R. Benigmin, Stel | - Rectifier Circuits: Theory and Design Johannes Schaefer Techniponer, In, Norwalk, Connecti: subsidiary of Benrus Watch Co. In. Formerly: LTE, Creult Breaker Co, Philadelphia, enssyloani JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC, NEW YORK - LONDON « SYDNEYTR 279g sae Barkers lin No Jongyer in cf (es f vha) Copyright © 1965 by Joh Wiley & Sons, Inc. All Rights Reserved ‘This book or any part thereof ‘must not be reproduced in any form without the writen permission ofthe publisher. Aibcary of Congress Catalog Card Number: 65-12703 Printed inthe United States of America PREFACE ‘The fields of rectifier systems engineering are cincurt and component pesiGw, While the component design is a matter of experience, and is ‘subject to new developments, the circuit design is based on accurate relations between the electrical quartities and is therefore qualified for a [presentation of permament value. In view of this the following work is dedicated to the design of rectifier circuits, although some fundamental ‘information on component design will be included. ‘The wide variety of circuits and of relations between the electrical quantities usually results in rather complex and even confusing pre- sentation, Within this variety, however, many connections fit precisely into a simple scheme, and it is possible to develop a general and very ‘sccurate philorophy that can be applied to any connection in this category In fact, the conditions under which a connection is a member ofthis group can be clearly defined, and nearly all connections of practical value meet these conditions. Therefore, Lhaveiritiated the term “regular connections” for these circuits and regarded all o:hers as “outsiders.” Furthermore, 1 derive the relations between the a-c and the d-c quantities from the condition that under certain assumptions, input and output power must be in balance at any instant. This is a rather unique but extremely useful ‘method since it eliminates the rectifier connection, which is the most ‘complex and versatile part of the investigation. Thus many characteristics could be derived without referring to particular connections, and the ‘material could be presented with a minimum of cross relations in a straight order: ‘THE CONNECTIONS, D-C CHARACTERISTICS, ACC CHARACTERISTICS Special care has been taken to employ a minimum number of symbols and definitions. Since there is little conformity in the use of symbols throughout the world, my selection has been guided by considerations of simplicity, although, as far as possible, ASA stendards have been followed. Further ‘more, a minimum number of symbols has been employed, and quantities. 41145w Preface seldom used are expressed by words rather than by strange symbols. ‘Most statements and selations are precisely valid only under certain ‘assumptions. In order to avoid frequent listings of all these assumptions in the text, and thus to improve the clarity of the presentation, [introduce special terms that embody all necessary assumptions, and use them throughout the book. ‘These terms are specified in the “definitions” following the table of contents. ‘The way in which the various subjects are presented reflects my own personal experience during many years of practical engineering work in the rectifier field. Thus very litle reference is given to other publications. ‘With the development of highly efficient silicon diodes and controlled semiconductor devices new fields of application have been made accessible. In view of this I am confident that my work will assist many students and engineers in solving problems in the rectifier field. I wish to thank I-T-E, Circuit Breaker Co., especially Mr. Otto Jensen ‘and Mr. William G. Long, for giving me the opportunity to work 5 Director of Research and Development for the Transformer and Rectifier Division of this company. Most of my experience results from this work. Mr. Frank Schuller encouraged me to write this book and contributed valuable suggestions. J. Seuacre Norwalk, Conn, Tamuary, 1965 CONTENTS svmpots, xi DEFINITIONS, XVI SECTION A THE CONNECTIONS 1 1. Single-Phase Single-Way Connection, 3 2 Midpoint Connections, 10 2-Rulse Midpoint Connection, 10 3-Pulse Midpoint Connection with Wye Secondary, 12 3-Pulse Midpoint Connection with Zigzag Secondary, 17 6-Pulse Midpoint Connection with Double Wye Secondary, 19 6Pulse Midpoint Connection with Fork Secondary, 22 3. Bridge Connections, 24 ‘Single-Phase Bridge Connection, 26 ‘3-Phase Bridge Connection, 26 Phase Bridge Connection, 30 4/ Interphase Transformer Connections, 31 ‘The Principle of Operation of an Interphase Transformer, 32 ‘Aspects of Interphase Tranformer Design, 33 ‘Time Integral of the Absorbed Voltage, Combination of ‘Two Pulse Systems, 34 Time Integral of the Absorbed Voltage, Combination of ‘Two 6-Pulse Systems, 38 Voltage Across the D-C Circuit, 42 D-C Balance, 44 Voltage Rise at No Load, 45 Double-Wye Connection with Interphase Transformer, 47 Interphase Transformers with Three and Four Legs, 49 Equivalent Rating of the Interphase Transformer, 53‘ill Contents 5 Twelve Pulse Systems, 55 Combination of Two 3-Phase Bridge Connections with ‘Wye-Delta Secondary, 56 Combination of Two 3-Phase Bridge Connections with ‘Secondary 15° Zigzag Windings, 59 Combination of Two Interphase Transformer Connections with Secondary 15° Zigzag Windings, 62 Phase-Shifting Transformers, 65 SECTION B D-C CHARACTERISTICS 6 No-Load Voltage, 75 Components of Ey 77 Computation of Ey, 77 7 Phase Control, 80 ‘Computing the Voltage Reduction from the Time Integral of the Withheld Voltage, 81 Computing the Voltage Reduction from the Angle of Delay, 82 Influence of the D-C Circuit, 83 Situation in a Bridge Connection, 84 8 Reactive Voltage Drop, 87 ‘The Principle of Commutation, 87 Reactive Voltage Drop, 89 Commutating Angle, 89 ‘Commutation Delayed by Phase Control, 91 Commutation in Systems with More Than One Com- ‘mutating Group, 93 Per-Unit System, 96 Per-Unit Commutating Reactance, 99 Reactive Voltage Drop in Other Connections, 103, Computing Inductance f:om Short Circuit Test, 105, Inductance of the Supply System, 109 Leakage Inductance of the Transformer, Computed from the Energy Stored in the Leakage Field, 112 Inductance of Bus Bars, 121 9 Resistive Voltage Drop, 127 Basic Relations, 127 10 Load Characteristic, 132, ‘The Method, 133, Definition of Jay 133 Contents ix Single-Phase Connections, 135 3-Pulse Midpoint Connection, 135 ‘3-Phase Bridge Connection, 140 Connections with Common and In¢ IL Short Circuit Currents, 147 General View, 147 Single-Phase Single-Way Connection, 148 Single-Phase Bridge Connection, 151 ‘Transient Factors, 152 2-Pulse Midpoint Connection, 154 Approximation for Circuits with Common and Individual ‘Impedance, 156 3-Phase Bridge Connection, 162 Double-Wye Connection with Interphase Transformer, 168 Calculation Charts, 172 ‘Comparison with the Diode Ratings, 177 A-C Short Circuit, 181 idual Impedance,145 12 Inverter Operation, 183 Line-Controlled Inverter, 183 Control Characteristic, 185 ‘Commutation, 187 ‘Transient Inverter Operation, 190 13. Free-Wheeling Operation, 192 ‘The Direct Voltage, 192 ‘Commutations, 195 Reactive Voltage Drop, 197 Bypass Circuit with Inductance, 199 Intermediate State, 200 Comparison Between Free-Wheeling Operation and Operation with Resistive Load, 202 Single-Phase Bridge Connection with Free-Wheeling Diode, 203 Half-Controlled Single-Phase Bridge Connections, 203 3-Phase Bridge Connection with Free-Wheeling Diode, 208 Half-Controlled 3-Phase Bridge Connection, 211 Interphase Transformer Connections with Free-Wheeling Diode, 213 Applications, 215 Bypass Circuit Design, 216 Discharge of Inductive Load, 219x Contents 14 Operation with Capacitive Load, 221 General View, 222 ‘Single-Phase Single-Way Connection, 23, 2-Pulse Connections, 227 3-Pulse Midpoint Connection, 231 ‘3-Phase Bridge Connection, 234 ‘Other Connections, 238, ‘Current Limited by Resistance Only, 238 Phase Control, 240 Performance with Small Values of Capacitance, 241 ‘Voltage Doubler and Cascade Connections, 243 15 Voltage and Current Ripple, 246 Basic Relations, 246 Current Ripple in an Inductive Circuit, 247 ‘Time Integral of the Ripple Voltage, 248 Harmonie Composition of the Ripple Voltage, 255 Reduction of Ripple Voltage by L-C Filter, 265 ‘Aspecss of Filter Design, 267 SECTION C A-C CHARACTERISTICS 16 Basic Rdations, 273 Balance Between Input and Output Power, 273 Deriving a General Relation Between the A-C and DC Quantities, 274 Situation with Phase Control, 277 General Rule, 278 ‘The Phase Shift Angle, 280 Combination of Systems, 280 ‘The “Family of Current Curves,” 284 Influence of Current Ripple and Commutation, 285 17 Harmonic Composition of the Current, 292 ‘The Fundamental, 292 ‘The Method of Determining the Harmonics, 294 ‘The Harmonic Composition, General Law, 298 Complementary Currents, 299 18 rms Value of the Current, 303 Computation of the rms Value, 303 Distortion Factor, 305 ‘rms Value and Harmonic Composition, 306 Contents 19 Power Factors, 307 Power Factors; Definitions, 309 Situation with Phase Control, 309 Correction for Commutation, 312 Correction for the Exciting Current, 314 20 Characteristics for Free-Wheeling Operation, 315 General Conclusions, 316 Power ofthe Fundamental, 317 ‘otal Input Power, 319 Graphic Presentation, 321 Chars, 322 21 Corrections for Commutation, 327 Function of Commutation, 327 Correction Factor for the Fundamental of the Current, 28 | Correction Factor for the rms Value ofthe Curtent, 332 avresonx, 335 | maiookary 359 INDEX, 345) ™mSYMBOLS For simplicity, the same capital leters are used for avg and rms values, and vectors. The subscripts will always precisely specify the meaning of the symbol. ‘Symbol Introduced ‘on Page Voltages E, —=rms value of primary or secondary alternating. voltage at no load; in multiphase systems, line- to-neutral value* ~ = crest value of theoretical direct voltage at no load oF light transition load (See remark, Chapter 6), assuming zero phase control 1s = avg value of theoretical direct voltage at no load or light transition load (see remark, Chapter 6), assuming zero phase controlt 5 E, = reduction of avg value of direct voltage caused by phase control 81 E, = reduction of avg value of direct voltage caused by commutation 89 Ey = Ey ~ Fy — Ey avg value of direct voltage in- cluding resistive voltage drop n @ = instantaneous value of voltage _ Carrente J, = 1ms value of alternating line current, neglecting transformer exciting current 305 fy = rms value of fundamental of alternating line current, neglecting transformer exciting current 293 + Unless otherwise stated, a 1:1 ratio of voltage transformation is assumed between ‘corresponding points of the primary and secondary sides. 4 A.box around a symbol indicates that the symbol is used asa reference quantity.xiv Symbols J, = avg value of direct current in load circuit I, = avgvalue of commutated current, if different from J, TEq{Eq = theoretical short circuit current, assum- ig regular operation {= jnstantaneous value of current Power Quantities Px = total volt-ampere input power (ems values), neglecting transformer exciting current P, = apparent power of fundamental, neglecting trans- former exciting current Peg = effective component of P, = total watts input Preast = reactive component of Py ‘Pam = distortion power, neglecting transformer exciting current equiv = equivalent rms volt-ampere rating of transformer, ‘based on supply frequency = Sms value of current x rms value of voltage of All primary on secondary windings, if referred to ‘one side of the transformer = 43 rms value of current x rms value of voltage OF ALL windings, if referred to total transformer Eade Other Quantities @ = Amplitude of sine term of Fourier analysis 6 smplitude of cosine term analysis of Fourier ¢ amplitude of resultant of Fourier analysis. fe function of commutation Fore = transient factor for avg values Jere. = transient factor for crest values Lae ansient factor for rms values t feequency of supply system, unless differently stated nm — order of harmonic wumber of identical intervals of operation pulses”) per eyele 1.2 = variables referring to a physical dimension Hi time Symbol Introduced oon Page 95 133 308 308 308 308 308 294 327 192 153 12 294 15 NNRRSESUPRERO OS z ve, «) é ° 4 costs cosy" © ‘Symbols Pa Symbol Introduced on Page ‘cross-sectional (core) area, net value ‘magnetic flux density = = capacitance = inductance = Jine-to-neutral commutating inductance 9 umber of turns — resistance _ reference quantity for per-unit system 96 = time constant 3 cNetume wera mor = reactance cir apresed in per-unit system * = VBE 3 = impedance = Sinetoneusal commuting. impedance, ex pressed in pe-unit system _ ‘= phase control angle 2 commutating angle 89 = component of correction factor for commutation 333 ‘= phase shift angle of rectifier connection 280 ‘= phase shift angle of phase-shifting transformer 65 ‘= displacement angle between voltage and current, | including transformer exciting current 308 isplacement angle of fundamental, neglecting transformer exciting current 308 displacement power factor, including transformer ‘exciting current 309 = displacement power factor, neglecting transformer exciting current 309 mf = angular frequency 4 ‘magnetic ux - Symbols not listed are only occasionally employed and are explained wherever they are used.ai Symbols Abbreviations for units A = amperes Y= volts 2 = ohms sec = seconds H = henrys = ohms x seconds F = farads = seconds/ohms Combinations (examples): Vase = voltseconds DEFINITIONS ‘The wide variety of operating conditions and component characteristics demands simplifications. Actually, instead of the real system a theoretical system will be investigated, a system that is operated under ideal conditions and consists of components with ideal characteristics, and the results will, ‘then be applied to the real system as APPROXIMATIONS. In order to apply them properly, we have to know the assumptions on which they are based. ‘Therefore the theoretical system will now be defined, Assumptions Effective throughout the Book without Any Notice (@) All values of resistance, inductance, and capacitance (including resistance and leakage inductance of transformer windings) are concentrated in components with linear and ideal characteristics, such as Resistors with no inductance or capacitance, Reactors with no resistance or capacitance, Capacitors with no resistance or inductance. (@) Allvalues of resistance, inductance, and capacitance are equal in the individual phases. (©) All phases operate identically and are equally controlled (@) Any losses that increase the primary current rather than reduce the direct voltage (no-load losses), especially transformer core losses, are disregarded. The exciting current is included only if so stated. (©) The rectifying elements are ideal diodes with no resistance in the forward direction and no conductivity in the reverse direction, and with no inductance or capacitance. (f) The supply system is without any value of internal unless otherwise stated (g) The alternating voltages are undistorted and, in multiphase systems, symmetrically displaced and in balance at any instant. (i). The resistive voltage drop is conceived as part of the voltage across the load circuit, unless otherwise stated. ipedance,xiii Definitions Assumptions Effective in Conjunction with the Following Terms REGULAR CONNECTIONS. “Members of tis category of connections meet the following sperifications: (G) The total of all ampere-tums on each transformer leg, excluding the exciting current, is zero at any instant. (&) The alternating line currents, excluding the exciting current, total up to 2et0 at any instant without zero conductor current. (Ail sucessive intervals of operation are identical [All cicuits listed in table 1 and presented by figs. 1-25 belong in this category except those with d-c unbalance, which are “The single-phase single-way connection, and ‘The 3-pulse mid-point connection with wye secondary. REGULAR OPERATION (in) The restier under consideration is @ regular connection. (@) The load circuit contains infinite induetance without a free-wheeling diode, as shown in fig. 26, $0 that the direct current does not fuctuate, (p) The individual commutations do not overlap, unless so stated, but they may oocur simultaneously. “This operating condition i the*“most natural oad” ofa rectifier connection ‘and leads to the planest results. Therefore, most investigations are based oon this condition. Although itis a purely theoretical condition, it closely represents many applications with considerable inductance in the load Gircuit, including applications with back-em, since, fora certain operating point, the voltage crop of the constant current across any portion of the load cireuit resistance can be conceived as such a back-emf FREE-WHEELING OPERATION (@ A free-wheeling diode is connected in parallel to the d- ina bsidge connection, the ceater point of the transformer is not needed, and the secondary transformer windings are connected in delta or polygon- Tn order to accent these common traits in structure and performance, all these circuits will be called MIDPOINT CONNECTIONS throughout this book. In the following they will be individually presented. ‘2-Pulse Midpoint Connection In the circuit shown in fig. 1.3, the free-wheeling diode bypasses the load ‘Current during the negative hal-cycle without actively contributing to the Sverage value ofthe direct voltage. For more efficient use, this diode is frequently connected to a transformer winding of the opposite potent), we Mlustrated by fig. 2-1, with the result that a second voltage pulse is Selivered to the d-e circuit during each cycle. This doubles the average “lve of the direct voltage and at the same time reduces the ripple. AS ¢ + According tothe ASA standards this category of connections would have 1 be tied “fag connetions because te transformer windings carry aniectional caress. Fee may cause some confusion since these circuits consist of sereret com Bote branches and since the transformer windings in interphase waneforoer coat ie algo carry uniiretional currents. The tem midpoint connections empha Samet basie structure of these cca and cannot be misunderstood, 10 stuaton fom (ttt curent through DI current ‘trough D2 primary Goren Midpoint Connections |} v2 } x Te F 4 Te ¥ 4 Te a F pie cay eantucting conducting yy Fig. 2:1. 2-pulse midpoint connection. uwn ‘The Connections further advantage, the ampere-turns on the transformer caused by the current flowing through diode D2 are opposite in polarity to the ampere- turns caused by the current of diode D1. Hence the total secondary ampere-turns are symmetrical and can be balanced by the primary current at any instant. This avoids saturation of the transformer core due to ampere-turn unbalance. The 2pulse midpoint connection is presented in more detail in fig. 2 the supplement), Since the secondary windings are idle 50% of the time, or, differently interpreted, carry currents with a d-c component, the rating of the secondary side of the transformer is relatively high; it is 1.57 times the converted power (P,,). The primary winding does not carry .d-c component, andis therefore rated only 1.11 times Py which, according to Chapter 18, is the minimum rating for 2-pulse performance. Despite the high transformer rating, the 2-pulse midpoint connection is frequently used for small power supplies since it combines simplicity (only two diodes) with the possibility of commonly grounding the center point of the transformer and one side of the load circuit. 3-Pulse Midpoint Connection with Wye Secondary As the next step towards a more perfect rectifier system, three phases are ‘employed, as shown in fig. 2.2. This further reduces the direct voltage ripple and gives a symmetrical load to a 3-phase supply system. The current transfer from one phase to another occurs as soon as the potential ‘of the sueceeding phase rises above that of the preceding phase. Hence the phase with the highest positive (or negative) potential (depending on the polarity of the diodes) carries the load current and determines the direct voltage. ‘The currents in the primary and secondary transformer windings are shown in fig. 2.2, assuming & 1:1 turn ratio and a load current without ripple, as obtained with infinite inductance in the d-c circuit. Since each secondary winding conducts during one-third of a cycle and carries Unidirectional current, each secondary current contains @ d-c component ‘of 4, which cannot be balanced by the primary current. This D-c UNBALANCE is represented by the crosshatched areas in fig. 2.2. It is of ‘constant magnitude and polarity and therefore does not induce voltage in the windings or generate heat in adjacent construction parts. Furthermore, the magnetio flux caused by this unbalance has the same direction in all ‘three transformer legs, as shown for the interval from oo, 10 a in the ircuit diagram of fig. 2.2, and must therefore return outside the core. ‘There the “magnetic conductivity” is low, so that the flux remains weak WON 205, 30. 20 hea Fig. 22. 3.pulse midpoint connection with wye primary and wye secondary. B“ The Connections ‘and does not saturate the transformer core considerably—unless a trans former with a fourth leg or three single-phase transformers are used. Hence this kind of unbalance is sometimes tolerated. “The primary windings may be connected in wye or delta. In a we connection there is in addition to the d-c unbalance a new phenomenon that may be ealed excITATION UNBALANCE. To introduce the problem let vie aubsitute three identical resistors forthe primary transformer windings ts shown in fig. 2.3, and let us further assume, since the arrangement is Symmetrical, thatthe center point stays on zero potential. This Sassy Sens that are proportional to the lineto-neutral voltages and total Gero at any instant because the sum of three 120°-displaced sine functions Faro. At the instant denoted by at, in Hg. 2.3, 8 f, and i, re flowing Xi X% XIX oe a resistos = B Fig. 23. 3-phase supply system with symmetrical load. towards the center point. At the same instant i, equals f+ i but with ‘opposite polarity, <0 thatthe eurents flowing tothe center point ar equal ore carrent flowing away. This is true for any instant, and thus the ssumption thatthe centerpoint stays on zero potential is satisfied; “As the next step, we return to 2 transformer with a primary wye connec, tM "Resume that the center point of the primary windings is tied through a zero-potential conductor to the center point of the supp'y system, s0 that the primary windings are foreed to absor® sinusoidal Pritages This requires nonsinusoidal exciting currents, a illustrates by Fig. 24 In this igure the time integral of the voltage across the windings (aiietcted atthe magnetic characteristic ofthe transformer (0) towaes Cr ves of the exciting current (c). Quite obviously, these currents do ee Gotel zero, anda differential current must be carried by the 2er0, potential conductor. If, however, thereis ‘nozero-potential conductor—and Nuation to be investigated—the total ofall three currents must the center point does not stay on zero potential but assumes potentials that satisfy this condition. The rests Povetnusoidal voltages across the primary windings; in other words, ‘Midpoint Connections Fry distorted secondary voltages. (This investigation is not affected by the load ampereturns as long a8 they add up to 220, 2s already discussed) ‘in view of the excitation unbalance, the primary transformer windings are preferably connected in delta so that each winding is tied between two supply lines and can carry a current of any waveshape. With » primary delta winding the circuit is presented by fig. 5. Compared with the primary wye connection (Bg. 4) there is only a difference in the waveshape ey fut 4 @ o Fig. 24, Exciting currents of a }-phase transformer (secondary windings omitted) of the alternating line currents, because the direct current is reflected Sifferently to the primary side. But in both cases the secondary transformer ‘windings earry unidirectional currents, ic, currents with a d-c component. ‘As a consequence, the rating of the secondary side of the transformer is relatively high (1.48P,,), while the primary side is rated 1.21? which is the minimum for 3-pulse operation, as computed in Chapter 18. ‘As the commutating groups of more complex recifer systems, pulse ‘midpoint connections are of great importance. As single units, however, they are seldom used. The reason is that small power supplies are usually built with a single-phase input, while for high-power applications more ceonomical systems with 6- or I2-pulse performance are preferred.16 ‘The Connections [1 suet xh amend ete aay ty Fig. 25. 