The Musical Characteristics of

the Beatles

The Government of the Hong Kong

Special Administrative Region
Education Bureau
2009
 The Musical Characteristics of the Beatles
Michael Saffle

Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. All rights reserved. No part of
this publication can be reproduced in any form or by any means, or otherwise, without the prior
written consent of the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.
 Content

1 The Beatles: An Introduction 1

2 The Beatles as Composers/Performers: A Summary 7

3 Five Representative Songs and Song Pairs by the Beatles 8

3.1 Love Me Do and Please Please Me (1962) 8
3.2 Michelle and Yesterday (1965) 12
3.3 Taxman and Eleanor Rigby (1966) 14
3.4 When Im Sixty-Four (1967) 16
3.5 Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds (1967) 18

4 The Beatles: Concluding Observations 21

5 Listening Materials 23

6 Musical Scores 23

7 Reading List 24

8 References for Further Study 25

9 Appendix 27
(Blank Page)
1 The Beatles: An Introduction

The Beatlessometimes referred to as the Fab Fourhave been more

influential than any other popular-music ensemble in history. Between 1962, when
they made their first recordings, and 1970, when they disbanded, the Beatles drew
upon several styles, including rock n roll, to produce rock: today a term that almost
defines todays popular music. In 1963 their successes in England as live performers
and recording artists inspired Beatlemania, which calls to mind the Lisztomania
associated with the spectacular success of Franz Liszts 1842 German concert tour. In
1964 their visit to the United States launched the so-called British Invasion that helped
popularise other United Kingdom ensembles. Although the Beatles began mostly as
cover artists and club jobbers, they eventually established themselves as the most
compositionally original ensemble of all time. Ian MacDonald summarises their
influence in these words: With their groundbreaking albums Revolver (1966) and Sgt.
Peppers Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967), the Beatles eclipsed even their most gifted
rivals, achieving an eminence in contemporary popular culture which has endured and
seems unlikely to diminish to any great extent in the foreseeable future.

In 1956, teenager John Lennon (1940-1980) organised an amateur pop group

called the Quarry Men (or Quarrymen), which he named after Quarry Bank High
School in Liverpool, an industrial and shipping city on the west coast of England and
the Beatles home town. Paul (later Sir Paul) McCartney (1942- ), another
Liverpudlianas citizens of Liverpool are calledjoined the band the following year.
George Harrison (1943-2001) joined in 1958. The Quarry Men mostly played skiffle: a
mixture of 1930s Black and folk musical styles. During the Folk Revival of the 1950s,
White performers in Germany and the United States also played skiffle, but the style
became especially popular in Great Britain. For the most part, skiffle bands consisted
of one or more singers, most of whom doubled as instrumentalists. Skiffle songs were

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supported by simple three-chord accompaniments played on harmonica, acoustic
guitar, and washboard or drums.

Few of the Quarry Mens skiffle performances were recorded, but the style left
an imprint on Harrison, Lennon, and especially McCartney. If nothing else, skiffle
called upon every band member to improvise and play several different instruments.
As members of the Quarry Men, Lennon played the guitar, the harmonica, and sang,
while McCartney and Harrison both played guitar and percussion and also sang. By
the end of his career with the Beatles, McCartney had made a name for himself as a
solo guitarist, a pianist, a drummer, and a bass-guitar player as well as a lyricist and
composer. Some skiffle songs featured modal harmonic progressions and other folk-
like devices, all of which appear in many of the Beatles later and best-known works.
Both Lennon and Harrison established reputations for themselves as innovative
harmonists, and some of McCartneys harmonic progressions have been compared
favourably with those of such classical European composers as Franz Schubert (1797-
1828) and Gustav Mahler (1860-1911). Finally, skiffle may have inspired Lennons
pragmatic approach to melodic composition. Less talented as a singer than McCartney,
Lennon wrote more repetitive tunes with narrower vocal ranges; Yellow Submarine
contains a good example of such tunes. Lennon also specialised in setting his own
ingenious and often poetic lyrics to music. Often considered, rightly or wrongly, the
groups best composer, Lennon was unquestionably its best lyricist.

