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NOTES FOR CURRICULUM MATERIALS, DEVELOPMENT & PROCESSES

A. Teaching Materials
Teaching materials can take several A key feature of effective
forms. These include printed materials (books, teaching is the selection of
workbooks, worksheets, readers), non-print instructional materials that
materials (cassette, audio materials, videos), meet the needs of students and
both print and nonprint sources (self-access fit the constraints of the
materials, materials on the Internet). These also teaching and learning
include magazines, newspapers and TV environment.
programs.

Two Categories of Teaching Materials/Instructional Resources

We could sort instructional resources into two categories. Student-centered
instructional resources can be used for tutorials, problem-solving, discovery and
review. In contrast, teacher-centered resources are used for presentations of
supplementary or primary materials in the classroom.

Roles of Materials

Cunnigsworth (1995) details the role of materials in the teaching process.

According to him, materials could be:

A resource for presentation materials

A source of activities for learner practice and communicative
interaction
A reference source for learners on grammar, vocabulary,
pronunciation and so on
A source of stimulation and ideas for classroom activities
A syllabus
A support for less experienced teachers

Some Questions to ask regarding Functions of Materials

teaching materials
1. What issues should I consider
when selecting instructional
materials?
2. How can I use electronic
resources to enhance student
learning?
3. How can I help my students use
textbooks more effectively?
Dudley-Evans & St. John (1998) states
that materials function as a source of language,
act as a learning support, useful for motivation
and stimulation and acts as reference.
Authentic versus Created Materials
Authentic materials are teaching
resources that are not specially prepared for
pedagogical purpose. In contrast, created
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materials are textbooks and other specially developed instructional resources.

Advantages of authentic materials

Peacock (1997), Clarke (1989), Phillips & Shettlesworth (1978) details the
advantages of authentic materials in the teaching process. They state that
authentic materials have a positive effect on learner motivation, provide
authentic cultural information about the target culture, provide exposure to real
language, relate more closely to learners needs and support a more creative
approach to teaching.

Critics of using authentic materials

These are some criticisms of using authentic materials in the teaching

process. Authentic materials often contain difficult language. This is in contrast
with created materials that are developmentally suited to the learners needs
and take the development process into account. Moreover, created materials can
also be motivating for learners. Created materials may be superior to authentic
materials because they are generally built around a graded syllabus. Lastly,
using authentic materials can be a burden for teachers in that time is spent
looking for authentic materials that would be suited for class, given the
intentions and objectives of the teacher.

Trends and Changes in Created Materials

Textbooks

McKechie (1994) notes:

my years of experience in attempting to assess teaching Books are a highly

portable form of
effectiveness have led me to think that the textbook, more information and can be
than any other element of the course, determines student accessed when, where,
and at whatever rate and
learning. level of detail the reader
desires.
Advantages of Textbooks For many people, visual
processing is faster than
Well-chosen textbooks can help students understand how auditory processing,
making textbook a very
content could be understood and organized. effective resource
.(McKeachie, 1994)
Limitations of Textbooks

Textbook s are not inherently interactive, thick books overwhelm students who are seeking
key information, and texts are often forced to rely on historical or dated examples, and they
rarely give a sense of the discovery aspect and the disorganization experienced in the
modern world. (?)
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Textbooks and Effective Learning

Research on textbook and effective learning has focused on two general areas, namely, text
structure and layout. Text structure has focused on how the reader builds cognitive
representations from texts. For layout, one of the most effective types of illustration,
especially for students with low verbal aptitude is a simple multicolour line drawing.
Realistic drawings or photographs are less effective at enhancing student learning.
(sources)

Considerations in choosing a textbook

When you choose the textbook you will be using for class, you have to look at it from
the points of view of novice users. Some of the questions to consider are: Is it accessible? Is
it clear? Is it organized in a useful way?

Moreover, you have to consider the information contained and the (physical?) weight
of the book. A single large encyclopaedic text, of which only certain chapters will be used,
may be selected by a professor who thinks that the student ought to have all of that texts
material available. But a book which is more appropriate for the course may be available,
often at a substantially lower cost for the student.

