14
Transcript: Honors Chemistry
States of Matter: Gases & Their Properties Tutorial
Scene 33
In order to use the Ideal Gas Law, the value of the universal gas constant must be known. It can
be calculated by inserting standard temperature, pressure, and volume for one mole of gas into the
equation. Standard temperature is 273 K; pressure is 1 atm; volume is 22.4 L, and there is one mole of
gas. Rearrange the Ideal Gas Law to solve for R, then plug these values into the equation and solve.
The universal constant has a value of 0.0821 liters-atmosphere divided by Kelvin-mole. Using the value
of R, the Ideal Gas Law can be used to calculate the fourth factor when the other three variables in the
equation are known. For example, how many moles of propane gas (C3H8) are contained in a 20 L tank
at a pressure of 3 atm at 25C? This can be determined using the Ideal Gas Law, PV equals nRT. From
the question, you know that the volume is 20 L; the pressure is 3 atm; the temperature is 25C, which
converts to 298 K, and the universal gas constant is 0.0821 liter-atmosphere divided by Kelvin-mole.
The only unknown is the number of moles. Rearrange the gas law to solve for n. Next, substitute the
values into the equation and solve. There are 2.5 moles of propane gas.
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The Ideal Gas Law does not specify the identity of the gas. Sometimes gases are pure, but
oftentimes mixtures of gases are used. How does the Ideal Gas Law account for gas mixtures? The
English chemist John Dalton discovered the answer to this. He found that each gas in a mixture exerts
the same pressure as it would if it were in a container by itself. The pressure exerted by each
component of the mixture, called partial pressure, is added together to find the total pressure exerted
by the gas mixture. For example, the partial pressure of gas A, gas B, and gas C can be added
together to find the total pressure of the mixture in this case, 1400 kPa. This discovery is known as
Daltons Law of Partial Pressure, which states that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is
equal to the sum of the partial pressures of each gas in the mixture. This is expressed mathematically
as Ptotal equals PA plus PB plus PC, and so on.
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Air is a mixture of gases, containing nitrogen, oxygen, and small amounts of other gases, such
as carbon dioxide and argon. In a sample of air at sea level, the partial pressure of nitrogen is 0.781
atm; oxygen is 0.210 atm, and the partial pressure of other gases combined is 0.009 atm. What is the
total pressure exerted by air? Adding these gives a total pressure of 1 atm, which you learned earlier is
the atmospheric pressure at sea level. The Ideal Gas Law, when used for a gas mixture, can be written
as Ptotal equals ntotal times RT divided by V. Daltons discovery that each gas acts independently also
enables you to use the Ideal Gas Law to calculate pressure or the number of moles of any component
of the mixture. For example, in a mixture containing gases A, B, and C, you can find the partial
pressure of any of the gases by using the Ideal Gas Law for the individual gas. If you want to find the
partial pressure of gas A in the mixture, you can use the Ideal Gas Law in the form PAV equals nART.
Dividing both sides by V gives a similar equation as shown above for the total pressure of gases in a
mixture.
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Transcript: Honors Chemistry
States of Matter: Gases & Their Properties Tutorial
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Have you ever noticed that a Mylar balloon filled with helium stays inflated longer than a rubber
balloon that is also filled with helium? The movement of a gas through a small hole into an area of
lower pressure is called effusion. A balloon filled with helium eventually deflates as the helium inside
the balloon effuses through tiny holes in the rubber or Mylar. Helium effuses from rubber balloons faster
than Mylar balloons because the tiny holes, or pores, in rubber are larger than those in Mylar, making it
easier for the helium to escape from the balloon. In addition to the size of the hole, the mass of the gas
particles also determines how fast the molecules effuse. Have you ever noticed that balloons filled with
air stay inflated longer than balloons filled with helium? This is because the air particles are heavier and
much larger than helium particles. Thomas Graham, a Scottish chemist, studied the effusion of gases
and formulated Grahams Law, which states that the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to
the square root of its molar mass. This means that the heavier the gas particles, the slower they effuse,
and the lighter the gas particles, the faster they effuse.
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The effusion rate of different gases can be compared using Grahams Law of Effusion in its
mathematical form. The rate of effusion of gas1 divided by the rate of effusion of gas2 equals the square
root of the molar mass of gas2 divided by the square root of the molar mass of gas1. Compare the
effusion rates of hydrogen and oxygen. The molar mass of hydrogen is two grams per mole and the
molar mass of oxygen is 32 grams per mole. If hydrogen is gas1 and oxygen is gas2, then the molar
masses can be substituted into the equation so that the square root of 32 is divided by the square root
of two. The answer is four, which means that hydrogen effuses roughly four times faster than oxygen.