3:pulse midpoint connection with zigzag secondary. Midpoint Connections "7 3-Pulse Midpoint Connection with Zigzag Secondary* With a secondary zigzag winding « 3-pulse midpoint connection without é-< unbalance can be built. Such a connection is shown in fig. 2-5. ‘There are two secondary windings on each transformer leg carrying currents in cpposite directions. As an example, during the interval from ay, to wf the gurtent flows through winding B of leg 1 and through winding of leg 2 and can thus be balanced by a current in the primary windings on these legs. The only disadvantage of this connection is that the secondary voltages are composed from two 60° phase-shifted components so that the voltage induced in winding 4 on og 2 wltge induced in wing Bon fg 2 Fig. 26 Alternating voltages in a zigzag winding. resultant is 3 instead of 2 times the voltage induced in one winding (Gig. 2.6). This increases the rating ofthe secondary side ofthe transformer by the factor 2/4/3 = 1.15, With regard to the secondary ampere-turns the primary winding may bbe in wye or delta connection, but the delta connection is preferred since it avoids the excitation unbalance. Both circuits are presented with all ‘basic relations by figs. 6 and 7 (in the supplement). As a result of the high secondary transformer rating (I.71P,) and the fact that the trans. former connection is relatively complex and still gives only 3-pulse performance, this connection is seldom used. However, it is of theoretical interest and is therefore selected for the following sample calculation Example (Equivalent transformer rating with a zigzag winding) Compute the ratio P.auix/Ps, for the primary and the secondary transformer ‘windings and for the total transformer of a 3-pulse midpoint connection with a primary delta and a secondary zigzag winding (connection shown “interconnected wye." In accordance with conciseness, the term “2igrag connection” will ‘This connection i frequently called “ ‘European literature, and because o be used throughout this book.18 The Connections 4in fig. 7). (This computation requires information given in other chapters of this book.) Solution. ‘The rms value of the current in each secondary winding is, according to Chapter 18, equal to J,/V3. The voltage acrosseach secondary winding is E,/s/3 because E, is defined as the primary or the secondary line-to-neutral voltage. Hence the rating of the secondary side is. le E, he @ay TT Cnn value of voltage [Lineal of eet (6) windings In order to express E, by Ey we compute Ey B= SE oe, 2 en Lr Ete, forg = 3 equation 63) Inserted in relation (2.1): _ Ienfi 1 Pequiv,see = oH Nae BG = LT1P ao FFor the primary side we compute: “The voltage across each primary winding is V3 E, ‘The voltage across each secondary winding is E,/4/3 Heence the turn ratio is 3:1, and the load current 1, carried by a secondary winding during certain intervals is reflected to the primary winding as ‘Mj. Each primary winding carries two current pulses per cycle (see fig. 2.5). Hence the rms value of the primary current is, according to Chapter 18, We “The voltage across each primary winding is V3 B,. This is, with relation (22) Hence Pegats, prim Tims vaiue of voltage [LTE value of current 3) windings Midpoint Connections » Alternate approach. ‘The total volt-ampere input power of a regular connection, neglecting the transformer exciting current, is according to Chapter 19 equal to (E,/E,)Pay. For 3-pulse performance, this is Prot = 121Pip ‘Since this power must be handled by the primary winding, the rating will have the same value: Pasar, prin = Prot = 1-21P in It should be pointed out that in certain connections, as for example in a 6-pulse midpoint connection with delta-double wye connected transformer (Gg. 1), the rating of the primary side is higher than Pia, because the primary windings carry additional current required by the condition of ‘ampere-turn balance. In these cases the alternate approach just demon- strated would be incorrect. Connections of this kind are all circuits that have ampere-turn unbalance (a-c unbalance) with a wye primary. In fact, the ratio of Peay» computed for a primary delta winding, to Pia displays the current circulating in the primary delta winding and thus represents the degree of unbalance the connection would have with a wye primary. ‘The equivalent rating of the total transformer is 11 $1.21 2 ‘These results accord with the values listed in fig. 7. Pegate = 1.46Pe, 6-Pulse Midpoint Connection with Double Wye Secondary Continuing to increase the number of secondary phases towards the “ideal connection” with zero ripple voltage and sinusoidal line currents, the next step of practical interest is to employ six phases. This is achieved with six diodes and «wo secondary windings on each transformer leg, as shown in fig. 2.7: Again the load current is commutated from the pre- ‘ceding to the succeeding phase as soon as the potential of the succeeding Phase rises above that of the preceding phase, resulting in the curves of voltage and current shown in fig. 2.7. Disregarding any overlap, each secondary phase conducts during ¢ of a cycle and is idle during the rest ofthe time. This causes the high secondary transformer rating of 1.81, Concerning the amperecturn balance on the transformer, there is certainly no d-c unbalance, because the ampere-turns caused by the ‘currents in the two secondary windings on each leg are opposite in polarity and can thus be balanced by a symmetrical primary current. With a20 The Connections primary delta winding, as shown in fig. 2.7, there is no other kind of "unbalance either, since each primary winding is directly connected between two supply lines and can carry a current of any waveshape that perfectly balances the secondary and the exciting ampere-turns. With a primary "wye connection and no zero conductor, however, the total ofall currents in the primary windings must be zero at any instant whereas the secondary z. f os} contin of EL Fig.2:7.. pulse midpoint connection with dela primary. ampere-turns require currents that do not add up to zero. Hence there is ‘new kind of unbalance. It is illustrated by fig. .8 and will now be ex: plained. Figure 2.8 shows the secondary currents as well as the primary currents ‘of a 6-pulse midpoint connection with a wye primary and a double wye secondary, assuming a 1:1 turn ratio. The crosshatched areas represent the unbalance. It can be seen that the direction of the unbalance is the same for all three transformer legs (marked in the circuit diagram of fig. 28 for the interval from wtp to wt), s0 that the magnetic lux caused Midpoint Connections 21 by this unbalance must return outside the core, which keeps it ata reason- able value; but the polarity of the unbalance alternates with three times the supply frequency, so that with each commutation voltages will be induced in the windings, and heat wll be generated in adjacent structural parts. In view of these phenomena this kind of unbalance, called a-c UNBALANCE, is usually nor tolerated. It can be avoided by a TERTIARY XXXKXX PSD | nbatnge ors wate wi es pace Soe reese Fig. 2.8. 6 pulse midpoint connection with wye primary. ‘winpinc in delta connection. Such a winding carries a current that restores the balance, but it increases the equivalent transformer rating and is therefore not economical. A connection with a tertiary winding is presented in fig. 14 (in the supplement); the rating of a tertiary windin ‘computed in the following example. Example (Tertiary delta winding) Determine, in terms of Py, the rating of a tertiary winding for a 6-pulse midpoint connection with a wye primary. Solution. Based on a 1:1 turn ratio the voltage across the tertiary winding of each eg is £,, and the rms value of the current is 4/, (according2 The Connections to fig. 2.8). With E, expressed by F, according to 2 ae, this results in 0.74P sy | se ave ot voter ims value of eurrent 3) windings 6-Palse Midpoint Connection with Fork Secondary ‘This connection is presented by figs. 16 and 17 (in the supplement). The secondary side of the transformer may be regarded as a superposition of two zigzag windings, and since a secondary current always flows through windings with an equal number of turns on two legs, it can be balanced, regardless of waveshape and conducting angle, by a current in a primary wwye connection, as illustrated by fig. 2.9. Hence, there is no need for * Fig.2, Current ina secondary fork winding balanced by the current ina wye primary. Midpoint Connections 23 Table 2.1. Ampere-Turn Balance of Midpoint Connections cancion bance mim See |e] fcttn = CE pulse 2[ “| ¥ Z yi m0 v 0 Y 0. v v og 5 ‘0 4 w]7 v v v o] ~ v y LF AE [is] v0 v Z opie Kiel Vv v Yv 4 al ea v v "This ciruit does not meet the specifications for a “regular connection,” except swith a tertiary delta winding (fg. 14). primary or tertiary delta winding, except for avoiding excitation unbalance. ‘As a further advantage, the rating of the primary transformer windings is 1.05P,,, the minimum for 6-pulse performance, since the windings do not have to carry additional current to maintain ampere-turn balance, as does, for example, a primary delta winding with a double wye secondary. ‘Thus with a fork secondary the transformer rating is the lowest of all 6-pulse midpoint connections. This is not, however, enough to make this connection competitive with 6-pulse systems that consist of two 3-pulse commutating groups, either in a bridge or in an interphase transformer connection. Therefore, the investigation now turns to combinations of 3-pulse commutating groups. ‘We conclude with table 2.1, which gives a survey of the ampere-turn balance for the various types of midpoint connections.Bridge Connections Bridge connections consist of two commutating groups in series ‘and are very economical circuits. The 3-phase bridge connection is widely used for power conversion. In a midpoint connection the secondary transformer windings are idle ‘most of the time, a fact that results in a igh transformer rating compared with the converted power. These windings can be used more efficiently if they feed a second midpoint connection of the apposite polarity. This is 7 MACK wong POOP X_N ws a Fig. 3.1. Single-phase bridge connection interpreted as two 2-pule midpoint con- illustrated for a 2-pulse system in fig. 3.1. One set of diodes (system A) serves the positive output terminal; the other (system B) uses the negative polarity of the transformer voltage and is connected to the minus pole. Thus the total load circuit (from a to 6) is supplied withthe direct voltages » Bridge Connections 25, of the positive and the negative midpoint connections in series, and the transformer windings carry currents in both directions. ‘This avoids d-c unbalance and reduces the transformer rating, in most cases to the minimum say needed to deliver the converted power oS and to carry the harmonies of the current. Further, a single load circuit ean be con- nected between points a and b (Bg. 3.1) skipping the center point of the trans- former, so that a secondary transformer winding without center point can be used. This permits us to feed a 3-phase bridge connection from a transformer with a secondary delta winding and a 6- phase bridge connection froma secondary ond eveut polygon winding, More drastically, the Fig. 42. single phase bridge com- transformer an be completely omited,as _ psion winoer famine illustrated by fig. 3.2 for a single-phase and by fig. 3.3 fora 3-phase connection, if it is not needed for stepping the voltage up of down, or for isolating the d-c circuit from the supply system. For certain applicatious, however, where the d-c circuit consists of a se supply ‘system “ + +t -- ; a | clad creat Fig. 3:3. 3.phase bridge connection without transformer. positive and a negative section, the center point should be available in order torigidly define the middle potential and to carrya differential current the two sections are unequally loaded. Systems of this kind are called “3-wire systems” and are sometimes used for d-c power distribution.26 The Connections Single-Phase Bridge Connection he single-phase bridge connection presented in fig. 3 (in the supplement) jsa very economical circuit and is frequently used for small power supplies. ‘es transformer rating is only 1.11P,,. Furthermore, the ripple voltages the positive and the negative d-c terminals are symmetrical with respect to the center point of the transformer. This permits us to filter both sides swith one choke (with two windings) and one capacitor, as shown in fig. 3.4, i = ‘Warstoma Fier choke Fig. 34. ‘Single-phase bridge connection with symmetrical rippe filter. and thus to provide with a minimum number of components @ supply ‘stem with a positive and 2 negative output. Systems of this kind are equently used for electronic circuits. “Phase Bridge Connection More powerful rectifier installations are usually supplied from 2 3-phase ‘stem, and a pulse number higher than 2 or 3 is demanded in order to seduce the direct voltage ripple as well as the distortion of the altern Current. ‘This is accomplished by combining two 3-pulse commutating ‘roups in a bridge connection, as illustrated by fig. 3.5. One set of diodes is csunected tothe positive output terminal and furnishes a voltage represen- ted by the solid curve of section (¢), while a second group supplies the ‘ins pole with a voltage according to the broken curve. Thus « load connected from point a to point b is supplied with the total of the two voltages, Since the two commutating groups operate with opposite Bridge Connections se by postive system Avena ase bridge Fig. 8 or2B The Connections polarity, their ripple voltages are displaced, and the total voltage shows pulse ripple. This is the most valuable attribute of the 3-phase bridge connection, Sometimes the load circuit is split into two sections, and the center point of the load is connected to the center point of the secondary transformer windings (3-wire system). In this case the voltage across each section has only 3-pulse ripple. Figure 35a presents the alternating and direct voltages with respect to the center point ofthe transformer, while section (8) shows the total direct voltage. ‘The crest value of the direct voltage of each section is /2E.; the crest value of the voltage a — b equals the crest value of the line-to- line voltage, J2V3E,. The average value of the total direct voltage, however, istwice as high as the average value of the direct voltage of each side, ‘The currents in the secondary transformer windings are caused by both wyes. Each wye contributes with a 120° current pulse, and since the two current pulses are opposite in polarity, the currents in the secondary transformer windings do not have @ dc component. Thus they can be balanced by the primary currents. Furthermore, without the secondary center poitt connection the secondary currents must total zero, which gives evidence that the primary currents must also add up to zero (ignoring the exciting currents), so that the primary winding may be in wye or delta, ‘Actually, any transformer connection with wye, delta, or zigzag on either one side or both sides can be used. With a primary delta connection the ‘nonsinusoidal exciting currents can be taken from the supply system, s0 ‘that there is complete ampere-turn balance. Wye connections on both sides give excitation unbalance, as described in Chapter 2. If, however, the secondary winding is in delta, this unbalance is considerably reduced because harmonics of the exciting current of the order 3, 6,9, --~ will be balanced by a current circulating in the secondary delta winding, ‘Three-phase bridge connections with various transformer connections are presented in more detail by figs. 8-11, and it can be seen that they fler only by the waveshape of the primary current. Since the secondary windings do not carry a d-c component and the currents are well balanced, the rating of both sides of the transformer is 1.05Pyq the minimum for 6-pulse performance. This low rating and the simplicity of the trans- former connection make the 3phase bridge connection an extremely economical circuit, widely used for power supplies with a 3-phase input. Example (3-Phase bridge connection) ‘The basic relations between the electrical quantities in a 3-phase bridge connection with a delta-wye connected transformer are presented. by Bridge Connections 2» fig. 9. As an exercise, we now compute these relations. (These computa- tions require some knowledge of other chapters.) ‘Asa start, we recall the definitions E, = primary or secondary lineto-neutral voltage, assuming a 1:1 ratio of voltage transformation, rms value 1, = current in d-c circuit, avg value ‘Then we compute the direct voltage step by step: Line-to-line voltage, rms value = JE, Line-to-line voltage, crest value = ./2,/3E, Direct voltage, Ey = NIE, , St Dire voltage, ratio Ea/ly = SsinZ = 3 (eaton 63) , 3 Direct voltage, E, = 2 Vivir, = 2348, The currents are Load cireuit, avg value = Z, Diodes, avg value = 97, Diodes, mms value = Vi Secondary transformer = Ji, windings, rms value Primary transformer windings, rms value Primary supply lines, = V/¥l, rms value G diodes share 1) (Chapter 18) 4V2e (oe. current divided by /3) (JG times current in windings) The vott-ampere input power is according to Chapter 19 the total of the products voltage x curtent ofthe three phases (ems values); Pou = 3EVie (neglecting transformer exciting current) With £gn/3V3Y3 substituted for E, and Py, for Ey this results in The factor 2/3 also represents the ratio Praus/Pu for each side of the ‘transformer as well as forthe total transformer, since no winding carries a component or a current required only for maintaining amperetuen30 ‘The Connections G-Phase Bridge Connection TThe last paragraphs investigated the series connection of two 3-1 commutating groups. In a similar manner two 6-pulse commutating groups may be combined for more efficient use of the secondary trans- former windings. Again the d-c circuit can be connected directly between the positive and the negative output terminals so that @ neutral point of the secondary transformer windings is not needed. Furthermore, since both sides commutate in synchronism, the load current always flows straight through the secondary transformer connection, and three separate, Single windings may be used. This leads to the circuit shown in fig. 18. “The performance of the connection of fig. 18 is very similar to that of the circuit of fig. 15. Since a connection between the center points of the secondary transformer windings (dashed in fig. 18) does not have any influence, the additional set of diodes just provides the other half of the direct voltage and makes the currents in the secondary transformer ‘windings symmetrical. This avoids the d-c components and thus reduces the ratio Pyquis/Pas of the secondary windings by the factor 12, The primary rating remains 1.28P,, since the condition of ampere-turn balance Eemands a current circulating in the primary delta winding. This current js not needed if a fork connection is selected for the seeondary side. With 's fork connection, however, the system is less economical and therefore not presented. ‘Since the bridge connection does not require a neutral point, the secon- dary windings may be in polygon, as shown in fig. 19. This further reduces the rating of the primary and the secondary windings. The value for the primary side is then 1.117... indicating that still a small current is needed to maintain ampere-turn balance so that a primary wye connection would not give complete balance, because the input power for 6-pulse performance is only 1.05Per- ‘As a consequence of the simultaneous commutations of both sides, the pulse number is stil q = 6, although the cireuit is much more complex than a 3phase bridge connection. For this reason 6-phase bridgeconnec- tions have litle practical meaning andaretherefore not furtherinvestigated. Interphase Transformer Connections Through an interphase transformer two or more rectifier systems with displaced ripple voltages are paralleled. The interphase “transformer ebsorbs at any instant the difference between the “divect voltages of the individual systems and must be designed for the time integral of this voltage. This quantity will be graphicall presented for various operating conditions. =— ‘Two or more batteries can be connected in parallel if their voltages are batteries. For rectifier systems the situation is more complex because the direct voltages are fluctuating, Such systems can be paralleled without any circulating current only if their direct voltages are equal at any instant, i.e, ifthe average values are equal and the ripple voltages coincide. Under this condition rectifier installations for very high current ratings are some~ ‘times built of several simultaneously commutating and directly paralleled ‘groups. Usually, however, it is rather desired that the ripple voltages not ‘coincide but be so displaced that the combination results in a system with 4 higher pulse number. ‘The parallel connection must then be made in ‘such a maniner that it does not affect the operation of the individual “groups. This is accomplished with an INTERPHASE TRANSFORMES 9.12, demomcate the sialon, let ux combine two 180? phase sind -pulse commistating groups. Figure 4.1 shows these groups direc Pale and can bese hath combat Sil wih € pulse midpoint connection. Hence the conducting angle of all diodes is Fede rom 12 to 50 and te loadcarents prod ansfeed from one wye to the other. In fig. 4.2 the direct currents are combined through an interphase transformer. This transformer absorbs at any instant the voltage difference between the individual groups and thus maintains independent operation of these groups. ”2 The Comectons ck smi Oo f $e oy | i -|t iret vonage of yam A opr by Re ‘eet alge of Stem B opting feat cag of bh aes _ ot Oe rer eats am — ration al. Fig. 44. Two 3-pulee commutating groups with displaced operation directly pa Jeled. The Principle of Operation of an Interphase Transformer With respect to the voltage difference to be absorbed, the two windings oe thn ores 42 creo Tha te rege ils obey en nash in jt sins veal tansformer te vlge pre on he pea ‘dingbat thence ent. Hover neigh bli Go ace n ehanging mage fx and xing amperes Th xeldng current of regular transformer istaen fom the primary suply Interphase Transformer Connections 33 line; the exciting current of the interphase transformer isthe difference of the direct currents to be combined. Since these currents pass in opposite Girections through the window of the interphase transformer, only the ‘syste A stom B —~ —— transt, windings ee creat pulse commutaing, groups paraliled through an interphase Fig 42. Two 3 transformer, difference excites the core, and if these currents are well balanced the core will not be driven into saturation by d-c ampere-turns, even without an air gap. Aspects of Interphase Transformer Design ‘The flux change in a transformer core and, time integral of the induced voltage are limi the flux density between the positive and the core material. In view of this, that the maximum voltage or, as a further consequence, the ited by the maximum swing of negative values of saturation of a regular transformer is so designed ‘more precisely, the maximum time ingegralThe Connections of voltage that wil be impressed on the primary winding can be absorbed eee eee sonable exciting current, and itis well known that the exciting iene Tries considerably if more voltage is applied. In most cases this Mt is defined by the losses in the core. All these considerations are also Te fos an interphase transformer, which must also be designed for = re aime integral of the vollage. According tothe law of induction in ntegral form, this value is foam na as ay vihere fedt = time integral of the voltage to be absorbed oe aver of turns (total of both windings if time integral of The voltage is referred to both windings in eres connertion) (A = cross-sectional core area, net value AB = total change of flux density in core The time integral of the voltage to be absorbed by an interphase ‘ran’ ae im ea Banction of Euy of the operating conditions (angles of phase control and commutation), and of the pulse numbers and will be eemouted later. ‘The product NA is usually the result of the eley/tion se che starting valve for the design. ABs deteruined by the core losses, see eady mentioned. Fora regular transformer operating at 60 ened by the angle a, and with a certain commuting angle. During = «This value refers tothe full swing of the fx density Interphase Transformer Connections 38 the output says on the potential ofthe of the conducting phase: durin u it stays on the mean value of the potentials of the ing phan, a rth commutatng phates, as Srnd in Cpls? an 8 The iene on ‘the two vet ge ape ast spaced mtb seg ce the anima x change he interphase wansormes coresponds @ at Fe. 43,_ Area representing tine intel of voage absorbed by interpre (oat ircontuig ino Spe eens Fase to the time integral of this voltage, voltage, represented by the crosshatched areas in ig 4.tgandb, For computing his rete volage difference has been plotted ove straight inn 438, rom a0 of the area is deter- mined by the difference between two 60" cebRESSREEES Os CSCC otage-time intgra/ Bd (sec) —>- i interphase transformer if combining Fi. 45. Tine ita of voltage absorbed by interphase tanto two GD -displaced 3-pulse systems, @-Values of sample calculation. 