What you could do is to choose a book that contains most of the information that is
needed, and supplement it with additional readings. This would also alert the students to
the existence of other resources.

You have to match the text to the audience in terms of its preparation and prior
knowledge. The text should be readable from the students point if view. Moreover, the book
should be checked carefully for errors.

The assumption is that created materials, especially textbooks, have changed and will
continue to change throughout the years, and as informed by educational theory. As an
example, we can compare the past and current trends in English language textbooks.

Past and current trends in English language textbooks

Then Now
Author and academic centered Market-led
Uncertain global market Specific fragmented markets (?)
European focus Pacific Rim/Latin American focus
Sells what is published International or local culture (?)
Culture and methodology of origin Indigenous learning situations
English for its own sake (?) English for specific purposes (?)
UK/US publisher dominance Rise in local publishing
Native speaker expertise Non-native speaker competence
Low risk/competition Culturally sensitive
Little design High risk/competition
Artificial texts and tasks Design rich
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Single-volume titles Authenticity

Multicomponent/multimedia

Advantages of using commercial textbooks

These are some of the advantages of using commercial textbooks. First, it can
provide structure and a syllabus for a program. It can help standardize instruction,
maintain quality.

Negative effects of using commercial textbooks

Using commercial textbooks can also have negative effects. Some of the issues that
may arise from using commercial textbooks is that they may contain inauthentic language,
sometimes they may distort content, they can also not reflect students needs, they can
deskill teachers, and the textbooks can be expensive.

Evaluating textbooks

Before we can evaluate textbooks, information is needed on the following issues. These
include:

The role of the textbook in the program (ex. Will it be used with small classes or
large classes?)
The teachers in the program (ex. Are they free to adapt and supplement the book)
The learners in the program (ex.

Criteria for textbook evaluation

According to Cunningsworth (1995), textbooks must corresponds to learners needs

in the sense that it must match the aims and objectives of the x (language learning
program). It must also reflect present or future uses, take account of students needs, have
a clear role as a support for learning,

He also constructed a checklist for textbook evaluation and selection that can be
organized considering these categories. Cunningsworth suggests that you could look at the
aims and approaches used in the book, its design and organization, language content, skills
considered and developed, topic, methodology, the inclusion of a teachers book or manual,
and any other practical considerations of concern (ex. price).

Dudley Evans & St. John (1998) suggests these questions to ask when selecting ESP
materials. Will the materials stimulate and motivate? To what extent does the material
match the stated learning objectives and your learning objectives? To what extent will the
materials support the learning process?
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Some factors to be considered in textbook evaluation and selection include program

factors, teacher factors, learner factors, content factors and pedagogical factors.

Adapting textbooks

According to Dudley-Evans & St. John (1998), a good provider of materials will be
able to select appropriately from what is available, be creative with what is available,
modify activities to suit learners needs and supplement by providing extra activities.

Adaptation of textbooks could be categorized in these forms. The content of the book
could be modified, added or deleted, reorganized, address omissions, modify the tasks
specified or to extend the tasks specified.

Challenges for Educators B. Preparing materials for a

The speed of personal computers and
the ease of authoring systems permit
instructors to design and customize
computer-based audiovisual
presentations and to develop
computer-based assignments for
their students.
*What if the teacher lacks the
technical know-how?
program
The advantages of preparing your own
materials for a program include knowing the
relevance, the development of expertise, for
purposes of reputation and flexibility. The
disadvantages include cost, quality and
training.

The nature of materials development

According to Shulman (1987), when developing materials you have to follow certain
steps. Materials development generally goes through this process:

Preparation
Representation
Selection
Adapting and tailoring them

According to Tomlinson (1998), good language teaching materials have the following
characteristics. Materials should achieve impact, help learners feel at ease, help
learners develop confidence, be relevant and useful to students, require and facilitate
learner self-investment, expose the learners to language in authentic use, provide the
learners with opportunities for outcome feedback, learners must be ready to acquire the
points being taught.