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Lets review what you have learned so far. First, you learned that gases can be described using
the four factors: numbers of moles, volume, temperature, and pressure. Next you learned some
physical characteristics of gases. Gases have mass and occupy space; gases have indefinite shape
and volume and therefore completely fill their container; gases diffuse; gases are compressible; gases
exert pressure, and the pressure gases exert depends on their temperature. Lastly you learned the gas
laws: Boyles Law, Charles Law, Avogadros Law, the Ideal Gas Law, Daltons Law of Partial Pressure,
and Grahams Law of Effusion. Putting all this information together, you should have an excellent idea
of how gases behave. But why do gases behave like this? In the 19th century, after the gas laws had
been formulated, scientists wanted to know more. They wanted to be able to understand and explain
how the behavior of gases at the atomic level generated the observed behavior.
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In order to understand why gases follow a common set of gas laws, scientists were in need of a
theory that explained the behavior of gases. A theory is a thoroughly tested model consisting of
assumptions that explain observed behaviors. More specifically, in chemistry a theory is an explanation
of the way the behavior of atoms and molecules leads to the observed events that occur in nature and
in the laboratory. Why gases behave the way they do is explained by the Kinetic Molecular Theory. The
Kinetic Molecular Theory explains that matter is made up of particles that are in constant motion. This
theory applies to solids, liquids, and gases, but this program will focus on how the Kinetic Molecular
Theory applies to the behavior of gases.
Page 11 of 14
Transcript: Honors Chemistry
States of Matter: Gases & Their Properties Tutorial
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The Kinetic Molecular Theory makes five assumptions when explaining the behavior of gases.
The first assumption is that gases are composed of particles, such as molecules or atoms, that are in
constant random motion. This constant random motion is what gives gases their indefinite shape and
indefinite volume. Constant random motion is also what allows gases to diffuse easily. A second
assumption of the Kinetic Molecular Theory states that the volume of individual gas particles is zero.
This assumption is made because gas particles are so small compared to the huge amount of space
separating them that their volume can essentially be ignored. The compressibility of gases is explained
by this part of the theory. By decreasing the space between the molecules, gases can be squeezed into
smaller areas.
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The third assumption of the Kinetic Molecular Theory is that the average kinetic energy of a
sample of gas particles is proportional to the Kelvin temperature of the gas. To understand this
assumption, you need to know about kinetic energy. Kinetic energy, abbreviated KE, is the energy of
motion, and is mathematically defined as half the mass of an object times the square of its speed, v. In
this discussion, the object referred to is an individual gas particle. All the particles in a pure gas have
the same mass, but different speeds and therefore different kinetic energies. The graph on your screen
shows a distribution of molecular speeds in a sample of nitrogen gas at 1273K. An increase in
temperature causes an increase in speed for the gas particles, and a decrease in temperature causes a
decrease in speed for the gas particles. Instead of talking about each gas particle, it is easier to
average the speeds and discuss the average speed of the gas sample. Average is denoted by placing
a line above the v. Using the average speed gives an average kinetic energy, also denoted with a line
on top. The Kinetic Molecular Theory assumes that the average kinetic energy of gas particles is
proportional to the Kelvin temperature of the gas. Can you see how this explains why the pressure
exerted by gases depends on temperature? The faster the particles move, the more kinetic energy they
have, so the harder and more frequently they hit the walls of the container and therefore the more
pressure they exert.
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The fourth assumption of the Kinetic Molecular Theory states that when gas particles collide
with the walls of their container or with each other, they do so without losing any energy. The collisions
are known as perfectly elastic collisions because no energy is lost. Normally when objects collide, they
lose energy. For example, when you drop a bouncy ball, each collision with the ground causes the ball
to lose energy, so the ball does not subsequently bounce as high. A perfectly elastic ball would bounce
back to exactly the same height after each collision. If gas particles lost energy every time they collided,
they would lose energy and slow down so much that they would change into a liquid. Under normal
conditions, gases do not just change into liquids; therefore the collisions of gas particles must be
perfectly elastic.
The fifth and final assumption of the Kinetic Molecular Theory assumes that under normal
temperature and pressure, the attractive forces between gas particles are negligible, meaning that gas
particles neither attract nor repel each other. One of the properties of gases you learned about earlier
was that a gas takes up the entire volume of the container it occupies. Since the attractions between
gas particles are negligible, they occupy the entire volume of the container.
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Transcript: Honors Chemistry
States of Matter: Gases & Their Properties Tutorial
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To summarize, the Kinetic Molecular Theory makes five basic assumptions about gases. First, it
assumes that gases are made up of particles that are in constant, random motion. Second, it assumes
that the volume of individual gas particles is zero. Third, the Kinetic Molecular Theory assumes that the
average kinetic energy of the gas particles is proportional to the Kelvin temperature of the gas. Fourth,
gas particles collide with the walls of the container and with each other without losing energy. Fifth, the
Kinetic Molecular Theory assumes that the gas particles do not attract or repel each other.
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Now that you are familiar with the Kinetic Molecular Theory, lets see how well it explains the
Ideal Gas Law, which was derived from experiment. The Kinetic Molecular Theory states that the
particles in a gas are constantly moving. Gas pressure is the result of these particles colliding with the
walls of the container. The number of times particles collide and the average force of each collision
determine the pressure of the gas. Increasing the temperature causes the average kinetic energy to
increasing, causing both the number of collisions and the average force per collision to increase.