36 Interphase Transformer Connections a7 voltage across the interphase transformer is Time integral of voltage 2 pe absorbed by interphase 2 Eqsin or dar twansformer, 2 = 0, u= 0 we = 2 [Heese] = a(t 7 ¥) For practical use we substitute (27/3V3)E,, for Ey (Chapter 6), and introduce = 2 x 60 sec], assuming a supply frequency of 60 eps: Time integral of voltage 22% p lbecl (vi absorbed by imerpase |= 25.5 coer ied transformer, 2 = 0, u = 0, 3-pulse performance, - 9.86 (msec) x Fey {rmsee) x Fu ad Sasrpiy = 60 eps With phase control and a certain commutating angle, this value is increased by the areas marked by double crosshatching in fig. 43. Fortunately, these areas are also the ones that represent the reduction of the direct voltage caused by phase control and commutation, because these areas are three times withheld from the d-c circuit during each cycle. Hence their contribution can be easily determined from the voltage reductions caused by phase control and commutation, E, and E,: Addition to time integral of voltage absorbed by __ 7 7 interphase transformer, = (Ex + F.) x duration of § eye! 3:pulse performance This law changes as soon as a + u exceeds 30°, as illustrated by fg. 4.4, where for « + w a value considerably larger than 30° is selected. Again, the area can be determined by integration, but the result will be more complex as before. Therefore it is graphically presented by fig. 4.5, for ‘convenience in a rather unique way: The result, which is a function of « ‘and u, is presented as a function of the remaining direct voltage E, with the reactive voltage drop E_ as a parameter, both quantities expressed in terms of Ey. This is possible since £, (which includes the resistive voltage drop) is defined according to 5 — E,— Ey Telations exist between « and u and the corresponding voltage reductions E, and E,. These relations are derived and explained in Chapters 6, 7, and 8 and with their knowledge the results are converted into the curve of fig. 4.5. In accordance with other presentation, the8 ‘The Connections voltage scale as been retained on the vertical axis s thatthe voltage-time {integral can be taken from the horizontal scale. Example (Computing basic values for interphase transformer design) “Two pulse midpoint connections are paralleled through an interpiase aesformer, Ey.©= 250 V, phase control from 150 V to 250'V. Inaddition there isa 69% reactive voltage drop at full load. Determine the cross-seo- Tae eave sea ofthe interphase transformer assuming single turms and ‘maximum AB of 120,000 linesfin.* cafution. At no load the lowest value E,/E;, is 150/250 = 0.6. For hire we read from the solid curve of fig. 4.5 8 voltagetime integral of 2.56 {msec} x Ez, With Ey, = 250 V, this results in 2.56 {ensec} x 250 [V] = 640 [msec] “At full load the lowest value of Ey/Easis 0.6 — 0.06 = 0.$4. For this value ‘See curve EJ Esp 6% gives a voltage-time integral of 2.48 [msec] Fur ‘This is less than the no-load value. Hence we design the interphase trans Former for 640 mVsee. With relation (4.1) and with N ) 2 (one turn for each and A.B = 120,000 x 10-*[Vsec/in*] since 1 line equals 10-* Vsec, we finally compute AofmVsec] A= Fy 1.2[mVserfin-) = 267{in3] (net value) ‘Time Integral of the Absorbed Voltage, Combination of Two 6-Pulse Systems ‘This i accomplished by combining, through an interphase transformer, two Guise systems operating with a displacement of 30°. Vasious Sombirntions ofthis kind are presented in Chapter 5. The direct voltages Sfehe two systems are shown in fig. 46a, Compared with fig, 4.3, the time fntegra of the voltage to be absorbed by the interphase transform! is peecderably smaller, because the fluctuations ofthis voltage are smaller, sad the fequency is six times the supply frequency. This resuits in 2 ‘smaller interphase transformer. "The voltage across the interphase transformer is plotted over a straight tine in fig, £65, and the amplitudes of the sine curves that envelop the sane ander consideration are specified, so that the area can be computed Interphase Transformer Connections 0 ty et Fig. 46. Area representing time integral of voltage absorbed by interphase tran {Teambiing two @pule syst, 2 Pu 15 Dy ems tcaivmes as function of «and u, Let us ist eit the amplitudes of sane Satngat oie te enelopngcuve ropes te Ofirce Serwcen the two Se fondo hat esse the Sst vols ds thvimurval. These two sine funcion are dpacd by 30 and each has feat rave of Ey. Tence the ample f the enveloping core according to fig. 4.7, Eq X 2sin 15°. This equals , i +S as shown in fig. 4.65. During overlap the arcais defined by a cosine curve with the crest value at wf. At this point there is an inte h i. At this point there is an intersection with the curve just defined, from which we conclude that the crest value must be 2 +8 Ew Eq X sin 15° = ———— +PThe Connections Eg x 23in 1S* oT Ee ig. 47. Auxiliary figure for computations. cect voltage, system A rect votage, system B © o [ at 204 Fig. 4.8. Area representing time integral of voltage absorbed by interphase transformer ‘combining two 6pulse systems, « + u 215". Interphase Transformer Connections a This is the value shown in fig. 4.6b. With these data we now compute for «= Oandu=0: Time integral of voltage 9 p=" yp atsorbed by interphase == [, 7p hasn orden transformer, «= 0,4 = 0 a3 +8 Again we express E,, by Ey» according to E,, = Ey, x m/3 forg = 6, and introduce « = 2x x 60 [eps], resulting in £5 (1 — cos 15") Time integral of voltage 2a 1 sec . absorbed by interphase Ta a3 De oop ft ~ OO815) transformer, @ = 0, v 6-puise performance, Seasny = 0 [eps] (43) With phase control and a certain commutating angle, this value is increased. Up to a + w= 15%, the addition is , + £, times the duration of # cycle (Gimilar t0 the relation derived for two 3-pulse systems). Beyond 15°, {he situation i ilustrated by fg. 4.8, and the area must be computed by integration. The results will be obtained as a function of a and w, but we Will present them as a function of the direct voltage E, and of the voltage reduction £,, both quantities related to E,,. This leads to the chart of fig. 49. Example (Computing time integral of voltage absorbed by Interphase transformer) ‘Check the value shown in fig. 4.9 for E,/Ey, = 0.5 and E,JE, = 6%, (This requires knowledge of Chapters 6, 7, and 8.) Solution. First, we determine « and u, using equations (8.3) and (8.4): = 0.098 (msec] x E, = 0.56 resulting in:2 ‘The Connections $e = attt os i oa 05ST OB ‘otage-time iteral/Eda (ies), > vig. 49, Tine integral of volage absorbed by interphase transformer if combining Tae or edisplaced & pute systems, @—Value of sample caleaaton. oy ‘Then we read from fig. 48: ‘Veltage-time MOP eal lh [natant get eet w \T+ Vi Jove 7 Exe {_2 feos (a + u — 15°) — c08(@ + 15) (ene ae tc bin e+ 0)—sinal} tarp With the values of « and w inserted, and 2n x 6Ofsce“] substituted for co this results in : voltage-time _ 9 50 msec] x Eas Integral 7 2Solmsee] Fe ‘as shown in the chart. ‘Voltage Across the D-C Circuit satready explained, the diference between the direct voltages of the eoeneads i er. More precisely, tne auference is balanced by the voltage induced in the windings of the Interphase Transformer Connections 4a Sct voltage, system A wong, sytem B Fig. 4.10, Voltage across d-c circuit, « = 0,u = 0, interphase transformer, and since both windings are linked with the same magnetic flux, the voltage difference is equally divided between them. ‘Thus the d-c circuit is given a potential that is, at any instant, the mean ‘value of the direct voltages of the individual systems. For « = 0 and su =O, this is illustrated by fig. 4.10. The average values of all voltages are the same, marked by E,, in this figure, whereas the fluctuations are displaced, and the combination of the two 3-pulse connections results in a system with 6-pulse ripple voltage across the d-c circuit. The erest values are different for the individual voltages and their combination because the ratio Eq/Ey, is different for 3-pulse and for 6-pulse performance. Figure 4.11 illustrates the situation with phase control and a certain commotating angle u. It discloses that the curve representing the voltage ect vgs, ystem A dec wage, stem B ig. 4.11. Voltage across d-¢ circuit with phase control and commutation.4 The Connections ‘cross the d-c circuit is shaped precisely as it would be shaped if it were furnished by any other 6-pulse rectifier connection operating with the same ‘angles of phase control and commutation and with the same value of Eur D-C Balance The currents in the two windings of the interphase transformer excite both tegs in the same direction, causing a magnetic flux that must return outside the core, Hence this flux remains weak and does not increase the ‘ux density in the two legs considerably. Actually, the return path may be conceived as a large air gap which avoids saturation of the core. This situation is very favorable, but it requires that the two currents be of equal average values, Any unbalance would cause a magnetic flux within the closed magnetic path of the core, and an unbalance of a few percent is. usually enough to saturate the core completely: The consequence would be ‘an increase of the exciting current the interphase transformer needs for absorbing the difference between the two direct voltages. Such a situation is illustrated by fig. 4.12. ‘There the voltage across the interphase trans- former has been integrated because the integral value is proportional to the alternating magnetic flux. ‘Then the curve has been reflected at the magnetic characteristic of the interphase transformer in order to obtain the curve of the exciting current. The point of interest is that even a small 4d-c component, as assumed for Fig. 4.12 causes considerable asymmetry of the curve of the exciting current and high current peaks in one direction. ‘These peaks are in the forward direction in the system with the higher ‘current while reducing the current in the system with the lower average ‘value. Sometimes, especially at low load, these peaks make the current of this system temporarily zero, which may initiate other undesired pheno- ‘mena and even instability. “Acertain degree of unbalance is usually inevitable, and it may be asked what methods will avoid saturation of the core of the interphase trans- former. The answers are: 1, Am air gap in the core linearizes the characteristic. It “softens” the peaks of the exciting current under unbalance and reduces them to ower values, but it increases the exciting current under balance because the air gap needs additional excitation, Thus the gain in one field is a loss in the other. 2. Designing the interphase transformer for a higher voltage-time integral results in smaller changes of the flux density in the core and in more “distance” towards the saturation level. This reduces the Interphase Transformer Connections 45 exciting current under balance as well as under unbalance, but itis a rather expensive solution, ‘UsiBily both methods are combined. However, the “best” combination is a matter of many more considerations, and the size of this book does not permit a closer investigation. Integrated votage sons Interphase wensformer tin integral. of wotage 6-< unbolonce Fig. 4.12. Operation of interphase transformer under d-e unbalance. Voltage Rise at No Load It was shown in fig. 4.1 that without an interphase transformer the con~ ducting angle of each phase is reduced from: 120 to 60° if two 3-pulse systems are paralleled, because the load current is periodically transferred from one system to the other; differently interpreted, the two commutating groups operate asa single pulse midpoint comection. Thesamesituation exists if the exciting current for the interphase transformer cannot be furnished and the interphase transformer is therefore unable to absorb the difference between the direct voltages—and this occurs at no load. ‘This phenomenon changes the average value ofthe direct voltage (equation 63) from avg value, 3-pulse performance, «=0,u=0 Eq, = 0827Eq6 The Connections svpvale, 6p performance, 3 5 o.9ssr, i two conditions the interphase illustrated by fig. 4.132. Between these two conditions Samfoner loves oul a5 soon asthe instantaneous vale of the exciting current reduces the load current of one system to zero. At this woage scross dc creat with no ntrphase transformer, orn lad especie) vege vellage arse €-c cet with itt "erase anton peraton relate votage across -e cuit partly a operation ' 7 NL NL \ mere et _ os wal ca eet o Fig. 433. Voltage across circuit influenced by operation of interphase transformer. sain ie in cpr yn id iil i a tae i era ie otis en unineme, ws ra an es OO ae ane att te le a caer Se erate in series connection with the diodes, and let us assume ‘that these control ie men nh a i Interphase Transformer Connections aT current flow. This time integral of voltage is withheld from the d-c circuit three times per cycle if the two wyes operate independently, paralleled ‘through the interphase transformer, whereas it is withheld six times per cycle if the interphase transformer is ineffective, ard the circuit operates as a pulse midpoint connection. (This is demonstrated with a sample calculation in Chapter 7.) Double-Wye Connection with Interphase Transformer ‘Two 3-pulse midpoint connections are frequently paralleled through an interphase transformer in order to double the load current and to obtain, 6-pulse performance. This requires 180° phaseshifted transformer windings for the two wyes and thus results in a connection with six secondary windings, as presented in detail by figs. 12 and 13. Each secondary winding conducts during } ofa cycle, and the secondary rating is therefore as high as for a single 3-pulse midpoint connection; it is 148P,,, Reflected to the primary side, the currents in the two windings fon each leg are opposite and 180° displaced, and they can be perfectly balanced by a symmetrical primary current, regacdless of the primary transformer connection. ‘Since the primary side carries the current pulses of both wyes, the windings are as eficiently used as in a 3-phase bridge connection, and the rating is 1.05P,,, the minimum for 6-pulse perform- ance. For the primary side a delta winding is usually preferred since it avoids excitation unbalance, as studied in Chapter 2. Jn figs. 12 and 13 the interphase transformer is shown between the two center points of the transformer windings. This position gives the same effect as a connection between the center poins of the diodes, but sometimes permits a simpler bus bar arrangemen, especially if both transformers, the power and the interphase, are placed in a common oil tank. Comparing the double-wye connection with interphase transformer with its rival, the 3-phase bridge connection, we find 1. The diodes of one leg of an interphase transformer connection have to handle twice the voltage but only half the current of the diodes in one leg of a bridge connection with the same values of direct voltage land current. This is because the commutating groups operate in parallel in the interphase transformer connection, and in series in the bridge connection. The higher voltage rating is usually no problem and does not, in general, proportionally increase the price of the diodes (very high voltages excepted), but the lower current valuea The Connections reduces the number of parallel connected diodes including all associated components such as fuses, bus bars and cooling equipment, and is therefore a great advantage. 2. The total power losses are smaller in an interphase transformer connection because the current is carried by a smaller number of diodes in series connection. 3. The reactive voltage drop caused by the bus bars can be made smaller in an interphase transformer connection since the current to be commutated is only half of the current commutated in a bridge connection, and the commutating voltage is twice as high. For these reasons the interphase transformer connection is competitive with the 3-phase bridge connection in a certain voltage-current range, despite the relatively high transformer rating and the problem of avoiding saturation of the interphase transformer core due to current unbalance. Example (Double-wye conection with interphase ransformer) As an exercise, let us check the values and relations shown in fig. 13. Since this requies Knowledge of other chapters ofthis book, some eer cove notes ae given, With the definitions Rye primary or secondary ine-to-nentral voltage, asouming a 1:1 Jato of voltage transformation, rms vale gm cument in der crete avg value ve compute Line to-netralvoge erst value = V/3E, Direct voltage of one Wye, Ey = V2 inc uation 6.3) sing ea ) N3 = =1178, na” (this value isthe same for each wye and for the combination) Direct voltage, Fay Current in the d-c circuit, ‘avg value Current through diodes, Ig 6 diodes or groups of avg value = diodes share J.) Current through diodes and secondary transformer windings, rms value Interphase Transformer Connections ” Curent through primary (VAN x see current. V3 takes tnsfomer windings) ~3/5 S48 of econ’ ye, 143 = tun ratio) Primary line current, ms value 4 (V3 times current in windings) Each-secondary winding is designed for the voltage £, and the current 1420/3, and 6 windings exist. Hence the equivalent rating ofthe secondary side i Ely 2V3 We substitute £,, 7/2/3V3 for E, and then Pg, for Eyyfy and find Equivatent rating of secondary side = (Ele Ate primary side, each winding is designed for V/3E, anda curent of Td3V2, resulting. Equivalent rating _ 3/3E gt of primary side = 375 = 3 Paw and this is also the total input power P,., neglecting the exciting current of the transformer. Interphase Transformers with Three and Four Legs The operating principle of an interphase transformer is not restricted to the combination of two systems. With a core with three legs three systems can be paralleled, as shown in fig. 4.14a, and with even moze legs more systems can be combined. The basic concept is in any case that all legs Of the interphase transformer are excited in the same direction so that the main portion of the d-c ampere-turns is absorbed along the return path of the magnetic flux outside the core. With an interphase transformer with three legs, three 2-pulse connec tions can be combined to a system with 6-pulse performance ifthe ripple voltages are 60°-displaced. The individual voltages and the voltage across the common d-c circuit are shown in ig. 4.145, and the time integral of the voltage absorbed by one winding of the interphase transformer is repre- sented by the crosshatched area. The voltage across the d-c circuit, ey is determined at any instant by the arithmetic middie of the individual direct.o — Fig. 414, Three 2-pulse systems paralleled through an interphase transformer. Yoltages. This ean be easily proved if ny ¢y, ane epreset the instant ‘out ales ofthe vllages induced the tre windings ofthe interphase Usformer and eye and the individual direct voltages, With these the following must be tre at any instant ete = ee ete es eat em ee Furthermore, ¢, + € + €- must equal zero at any instant, because the total of all flux changes in the three legs is zero. Hence: atetes 3 Interphase Transformer Connections 51 as stated above. For rectifier systems with a high current, the windings of the interphase transformer are frequently just one turn each, and in this ‘ase it is more economical to use three individual cores, which may be ‘toroidal, as shown in fig. 4.15. The effect isthe same since, with ¢,,¢y,and ¢, representing the voltages induced in the bus bars surrounded by these cores, the following must be true: ater aae ate—a=e eaten Fig, 418, Three rectifier systems paralleled through three single interphase transformers Adding all three expressions, gaftate . 3 which accords with the result calculated for the three-leg interphase transformer. Combinations of three 2-pulse connections are presented in figs. 20 and 21. An interphase transformer with four legs is sometimes used for parallel- ing four 3-pulse commutating groups in a 12-pulse system. Such systems (with three separate interphase transformers) are shown in figs. 24 and 25, Again, the polarity of the windings must be such that the d-c ampere-turns cause a magnetic flux of the same direction in each leg so that the total flux must return outside the core and thus does not cause saturation. Each winding absorbs the difference between the voltage across the d-c circuit and the direct voltage of one system. The voltage across the d-c citcuit is, at any instant, the mean value of all four direct voltages, and fluctuates with 12-pulse ripple.2 ‘The Connections Example (Combination of three 2-pulse midpoint connections) “The connection presented in detail in fig. 20 is a combination of three 2-pulse midpoint connections, paralleled through an interphase trans- former with three legs. Check the relations shown in this figure. ‘Solution. (@) The direct current of each 2-pulse group is 4. The conducting angle is 180°, Hence the current in each secondary transformer Winding is as shown in fig. 20, marked by (). The eurrent in a primary ‘winding balances the ampere-turns of the two secondary windings on each leg. Since a primary winding, has ~/3 times as many turns asa secondary winding, the magnitude is {33 in each direction, as shown in fig. 20, arked by @). Current @) is 120° leading, and the line current @ is @ —G This current has a regular shape since it isthe line current of & G:pulse rectifier connection with a regular direct voltage and with no ampere-turn unbalance. (@) The direct no-load voltage E,, i equal to the value E,, ofeach 2-pulse group. This is, referred to Fy, Fy = vi,(E) With ration (63) tis resus in * a=, aay (©) The rating of the secondary transformer windings is 1. 