Decisions in material design

When developing the material design, you have to go through the process of developing
aims, developing objectives, developing a syllabus, organizing the course into units,
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developing a structure for units, sequencing units, choosing inputs and sources and the
selection of exercise types.

Usually input and sources materials include grammar materials, listening materials,
reading materials, writing materials and speaking materials. If you are outsourcing
materials that already published then you have to get copyright permission before using
them.

Issues to Consider when selecting instructional resources

In selecting instructional resources we have to consider the effect of the resources,

methodologies, and technologies in student learning; manner by which students use them;
students learning from them; type of students using them and the extent by which students
use them.

Selecting exercise types

These are some examples of exercises that involve a nonlinguistic response to the text.
There is ordering a sequence of picture, comparing texts and pictures, matching, using
illustrations, completing a document, mapping it out, using the information in a text,
jigsaw reading.

Examples of exercises that involve a linguistic response include reorganizing information:

recording events, reorganizing information: using grids, comparison of texts.

Managing a materials writing project

A team based writing project involves selecting the project team, planning the number of
stages involved, identifying reviewers, planning the writing schedule, piloting the materials
and design and production.

Monitoring and the use of materials

Different forms of monitoring include observation, feedback sessions, written reports,

review and students reviews.

C. IT Use in Teaching and Learning

The internet allows users at remote locations to sign-on to computers where they have
accounts, often using connection software called telnet. It provides free public access to
documents in electronic form. Rapid electronic communication ad document sharing
replaces phone conversations and meetings and facilitates collaboration.

The Worldwide Web is a system of linking information in a way that allows for easy
movements between related documents and sutes.
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Examples of faculty and student use of web resources.

Course web pages give students easy access to assigned readings and
reference materials.
Student presentations to their classmates through creation of Web
pages.
Student access to information for papers or research projects and
access to information through discussion on the latest topics.

Advantages of Interactive Computer Software

Using interactive computer softwares can increase motivation because software packages
offer feedback and respond to the questions and uncertainties of the student. It can also
provide an increased enjoyment of learning because students shift from the passive role of
receiving knowledge from the more passive role of accepting knowledge.

D. Principles of Curriculum and Instructional Design

University of Duelph constructed principles to be applied in curriculum and
instructional design. Curriculum and instruction must be guided by the principles of equity,
accessibility, explicitness, consistency, supportiveness, flexibility. Equity in that it must
ensure equity in access, materials, practices and outcomes. It must be accessible and fair.
The curriculum must be explicitly presented and readily perceived by its audience. It must
be straightforward and consistent; be able to provide a supportive learning environment as
well as provide flexibility in use, participation and presentation. It must also be able to
minimize unnecessary physical requirement and ensure a learning space that
accommodates both students and instructional methods.

Park and Hannafins (1993) and Sherrys (1996) Matrix on the Principles of Curriculum
and Instructional Design and Its Application

Principle Application
1. Related prior knowledge is the single Layer and abstract information provide
most powerful influence in mediating various perspectives.
subsequent learning. Let learners assemble their own connections
between known and new knowledge.
2. New knowledge becomes increasingly Make lessons explicit
meaningful when integrated with Embed cues and prompts to make students
existing knowledge. generate their own meaning
Summarize key relationships
3. Learning is organized by the supplied Organize with multiple modes (audio, video,
organization of concepts to be text, demonstration, interfaces, etc.)
learned. Use organization of knowledge techniques
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(mind maps, schematics, tables, timelines,