In August 1960, bass guitarist Stuart Sutcliffe (1940-1962) and drummer Pete
Best (1941- ) joined Lennon, McCartney, and Harrison to form the Beatles. For the
next two years the group mostly performed in and around Liverpool, although they
also made four trips to Hamburg, Germany, where they played at clubs in the
Reeperbahn district, a disreputable part of Hamburg. In December 1961, Sutcliffe left
the ensemble and McCartney took his place as bass guitarist for the ensemble. Around
the same time Brian Epstein (1934-1967), a Liverpool music-shop owner, heard the

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Beatles and became their manager. On behalf of the ensemble, Epstein secured a
recording contract with Parlophone, a subsidiary of EMI run by producer George (later
Sir George) Martin (1926- ). Epstein also replaced Pete Best with drummer Ringo
Star (born Richard Starkey; 1940- ). Himself a musician of talent, Epstein encouraged
Lennon and McCartney to experiment with new ways of organising their musical ideas.
In 1963 Please Please Me, the second song the group recorded for Parlophone, rose
to the top of the British singles chart. From then on, the Beatles remained one of the
worlds best-known pop ensembles. After touring England, they arrived in New York
City on 9 February 1964 to one of the most remarkable receptions in musical history.
Appearances on television led to careers as movie stars for all four Beatles, and both A
Hard Days Night (1964) and Help! (1965) were received with enthusiasm by film
critics and audiences alike.

During the mid-1960s, the Beatles began to develop in new musical directions.
Influenced less and less by Elvis Presley and other rock-n-rollers (as they had been
during their Quarry Men days), they turned for inspiration to singer-songwriter Bob
Dylan (born Robert Allen Zimmerman), whose thoughtful, challenging, folk-revival
compositions inspired Youve Got to Hide Your Love Away and several other
Beatles songs. Ensemble members also began to use marijuana and other psychotropic
substances, including LSD. After producing comedy songs and soul numbers for
Rubber Soul (1965), their first full-length original LP, the group turned for
inspiration to music-hall songs, the art music of India, and memories of their own
childhood experiences. They also experimented with the possibilities of altering
musical sounds through electronic recording techniques, and they added a wide variety
of instrumental sounds to many of their most successful later numbers. In Revolver
and especially in Sgt. Peppers Lonely Hearts Club Band, the Beatles produced
complex assemblages of songs in contrasting styles that, even individually, could no
longer be performed live. Sgt. Peppers became perhaps the most widely acclaimed
concept album in history, and its purported coherence as a kind of song cycle

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stimulated similar projects. Among these, Days of Future Passed (1967), written and
performed by the Moody Blues, and Dark Side of the Moon (1973), written and
performed by Pink Floyd, another British ensemble, also became classics.

In 1967 Epstein died suddenly, and the following year Lennon met Yoko Ono,
who later became his wife. Increasing dissentionfuelled in part by the marriages
made by several band members to outsiders like Ono, in part by Lennons increasing
dislike of McCartneyfinally led McCartney to break with the group. Fortunately,
three additional albumsMagical Mystery Tour (1967); The Beatles (1968; better-
known as the White Album); and Abbey Road (1969)were released before the group
disbanded in 1970. Each Beatle went on to enjoy a performing career of his own, but
none of them reached either the financial or the artistic heights they managed to
achieve together.