Therefore, when the number of moles of the gas and its volume are held constant, an increase in
temperature causes the pressure to increase. The Kinetic Molecular Theory, agreeing with the Ideal
Gas Law, states that temperature and pressure are proportional. What happens if the temperature is
increased while the pressure and quantities of a gas are held constant? The increase in temperature
must be followed by increase in volume to assure constant pressure. Therefore volume is directly
proportional to temperature. You should remember this as Charles Law.
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Now take a look at what happens when the number of particles is increased while pressure and
temperature are held constant. Increasing the number of particles increases the number of collisions,
which would increase the pressure. But the pressure in this experiment is held constant. Therefore, in
order to keep the pressure constant, the volume must increase. The volume is therefore proportional to
the number of particles. This should be familiar to you as Avogadros Law.
Lastly, what happens when the volume is decreased and the number of moles and temperature
are held constant? When the volume is decreased, the gas particles within the container are
compressed. Since the temperature has not changed in this example, the average kinetic energy of the
particles has not changed. However, the pressure increases because the same number of particles is
contained within a smaller volume and thus hit the wall more often. The Kinetic Molecular Theory
suggests that pressure and volume are inversely proportional; you should remember this as Boyles
Law.
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As you have seen, the Kinetic Molecular Theory agrees with the Ideal Gas Law. This is
important because the Ideal Gas Law comes from experiment. The better the agreement between
experiment and theory, the better the theory. The Kinetic Molecular Theory explains the behavior of
ideal gases perfectly, but what about real gases? There is no such thing as an ideal gas. The gases in
our world are real, and they only behave ideally under certain conditions. Gases behave ideally at room
temperature and at a pressure of one atmosphere or less. As these conditions change, gases behave
less and less ideally and do not follow the Ideal Gas Law. This tends to happen at high pressures and
low temperatures because under these conditions, assumptions made for ideal gases are no longer
valid.
Page 13 of 14
Transcript: Honors Chemistry
States of Matter: Gases & Their Properties Tutorial
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The Kinetic Molecular Theory assumes that ideal gas particles have no volume, although they
actually do have volume. As you learned earlier, their volume is just so small compared to the space
between particles that at low pressures their volume is not significant. At high pressures, however, the
particles of gas are pushed so close together that their volume can no longer be assumed to be zero.
This is one way that real gases deviate from the ideal gases. Another assumption that is not valid for
real gases is that gas particles do not attract each other. As you already probably know, all gases can
be turned into liquids at low enough temperatures. Particles in the gas phase are attracted to each
other, but the gas particles are moving so fast that these attractive forces are not significant. When the
temperature of the gas particles is decreased, the gas particles slow down, and the attractions between
them become significant. At low enough temperatures, the attraction between gas particles becomes so
great that a liquid forms. The attractions between real gases cause them to deviate from the Ideal Gas
Law. Although the Kinetic Molecular Theory makes two false assumptions, it is still an excellent and
simple model that accurately describes and explains real gases under standard conditions.
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An understanding of the gas laws and the Kinetic Molecular Theory helped Jacques Cousteau
and Emile Gagnan develop the equipment for SCUBA diving. SCUBA stands for Self-Contained
Underwater Breathing Apparatus and allows people to breathe while underwater. At the surface of the
ocean, air exerts a pressure of 1 atm on a persons lungs. Once a diver descends to a depth of 10 m,
the water exerts a pressure of 2 atm. For each additional 10 m down, the pressure increases 1 atm on
the diver. At a depth of about 40 m, a divers lungs could not inflate and the diver would be unable to
breathe. SCUBA regulates the pressure of the gases the diver breathes so the pressure inside the
divers lungs is equal to the pressure exerted against the body. This allows the diver to inhale a normal
volume but at a higher pressure. Using Boyles Law, what would you expect to happen to the diver if
she ascended quickly while holding her breath? Since the pressure against the divers lungs would
decrease, the volume of her lungs would increase, causing her lungs to rupture. To avoid such injuries,
SCUBA divers must breathe while they ascend slowly.
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This concludes your study of gases and their properties. You now know that a gas is a state of
matter that behaves according to gas laws. During this program, you learned several contributions that
scientists have made in understanding the behavior of gases. Boyles Law relates volume and
pressure. Charles Law relates volume and temperature. And Avogadros Law relates volume and the
number of moles. These factors all come together in the Ideal Gas Law. You have learned that these
experimentally determined laws are explained by the Kinetic Molecular Theory, which agrees
remarkably well with the experimentally determined Ideal Gas Law for gases under standard conditions.
However, gases do not always behave ideally, especially at high pressures and low temperatures. By
now you should recognize that many gases are important in daily life. In fact, some gases are even
essential for life. Understanding the properties of gases has helped people to invent safety airbags,
SCUBA gear, the internal combustion engine, and much more. As you leave today, look for all the
different types of gases being used around you and think about how the Kinetic Molecular Theory
explains the behavior of these gases.
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