2 “TC rms value of current s value of voltage (6) secondary windings Ele = 157P ao Pequtw With relation (4.4) we compute: Pequtw 2 (@ For the primary side we calculate: Peauiy = 3V3Eq (rms value of current ms value of voltage aptele ‘The mean value of the two ratings is 4(1.57 + 1.11) LIP, 1.34. Interphase Transformer Connections 8 (© The rms value of the line current is: current flows only J of the time total of the values of curents @ an ‘Hence the total input power is Bas Poe = SE ei 3 a Tule F Eyde= 108% (A) The crest value of the sit line current is curve defining the steps of the primary 2,24 3/3 cos 30° 5" This value times E,,/E,. is the amplitude of the fundamental of the current. Hence the rms value ofthe fundamental is 22 1 ea aoe ae ‘With this value the apparent power ofthe fundamental canbe determined h = 3882 = Bale 3 “This result was expected since inthe regular mode of operation P, equals Pay as stated by relation (17.1). “s Equivalent Rating of the Interphase Transformer When designing the interphase transformer, it is useful to know the sinusoidal voltage of supply frequency that causes the same flux swing in the interphase transformer as the voltage that has to be absorbed during rectifier operation. The time integral of the voltage to be absorbed, divided by Ex is graphically presented as a function of the operating conditions by the charts of figs. 4.Sand 4.9. If we denote this value, since it is mea- sured in milliseconds, by ffeey and the rms value of the equivalent4 The Connections voltage by Eyquys it can be easily proved that Esasit _ 9,1334;h000 as) With this relation the equivalent rating can be determined. Recognizing ‘that each winding of the interphase transformer absorbs only half the woltage difference of the paralleled systems, and carries only half the load Current, and that the core area has to be increased in the same ratio in ‘which the flux swing has to be reduced with regard to the higher frequency and to partial saturation, we find Ponsiy _ 0133 yg, ABest 46 Pa 4 lon; uations (4.5) and (4.6) are independent of the supply frequency as long exon (0 ngnint teeter connection has to be designed. Applied to an interphase trans- former that parallels two 3-pulse systems at zero phase contral and 127% reactive voltage drop, we read from fig. 45 the ValU€ ffyasg = 14, and compute, assuming a AB ratio of 2:1, Pag = 0.095) Twelve-Pulse Systems Large rectifier installations usually consist of several independently comimutating units that are phase shifted in suck a manner that the total pulse number is 12 or even higher. The most commonly used combinations will be presented and discussed. Chapters 15 and 17 show that the ripple of the direct voltage and the dstor- tion ofthe alternating line current are lower the higher the pulse number. This is of minor importance for small power supplies where simplicity i the fist requirement, but is the leading factor when selecting the connee- tion fora large rectifier installation. In some instances such installations are spit into smaller units to provide spare capacity in case ofa falures in others the installation is built of several commutating groups in ordet to reduce the current to be commutated in a single group and thus to achieve a smaller reactive voltage drop. In both cases it does not con siderably increase the price ofthe total installation, but it does improve the performance, if these units are phase sifted. The total input power Pax is, according to Chapters 18 and 19, 1LOSP,, for 6 pulee performance and 1LOLP, for 12-pulse performance ‘The theoretical optimum is 1.00P,,. Hence theresa considerable improve- ment if the pulse number is increased from 6 to 12, but not much more if is further increased, ‘The only reason for occasionally using @ higher pulse number is to reduce interference with other electrical systems, for ‘example, communication systems, caused by the harmonics of the alter- pI 8 wg current. Therefore only 12-pulse systems will be investigated in chapter. ‘The individual units are usually 3-pulse commutating groups which prove to be the most economical building blocks for larger systems, at least under the considerations that apply to semiconductor rectifying elements. The combination of two such groups in a bridge or an inter- ‘phase transformer connection has already been investigated in Chapters. ss56 ‘The Connections 3 and 4. Hence the only problem reserved for this chapter is to combine ‘two 3-phase bridge coanections or two double-wye connections with inter- ‘phase transformer, ether in a series or a parallel connection, ‘The combination of two phase-shifted systems is investigated in Chapter 16. There it is shown that the combination results in a new regular connection if the individual systems are complementary. Two 6-pulse systems satisfy this condition if they are equal in power and 30° phase shifted. Such combinations will now be studied. Combination of Two 3-Phase Bridge Connections with WyeDelta Secondary ‘A transformer with a primary wye and a secondary delta winding, or vice versa, causes a phase shift of 30°. Hence two complementary 6-pulse ‘systems can be built if one is given a wye-wye or a delta-delta connected. transformer, and the other one @ wye-delta or a delta-wye connected transformer. Even one transformer is sufficient if it has two secondary windings, one in wye and onein delta connection, provided thatthe rectifier circuits are bridge connections which do not require a secondary neutral point. This results in the circuit shown in fig. 22. Since the 30° turn is ‘achieved with a very simple transformer connection and without increase of the equivalent rating, this circuit is very economical. However, there ‘is int to be given attention: In equal secondary Sona Cana oberon mIaT ET st bein a ratio of 1:-/3, and since this is an irrational ratio, it can only be approxi= | mated. Good approximations achieved with small numbers of turns are 3:5 % off) 4:7 (1% off) 7:12 A% of) “The two systems may be series or parallel connected. The first method, illustrated by fig. 5.1a, is seldom used since each bridge connection is already a series connection of two 3-pulse commutating groups. Tt is azul yeucreNSOROY OS eT ia "and to parailel the two bridge connections, as shown in fig. 5.15. However, this requires an interphase transformer, and the two currents must be well ‘balanced in order to avoid saturation of the core of the interphase trans- former. With respect to this condition the unequal secondary voltages are a great disadvantage. “The primary windings may be either in delta or in wye. In both eases the phase shift angle & of the total connection, as well as the waveshape of Twelve-Pulse Systems & (6) ses connection interphase tanstormer & (2) pastel connection — Fle. 5.1. “Combinations of two 30° phaseshifted 3 phase bridge connections.58 The Connections. the alternating line current, are the same. This is because the phase shift angles of a wye and a delta connection differ by 30°, which corresponds to the duration of one full pulse. The primary delta con- nection avoids “excitation unbalance” (see Chapter 2) and is therefore ‘mostly used. The complete system is presented by fig. 22, and the following ‘example demonstrates how to compute the values shown in this figure. Example (Zvansformer currents in the connection of fig. 22) Determine the waveshape and rms value of the currents in the transformer windings of the circuit shown in fig. 22. (This requires knowledge of ‘Chapters 16 and 18.) Solution. Current (D (fig. 22) is the regular secondary line current of 1a 3-phase bridge connection. ‘There are two current pulses, each with 120" duration and with a value of 4/,, because itis assumed that the direct current is equally shared among the two bridge connections. Current @ has the same wave shape as current (D, but is 30° lagging because bridge connection B operates with 30° delay. ‘The fundamental of current @) is in phase with the fundamental of current (J) but reduced by the factor of 1/\/3. ‘The steps coincide with those ‘of curve ®. The steps of curve @) are defined by a sine curve with the ‘rest value of $l, divided by cos 60°, that is, 1Js/3. Hence the crest value of the corresponding sine curve for current @) is $y. This results in the values shown for curve ( in fig. 22. Current@ isthe total of ) and ¥/3 times (because of the turn rato) This leads to the values shown for curve @. cueck. The fundamental of @) must be in phase with the fundamental ‘of @ because both currents flow through straight windings on the same transformer leg. _ “The value of the highest step of current @) is (3 + 2/2V3 times J. Hence the crest value of the sine curve defining the steps is, 3 3+2 2y2 B42, 1 342, W? 6» 2a * cose 2s * Gri “The amplitude ofthe fundamental of the curren is, according to Chapter 16, this value times B/E for 12-pulse performance, resulting in +2, 22, 3 8 23 +i Abt) = TE, JEq for g = 12 Ll aoe rane curve defining steps te ne. Twelve-Pulse Systenis 9 cick. The apparent power of the fundamental is, according to this result, with 62) this results in ‘The rms value of current (1) or @) is Ja{/6. ‘The rms value of current @) is this value divided by V3 because it is the line-to-line component with the same harmonic composition (same pulse number). ‘The rms value of current @ is, according to Chapter 16, equal to the rms value of the sine curve defining the steps. With relation (5.1) this value is (V3 + 1)/2V3 times 1, ‘CHECK. From the rms value of current @ we compute the total input power: Poot = 3E, With relation (5.2) this leads to (5,6, for q = 12 ‘This value is also the rating of the primary transformer windings since they have to handle just this amount of power. The secondary rating is that of a single 3-phase bridge connection. Combination of Two 3-Phase Bridge Connections with Secondary 15° Zigrag Winding We mentioned previously that the connection shown in fig. 22 employing, a secondary wye and a secondary delta winding does not give precisely equal secondary voltages and is therefore not well suited for paralleling. the two systems through an interphase transformer. The connection described in this section features absolute MECHANICAL SYMMETRY betweet, the two systems because both are phase shifted by the same angles, one in the forward and one in the reverse direction, and at first glance ito ‘The Connections ‘seems that there should be no problems of unbalance. However, since ‘one system is phase shifted forward and one reverse, there is ELECTRICAL ASYMMETRY. ; To explain this phenomenon, two 15° phase-shifted 3-pulse groups are shown in fig. 5.2. These may be the positive sections of the two bridge ‘aatemn A @ ‘stem B o ° pulse Fig. 52. Voltages induced during commutation in two 15° phase-shified 3-pl groups. (a) Commutation in system 4. (6) Commutation in system 2. conneetions presented in fig. 23. The negative sections as well asthe load circuits are omitted in fig. 5.2 for the sake of simplicity. Section (a) assumes a commutation between phases | and 2of system 4 and displays the polarities with which the commutating voltage is absorbed by the leakage inductance of the various windings that are part of the commutating loop. ‘The leakage flux also passes through other windings on the same trans- former leg, and the polarities with which voltages are induced in phase 1 of system B, which is conducting at that time, ae shown atthe right. A similar situation is ustrated in section (8), assuming a commutation in Twelve-Pulse Systems 6 system B while phase 2 of system A is conducting. Compating both ilustratons, it can be sen that the voltages induced fn the “long” and in the “short” windings have diferent polarities in the two eases, increasing the direct voltage of one system and reducing the direct voltage ofthe other This is the situation in the positive wyes. Voltages are also inuced in the windings conducting atthe negative side, and it depends on the leakage induetances between the various windings whether both bridge connections will have the same reactive voltage drop and hence balanced load currents, ao Ks s ~ ae S \ 1 : sos @ ” Fig. 53. Geometrical relations of the 15° tur. 816 Despite these problems the connection of fig. 23 is occasionally used, and since the 15° zigzag is also employed for the circuit of fig. 24 (which needs all four secondary neutral points and therefore cannot have a wyedelta secondary), the basic relations for the 15° turn will now be derived. The relations between the various voltages are illustrated by fig. 5.34. This diagram can be further developed into fig. 5.36, using the conversions sin 15° = sin (45° — 30: sin 45° cos 30° ~ cos 45° sin 30° (33) and sin 75° = sin (45° + 30°) 64)a The Connections ‘he resultant represents the secondary line-to-neutral voltage E,. The voltage across the Jong winding is, according to fig. 5.3b, VEE, = 0.816 E, (5.5) The voltage across the short winding is Jae 0.298E, 66) ve “he rating of the secondary transformer windings is increased, as compared vith a straight wye connection, by the factor B J3-1_ 341 fetes the turn ratio between the short and the long windings is (V3 ~ 1):2. It is approximated by = 1.15 en 38 @4%om) en @3%oM) 119 (08%4of ther ets ofthis conection ae presented by 28. They re SURE Seer manner av demonstrated withthe ast example forthe Shout of fy Combination of Two Interphase Transformer Connections swith Secondary 15° Zigzag Windings cna rye oh tasrme Bee cement ean a toe ep how na oo Se een het ed: Se a See oe A ee ie ah Twelve-Pulse Systems 8 This leads to the connection presented in fig. 24. ‘The transformer connec- tion of this circuit ie quite complex, and the secondary transformer rating, 1.65P,,, is rather high. This is partly because the secondary transformer ‘windings carry currents with a d- component, and because the voltage is composed of two phase-shifted portions. Actually, the factor 1.65 is the product of 7/3, representing the distortion of a 6-pulse current; V2, representing the influence of the d-c component; and (V3 + livG accounting for the 15° turn, according to equation (5.7). The interphase transformer may be arranged between the neutral points of the transformer windings, as shown in fig. 24, or between the center points of the diode groups. The primary transformer windings may be in wye or in delta connection. In both eases the phase shift angle € of the total system and the waveshape of the primary line currents are the same, since the phase shift angles of a wye and a delta winding differ by 30°, the angle of one pulse of operation. Figure 24 presents this connection with the basicrelations and the current curves ofinterest; the following sample calculation determines the currents shown in fig. 24. Example (Transformer currents in the connection of fig. 24) Determine the waveshapes of the currents in the various transformer windings and compute the equivalent transformer rating forthe connection of ig. 24 Solution. The current in the load circuit, J, is shared among four 3-pulse commutating groups. Hence the current in each secondary transformer winding consists of 120° pulses with the value 37, as shown for current @. This current is reflected into the branch of current @) in the ratio Vi according to fig. 5.36. In addition, there is a contribution of the current of the succeeding phase of the same commutating group. This current is 120° lagging and is reflected to the primary side with opposite polarity, and reduced in the ratio (v3 — 1)/V6, according to fig. 5.36. With the contributions of the other commutating group of system B which are opposite in polarity and 180" displaced, this leads to the current curve in fig. 24 labeled “@, contribution of system B." From this curve we etermine the contribution of system A. The fundamentals of both contributions must be equal in amplitude and must be “in phase” because ‘both systems represent the same kind of load as far as the magnitude of le curtent aud the displicement of the fundamental in relation to the voltage are concerned. The only difference is that the pulses of operation are 30° displaced. This leads to the curve shown as the “contribution of system 4.” Both add up to the total current, @.a The Connections With a primary delta connection this current is reduced by 1/V/3 because of the turn ratio, but waveshape and value of the line current must be the same as determined for current @, because both currents have the same pulse number and the same angle &. However, current @ is 30° lagging as a consequence of the delta connection. SE ee saxon ee pulses cover only $ of a cycle. Hence we compute the equivalent rating Of the secondary side of the transformer as y 1 Eula voltage voltage x current of x current of one long winding one short winding, (ems values) (rms values) (12) phi With inserted, this results ia ‘This vale is listed in ig. 24. For the primary side we compute (assuming wye connection): The value of the Righest step of the current curve is (3 + 1)/2V/6 times 1. This is also the crest value ofthe sine curve that ee teat cas an ee Ue sor asa equals the rms value of the total current, because both values are Fy/Ey, times the rms value of the fundamental. Hence, the rms value of this current is (/3 + 1)/4V/3 times J, a8 shown in fg. 24, resulting in an equivalent rating of " 341 Peguiv,prim = 3E, a With B, expressed by Ey this results in B+y Peevgrin = BY p, 2 C= EJ ,, for g = 12 Twelve-Pulse Systems 6 Phase-Shifting Transformers A different method of phase shifting a rectifier connection is to provide an additional transformer between supply line and rectifier connection, 4 transformer that causes the desired phase shift without changing the voltage level. For installations consisting of several rectifier units this has certain advantages: 1. All units can be built identically. 2. Common leakage inductance, a source of current unbalance between the individual units, is avoided. 3. The individual units can be operated independently. However, the phase-shifting transformers are an additional expense. If ust two systems have to be phase shifted against each other it would theoretically be sufficient to phase shift only one system and to connect the other one through reactors to the supply line that represent the leakage inductance of the phase-shifting transformer of the other system. How- ever, to phase shift both systems in opposite directions, each by half the angle, is usually a better Solution. It requires two phase-shifting trans formers of approximately half the size of one designed for the full angle and provides perfeet symmetry. ‘The phase-shifting transformers may be in fork or polygon connection. ‘The FORK CONNECTION is shown in fig. 5.4. With ¢ representing the phase supply ire rectiier ennecton Fig. 54, Phase-shiting transformer in fork connection,6 The Connections i and output shift angle between incoming and outgoing lines, and with input ‘ottage having the seme vale, we read from this illustration, asisted by fig. 5.5a: Voltage across 2. solo ) wh long winding = Fe * i Voltage across _ psx 2esink 69) short winding = Fe * 75 ‘The shoe windings carr the line cutet fhe long winding The diference of vo ine eanents that are paced by gence the @ o Fig. 55. Phase-shifting transformer in fork connection. (a) Voltage diagram, () Current diagram. current of the long winding is, according to fig. 5.5, Current carried 7 2sin (5.10) by long winding : From these relations we compute the equivalent rating: A. sin #4 4 sin(aor -£) x >in] Pequy = 3X eae 2 pin + Se £ g 3 2, GN ong winding 3) phases utotransformer “This rests in 2 sin [1 sin(o-2)] ay Peau = 3Euly x aut 7 Pa presented in ig 59 Twelce-Pulse Systems or Deriving relation (5.10), we ignored the fact that the currents are not sinusoidal but “step-shaped.” To demonstrate that this does not affect the result as long as the operation is regular so that the steps are defined by a sine curve, the currents (), @, and @) of fig. 5.4 are shown in fig. 5.6, assuming y = 30°. Currents () and @ have the same rms value. Hence the steps of these currents are defined by sine curves of the same TS Al, ® | { rl @ T { _ i ° Waexzseis rez =90-@ * ‘® Fig. 5.6. Geometrical addition of “step-shaped” currents, amplitude, the sine curve for current @ being 30° lagging. The sine curve for the difference of the two currents, @, is determined by the vector diagram in fig. 5.6. Its amplitude is that of the other sine curves times 2ssin 15°, and this curve is 75° leading in relation to the sine curve for current (D. The pulses of operation coincide for all currents since the changeover from one to another pulse occurs at well-defined instapts.a The Connections This determines the individual steps. The rms values are, according to Chapter 16, equal to the rms values of the sine curves that define the steps, ‘and can therefore be directly computed from the vector diagram without regard of the fact that the currents are “step-shaped.” supply ne aA Teciier SSanection Fig. 5:7. Phase-shiftig transformer in polygon connection. ‘The POLYGON CONNECTION is shown in fig. 5.7. In fact, this connection is more economical than the fork connection and is therefore most commonly used. It is simpler, and the equivalent rating is, for @ certain phase shift angle, lower than that of a fork connection, From the voltage diagram shown in fig. 5.8 we derive Voltage across, 2 ong winding = V3 &s * 7 in(s0 - ) (6.12) T_____0.92 for g = 15° Voltage across gp 2 GaP short winding = V3 Fs % “sin (6.13) T0115 for g = 15° From the condition of ampere-turn balance between the long and the short winding on each leg we further conclude Current in tong winding _ voltage across short winding (5 4) Gurrent in short winding ~ voltage across long winding Twelve-Pulse Systems e ‘These relations and the fact that , the fact that the line current J; is the total of ‘currents in a short winding and a long winding lead to —= Current in Jong winding = 72 5 winding (1s) Current short winding = 1 * ‘ort winding 6.16) c Fig. 58._ Phaseshiting transfomer in polygon connection, voltage diagram. With these results the equivalent rating can be computed: Pequiv tx e,[5 an® x sin(c 2) 4 Rin ~2)4+ Asin’ xs («0 - 2)] J 5) + ink g Tong Winding (3) phases wtotransformer “his canbe further developed iat eos" = 9) = 1 Va 7 Poa presnied in ig 59 6 equivalent rating refered o the “thn he os 3 “Through-kVA” is. raph resented by ig. 5.9 forthe two types of phase iting tracfone a we notice that the polygon connection is superior. Besides, as a con sevens of ution (4), the short andthe ng wings poo mnectec ise-shifling transformer have hich fs an Svante forthe tanstormer dag, hs SE TURE Which an Poasiy = 3B (5.17)0 ‘The Connections & ie & Pela > 5 6128 on OS a0 pase hit angle ¢ —> Fig. 59. Equivalent rating of phase-shifting transformers. ee Soon caress ee ‘Solution. The currents will be designated according to fig, 5.10. This © go we = fo Glo ig. 5:40, Vector diagram for sample calculation. Twelve-Pulse Systems n of the currents as well as to the sine curves that define the steps of the ‘current curves, because these sine curves are “in phase” with the funda- mentals. We notice the 15° phase shift between the incoming current (1) and the outgoing current @). Current Gis in phase with eurrent @ because the ampere-turns caused by both currents must be in balance. Current @) is equal to current @ but 120° lagging. With the further ‘condition that the ratio of the values of @ or @) to @) is reciprocal to the ratio of the voltages across these windings, as previously explained in this chapter, we find the directions and the lengths of vectors @) and ). ES il 15 reel Tex Hsinsese “| Nit, xfs © a necro Fig. 5.11. Currents in a polygon-connected phase-shifting transformer feeding @ S-pulse rectifier system with & = 30°. Phase shift angle @ = 15 :n The Connections ding to the vector diagram we now plot the sine curves that define Rr egy to the rms values of the real current curves, as explained in Section C. ‘Hence the crest values of (D and @ are V2, Curve @) is reduced in ai ratio sated by ration (5.16 for ~ 15% and eurve (it reduced inthe rato expresed by relation (5.15). The phase angles shown inf 5. correspond tothe vector diagram. ‘The final step so determine the los: tion ofthe pulses of operation. Current @ is shown a the line current of ‘a rectifer connection with = 30° (compare with fig. 8, 11, oF 12) pulkes of the other current curves coincide with those of curent @). owing the postion ofthe step andthe crest value ofthe sine cures that define these steps, the current values forall steps cam be easly puted. This will be demonstrated for the interval from af t0 «fy: Curent @: Current @: Current @: i= VOL, x sin 75° = 13, f= V2, x sin 60° = 1.221, 1, x sin 528° x sin 67.5° = 1.201, Iz, x sin 7.5° x sin(—52.5°) = 0.171, O+@-@=0 i hat define rms values are equal to the rms values ofthe sine curves t —— and are shown ‘at the right of fig. 5.11, With these values and the voltages computed with relations (5.12) and (5.13) the design of the phase shifting transformer can be started. SECTION B D-C Characteristics Section the rectifier circuit is conceived as a SOURCE OF DIRECT VOLTAGE, and the OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS of this source, such as the relations between voltage and current, are investigated, The direct voltage is computed from the no-load value and the reductions caused by phase control, commutation, and the resistance of the circuit, The no-load value is a function of the alternating voltages and of the pulse it is computed in Chapter 6. The reduction caused by phase control is a function of the phase control angle, derived in Chapter 7. The reactive voltage drop is caused by the periodic current transfer, called “commutation”; Chapter 8 computes this voltage drop from the values of inductance, and explains how to derive these values from the physical arrangement of the transformer windings and the bus bars. ‘The resistive voltage drop has little influence on the operation of the rectifier connection and is included in the remaining direct voltage ‘The relations derived in Chapter 8 are valid only up to a certain load, ‘At higher currents novel phenomena occur and different relations exist between voltage and current, ‘These are investigated in Chapter 10, where the load characteristic is derived for the entire range from no-load to short circuit. The short circuit current is of special interest forthe design of the retifier system andis therefore more closely iavestigated in Chapter 11. Special attention is paid to the transient component, which con siderably increases the total load to be carried by the diodes under the worst condition, A picture of inverter operation is derived in Chapter 12. Other “special” modes of operation are free-wheeling operation, studied in Chapter 13, and operation with capacitive load, treated in Chapter 14. The performance of f rectifier connection under such conditions is explained, and new relations between voltage and current are derived. B” D-C Characteristics “The rectifier is not only a source of direct voltage; it also generates a certain ripple voltage, which may be regarded as being superimposed on ® direct voltage of constant value. The voltage ripple again causes fiuetus- tions of the current, depending on the characteristics of the d-c circuit ‘These relations are investigated and presented as a function of the operating conditions in Chapter 15. No-Load Voltage The direct voltage of a rectifier connection with zero phase control and no internal voliage drop is clearly defined by the alternating voltages and is therefore selected for a general voliage reference. A formula for computing this fundamental value will be derived, In a rectifier connection the 4-c circuit is periodically “switched around” among points of alternating potential. With open output there is no current and consequently no voltage drop. Hence the direct voltage at no Joad must equal at any instant a certain combination of the alternating voltages as, for example, the sum or the difference of the alternating voltages of two phases. If we further assume that the alternating voltages are undistorted, which is a general assumption for all investigations in this book, the sum or the difference is also a sinusoidal voltage so that, during each interval of operation, the direct voltage is described by a sine function. During one cycle there are several intervals of operation, depending upon the rectifier connection. Thus the curve of the direct, voltage at no load consists of as many identical sections of sine curves per cycle as there are intervals of operation, and if the transition from one sine curve to the other is not delayed by phase control, each section is symmetrical with respect to the erest point of the sine curve. The number of sections is called the PULSE NUMBER, designated by g, because the intervals of operation are comparable to pulses.