The Beatles achieved unprecedented success primarily as composers of

beautiful and sophisticated songs. Each of their numbers embodies at least one (and
sometimes more than one) historical style as well as one or more band members
brands of melody, harmony, andoftenmusical humour. In addition to the talents of
Lennon and McCartney, who produced most of the original music the ensemble
performed and recorded after 1963, the Beatles profited from Harrisons skill as a
composer. They also profited from the advice of EMI producer Martin, and from the
technical knowledge of engineer Geoff Emerick. Like Epstein, Martin encouraged the
Beatles to compose more carefully. Unlike his predecessor, Martin also wrote
arrangementswhich, although based on sketches made by individual band members,
made use of his keen sense of instrumental colour and skill as an orchestrator. Emerick
taught the Beatles how to use the recording studio as an instrument in its own right; his
instruction was of special importance in Abbey Road, one of the late 1960s most
successfully engineered rock products.

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 No one style or musical gimmick appears in every Beatles number, not even
a rhythmic rock groove. Modal and other unusual harmonic progressions, the blues,
gospel and doo-wop singing styles, sounds and gestures also associated with other
1950s and 1960s pop artists, the ragas (or scale-like patterns) of northern Indian art
music, and musique concrte are somebut by no means allof the musical devices
they employed at one time or another. Early in their career the Beatles even covered a
Broadway show tune: Till There was You, a well-known song from The Music Man
by Meredith Wilson, which opened in New York City in 1957 and was later made into
a motion picture. Although the devices and styles associated with these influences
were later incorporated into only a few of the ensembles recordings, most of them
became Beatles trademarks: sounds forever associated with the songs they helped
make famous.

Some critics consider Motown the style that most frequently and thoroughly
influenced the Beatles overall output. Motown, a Black nickname for Detroit
(Americas foremost car-manufacturing city, and known for that reason as motor city
or mo-town), is also an abbreviation for Tamla Motownlater renamed the Motown
Record Corporation: one of the most successful labels in pop history. Berry Gordy, Jr.,
who launched Motown in 1958 and hired most of its star performers, helped
popularise the Motown sound: a sophisticated blend of catchy tunes, rock-groove
percussion patterns, and clever song layouts. Among Motown numbers covered by the
Beatles in 1963 was Please Mr. Postman, originally recorded by the Marvelettes.
Like many other earlier Beatles hits, it was released as a single: a 45rpm phonorecord
containing just one song on each side. After 1965 the Fab Four concentrated on album-
length recordings. Michelle, for example, was never released as a single; instead, it
appeared for the first time on Rubber Soul.

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 The Beatles acknowledged their debts not only to Motown, but also to Elvis
Presley, Bob Dylan, music-hall song-and-dance numbers, and a variety of other
stylistic sources. At the same time, they transformed the musical gestures they
borrowed from others into songs unique to themselves and their era. The 1960s have
been called the decade of the Beatles, and in several important respects it was
precisely that. Finally, the Beatles legacy was taken up during the 1970s and 1980s by
many other musicians, including Engelbert Humperdink, who covered several Beatles
songs.

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2. The Beatles as Composers/Performers:
A Summary

The Beatles began as club entertainers and ended as cultural gurus, iconic
representatives of the 60s as an era of political protest and experimental lifestyles.
They began as skiffle performers who covered rock-n-roll numbers written by other
artists; they ended as composers of album-length statements full of exotic
instrumental sounds, allusions to psychedelic experiences, political messages, and
parodies of old-fashioned pop songs. After 1964 they gave few public performances;
instead, they retreated to the recording studio, where they increasingly drew upon
technological innovations and arty instrumental arrangements. The albums they
created, especially Sgt. Peppers Lonely Hearts Club Band, made the LP (and later the
full-length CD) the medium of choice for commodified pop music. More or less
abandoning rock n roll, the Beatles gave the world a cluster of hybrid masterpieces
(as well as a few failures) that established rock a virtual synonym for global popular
music.

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3 Five Representative Songs and Song Pairs by the
Beatles
3.1 Love Me Do and Please Please Me (1962)

Love Me Do was the Beatles first singles-chart hit song, although it failed to
reach top-10 status even in Great Britain. It was also one of the first Mersey sound
songs heard throughout England as well as in the United States. Coined in 1961, the
term Mersey sound, sometimes incorrectly given as Mersey beat, refers not only to
songsmany of them skiffle numberswritten or performed in Liverpool (located on
the Mersey River), but to songs by Liverpool artists that combined elements of folk,
jazz, and rock n roll.