etc.)
4. Knowledge to be learned needs to be Allow for different responses to content
organized in ways that reflect Provide movement from general to specific
differences in learner familiarity with Use relational learning techniques
lesson content, the nature of the Use hierarchies and outlines
learning task and assumptions about
the structure of knowledge.
5. Knowledge utility improves as Provide time to reflect and talk about the
processing and understanding lesson.
deepen.
6. Knowledge is best integrated when Use relational learning techniques to draw
unfamiliar concepts can be related to relationships.
familiar concepts. Use familiar visual, procedural, verbal and
conceptual ones.
7. Learning improves as the number of Use media and examples that relate directly
complementary stimuli used to to and complement information.
represent learning content increases.
8. Learning improves as the amount of Use techniques to focus learners attentions
invested mental effort increases. by highlighting and asking questions.
9. Learning improves as the amount of Use techniques to focus learners attentions
invested mental effort increases. by highlighting and asking questions.
10. Learning improves as competition for Present new and challenging information vy
similar cognitive resources decreases, using familiar conventions and avoiding
and declines as competition for the superfluous information.
same resources increases.
11. Transfer improves when knowledge Create authentic examples and contexts for
is situated in authentic contexts. lessons and learning.
12. Knowledge flexibility increases as the Use methods that allow for differing
number of perspectives on a given perspectives and cross referencing.
topic increases and the conditional
nature of knowledge is understood.
13. Knowledge of details improve as Provide activities that clearly define tasks
instructional activities are made and that integrate diverse elements.
more explicit, while understanding Ask focus questions and open-ended
improves as the activities are made questions.
more integrative. Use advance organizers.
14. Feedback increases the likelihood of Provide timely, clear, constructive feedback.
learning response-relevant lesson Use sandwich feedbacking techniques
content and decreases the likelihood Use debriefing method.
of learning response-irrelevant lesson
content.
15. Shifts in attention improve the Emphasize key concepts, terms, principles,
learning of related concepts. and skills by amplification and repetition.
16. Learners become confused and Provide clear procedures
disoriented when procedures are Use consistent techniques for presenting
complex, insufficient, or inconsistent. procedural knowledge
Prompt clear routes for on-line navigation
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17. Visual representations of lesson Use mind maps, schematics, graphs, tables,
content and structure improve the animations and other techniques to visualize
learners awareness of both the relationships.
conceptual relationships and
procedural requirements of a
learning system.
18. Individuals vary widely in their Individualize procedures by using modules
needs for guidance. Provide feedback to individual students that
directly relates to the situation.
19. Learning systems are most efficient Provide individualized feedback.
when they adapt to relevant Individualize procedures by using modules.
individual differences.
20. Metacognitive demands are greated Assist learners to monitor their own
for loosely structured learning learning by using self-checks, asking
environments than for highly questions.
structured ones. Provides opportunities for learners to
develop directions, rules of thumb and
strategies.
21. Learning is facilitated when system Provide access to resources that are pre-
features are functionally self-evident, organized.
logically organized, easily accessible, Design modules that are clearly defined.
and readily deployed.
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Homework:

1st assignment: Evaluate your textbook using Cunningsworths checklist. (copyright,

author)

2nd assignment: Research on studies conducted on the impact of instructional

materials on the learning of students. (just look at the research abstract (2)). Select one
research abstract to share with the class.

The tremendous increases in rates of Carefully scripted presentations and

information transfer, access to the activities run the risk of
Internet, and posting of materials on emphasizing teacher delivery rather
the World Wide Web give instructors than student learning.
and students an almost limitless
supply of resource materials. Carefully planned and prepared
instructional resources sometimes
Because it is limitless, which of ttempt instructors to race ahead and
those available is appropriate for my to cover more.
students?
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Ma. Flora Nina Rey CILS

HOMEWORK #1

Book Title: Economics: Principles and Practices

Author: Gary E. Clayton

Copyright: McGraw Hill (2007)