* For various pulse numbers the curves of the direct voltage are shown in fig. 6.1. Since the shape of these curves is so simple and is only a function of the pulse number, and since the magnitude is clearly defined by the alternating voltages, the average value of the direct voltage at no load and zero phase control is used as a general VOLTAGE REFERENCE. Its symbol is Ez, and all other voltage quantities are preferably expressed in terms of Ey, ‘The quantity E,, is a theoretical figure since it disregards the fact that even a small current, as required for the proper operation of certain ‘connections, causes a voltage drop across the diodes of several hundred * The pulse number g should not be mistaken forthe number of phases ofthe supply system or of the secondary transformer connection, i 1s6 D-C Characteristics Fig. 6.1. Curves ofthe direct voltage at no load and zero phase control. uilivolis. Therefore Zz should be understood as the value womputed ‘from the alternating voltages, ignoring any voltage drop but assuming ‘that the rectifier connection carries as much current as required for the proper operation of the circuit. Applied to an interphase transformer ‘connection, E,, refers to the direct voltage with the interphase transformer IN OPERATION although the real no-load voltage is higher because the interphase transformer does not work at no load (see Chapter 4), The same considerations also apply to Eq, ss the crest value of the no-load ‘voltage. No-Load Voltage 7" Components of £4, Under load and with phase control the direct voltage differs from the theoretical value E,,. It is reduced as a consequence of phase control and Commutation, and by the resistive voltage drop. The reductions caused by Phase control and commutation are denoted by E, and E,, whereas the tesistive voltage drop is usually conceived as part of the direct voltage and is combined with the voltage across the load circuit in the theoretical quantity F,, Furthermore, all voltages and voltage reductions are repre- Sented by their average values, because of the fundamental relation (1.1), and can therefore be added according to Ext Ey+ Ey 1) +a 62) or, in terms of Ey, where Ey, = theoretical direct voltage with zero phase control and no voltage drop, avg value E, = reduction of direct voltage caused by phase control, avg value , = reduction of direct voltage caused by commutation, avg value Eq = direct voltage including resistive voltage drop, avg value Computation of E,, For computing E,, the direct voltage at no load and zero phase control ‘ust be integrated over a certain period of time, and the result must be divided by the length of this period. Since there are q identical inte er cycle, and each interval is symmetfical by sel the range afintesration “can be reduced to one hal and the average value can be deter rom the erosshatched area in fig. 6.2: ritmetTrom the erosshatched area in fi Crosshatched area = ("cos at dat Where F,. = crest value of direct voltage at no load and zero phase control. Provided the sections of the sine curves follow each other continuously, Which excludes q = 1 (se fig. 6.1), the crosshatched area also egualsB D-C Characteristics (19)Eu» and the computation results in qal 3) “This isa fundamental formula. It is exclusively based on the SHAPE of the direct voltage curve and therefore does not need any statement concerning f(t) = Bm 5 ot Fig. 62. Area representing Ex. the connection. The connection only defines E, in relation to the alter- nating voltages. For the pulse numbers of interest we compute: = 0.637 forq = 2 4) 0955 forq = 6 6/3 = 0989 forg = 12 ato : Forg = I the ratio is one-half of the value computed for = 2 since every second pulse is omitted, Example (E,, of a 3-phase bridge connection) ‘Compute £,, of 3-phase bridge connection as a function of the alternating. Tine-to-neutral voltage F, in two ways: (@) Interpret the connection as two 3-pulse circuits operating in series. (b) Treat the connection as a 6-pulse us No-Load Voltage ~» ‘Solution. (a) For g Ni 5 By m2 fe m2 LATE, TE, of each 3-pulse system equals crest value of line-to-neutral voltage ‘vo wyes operate in series (©) Forg = 6, VASE, = 135/36, LE, of 6-pulse system equals crest value of line-to-line voltage The results are identical, of course.Phase Control (skip THIS CHAPTER) Delaying the current transfer from the preceding tothe succeeding Phase reduces the average value of the direct voltage, The delay is accomplished by controlled diodes, or by reactors in series connection with regular diodes. The voltage reduction will be computed from the time integral of the withheld voltage, and from the angle of delay. With regular diodes the current transfer between two phases starts as soon, as the potential of the succeeding phase rises above that of the preceding phase. Thus the d-c circuit is given the highest possible potential at any instant, and the direct voltage is a maximum. If, however, the transi is delayed, the direct voltage is determined by a lower potential during a ‘certain period of time, and the average value is reduced. This is illustrated by fig. 7.1 where at a, the potential of phase 2 exceeds that of phase 1, and the voltage across the diode of phase 2, shown in section (c), changes Fig. 7.1. Voltages in 3-pulve midpoint connection operating with phase contol. » Phase Control 81 from the reverse to the forward direction. A regular diode cannot absorb forward voltage and would immediately start to conduct. However, devices such as controlled diodes, thyratrons, or mercury are rectifiers have to be “fired” before they conduct, so that the current transfer can be delayed. Reactors with a strongly marked transition from the unsaturated to the saturated state are also able to cause such a delay. Computing the Voltage Reduction from the Time Integral of the Withheld Voltage During the delay of the current transfer a certain time integral of voltage is withheld from the d-e circuit. It corresponds to the erosshatched area in fig. 7.16, and is identical with the time integral of the voltage that is absorbed by the rectifying element or the control reactor while delaying the transfer (represented by the crosshatched area in fig. 7.1c). This voltage-time integral can also be regarded as the source of the voltage reduction during a certain interval and is therefore equal to the average value of the reduction, £,, multiplied by the duration of this interval. As an example, in a 3-pulse midpoint connection (fig. 7-12) such a delay occurs three times during each cycle. Hence for a 3-pulse midpoint connection, , x duration of _ time integral of voltage withheld from = * J cycle dc circuit during one delay This relation permits the computation of £, from the value ofthe integral. ‘The same relation can be applied to each commutating group of a 3-phase bridge or a double-wye connection with interphase transformer. In the bridge connection two 3-pulse commutating groups operate in series, and the direct voltages as well as the reductions E, have to be added, whereas in an interphase transformer connection the commutating groups are paralleled, and the direct voltages as well as the voltage reductions are the same for the individual groups or for the whole system. ‘This method of computing the voltage reduction can be used if the delay is caused by devices such as control reactors that absorb a certain voliage- ‘ime integral (measured in voltseconds) before they permit the current flow. A different approach is necessary if the rectifying elements are “fired” with a certain angle of delay, but this will be explained later. aay Example (Voltage reduction in a magnetically controlled interphase transformer connection) Ina magnetically controlled double-wye connection with interphase trans- former a voltage-time integral of 200 mVsec is absorbed by the reagtors2 D-C Characteristics during each delay. Compute the voltage reduction £,, assuming that f= 60 eps, and that (@) The interphase transformer is in operation, (©) The interphase transformer is not in operation because the load current is 100 small to excite the core of the interphase transformer. Solution. (@) We compute for each commutating group, according to relation (7.1) £, X= 200 {mVsec] ¥ E, = 200 mVsec} x 180 [see™"] = 36 [V] This result represents the reduction for each group as well asthe reduction for the whole system, because the two groups are paralleled. (8) With the interphase transformer not in operation the voltage-time integral of 200 mVsec is withheld from the d-c circuit six times during each cycle. Hence E,= RV} From this we conclude that the control characteristic changes at a current level where the interphase transformer loses its influence. This should be considered when designing the control system. Ht) = By 005 ot ‘Computing the Voltage Reduction from the Angle of Delay Inmany cee volge ection on treaty ese 9g” a the Be Nene er ts conan we * derive a relation between the remaining irc vag, Ea — Es acd te cage nes spe has ooe png Se ne eof oaraton fp, the temcnng ee Seinaed aa aie aces sl Ce oct rpmicdsanrgulveconributonand Te cen, Gael by a Age we one seve a— Be) = Eg “cos on det q = e,Lain(? + 2) = sin(— r+ ‘| Phase Control 8 With a few conversions this results in Ey, (relation 6.3) 1-cosa] qx a2 This relation is surprisingly simple. It is illustrated by fig. 7.3; with an sul equa seas Stese Ee @ o Fig. 7.3. Direct voltage with phase control. accurate scale the cosine curve of fig. 7.38 is presented in the chart of fig. 7.4, Equation (7.2) is valid for any pulse number except g = 1 and does not need any statement concerning the connection as long as the operation is regular. Influence of the D-C Circuit Relation (7.2) was derived under the assumption that the dec circuit stays ‘on the potential of the conducting phase until the transfer to the succeeding phase occurs. This condition is satisfied under regular operation where the yductance of the load circuit is assumed infinite so that the current flow is maintained while the direct voltage assumes instantaneous values of ‘opposite polarity. If, however, the inductance is not infinite, the current decays during those intervals, and the conditions on which equation (7.2) is based will be satisfied only if the current does not reach zero before the succeeding phase is being fired. Ina resistive circuit the current is proportional to the voltage, and both {quantities remain zero from the instant of voltage reversal to the instantu D-C Characteristics of firing the succeeding phase. With a free-wheeling diode the situation is similar, since the current is bypassed during the intervals of negative ‘emf and the voltage across the d-c terminals stays close to zero during these intervals. In both eases the control characteristic changes ata certain angle a, and another expression substitutes for (7.2). It will be derived in Chapter 13. 19 os oe) (Euy~ Fab —> 02] 0 30 on 0" Fig. 74, Control characteristic for “regular operation.” With capacitive load or with a dec circuit with back-emf and a low value of impedance, the diodes will not start to conduct before the alternating voltage exceeds the voltage across the d-c circuit, and the relation between the direct voltage and the angle of phase control is completely changed. This will be investigated in Chapter 14. Situation in a Bridge Connection Although a bridge connection does not present anything novel, there may be some difficulties in understanding how the results of this chapter can be applied either to the total system or to the individual commutating Phase Controt 85 groups. ‘Therefore the 3.phase bridge connection has been selected as a Sample for this category of circuits, and fig. 7.5 presents the voltage curves for this connection. In fig. 7.5a the circuit is conceived as two 3-pulse commutating groups in series connection, and all potentials are referred to the center point of the transformer, assuming a secondary wye connee- tion. The total direct voltage is the difference between the potentials of ao 8 5, Lace East Ey © a ©) WBE m Fig, 73. Direct voltage of « 3-phase bridge connection operating with phase control 2 indi that valves correspond. the positive and the negative output terminals. In fig. 7.56 the circuit is ‘treated as a 6-pulse unit, and the total direct voltage is plotied over straight line. Comparing both illustrations, we find 1. Eu ofthe total system, as well as Ey, ~ E,, isthe same in both cases. 2. The double-crosshatched area has the same size in both cases, It Fepresents the time integral of the voltage that is absorbed by the fectifying element or by the control reactor while delaying the current transfer to the succeeding phase. In fig. 7.5a this voltagectime integral is withheld from the d-c circuit six times during each eyete; three times atthe postive side, and three times at the negative side, In fig. 7.56 it is also six times retained. 3. The basic law, (Ey, — 08 s, can be applied cither to the idual group, as shown at the right ofthese illustrations.86 D-C Characteristics Example (3-Phase bridge connection) ‘The direct voltage of a 3-phase bridge connection with F,, = 100V is reduced by phase control to 60V. Determine (2) the angle of phase control, @) the time integral of the voltage absorbed during each delay by the ‘This value is shown in fig. 7.4 at (Ey, — E,)/Exy = 0.6. (®) The voltage reduction is 40 V, and the voltage-tim consideration is six times withheld from the d-c circuit during each cycle. Hence the value of this integral is od =. $1 = 360 [5ee-7 11 [msec] Reactive Voltage Drop The current transfer between the commutating phases causes the reactive voltage drop. For computing this voltoge drop, we interpret the transfer as the result of a short circuit in the commutating loop and define the “line-to-neutral commutating inductance”. In Chapter I it was shown that a rectifier connection must consist of at least two alternately conducting branches if a continuous current flow is, demanded. ‘The periodic transfer of the current from one branch to the other causes a reduction of the direct voltage and is therefore of special interest. This transfer is called commutation and will now be investigated. ‘The Principle of Commutation For the following investigation we select the 3-pulse midpoint connection as the “commutating group” of most of the ‘more complex rectifier systems. This con- nection is shown in fig. 8.1,and the curves Fig. 81. Commutation in a 3- of potential and current are presented by Pulse midpoint connection. fig. 8.2. Starting at a, of fig. 8.2 the potential of phase 2 exceeds that of phase I. This causes the diode of phase 2 to conduct, since otherwise it would have to absorb voltage in the forward direction. The diode of phase 1 is also conducting, because it still carries the load current. Thus the potential difference between phases 1 and 2 is suddenly forced to be absorbed in a circuit that contains only the resistance ‘and the inductance of the transformer windings and of the bus bars of phases I and 2 (disregarding the diodes, which have nearly the same forward voltage drop). This condition is comparable to a short circuit. Fit existed permanently, the current curve would be displaced in relation a38 D-C Characteristics 40 the curve of the voltage (potential difference between phases 1 and 2) bby the phase angle ¢, as shown in fg. 8.26, and the ratio of the crest values of the voltage and the current would be determined by the impedance of the circuit, just as explained in Chapter 1. But this condition starts suddenly at wt, and the current of phase 2 is zero at this instant. Hence o Fig. 82. Commutation with zero phase control. ¢,* indicate that values correspond, there is an unbalance at wt, of the magnitude j,, decaying with the time constant of the circuit, This transient component has been taken into account in fig. 8.2b by displacing the zero line for the current in such a ‘manner that the real current values are represented by the distance between. the solid current curve and the dashed-dotted zero line. The path of this short circuit current is marked in fig. 8.1 by a dashed line. In phase 2 this current flows in the forward direction, while it opposes. Reactive Voltage Drop 9, the load current in phase I. At ef the current in phase 1 is reduced to zero and, thanks to the diode, it does not reverse the polarity. Thus the short circuit is cleared at this instant, and the transfer of the load current from phase 1 to phase 2 is completed. The resulting current curves are shown in fig. 8.2c, assuming a load current without ripple. Reactive Voltage Drop With the knowledge just acquired we now determine the reduction of the direct voltage caused by the current transfer. With no load the d-c circuit is “switched over” from phase I to phase 2 as soon as the potential of phase 2 exceeds that of phase 1, so that the output always stays on the highest potential. With load the output potential is commonly determined during the period of current transfer by phases | and 2, and it is therefore lower. In fact, the current of phase 2 rises during the transfer from zero to the value of the load current, /,, so that the inductance of this phase, Lg, absorbs a voltage-time integral of L,I, during the transfer, according to the law of induction in integral form. This value, represented by area A in fig. 82, is withheld from the d-c circuit. Since it is withheld three imes during each cycle, the average reduction of the direct voltage, E,, is determined by 1 7 8. Epa hla @ “TC __ duration of & eyele L, denotes the “line-to-neutral commutating inductance” and will be investigated later in more detail. Relation (8.1) discloses the fundamental fact that the reduetion of the direct voltage caused by commutation is proportional to the current. However, this is only true up to a certain load. Beyond this load novel phenomenz occur and change the relation. They will be studied in Chapter 10. Commutating Angle ‘To determine the commutating angle we disregard the resistance of the transfer loop and assume equal values of inductance in all phases and a direct current without ripple. Under these conditions the voltage that causes the transfer, i¢., the potential difference between the commutating. phases, will be equally divided between the inductances of the commutating90 D-C Characteristies time integral of otage casing Bax time integral of ‘rage causing Ee py a (@) * a) me ay rm © L lo. “Keo tne er caren wth ee area 1@ "@® ® © a To at oa oe Fig. 83. Commutation with phase control. *, ** indicate that values correspond. phases, with the consequence that during the transfer the d-c circuit stays ‘on the mean value of the potentials of the two phases, as shown in fg. 8.24 Since the current rises in one phase by the same amount as it decays in the other, a total voltage-time integral of two times LJ, must be furnished by the source of the transfer, before the transfer is completed. This total voltage-time integral is represented by area Bin fig. 8.2. Itisthe same value ‘epresented by the crosshatched area in fig. 7.1, and it would be withheld from the d-c circuit if w (fig. 8.2) were the angle of phase control. Hence there is the same relation between the commutating angle or “overlap Reactive Voliage Drop on angle” w and two times the reactive voltage drop, as there is between the angle of phase control a and E,. Therefore we change relation (7.2) into 2, Ex This is, however, true only if the transfer starts without delay, right at the intersection of the curves of potential of the commutating phases. With phase control the relation is different. It is derived next. = cos 82) Commutation Delayed by Phase Control With phase control the current transfer occurs under a higher potential difference between the commutating phases, so that the voltage-time integral necessary for the transfer can be furnished in a shorter period of time. This does not affect the relation between the current and the reactive voltage drop, expressed for a 3-pulse commutating group by equation (8.1). because the current in the succeeding phase still rises from zero to 1, so that the same voltage-time integral is withheld from the d-c circuit. Butit changes the relation between the commutating angle and the current, or between the commutating angle and the reactive voltage drop, respectively. ‘The situation with phase contro! is illustrated hy fig. 8.3. This figure shows that the time integral of the potential difference between the commutating phases during the angle x + u (represented by areas B and C) corresponds to E, plus two times E,. Hence, according to relation (7.2), Bet 26s 2 | —cos(a + u) Exo If we subtract relation (7.2), we find Ey _ cosa — cos(a tu) on : @ as well as 7 Ew tet ces) 2 @4 This result is graphically presented in section (c) of fig. 8.4. In the other. sections the situation is shown for no load or zero phase control, respec~ tively.2 D-C Characteristics Example (Reactive voltage drop and commutating angle) The direct voltage of a 3-pulse midpoint connection with Ey, = 200 V is reduced by phase control o 150 V. In addition, there is reactive voltage drop of 10 V at $00 A. Determine (@) the commutating angle at this load, (©) the line-to-neuteal commutating inductance. Solution. (a) We compute: E. Hence (This value can also be taken from fig. 7.4, guided by fig. 8.4.) cect vlage Ke Fig. 8.4. Relations between 2 and u and the corresponding voltage reductions. (2) ‘No load. (6) Zero phase control. (c) Load and phase contol Reactive Voltage Drop 3 (®) There are three commutations per cycle. Hence, according to relation (8.1), Fe 10(V] se] 2 77, ioe] SOTA] ~ Oo] 0.11 fmt} Commutation in Systems with More Than One Commutating Group Power rectifier systems are usually combinations of several commutating, groups. For example, a 3:phase bridge connection or a double-wye connection with interphase transformer consists of two independently commutating 3-pulse groups, and larger systems are frequently combi- nations of even more groups. ‘These groups usually have ¢ common trans- former or, at least, a common supply line, so that certain portions of the commutating inductance are common for several groups. Therefore, we ‘must investigate how far the individual commutations affect each other. As the first step, we distinguish between two cases: (@) The individual groups do not simultaneously commutate, and the commutations do not overlap. Furthermore, the phases that are involved in a commutation in one group do not conduct at the same time in another group. This category of circuits eovers mainly those systems where the individual groups operate with a certain displace- ‘ment in order to increase the pulse number of the whole system in relation to the pulse numbers of the individual groups. In this cease there is no mutual influence, and each group can be treated individually, as already explained. Hence no investigation is needed for this category of circuits, except for extreme load conditions where the commutations overlap, and the whole system must be treated as a unit. However, this is a different story: it will be investigated in Chapter 10, () The individual groups commutate simultaneously. In this case the commutations affect each other, and it will now be shown how to handle such a situation, Asa start, fig. 8.5 shows two identical and simultaneously commutating 3-pulse midpoint connections. Assuming that these connections have a common supply system and eventually common primary transformer windings, it seems justified to show them with just one set of secondary transformer windings and partially common and partially individual values of inductance (fig. 8.6). This displays the problem: During a commutation4 D-C Characteristics Fig. 85. Two simultaneously commutating 3-pulse midpoint connections. the voltage across the individual inductance is induced by the change of {or fg, respectively, whereas the voltage induced in the common inductance is the result of the change of i; + i. Thus both portions of inductance are differently involved in the commutation, and it would be use their sum in conjunction with the relat Instead, it is necessary to combine both portions in such a manner that the new value represents for each group the same as the commutaring inductance L, does for a single group. Actually, L, has to be given a more ‘general definition so that itcan be used for single groups and more complex Fig, #6, Two simultaneously commutating 3-pulse midpoint connections with ‘common transformer Reactive Voltage Drop 98 systems as well. For this purpose let us recall the correct meaning of commutating inductance for a single group: Single group: Jine-to-neutral component of voltage induced in commutating Toop as a result of current change this loop during commutation ‘ate of change of currentin commutating loop Line-to-neutral commutating = inductance In systems where groups that are partially linked by common values of inductance commutate simultaneously, the voltage induced in each com- ‘mutating loop is the result of all simultaneous commutations. Therefore we define: Genera Fineto-neural component of voltage commonly induced in commutating group under consideration by the current changes in all Lineto-nesttal Sltancously comm 7 intog <=sametancously Commutating ErOUPE—_g. commutating. ~ Fae of change of arent in commuang group under consideration “This is very practical definition fora rather complex situation. Applied to fig. 8.6 this concept results in: diy diy + diy = Linaww 8 + Loonman Si ts a a Since fy = ig at any instant, di € = Linaiy + 2Leommoa] u 19 line-to-neutral commutating, inductance of each group ‘The d-ccircuits of simultaneously commutating groups as well as of groups that commutate during other periods of time may be connected in series or in parallel. In the last case, the current in the load circuit is different from the current commutated in an individual group. Therefore, to avoid confusion, the current commutated in a group will be distinguished from ‘the current in the d-c circuit, J, by a new symbol: 1, = current commutated in group under consideration With this new quantity, the time integral of the voltage withheld during one commutation from the d-< circuit of each commutating group is LJ,96 D-C Characteristics t regardless of whether other groups with simultaneous or displaced ‘commutations are connected in parallel. A slightly different approach—but with the same basic idea—is to conceive all simultaneously commutating groups as one unit and to define L, and J, for this “set of commutating groups”; this is the way these quantities are defined in the ASA standards. However, the ASA method is more abstract and not as flexible as the one just presented. Tt has therefore not been selected for this book. Example (Commutating inductance of simultaneously commutating groups) ‘Two doubleowye connections with interphase transformer operate in parallel, Ataotal load current of J, ~ 10,000 A the reactive voltage drop is E,=9V. Determine L, of each commutating. group, assuming eps. Solution. There are four commutating groups. Hence J, = 2500 A. With this value we compute aocording to relation (81): 1 “3 L=-—_21___ “180 [sec] 2500 [A] 20 [4H] Lile Per-Unit System Many computations are simplified if the circuit characteristics such as resistance, reactance, and impedance are expressed in relation to a reference ‘quantity; that is, in a per-unit system. Since these characteristics have the” dimension “ohms”, the ratio rated voltage/rated ‘eurrent, which has the _same dimension; is selected forthe reference quantity, so thatthe per-unit values are plain ratios. They will be distinguished from the real values by the subscript “pu.” With Rye symbolizing the above ratio, rated voltage =~ Fated current the new quantities are: ak “ay Row eo Any portion or component of the circuit impedance can be expressed in termsof R,.r,and since the reference quantity isthe same for all components, Reactive Voliage Drop 7 ‘the per-unit values can be geometrically added just like the real ones: Zou? = Raut + Xoo? @7 Applied to the internal impedance of a voltage source (fig. 8.7), Zpu represents rated current © Short circuit current at rated voltage 8) Zou because the rated voltage equals the internal impedance times the short citcait current. Sometimes the internal impedance of a voltage source is zoe — R ubex 7 ' external i ood voltage stort | Source cut | i { o Fig. 82. Voltage source with internal impedance Z. expressed by the ratio in which the voltage has to be reduced in order to ‘obtain a short circuit current equal to rated current. This ratio is also reduced voltage rated voltage a es) In acircuit with a transformer, all values of resistance or reactance can be referred to one side. For a regular power transformer there is, Rated rated rated rated Primary x primary = secondary x secondary current voltage current voltage and the per-unit values are the same whether related to the primary side ‘or to the secondary. Thus primary and secondary values can be easily combined without regarding the ratio of transformation. This is not always true for rectifier transformers, however; there the rating of the secondary side is sometimes higher than that of the primary, since the secondary windings sometimes have to carry an additional d-c component ‘or more harmonics of the current than the primary side. Therefore let us98 D-C Characteristics make the statement that throughout this bookyin accordance with common practice, all per-unit values referring to rectifier systems have to be based ‘on-rated line current and rated Tine-to-neutral voltage at the a-c side.of -the transformer, even if these values are later transformed to the d-< side for the purpose of computing the voltage reductions. ore, In the European literature the internal impedance of a voltage source is usually expressed in a per-unit system by the “short circuit voltage" e with the components ¢, and e,, These quantities correspond to Zour Row and Xp Example (Permit system) Determine the per-unit values of resistance, reactance, and impedance Rn ox mR Fig. 88. Circuit for sample caleulation. of the single-phase transformer shown in fig. 8.8. Assume: Rated power (both sides) = 400 VA Rated primary voltage = 200 V Rated secondary voltage = 40 V (no-load value) R 0.169 y= 029 Solution. All values are first referred to the primary side: 200 LEY 210) + 4101 = 61a Rat moa) = 211+ 410 = 610) eM) — 3,0) + 510 = 8 (2 ea [0] + 510} = 8 (0) ‘Then we compute 400 [VAI 200 {¥] 100 [2] Rated primary current = 2A] 200 (V1 2A) Reet prim = Reactive Voltage Drop 99, Above results expressed in terms of this reference quantity: 61Q) 100 {0} 8 (2) 100 (2) = V Ryo + Xpet = 0.1 ALTERNATE APPROACH (correct only if both sides cf the transformer have the same power rating): Primary Side Secondary Side conent a =z) aRe ola) Reet oT = 1009) Reet aH = 419] Row a = 002 Row a a = 7 00s Total: am Xu = 0.08 ‘These values coincide with the results computed above and lead to the same resultant Zyy. Per-Unit Commutating Reactance In the previous paragraphs it was shown that the reactive voltage drop is determined by the commutating inductance, This quantity was then defined for rectifier systems with more than one commiutating group, and resistance, reactance, and impedance were expressed in a per-unit system in order to simplify the mathematical treatment, The concluding step is to apply the per-unit system to the commutating inductance L,. However, the reference quantity is measured in ofms, and wl, must be transferred instead of L,. ‘Thus we detine the per-unit line-tc-neutral commutating, reactance: x, fe pa = (Loot to peim side xc _fated primary line current ated primary lin eutral voltage (8.10)100 D-C Characteristics ‘The term X, 5, actually represents in a condensed form the circuit charac- ‘teristics as far as they determine the reactive voltagedrop. Thus the reactive ‘voltage drop is frequently computed in two steps: 1. The circuit characteristics are converted into X, . 2. From X, yy the reactive voltage drop is computed. ‘The first step is explained further below. The second step establishes, for a certain load, a relation between X, ,, and £,/E,, which is always the same for a particular connection and therefore of special interest. With the following sample calculations this relation will be determined for two frequently used connections; for other circuits just the results will be listed. ‘Example (Reactive voltage drop in a 3-phase bridge connection, computed from X.y) Derive for the 3-phase bridge connection a relation between X, yy and the reactive voltage drop. Solution. We first estat be done in two ways. a relation between X,,, and L,. This can (@ The secondary line-to-neutral commutating inductance, Lis trans~ formed to the primary side. For this purpose we assume equal voltages between comesponding points at both sides, so that the value of L, is not. affected by the transformation. Then we determine the reference quantity rated primary line-to-neutral voltage Res rated primary line current ‘Atrated load the primary line current is Hence and (at) (8) The alternate method is based on relation (8.9). We assume that the secondary windings are short circuited just as they are during commutation, and that the primary voltage is reduced to « value where the primary Reactive Voltage Drop 301 current equals rated current. The ratio of reduction is then Xp if we disregard the resistance of the cireuit. ‘This leads to s Xepuky = OL. Teaiea econdary current primary winding carves rated load line-to-neutral commutating reactance of secondary side seduced secondary line-to-neutral voltage which accords with (8.1). ‘The next step is to determine the relation between L, and the reactive voltage drop: (8.12) T time integral of voltage withheld from d-c circuit during one commutation —time integral of reactive voltage drop during § cycle (6 commutations during each cycle) This relation is similar to (8.1). Finally, we introduce 3, 3p Fam 2 En =O V6E, and combine relations (8.11) and (8.12) Sephase bridge connection: (8:13) “factor of special interest It should be emphasized that, thanks to the per-unit system, this result is independent of the turn ratio on the transformer. Example (Reactive voltage drop in a double-wye connection with interphase transformer, computed from X, 5.) Derive for the double-wye connection with interphase transformer a relation between X, 4 and the reactive voltage drop.102 D-C Characteristics ‘Solution. Assuming a 1:1 ratio of voltage transformation we compute the reference quantity for the primary side: 3 he imary line current = “2 x current commutated in one wye = Primary ia we= 35 rated prim. line-to- _ neutral voltage Jee Reet = Fated prim. Tine current ~ 7, seg ‘Then we recognize that the two wyes commutate independently, so that the second wye does not affect the value of the line-to-neutral commutating inductance if it is referred to the primary side; it has the value L, at both sides. Hence Oke yp, lasntet Xm = St = wb, Ret 6B @1) With the alternate method we would have assumed that one secondary wye is short circuited, since the two wyes do not commutate simultaneously, and that the primary voltage is reduced to a value at which the primary ine current equals the rated current. Then we would have computed for ‘one secondary phase: XepsE, which accords with relation (8.14). ‘The next step is to express the reactive voltage drop as a function of L,: (8.15) 2 time integral of voltage withheld from d-c circuit during one commutation 3c integral of reactive voltage drop during } cycle (3 commutations per cycle in each wye; the two wyes are paralleled so that the voltage reductions must not be added) ‘Again, we substitute Ey for Ey Fr, = 3 re, 2a Ta B of each wye = ExjEq forg=3 Reactive Voltage Drop 103, and combine (8.14) with (8.19), resulting in: Double-wye connection with interphase transformer: (8.16) This result is identical with (8.13), which is no surprise since the two Circuits are, with respect to the commutations, identical. The only difference is that the two wyes are series connected in one case and paral= Jeled in the other. Reactive Voltage Drop in Other Connections Similar developments can be made for other connections. However, too much accent would be placed on this field if all these calculations were lined up in detail. Therefore only the results are shown: 2-pulse midpoint and single-phase bridge connections: ey 18) 6 pulse systems consisting of3pulse commutating groups: Fety Ee Xe pu (8.19) Ey 2 Tasratea = 12.pulse systems consisting of 3-pulse commutating groups: p L <* = sin 15° x Xepa—* (8.20) Ea NT awe eo It should be noticed that for all combinations of 3-pulse commutating groups the factor is sin (n/g)(g = pulse number of the total system). Example (Reactive voltage drop ina 12-pulse system) A transformer with two secondary windings, one in wye and one in delta connection, feeds two i-phase bridge connections that are paralleled through an interphase transformer, as shown in fig. 5.1. ‘The line-to- neutral commutating inductance, referred to the secondary sjde, is104 D-C Characteristics L, = 20 ull, and f= 60 cps. Determine the reactive voltage drop at a total load of Z, = 10,000 A in two ways, (@) From the time integral of the voltage withheld from the d- circuit, using relation (8.1), (© By means of relation (8.20), and check the identi not overlap. Solution. (a) The two secondary systems are 30° phase shifted. Hence there are no simultaneous commutations, and each system can be individu- ally treated. ‘The current commutated in each system is of the results. Assume that the commutations do x 60 [sect] 20 x 10-* [sec] 5 x 10° [A] = 18 (¥) ‘Two wyes are combined in a bridge connection so that the total reduction is two times this val 3611 (6) The alternate approach requires the computation of X, py, and since this quantity is based on rated voltage and current at the primary side, We have to transform L, to the primary side, But we do not have to know the real ratio of transformation because X, 4, does not depend on it. The Purpose of the transformation is only to take the second system into account, which does not influence tke commutations of the first one but contributes to the primary current and thus influences the value of X, yy ‘Therefore we assume the most convenient ratio, 2 1: 1 ratio of the voltages ‘between corresponding points at the primary and the secondary side. This gives the same value of L, at the primary side because the commutations of the two systems do not affect each other. As the next step we have to determine the rated primary current. The ‘most elegant approach is to recognize that according to Chapter 19* Pro = 8 Pay E, min 6 " This relation disregards the deformation of the current curve caused by commutation. With Reactive Voltage Drop 105 we find SE arated Pug at Fated load P,, Bt aed load. ‘Then we insert Fy = 3 V6E, Ey of each bridgeconnection = ExJEq for g = 6 and compute the rated primary current vith Tr ratea = Tiratea 2B The rated primary voltages E,(ine-to-nevtral value because L, i defined asthe lineto-neutal value). Thus X, , can be determined wing relation 19: VB4 Memtce wee, primary value = secondary value With £, expressed by £,, and with relation (8.20) we finally compute: Xe = ol, Ey = Eq sin 15° X X,pu x lt 1 — Pape y * NIW5 + Of. = Yhile Si which leads to the same result as method (a) since fz = 21, Computing Inductance from Short Circuit Test Frequently, the commutating inductance is determined by a short circuit test with the following procedure. @ Short circuit in a single-phase connection, all secondary windings; jin a connection with 3-pulse commutating groups, all. simul~ taneously commutating groups; in a connection with a 6- or 12-pulse commutating group, just ‘three 120°-displaced secondary phases. If there is more than one group, short circuit also the corresponding phases of all other simultaneously commutating groups.106 D-C Characteristics (if this instruction asks you to short circuit not all secondary windings, the rule is to repeat the test with other sets of windings short circuited, and to take the mean value of the measurements.) (@ Increase the supply voltage from zero to a value at which the primary line current equals the rated current. (This causes more than the rated load in the short circuited secondary windings if not all of them are short cireuited. To avoid damage, the test may be per- formed at reduced values of voltage and current.) (©) Measure the supply voltage at this condition and refer it to the rated voltage. ‘The ratio is Za. @ Split ,, nto the components Ryq and Xpq- This requires knowledge of the Phase angle or of the resistance, which can be determined from a separate loss measurement. If R < X, the approximation Xiu © Zyu may satisly. (© Compute from Xpq (Which also represents X, y) the primary value of wL, according to rated primary line-to-neutral voltage ated primary line current (Ld eto pm. ste = Xe ye (P) Transform the result to the secondary side, If more than one group is short circuited, the result represents the reactance of all these groups as if they were connected in parallel. Instead of using (¢) and (/), Xz yu can be directly converted into wl, of ‘each individual group according to rated secondary line-to-neutral voltage «8 Secondary Tine current under short circuit ‘condition with rated current at primary side ol.= Example (Computing commutating inductance from short circuit test) ‘A double-wye connection with interphase transformer (fg. 89) is rated 150 2000 A Ie ‘Under regular operation with rated load the copper losses are: Primary transformer windings = 10 kW* ‘Secondary transformer windings = 15 kW* «tn order to obtain a resistive component of Zy that is not negligible in relation tothe reactive component, the losses are assumed considerably higher than they willbe in a trelldesigned transformer of this size. Furthermore, any influence ofthe temperature ‘the losses has been disregarded. Reactive Voltage Drop 107 During a short circuit test, one secondary wye was short circuited, and with the supply voltage reduced from the rated value of 250 V (line-to-line) to 40 V, a line current of 580 A was measured. Determine the contribution of the transformer to the reactive voltage drop at rated load. sates 250 1 fest 401, 635 [ma test 580 A) |e 128M) | Fa= 150) ed input rated: 1000 AY) VF Fig. 89. Circuit for sample calesation, ‘Solution. (a)'The fist value we need is the primary line current at rated load, With a turn ratio on the transformer such that the primary line-to- neutral voltage is equal to the secondary line-to-neutral voltage, this value woud be Ble 3 su 9-75, Kloss Y where 1,2 is the current commutated in one wye, and we would obtain 7 380 8 222M 10m (—__= £, of each wye EqlEq for q = 3108, D-C Characteristics But £,,is 150 V. Hence the rated primary line current is anes = SOT 5 SF so00 (A) = 251A vate 169 [V] 3 @ As an alternate, the same value can be computed from the total input power according to Chapter 19: Prot == Pay forg = 6 3 q fl, x 250 [V] = x 150 [V] x 2000 [A] 2X OOKW) 995 [Aj BY5 x 250 [Vi] (© With this value we determine Z,,. With 40 V applied to the input, ‘the primary line current was 580A. "Hence, for rated current an input voltage of Ie BS ¥ 40 (v] = S0(v) 580 is nocessary, and the rato of reduction, which equals Zp i = 50M) © 250 {¥] i i resistive and the reactive (d) This result must now be split into the resis components. ‘The restive component is defied by the powet lst fowever, the losses are specified for normal operation whereas Zpq Was mesued wih one sort ccd secondary Wye. Therefore, we Ast ‘compute the real values of resistance. For the primary side we find (without regard of the real transformer connection): Zou Primary ineto- 10 1KWI 55 imo} neutral resistance 3¢795 (Ap ‘The resistance of each secondary line is: Secondary ineto- __15 (KW) 7.5 mo neutral resistance = 61000 [A] V3" This value must now be referred to the primary side: Secondary line-to-neutral resistance (sf X75{m0] = 9.5 {m0} referred to primary side 150) Reactive Volage Drop 109 Since during the test only one wye was short circuited, this value can be directly added to the primary resistance. With 250 1V] 3 725A] wwe then translate the sum into the per-unit system and find: Rog = £35 1001+ 95 mM] _ 5 4, 199 [rat] Reet = 199 fmo} Xu = VZpu* = Root = 0.183 (© From this value we compute witt relation (8.16) the reactive voltage drop at rated load: 0.183 2 13.71) Inductance of the Supply System Ithas been shown how to transform a certain value of resistance, reactance, cor impedance into a per-unit system, and we discovered that the result is ‘the same whether the transformation is made at the primary or secondary side of a transformer, as long as the primary and secondary power ratings are equal. Since this is not always true for a rectifier transformer, the primary ratings have been selected for the transformation. The next step is to extend this method to the various portions of resistance and reactance of the supply system. In fact, these portions are usually already expressed jn a pet-unit system; however, they are based on the power rating of the particular transformer or generator which they belong to, and this rating may be many times the rating of the rectifier installation. Therefore, in order to combine these per-unit values directly with those of the rectifier system, itis necessary to relate all of them to the same reference quantity, and nothing is more obvious than to use the reference quantity already defined for the rectifier connection. This requires a simple transformation: ‘The per-unit values that are based on other power ratings have to be ‘multiplied by the ratio of the input power of the rectifier system to the power they are referred to. This is practiced with the following example. Example (Inductance of the supply system) ‘Transform the resultant values of resistance and inductance of the supply system shown in fig. 8.10 into the per-uni:system ofthe rectifier installation.110 D-C Characteristics Solution, ‘There are two power inputs to the bus bars a, The values Xpq and Ryy of the generator are based on 2 MVA, whereas the input power of the rectifier is, with a slight inaccuracy, according to Chapter 19, Pror= % Pay = 1.05(MVA] inp wih ar eit pl in with nine ewer” 100 MV power neral enpdanet) 2m) pun 008 Rme= 001s Fig. £10. Analysis of « supply system. Therefore, we convert these two values into 1.05(MVAI 9 g4 2[MVA] o.02t LOSIMVA 9.015 = 0,008, 2 (MVA] The value of X,q of the transformer is based on 5 MVA and is converted into 1.05 IMVAI 9g SIMVA] ‘The “power" of the input line is specified by the “‘short circuit power” of 100 MVA. This information says that the internal impedance absorbs the apparent power of 100 MVA if the line is short circuited or, differently = 0.0125 Xow Reactive Voltage Drop it interpreted, that Zp, = 1, based on 100 MVA. If we assume that there is no resistance, we find on the basis of 1.05 MVA that 1.05 [MVA] |00[MVA] ‘The other loads connected to bus bars @ cause only an additional voltage drop; they do not change the internal resistance or reactance of the supply system, Therefore we are not concerned about them. Bus bars @ are connected to the rectifier through a cable with a total reactance (line-to- neutral value) of X = 200 [ft] x 50 (uO2/fe] = 10 {mo} Xpu = 0.0105 This value is (intentionally) not expressed in the per-unit system. There- fore we compute the reference value for this point. From the input power of the rectifier and the line-to-line voltage of 500 V (fig. 8.10), we determine the rated line current, 1.05 [MVA] 3x 500(V] ‘and finally the reference quantity: 210 [A] ated line-to-neutral voltage vated line current 500 (V] /V/3 1210 [A] In terms of this quantity, the reactance of the cable is: 240 [m0] O[m2} _ 9 = 0.042 40 [mO} All per-unit values are shown in the equivalent diagram at the right of fig. 8.10. Each one represents a certain value of resistance or reactance, and all are based on the same reference quantity. Therefore, they can be geometrically added just as regular values of resistance and reactance, resulting in Ryy = 0.002 0.053 For further calculations these values have to be combined with those of the transformer and the bus bars of the rectifier system, based on the same reference quantity.12 D-C Characteristies Leakage Inductance of the Transformer, Computed from the Energy Stored in the Leakage Field Although computing the leakage inductance of a transformer is not a rectifier problem, it will be thoroughly treated since it is an essential part of the circuit design and is sometimes not well understood. Furthermore, the “conventional method” of computing inductance from the induced voltage cannot be casily applied to the leakage inductance of transformer ‘windings, for the leakage flux is only partially linked with the windings. In view of this, we shall compute the leaxage inductance from the energy stored in the leakage field, a method that simplifies the computations considerably, especially if the arrangement of the windings is rather complex. ‘As the first step we assume that an arrangement of conductors of any kind, with the value of inductance L and with a linear relation between current and flux density, carries the current /. If it is suddenly discharged through the resistance R, the current decays with the time constant T = YR, and the total energy i w= f° Prat With this leads to o we rr[ omar ‘The value of the integral is 7/2. Hence Le wall 8.21 > (8.21) As the second step we assume a homogeneous magnetic field, for ‘example, in a toroidal coil where the magnetic flux ® is surrounded by N turns carrying the current J. The inductance is L = Nj, and the energy stored in the magnetic field is, according to relation (8.21), w= ONt 2 @=48 and N=HI Since where A = cross-sectional