CUNNINGSWORTHS CHECKLIST OF CRITERIA FOR BOOK EVALUATION

The book is student-centered in that the book

is structured and presented in a way that is
accommodating its audience of Junior HS
students. Its textual presentation and layout,
the handbooks presented, and supplementary
digital materials focus on developing the skills
of students through the use for tutorials,
Aims and approaches used in the book
problem-solving, discovery and review.
It also incorporated authentic materials for its
content. It partnered with National
Geographic for its reference atlases and
Standard & Poors for its data, forecasts &
references and with BusinessWeek for its
articles, which are used as cases presented in
the book.
The book is structured into units, the
structuring of units is constructive and
progressive.
Stimulating because of the colored texts,
Design and organization pictures, and the use of authentic materials.
Clear and coherent because of the chapter
summaries, definition of concepts and main
ideas.
Provides visual summaries, interactive pages
to cater to different learning styles.
Uses English, has an English and Spanish
glossary.
It lists content and academic vocabularies
Language content
that were used in the textbook chapters. Has
supporting activities to check for
comprehension of the vocabularies listed.
There is a skills handbook that details the
skills that are integrated in the book, and
Skills developed provides an explanation how they could be
useful. The skills to be developed in the book
are sorted into two broad categories: critical

Topic
Methodology
Inclusion of teachers book/manual
Practical considerations
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thinking skills (ex. making generalizations,
detecting bias) and economic skills (ex.
comparing data, understanding nominal and
real values). A description of the skill as
presented in the book is comprised of four
sections: why learn the skill, learning the
skill, practicing the skill and applying the
skill to economics.
The book incorporates the 20 Voluntary
National Content Standard developed by the
National Council on Economic Education
(US). The NCEE functions as an evaluating
body for curriculum materials in Economics.
The content standards they require are
covered by the book.
Uses authentic materials (comic strips, news
articles etc) for illustrating points and as a
source of activities for learner practice.
Selected a panel of academic consultants and
teacher reviewers to appraise the book.
The references used for helping the creation of
book content are reputable and plenty.
Yes. There is a teachers manual, presentation
materials to supplement the book and a test
bank.
Costly, text heavy and physically heavy,
American-context specific with a lack of
Philippine content.
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Ma. Flora Nina Rey CILS

HOMEWORK #2

1. Research Title: Design and Use of Instructional Materials for Student-Centered

Learning: A Case in Learning Ecological Concepts (Gravoso et al., 2008)

Abstract: Efforts to improve students learning outcomes have suggested the need to
embed the use of educational technology in a learner-centered learning environment
where students construct their own meanings. In this study, video documentaries that
asked students to explore problems associated with farmers use of ecologically
unsound agricultural techniques were developed and used in a student-centered class.
Their learning outcomes and experiences were compared to a group of students who
studied the same topics in a teacher-centered learning environment. Results showed
that the improvement of the student-centered groups understanding of the problems
was consistently higher than the teacher-centered group. Data on learning experiences
also showed that the learner-centered learning environment tended to engage students
in knowledge construction, while the teacher-centered environment, information
absorption. Overall findings suggest that technology can change and improve the
quality of learning outcomes if designed to support knowledge construction in a
learner-centered learning environment.

2. Research Title: The effects of educative curriculum materials on teachers use of

instructional strategies for English language learners in science and on student
learning (Cervetti, 2014)

Abstract: This experimental study tests the extent to which specially-designed

curriculum materials supported teachers in using instructional strategies for English
Language Learners (ELLs) as they implemented an innovative science curriculum for
fourth and fifth grade students. Specifically, we examine the impact of a set of
educative featuresoptional notes to the teacher suggesting strategies for use with
ELLson teachers (n = 15) use of strategies as they enacted the curriculum, on
teachers ELL pedagogical knowledge, and on ELLs science and vocabulary learning.
Comparison teachers taught the same 40-session space science curriculum, but they
did not have access to the educative features. We used observations to monitor fidelity
to the main curriculum, and to document teachers use of instructional strategies with
ELLs. Treatment teachers who had access to the features used more strategies to
support ELLs in their classrooms, used a wider range of strategies and acquired more
new strategies than did comparison teachers. While no differences were detected on
student (n = 358) science and vocabulary learning between treatment and comparison
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groups, correlation analysis illustrated close association between teacher strategy use
and ELLs learning. The results suggest potential for teacher learning from educative
features and positive impact on ELLs learning.