area of the field B= fiux density H = field strength T= length of the field Reactive Voltage Drop 13 the energy is also w SHY 2 where V = volume occupied by the field If the field is not homogeneous, this relation can be applied to all infini- tesimal units of volume, and the total energy can be determined by integration: 1 w= Lf an dv 622) If we finally combine this relation with (8.21), and insert B= 4,tf, we find (823) This is the fundamental relation for computing the value of inductance from the energy stored in the magnetic field. To give proper understanding. to this relation let us put its meaning into words, For computing the inductance of an arrangement of conductors of any configuration with the only condition that the relation between current and magnetic flux must be linear, assume that the arrangement carries the current J and determine (a) For each (infinitesimal) unit of volume, the magnetic field strength H, that is caused by the assumed current; (®) For each unit, the value H? times the volume of the unit; (©) The total of the contributions of all units occupied by the field. ‘Then multiply the value of (c) by ,//*. The result is the inductance of the arrangement, referred to the circuit in which the current was assumed, Of course, the summation is made by integral calculus; for this purpose H is expressed as a function of one or more variables that specify the location. ‘This knowledge will now be used for computing the leakage inductance of a transformer. In the windings of a transformer voltages are induced (@) Asa consequence of the exciting current, (©) Asa consequence of the load current, In this chapter we are only concerned about the voltages that are induced in the transformer windings by the change of the load currents during commutation. Therefore we completely disregard the main excitation,14 D-C Characteristics This is permissible since the main flux occupies the core while the leakage ‘ux mainly squeezes through the windings and the gap between the ‘windings, so that there is practically no influence between the two magnetic juxes, Ifwe then assume, according to the rule just derived, thata constant ‘current of the value / flows through the path for which the inductance is to be determined, we must also assume that this current is balanced by ampere-turns in other windings just as the load current is balanced during ceclfier operation. These balancing ampere-turns are actually a direct consequence of the assumed current, and the leakage inductance must be vomputed from the magnetic energy that is commonly set up by the current and the balancing ampere-turns. Figure 8.11 illustrates the situation for a single-phase transformer or one leg of a 3-phase transformer, assuming a 1:1 turn ratio. In order to ake the balancing ampere-turns into account, the primary and secondary windings have been connected in series, and the inductance of this loop obviously represents the leakage inductance under consideration. In fig. 3.116 a more realistic transformer is shown where the windings occupy & certain volume. The total excitation of all primary or secondary windings is NZ It is absorbed mainly along the dimension , since the path of the Yeakage flux is closed through the core of the transformer where the “magnetic resistance” is much lower than In ait, Starting from the inside of the inner winding, the field strength increases linearly since more and ‘more turns contribute to the excitation. It is constant in the gap and then decreases linearly, again, since more and more turns contribute with apposite polarity. Along the dimension /, and around the circumference the field strength is nearly constant, so that integral calculus is needed only for adding the infinitesimal contributions along the dimension r of jig. 8.114, With relation (8.23) this leads to Lat Inde ["H dr 624) “The value of the integral, represented by the crosshatched area in fig. 8.11d, can be easily determined since the curves of rise and decay of H? represent squared functions: 2 (NIV [an + ay ‘tar = (Matas y 5 [neem (YES Hence Lm tate ye 8 5] (625) Reactive Voltage Drop us nT Cy feiss) tarp tees pany ie eters ee For some frequently used arrangements of the windings, the curves of the field strength, as well as the results of the integration, are shown in fig. 8.12, assuming that the windings are enclosed by iron so that practically all excitation is absorbed along the path through the windings or the gaps between the windings. In reality, the return path for the leakage flux is not as perfect, and the results have to be multiplied by a correction factor of approximately 0.9. Since there are many other arrangements of windings, as well as complex connections such as zigzag or polygon, we now show with a few examples how to apply this philosophy to a specific problem.16 D-C Characteristics | [Fever mit Infat Pet c| i @ o Fig. 6.12 Leakage inductance of typical arrangements of transformer windings (ed, = mean circumference of leakage path). @L- witrefatate 44) Example (Leakage inductance of the transformer computed from the energy stored in the leakage field) Figure 8.13 gives a cross-sectional view through the windings on one leg of a 3-phase transformer. Determine the contribution of the transformer leakage inductance to the line-to-neutral commutating inductance L, for the following conditions: (@ The two secondary windings on each leg are connected in series, and the windings of the three phases in wye, feeding a 3-pulse midpoint connection. © The transformer feeds a double-wye connection with interphase transformer.* +A similar problem is investigated ina sample calelation in Chapter 1. There the ‘individual and the common portions ofthe leakage inductance are separately determined Reactive Voltage Drop uT Pm an = Sin, eatin a=ph ouee= din, oe 5 @ y se. 1a uet se cag cre o = i fn Fig. 813. Arrangement of transformer windings for sample calculation. (© The two windings on each leg are used for two separate but simul- taneously commutating 3-phase bridge connections. (@ The two windings on cach leg are in zigzag, feeding a 3-pulse midpoint connection. Solutions. (a) We assume that both secondary windings carry a direct, ccurtent of the value J, and that these ampere-turns are balanced by the primary ampere-turns. Under this condition, the field strength as a function ofthe variable is presented by the curve of fig 8.13, The square of this value, again as a function of ris shown in fg. 8.13c. The cross- hatched area represents [oar P34 445us. D-C Characteristics With this expression and with (8.24) we finally compute 4 X10" (Os) 4007 x 3 fin] fin] ieee [em] 4 fin) = 30 [10s} = 30 sti] Since it was assumed that the current J is carried by both secondary windings, the result refers to the secondary side of the transformer with the two secondary windings in series connection. Since the windings are ‘connected from line to neutral, and since there are only three secondary hases, the result represents the contribution of the transformer leakage inductance to the line-to-neutral commutating inductance, just as desired. It should be pointed out that no assumption was necessary concerning the primary number of turns or the connection of the primary windings. It was sufficient that the primary ampere-turns were assumed in balance with, the secondary ampere-turns. (@) In this case only one of the two secondary windings is, at a certain ime, engaged in a commutation. Therefore we assume that only one secondary winding carries the current J, and that this current is balanced by primary ampere-turns. Hence the field strength is distributed as shown ‘n section (d) of fig. 8.12, and we compute: 2.54 [em] 1 fin] Since the two wyes commutate independently, this result represents the contribution of the transformer leakage inductance to the line-to-neutral commutating inductance of each wye. (©) Under this operating condition both secondary windings carry vurrent as if they were connected in parallel. Therefore, we assume a current of //2 in each winding, and find a value of inductance of 30 [aH/4 = 7.5 [dH], This refers to the circuit in which the current has he value /, ie. the parallel connection of the two windings. Hence the voltage absorbed during commutation by the line-to-neutral leakage inductance of the transformer is 7.5 [Hl] times the rate of change of the ‘otal of the currents in the two windings, or 15 [yH] times the rate of change of one of these currents. From this we conclude that the contri- bution of the transformer leakage inductance to the line-to-neutral ommutating inductance L, of each individual 3-phase bridge connection s 15 4H. Reactive Voltage Drop 19 (if, however, L, was interpreted as the line-to-neutral commutating, inductance of a “set of commutating groups,” the result would be 7.5 wH.) (@ With a secondary zigzag winding, the situation is illustrated by fig. 8.14. Since the current of each secondary phase causes a leakage flux ‘on two legs, we investigate a situation where two phases carry current, just as they do during commutation. For this condition the curves of the in fig. 8.14, ‘The current flows in the same ie | Fig. 8.14, Leakage in a gzag winding. direction through the two secondary windings of leg 1, whereas on leg 2 only secondary I and on leg 3 only secondary Il is conducting. The areas marked by crosshatching represent the result of the current of phase 1, ‘and the energy computed from these areas defines the line-to-neutral leakage inductance of this phase vane tHe fA ag) few[s oe exam Lange of psig foe page connection) One more example will be presented in order to give sufficient under- standing to the method of computing the leakage inductance of the transformer from the energy stored in the leakage field and to demonstrate that this method is not difficult if it is logically applied. Here is the problem: Determine the line-to-neutral leakage inductance of a phase- shifting transformer in polygon connection (fig. 8.15a). Assume Long windings = 41 turns ‘Short windings ‘mean circumference zd, ‘and the physical dimensions shown in fig. 8.156, 15 turns 25in,120 D-C Characteristics Solution. We assume that a current I flows ftom point 4 to point B (Gg, 8.154), representing the commutating current of the rectifier connec- tion, For this current the primary supply lines are short circuited, as indicated by the three connections made to point C, because we have to take the balancing ampere-turns into account, but we are permitted leg 3 ea 2 a = We eg © o SE Fig. £15. Arrangement of transformer windings for sample caleulaton, fore the main excitation. ‘Then we determine the currents in the idual windings. For this purpose we designate the turn ratio as turns of long winding tums of short winding and find from the condition of ampere-turn balance For point 4: For point B: Both relations result in ‘The turn ratio is specified as a = $3. (This ratio gives, very accurately, a 30° turn and is therefore selected for this example.) With this ratio we ‘compute 001 ard k= 0337 Reactive Voltage Drop ma and further conclude, based on equations (8.21) and (8.22), ampere-turns on leg 1 2 eal ai am x [Be | A leerdal x at carne] x [E22 + 5] +--+ Ceg2)- Por cu 3 +5) + >> (leg 2) magnetic energy stored in leakage + ** (leg 3) field of leg nestles ET ETE] With the given values, this results in pa 42X10" [sec] _25 fin] 41% x 1 fin] x 0.177 24 at fem] 10fin.} 20H) ‘This is the total leakege inductance of the two commutating phases. The line-to-neutral value is one-half of this, L.= 24H Inductance of Bus Bars In rectifier systems for high current and low voltage the bus bars contribute. considerably to the total commutating inductance, Therefore, @ brief introduction will be given into the calculation of bus bar inductance. ‘However, only rough approximations can be presented since bus bars are usually rather complex arrangements. Actually, the bus bars have to be “idealized,” and it is a matter of “technical feeling” to select proper dimensions for the substitute. Two such idealized arrangements will now bbe investigated, starting with the loop of PARALLEL TUBE CONDUCTORS shown in fig. 8.16. ‘There is just one turn and no iron. Hence the induc- tance is defined by inf 1 where © represents the total flux encircled by the loop and caused by the current J flowing in the loop. If we now assume that only conductor 1 carries current, the lines of the field are concentric, and the length of a line with the radius r is 2=r. Each line is caused by the current /. Hence@ o © D-C Characteristies Fig. 8.16. Magnetic field in loop of two parallel tube conductors. Reactive Voliage Drop 3 the field strength H as a function of the distance r from the centerline of ‘the conductor is 1 noah m 2ar and the ux density is 1 30) = mo mm Moar ‘graphically presented in fig. 8.168, The total flux encircled by the loop is infinitesimal area marked in fig. 8.16a f HoH(r) Lr oe ‘Chtux passing through infinitesimal area dr wall (41 gy Bell On d — nr Qed ro Oa“ » This flux is represented by the area enveloped by the heavy line in fg. 8.16, if this area is multiplied by /, the length of the arrangement. A similar development determines the lux caused by the current in con- ductor 2: = 28oad—ned ‘The real flux is the sum of both, and the inductance of the loop is this sum divided by I: 626) or with ry patent For I= 1 ft the result is L=4x 10" =] 12x 254 fom) In =o [HH] nd 627) It should be noticed that the inductance per unit of length is not a function of the real dimensions but of the ratio of the dimensions.14 D-C Characteristics ‘The second arrangement under consideration is a pair of PARALLEL, FLAT DUS BARS, shown in a cross-sectional view in fig. 8.17. If we assume that the distance between these bars is small in comparison to their height, we shall find that the magnetic field is very similar to the leakage field between two transformer windings. In both eases the excitation is uni- formly spread over a rectangular area and balanced by an opposite ex- Citation, and in both cases the flux is squeezed between the two conducting bodies. Furthermore, the leakage flux of the transformer returns'through the iron core and the flux of the bus bars returns through a space of wide cross-sectional area, so that in both cases the main portion of the excitation is absorbed along the path of the flux between the two conducting bodies. Therefore, we utilize the results obtained for the leakage inductance between transformer windings for ‘computing the inductance of parallel, flat bus bars. We just substitute the length of the bus bars, J, for the mean circumference of the windings, dq, and the height of the con ductors, h, for the height of the windings, a) |e designated by . Thus, with the symbols of fig. 8.17, we develop relation (8.25) inte: “Inductance of parallel flat bus bars: This is for 1 ft of length: sm ee pall gps [BI ete+3)/s eam ‘This relation disregards-the-return-path of the’ magnetie-fluxand-is therefore a rough approximation, especially ifthe distance between the bus bars is considerable in comparison to their height. More accurate ‘calculations are very complex, and the results are usually presented by ‘charts. Such a chart, modified from Electrical Coils and Conductors, H. B. Dwight, shown in fig. 8.18. It gives 1 instead of Land refers to single pairs of bus bars; but it can be used also for multiphase rectifier connec- ‘tions since only two phases are ever involved in a single commutation, Sometimes bus bars are interleaved in order to reduce their inductance, and proper formulas or charts may not be available. Then the bus bars should be compared with interleaved transformer windings, and a relation similar to (8.28) can be derived. This will be practiced with the concluding ‘example. Reactive Voltage Drop ns aan o 1 2 3 «5 6 7 6 9 10 10) 00 - g so xed eo 0 « no nla 305 so liz +e Ty 50 ath =05 i i l t Ll 20 3 fain =02 bea ‘ik= 01 0 fal =0 To 002 04 os of 10 12 14 16 18 eat Fig. 8.18. Reactance of a single pair of rectangular conductors at 60 eps. (Redrawn from H. B. Dwight, Elcrical Cols and Conductors, MeGraw-Hill, New York, 1945, symbols modified ) Example (Inductance of interleaved bus bars) Determine the inductance per foot of length of the bus bars shown in the cross-sectional view of fig. 8.19. Solution. ‘The required value of inductance refers to the loop consisting ‘of conductors ! and 4 in parallel and, as the return path, conductors 2 and 3 in parallel. In order to compute the inductance from the energy stored in the magnetic field, we assume that a current I passes through the loop. This gives the current //2 in each conductor and results in the curve of the126 D-C Characteristics h=5in, e=tin e= Fin Fig. 819. Bus bar arrangement for sample calculation. field strength shown in fig. 8.19, ifthe return path is disregarded. We compute rat (ba 424) an (3 and find with the given values 4a x 10-"(Osee] 12 fin] 5 fin}, 254 fom] «39 5 19-*4t4] Tem} 4x Sfin) 3 by L= Resistive Voltage Drop The resistive voltage drop will be computed from the ‘power losses that cause a reduction of the direct voltage. Corrections for measurements made with short-circuited de terminals will be discussed. Basic Relations The power losses in a rectifier system can be classified into 1. Losses that increase the primary current, 2, Losses that reduce the direct voltage. Losses of the first kind are the “no-load” losses with the core losses of the transformer as the main portion; losses of the second category are the “load losses,” caused by the flow of the load current. Quite obviously, the load losses must equal the product of the direct current times the resistive voltage drop. Hence this voltage drop can be computed from the losses according to __ total Toad losses Pe Te It is now a logical step to conceive all values of resistance, which are actually spread over the entire rectifier system and represented in fig. 9.la by the resistors R in the three secondary phases, as being concer trated in one resistor in series with the load circuit. This resistor, R’ in fig. 9.15, carries the load current, and the voltage drop across this resistor is E,. Thus the resistive voltage drop is climinated from the rectifier connection and is included in the direct voltage Eg, which simplifies the investigations, This concept is the more justified since with instantaneous commutation R= R’, because the load current passes at any instant through one of the three phases, and it does not matter whether the resistance is in this phase or in the d-c circuit. a128 D-C Characteristies With a certain commutating angle the situation is changed since during ‘commutation the load current is shared by two phases, and the resultant value of resistance is smaller than R. In fact, commutation reduces the ms value of the current in the ratio Iy/J,,,-»y graphically presented as [Ye Rae ir ) o Fig 9.4. Resistance of the individual ranges ranserted tthe dc cet ae correction factor in fig. 21.5. ‘The losses are reduced by the square of this ratio. From this we conclude af 02) (This relation ignores the fact that the correction factor for the rms value ofthe current is in some eases diferent for the primary and the secondary currents, whereas Rand R' represent the combined resistance of oth sides) ‘The main sources of the power losses are R the transformer, the diodes, and the bus bars. ‘Transformer designers usually know how to compute the losses, and the losses in the diodes are specified in the data sheets for various conducting angles as a function of the average value of the current, For computing the losses in the bus bars many small contributions have to be regarded, and it is sometimes more convenient to compute their total, as a rough approximation, from the average current density for which the installation is designed, and from the total amount of copper or aluminum that is Resistive Voltage Drop 2B used. For this purpose the losses per pound of copper or aluminum are shown in fig, 9.2 as a function of the current density. ‘The power losses are usually measured with short circuited d-c terminals at reduced input voltage. However, under such a condition the waver shape of the currents in the various branches, and sometimes also the 1 power losses (W/lby —>- psr0/ Poore 1 200 400500) B00 1000 5002000 ‘cent deny (Asin) —> 92. Chart for computing power losses in bus bars from the current density, temperature, differs from that under regular operation, and the results need a correction. This may be demonstrated best with an example. Example (Computing power losses from short circuit test, corrections) The losses of a rectifier in 3-phase bridge connection have been measured with short circuited d-c terminals. Results: Total losses = 4.8 kW ‘measured at the a-c input, with a current in the short circuit path of J, = 1000 A, and at a temperature of 20°C.130 D-C Characteristics Determine the losses and the resistive voltage drop at regular operation with J, = 1000 A and at a temperature of 75°C. Assume a diode charac- ‘sristic as shown in fig. 9.3. Disregard any temperature coefficient of 1e forward voltage drop of the diodes, and further assume that all ‘values of impedance are common for the two commutating groups. 1000 > current a. 93. Wdalized diode characteristic for sample calculation Gnstantaneous valves). ‘Solution. We fist itemize the measured losses. (@) Losses caused by the constant voltage drop across the diodes. These losses are 2 x 0.9 {V] x 1000 [A] = 1.8 [kW] (factor 2 takes positive and negative system into account). (©) Losses caused by the internal resistance of the diodes. For comput- ing this portion we have to compute the rms value of the current e-94. Current through diodes during short- teat Fig. IL. Voltage and current in a reactive circuit values are presented with respect to the dashed-dotted curve, assuming of, as the instant of closing the circuit. It can be seen that under the selected condition the current starts with negative polarity and turns to Positive values at cf,, remaining positive for more than one half cycle. prerary second ingpodanes impedance eee ert cuit path iL | m SR === =p ——-. e @ 7 o Fig. 11.2. Single-phase singlesvay connection and equivalent circuit, _ With an uncontrolled diode in the sire, as shown in fig. 11.26, the situation i ilstrated by fig, 13." The diode starts to conduct ato since at this instant the Voltage across the diode changes rom the reves to the forward direction and cannot be absorbed any more. This the cortent flow in the eet epresented by the eroshatched areas and ‘Comes with cole des a: ot ies se te short cet arent aru compu forthe wor onder, sc nen eed iodes, fring at the earliest possible instant, and which therefore does not differ fro the situation with regular diodes orem150 D-C Characteristics ig. 113, Current flow in single-way circuit. pemary secondary | impedance Impecance | a short eet a se —er = @ o Fig. 14. Single-phase bridge connection and equivalent circuit ‘an ~* ue Ds _ Ts LS. Areas representing current flow through the diodes in a double-way circuit under transient and Steady state conditions, Short Cireuit Currents 1st Wwe notice that the current is accompanied by a maximum transient component every cycle. The average value of the current is therefore ‘considerably higher than a value computed from only the positive or the negative half-waves of the alternating current. The circuit of fig. 11.2, just referred to, is the equivalent for a single- pphase single-way connection, shown in fig. 11.24. This connection is developed into the equivalent circuit by referring all values of impedance to the secondary side, as explained in Chapter 8, and representing the ‘transformer by a voltage source that rigidly delivers the secondary no- Toad voltage of the transformer, indicating that transformer and supply system have been deprived of any value of internal impedance. Single Phase Bridge Connection In a single-phase bridge connection (fig. 11.4a) the short circuit path converts the diode network into two pairs of antiparallel-connected diodes. As a unit, each pair conducts in both directions and can be replaced by a straight connection, if we disregard any impedance of the individual branches. In the equivalent circuit of fig. 11.46 one pair is retained in order to mark the position of the diodes within the circuit so that later from the total current flow the current carried by each branch ccan be determined. Thus, with a voltage source without internal imped- lance substituted for the transformer, and with all values of impedance represented by L and R, the simplification of a single-phase bridge connection with only common impedance results in the circuit shown in fig. 11.46. “The current flow in such a circuit i illustrated by fig. 11.5. Since the pair of diodes conducts in both directions, the current flowing through ypedance of the circuit is the same as in a regular a-c circuit. tis accompanied by a transient component that is a function of the instant of closing the circuit, and it gradually approaches the steady state con- dition, The transient component is a maximum if the circuit is being closed at the instant of voltage reversal, the condition selected for fig. 11.5, The transient component increases the current flow through one diode, represented by area A in fig. 11.5, and reduces the current load of the other diode, corresponding to area B. Under steady state conditions both diodes carry equal load, represented by area C of fig. 11.5. Computing the average or the rms value of the currents that are ac- ‘companied by transient components is quite difficult. Therefore, “transient factors” will now be defined and graphically presented; they will simplify furure calculations of this nature,152 D-C Characteristics ‘Transient Factors ‘The current flow in a single-way circuit as well as the load carried during the first cycle by the diodes in a double-way circuit have been represented by crosshatched areas in figs. 11.3 and 11.5. Computing the size of these areas is rather complex but necessary for expressing the magnitude of the current flow, and many more times during the following investigations it will be necessary to determine the average or the rms value of such a current. Therefore, the most difficult part of the computations will be done just once, and the results will be graphically presented so that they ‘can be used for all future calculations of this kind. Fortunately, there is only one variable, the ratio wL/R, provided that the results are presented in accordance with the following definitions: Transient factor for average values: Sia area A (Bg. 11.5) Jingo ECE TLD where | yg dt represents all current flow in one direction in a reactive cit- ‘cuit during the first cycle including a maximum transient ‘component, and Ss quay fueaty dt represents the current flow of one-half cycle under the sie” steady state condition. For computing the rms value of the current carried by the diodes, we define, in accordance with the definition of the rms value of a current, Transient factor for rms values: rma = [fit ae fig ar]* (112) where the integrals cover the same intervals as specified above. Both factors are functions of the ratio wL/R, and are graphically resented by fig. 11.6. In mathematical terms, these factors are: 1+ cos( +4) bee aay and l, af, 4 BHS_ sind + deosi24+ 6) ‘Short Cirewit Currents 153 where tan ¢ = @L/R, and 3, shown in fig. 11.5, is defined in implicit form by form by sind = sin g x e-trernitens as) Figure 11.6 also shows the transient factor for erest values, fyqy which represents the crest value of a current with a maximum transient com PPonent in elation to the eres value of the steady tate current. This factor fue Foret rT) cuR— Fig, 1.6. Transient factors, is well known and frequently used, especially for computing the maximum force between bus bars carrying a short circuit current of high magnitude Example (Average and rms values of the current in a single-way circuit) Determine average and rms values of the current in the single-way circuit of fig. 11.25 with =e) oL= 8{0} R= 6(9)154 D-C Characteristics Solution. Assuming a short ciccuit across the diode, we compute the rms value of the steady state alternating current: Sov} V6 (OQD* + 6 (2)? “hen, we assume that each second half-wave is suppressed, but still isregard the transient components, and calculate: 2 SIAL L woe = 2S x S{A)= 225A] and deme 75 x SIA]= 3.5414] In the circuit under consideration a maximum transient component ‘arts every cycle, as shown in fig. 11.3. Hence we read from fig. 11.6 ar oL/R = 1.33 the transient factors, and compute the real values Ince = 13 % 2.25 [A] = 2.93 [A] ad Tras = 1.2 x 3.54 [A] = 4.25 [A] “Pulse Midpoint Connection ‘The conversion of this connection into an equivalent circuit is illustrated yy fig. 11.7. As the first step, it is recognized that only one point of potential is common for the two branches so that the currents in these branches do not affect each other. Hence these currents will not be hhanged if the two circuits are separated, as shown in section (6), and ecombined with a different sequence of the elements in one of them, as illustrated in section (c), provided the polarity of the diodes is kept -inchanged in relation to the polarity of the voltage induced in the trans- ‘ormer windings. Now, the two transformer windings coincide and can be represented by one voltage source. With the primary impedance transformed to the secondary side, this results in the equivalent circuit hown in section (d), In this circuit some value of impedance is common and some is in- dividual for the oppositely conducting branches, whereas the connections rnvestigated before have been limit cases of this general condition, one vith only common and one with only individual impedance. It is now the right time to emphasize as strongly as possible that it is not a matter +f interpretation whether impedance is common or individual; rather, it lepends on the linkage between the magnetic fields caused by the currents an the various branches whether voltage is induced only in the branch Short Clreuit Currents 155 that carries the current, or in others too, and from the arrangement of the transformer windings it can be very well distinguished between common and individual values of leakage inductance, as demonstrated later in this chapter with a sample calculation. Besides, the real currents differ considerably between the two limit cases, as already noticed in Chapter 10 where it was computed that the short circuit currents in circuits with only common and others with only individual impedance differ by the £ i 4 td o — o i 1b F 1 conmen Ys B nat lf | © @ Fig. 11.7. 2-pulse midpoint connection developed into equivalent cireuit. factor 3. This may accent the importance of distinguishing between ‘common and individual values. Unfortunately, the treatment of the general scheme, shown in fig. 11.74, is extremely difficult. There are intervals during which the common impedance is in series connection with the individual impedance of one branch, periodically changing with intervals during which both branches are conducting, and transient com- ponents that decay with different time constants are superimposed. Even the graphic presentation of these relations is difficult since there are les. Thus these linkages are the origin of most difficulties of investigation, and of a good deal of confusion. In view of both the difficulties and the need for an answer, we present ‘an approximation which is rather unique, but leads to practical results and to some understanding of the phenomena that occur in such circuits and of their influence on the short circuit currents,156 D-C Characteristics Approximation for Circuits with Common and Individual Impedance ‘The basic idea of the following treatment is to substitute an equivalent impedance for the parallel branches with the result that the voltage across these branches and hence the individual currents ean be determined. For the first step, the substitution of an equivalent impedance for the parallel branches, let us assume that these branches are connected to a source of sinusoidal voltage, as indicated by the dashed circuit in fig. 11.8, Cy ° Fig 118. Substituting parallel branches by equivalent impedance, and let us determine the individual currents as well as their total, The individual currents are combinations of the steady state alternating current, shown in fig. 11.94, and transient components that start at the instants of voltage reversal, as already explained for single-way circuits. Thus the individual currents are represented by the ordinates of the crosshatched areas in fig. 11.9a. As can be seen, there are intervals, ¢.g., from wf to ‘lg, during which only one branch is conducting and the total current is, identical with the current of this branch, and there are other intervals during which, as a result of the transient components, both branches are conducting. During those intervals current is circulating in the loop of the two branches while the voltage source carries only the difference of the individual currents. This current carried by the voltage source is presented in fig. 1.96, marked by ). If it were a sinusoidal current, an impedance ‘could be defined that precisely substitutes for the parallel branches—for ‘Short Circuit Currents 1s7 Fie. 11.9. Currents cavid by parallel branches and by equivalent impedance, the steady state condition, as least. He ‘ver, thi irre i minor set ea ae hen fom458, D-C Characteristics aenatng current times the “transient factor for ret values,” presented Sense TT. Hence we compute isa Zina 116 Fue a where Zeqy = equivalent impedance, substituting for the parallel branches Zine = impedance of each branch ‘Tis approximation dsepards the fact thatthe real current, is ess Maia in relaon to the voltage than the steady state alternating rene on, aifercatly interpreted, that the substitute must be more ‘ave than the impedance ofeach branch. Meee vara computations we assume thatthe sine curve that ives the closest approximation is the fundamental of curve @), and we deere the equlalent impedance in such a manner tht it caries @ seer alto the fundamerral of the total current of the two Branches, ered tothe same source of sinasoidal voltage. Computing this sundamental is quite difficult, but since there is only one variable, this is dnerera| lof the individual impedance, the reslts can be eaiy Herd can be used feral futore calculations ofthis kind. We Troduce the symbols ae crest value of component of fundamental “n phase” with the soltage across the parallel branches = rest value of component of fundamental 90° lagzing gg) = se vale of sinusoidal voltage across individual branches, SZ auniiary ange, showa ing 1.9, defined ia implicit form by settsopand aid Zone sin 3 =sing xe = displacement angle between voltage and steady state alternat- 8h Bs ing current, determined by tan g = @banate vith Rinaww crest value of steady V2 Bioaie state alternating current ~~ Jingu, ‘he computations result in w2E vase lm 4 4 + d)c08 — sin(g + 8)cos(2d + 6)} (118) o Zina 7 and by — V2 Einste Ge +f + Asin g — sin($ + dsin@$ +4} (119) Zinciv 7 Short Circuit Currents 159 For practical use, these results have been further developed into two factors that directly transform the real values. Liaw and Rogier 28 Well as their resultant, Zaz, into the values of the substitute, Lewy Rau 1 a2] 19| os os el “ae HH il ina 181 Ta. conte T 2] 2 4 6 = 10 bp! e — Fig. 11.10. Factors for computing equivalent impedance. and Zzqiy. These factors are graphically presented in fig. 11 it ei resented in fig. 11.10. With thei id the problem will be solved by the Following steps 1. The equivalent impedance (inductance and resistance) will be deter- mined from the impedance of each branch, using the chart of fig. 11.10. 2. The supply voltage of the equivalent circuit (Bg. 11.74) is divided between the common and the equivalent impedance; the voltage across the equivalent impedance is determined. This voltage repre- sents, as an approximation, the voltage across the individual branches. 3. From the voltage across the individual branches and the values of retistance and inductance of each brench the individual currents are determined, as explained for the single-phase single-way connection. This will be demonstrated with the example following the next paragraph.160 ‘The transient situation in a circuit with common and individual imped- ance is illustrated by fig. 11.11. Certainly, the current in one branch will tise to the highest possible value if the voltage time-integral of one full half-wave of the supply voltage is available for this rise, that is, if the steady state ‘aerating current voltage of source Zeamen Zp e en Lo [Ps o ‘Transient situation in a cireuit with common and individual impedance, circuit is being closed at the instant of voltage reversal. This condition has been selected for fig. 11.11, and the instant of closing the circuit has been denoted by «ty. During the following period, the supply voltage is divided between the common impedance and the impedance of the conducting branch, ané the last portion appears across the second branch which does not start to conduct before this portion reverses the polarity. This occurs at of; in fig. 11.11. (For this illustration it has been assumed that the ratio w/Ris not the same for the common ané the individual impedances, in order to show that af, does not necessarily have to coincide with the instant of reversal of the supply voltage.) After the second branch has started, the rate of decay of the total current is balanced by both the rate of decay of the current inthe first branch and the rate of rise of the current in the second branch. Thus the second branch reduces the rate of decay of the current in the first one. In other words, it increases the total current load of the first branch. However, this increase occurs close to the end of the conducting period of the first branch so that the real current load is, only slightly higher than the value computed under the assumption that uring the entire conducting period the common impedance is in series connection with the impedance of just one branch. In fig. 11.11 area 4 represents the current flow until «f,, and area B represents the rest of the flow disregarding the increase caused by the second branch. Sort Cras Crete ra Example (Compuing earns ina crt with co : ( ina ort with common and indi impedance) ‘at Determine the average value of the current value of the current carried under steady state conditions by each diode of the circuit of fig. 11.12. ves Len = 410) Ream = 110) €) 125 1 sy nay = 610] Rng, =210) Fig. 11.22. Circuit for sample calculation, Solution. For (WL{R)ga, 3, we read from the chart of fig. 11.10 Eeoute 0.62 ang Rea Linaiv Rioair and compute the values of the substitute: coLequiy = 0.62 x 60) = 3.72 [0} Requtw = 11 x 2 (0) = 22 (0} Then we determin the current current flowing through the common impedence ‘in series connection with the substitute: - ese 125 (V1 VG 10] + 3.720)" + (1 (0) + 22 [0° With this result the voltage drop across the substitute can be determined: 150 [A] VG.72 0D" + 22 0)! = 65 [v} As the next step, voltage source of = 1501) ‘we assume that the parallel branches are connected to a 65'V, and that the diodes are short circuited. This gives102 DC Characteristics a ceady state alternating current through each branch with an rms value of — SM __ = 103 (4) Vora + 2 (9))* ‘With the diodes, the current flow is suppressed in one direction, and we pute the average value of the positive or the negative half-waves ofthe steady state alternating current: 2 ¥? 4c 103 [A] = 46414] 1 addition there are the transient components, increasing this result by t > “transient factor for average values.” For @L/R = 3 (individual impedance) fig. 11.6 shows fy: = 1.76, and we compute the average value ‘C the real current carried by each diode: ayy = 1.16 X 4.64 [A] = 8.15 [A] 1 the citeuit of fig. 11.12 is the equivalent circuit of a 2-puie midpoint connection, the short circuit current in the d-e path of this connection will be twice the computed value since the two branches conduct in opposite -ections only in the equivalent circuit; in reality, both contribute to the arent in the d-e path. ve Bridge Comecion Previously it was stated thatthe short circuit path, conceived asa solid snnection without impedance, subdivides complex rectifier systems and ‘aus simplifies their treatment. This will now be demonstrated with the phase bridge connection, Figure 11.134 shows-this connection with the ‘ansformer already represented by voltage sources delivering thesecondary oad voltages of the transformer, and with all values of impedance referred to the secondary side and assumed to be common for the oppositely oaducting branches. It now can be seen that the-short circuit path it ‘connections, as already explained for the single-phase bridge connection. ‘ence the currents in the three phases’ will be the same’as ina regular _e-phase- system with’ symmetrical load, consisting of inductance and Short Cireuit Currents 163 1 t ! Yo e!: ' et lok | i ioe > et ax wise f ' ik i ' i @ | _t J o Fig. 1.13, Reduction of 3.phase bridge connection. resistance (ig. 11.138). For such a system we compute: di, eeo= ere RAL (phase 1 TEL (phase 1) ai fea = ere—iR— “By (phase 2 TAL (phase 2) o—hR— Sy (phase 3) Total Bea = (6.0 + Cee + toa) ~ (it ig + ik — Het diet die de (11.10) The total ofthe three supply voltages is zero, because we astume a sym- metrical sem. The tol ofthe thee catents or ofthe rates of change ofthe cartents is also zero bees tere isno return conductor Henee «= 0 any instant. From tis we conclude tha connection made between the points a and O (dashed in figs 11.13a and 6) would not carry aay current and therefore would not change the curens inthe individual phases. But this connection would indicate thatthe three phases are tied ‘ogether at onl one point of potential so that the currents are not changed each phase is individually short circuited, isolated from the other phases. ‘Hence such a system can be split into three separate single-phase circuits. Sines this conclusion was based only on the assumption of symmetrical164 D-C Characteristics Go) phase — (0) shase 2 La | (opphase 3 (tt it currensin te individual Fig-11.14, Deermining the curretin the d- circuit from the the idl phases, only common impedance. 29 oak 10 bs 2 iu of steady state value —> & ° 20 360 0 0 180 coy ig. 11.15, Average rze of short circuit current in d-c path, only common impedance. Short Clreuit Currents 165 supply voltages and the conditions dictated by the circuit configuration, ‘the result must be true for any kind of current that is possible under these conditions including iransient components. Less evident isthe situation if the three phases are linked together by a common transformer, especially if the windings on either the primary or the secondary side are in delta connection so that the voltage drop across the impedance of each primary line is caused by currents of different secondary phases. However, it can be shown that in this case as well the phases can be separated, provided the secondary cireuits are double-way cireuits with only common impedance Under the general condition of common and individual impedance the oppositely conducting diodes are not directly paraliie, and it would be incorrect to substitute a solid connection for them and to separate the three phases. However, it was shown before that, as an approximation, such branches can be represented for the steady state condition by equiv. alent impedances, and if this is done the rectifier connection is again ‘identical with a regular a-c system with symmetrical load (fg. 11.136), where the three phases can be separated, Therefore we decide: 3ephase bridge connection can be determined. With only common impedance the currents in the a-c leads and in the individual branches are the same as calculated for the single-phase double-way circuit, illustrated by fig. 11.5. The current in the d-c circuit is the total of the currents of all contributing branches, This is illustrated by fig. 11.14, where the transient components are taken {nto account by displacing the zero lines for the current curves so that the heavily outlined areas represent the real current flow in the individual branches. Their total is the current in the d-c path, shown in section (d), Quite obviously, the result must be the same if all values of the negative side are added. ‘This curve is a function of the ratio wL/R of the cireuit and is shown i fig. 11.15. It should be noticed and memorized that the first rise is Practically the same in all eases, reaching the steady state level approxi- ‘mately 60° after the instant of closing the circuit, and that the “overshoot” an be computed from the transient factor for crest valucs, fen (fi. 11.6).166 ‘DC Characteristics ‘The other extreme is a connection with only individual impedance. In tis case a maximum transient component starts in each phase every cycle, as illustrated for one wye of such a system in fig. 11.16. It can be seen that the current in the d-c path approaches, without overshoot, a value (o) pase 1 (6) phase 3 Fig. 11.16. Determining the curent in the d-ccireuit from the eurent in the individual phases, only individual impedance. that is the steady state value without the transient components times the transient factor for average values Surs- For connections with an approxi- mate method was presented for determining the currents in the individual ‘ranches, and the direct current is, also in this ease, the total of all currents fiowing into the d-c path. Hence the general case does not need further treatment. We will now apply this knowledge to a practical problem. ‘Short Circuit Currents 167 Example (phase bridge conection) Determine fora 3-phase bridge connection the stead i nection the steady sate short circu ‘current in the d-c path in terms of J,,, assuming no losses and : (@) only common impedance (© only individual impedance y Solution. (a) The steady state alternating current (rms value) is Efol,. = 2 From this value we compute the steady. state short cizeuit current in the Ge path vith only common impedance Vie - BAN tein = 92 He = SETA “Lato ag value of Bel sine wave to tis value of fll sine wave 2) phases contribute The theoretical valu /,, is defined by equation (10.1): te with, = 1k. and (equation 6.3) Jug can be expressed by and the desired ratio will be computed as Only common impedance Fa,srorteieute 3 == Be any (© With only individual impedance the ue of average value ofthe currents in the individual branches, as well s the currentin the 6c circuits inereased by the transient factor fg, which equals for an inductive cieuit without losses (ratio of the areas (4 + B)/A in fg. 14.6). Hence the desired ratio is Only individual impedance: -3 (1)18 D-C Characteristics Both results accord very well with these derived in Chapter 10 for infinite inductance in the d-c circuit, The result of equation (11.11) differs by only 5%, while that of (11.12) is identical with the one derived in Chapter 10. “This seems to indicate that the inductance of the d-c-circuit has very litle: influence on the short circuit eurrent, so that the results of this chapter, although derived for the idealized condition of a bolted short circuit, supplement very well the information obtained in Chapter 10. oable Wye Connection with Interphase Transformer Ina 3 phase b:2ége connection, two 3-pulse commutating groups operate in series; in a double-wye connection with interphase transformer, they are paralleled. In both cases the two wyes operate with 180° phase shift. ‘The only difference is that in a bridge connection the phase shift is the result of the opposite polarity of the two wyes, while in an interphase transformer it is aghieved by separate secondary transformer windings ‘Thus both connections are very similar, and the basic idea of analyzing the interphase transformer connectionis to convertitinto a bridge connection— ‘without changing the currents carried by the diodes, of course. This is illustrated by fig. 11.17. ‘Section (a) of fig. 11.17 shows the circuit under consideration. In series connection with the primary and secondary transformer windings are the Primary and secondary values of inductance and resistance. The two ‘windings of the interphase transformer, with leakage inductance and resistance, are shown between the center points of the two sets of diodes, although they are sometimes connected between the neutral points of the ‘two sets of transformer windings. As the first step, the two commutating ‘groups are separated. does not affect the currents since only one point of potential, the short circuit path, is common for the two wyes, and therefore no current circulates between them. Then in one wye the ‘sequence of the circuit components is reversed, which does not affect the currents as long as the polarity of the diodes is kept unchanged with respect to the polarity of the voltage induced in the transformer windings. ‘This results in the system shown in fig. 11.17. As the next step, the two ‘wyes are recombined in such a manner that the transformer windings of corresponding phases coincide with regard to their polarity, and can be presented by one winding per phase. This is shown in section (c), where, in addition, the primary values of inductance and resistance are referred to the secondary side, and the transformer windings are represented by voltage sources that rigidly deliver the secondary no-load voltages. Some portion of the secondary impedance is common for the two wyes, and has ‘Short Cireult Currents 169 ol i i _ a i - os ovr) @ Fig. 11.17. tuction of “ MeL, Relucon of double commen sth ith pafomen, bee ambi wih he print als, es ther ota in nd kept separate forthe opposely conducting brow windings of the interphase transformer also couede nth eredo te, polarity and are shown as one winding. Seed fo tein Thereault ofthe conversion isa phase ridge connetion wtheo and inva vale of nde and ressance ad wh tee terminals aan in 11.6 sho ciated tough thea tance anc Fesistance of the windings of the int ase as Diseparding thse smal values and assuing sold connation eng, ‘andb, the system can be split, as an approximation, into three individvally