In Love Me Do a simple syncopated rock groove supports repetitive lyrics

about adolescent love, a favourite Beatles subject. Lennon and McCartney sing
together in close harmony, much of the time in parallel thirds. (Another example of
close harmony is the four-bar unaccompanied vocal introduction to Paperback
Writer, a somewhat later Beatles song.) Overall, Lennons and McCartneys
performances in Love Me Do are straightforward and unassuming, but it is their use
of oblique counterpoint punctuated by open fourths and fifths that struck early 1960s
listeners as fresh and innovative. Nevertheless, Love Me Do is less energetic than
many numbers recorded by other contemporary artists. There are no vocal interjections
or forceful rhythmic statements of any kind. Only once, in fact, in Love Me Doat
the very end of the second break, in which the melodic line is played entirely on the
harmonicadoes Starr employ the cymbals as well as the snare and bass drums that
make up the standard rock-n-roll set or battery. Even the use of quarter-note triplets
in the opening harmonica hook to Love Me Do, which provides rhythmic variety,
momentarily weakens the on-going rhythmic pulse.

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 Several aspects of Love Me Do suggest folk or skiffle more than rock n roll.
These aspects include brief harmonica solos, the use of modal inflections, and plagal
cadences. An example: the song begins in G Major, but the three-note descending
harmonic line F (not F ) / E / D produces a moment of Mixolydian colour. F also
appears frequently in the songs melody; F , the leading tone in the key of G Major,
only becomes important in conjunction with the word love in the phrase Someone to
love. Other chromatic inflections are more blues or jazz-like than modal. The word
do, for example, is sung in measure 10 on B (instead of B). When the phrase is
repeated in measure 11, the word oh is ornamented C / D / C. Many blues singers
flat the third, fifth, and seventh degrees of the scale, as the Beatles do in this song.
The third, fifth, and seventh degrees of G Major are B, D, and F ; as blue notes they
become B , D , and F. Finally, plagal or subdominant chord progressions contribute
to the songs less emphatic, more wistful character. The songs introduction, for
example, begins with I-IV-I as a harmonic progression. Rock n roll more often
features dominant-tonic (I-V-I) progressions, which have a more emphatic and final
character.

One unusual feature of Love Me Do, and a feature that reappears in many
later Beatles songs, is an asymmetrical melodic structure. The verse consists of three
pairs of measures (bars 1-6), followed by three more measures of Please (bars 7-9),
followed by two measures in which we hear the last of please as well as the refrain
Love me do (bars 10-11). In the last of these measures (bar 11) the two-measure
harmonica hook reappears, linking this verse with the verse that follows:

bars 1-2: Love, love me do! you

bars 3-4: Know I love you. Ill
bars 5-6: Always be true, so
bars 7-9: Please ---
bars 10-11 Love me do!
[harmonica solo]

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Another feature of Love Me Do characteristic of many Beatles songs is air. Also
known as verbal space, the term air refers to vocal silences between melodic
statements. In much of this song Lennon and McCartney dont sing at all, and when
they do sing they rarely sustain notes for more than a moment; the single exception is
the word please. The overall impression left today by Love Me Do and other early
Beatles numbers is one of innocence. In this and other songs there is love but no
explicit sexuality, and the music is characterised by fresh chromatic inflections and
unassuming vocal artistry rather than parody, pastiche, or complex harmonic
progressions.

Other early Beatles songs resemble Love Me Do in several of the ways

described above. Please Please Me, the second number the group recorded for EMI,
is a more energetic and complex song with a rock edge. Like Love Me Do, this song
employs the harmonica. In the introduction to Please Please Me, however, the hook
is played in unison by the harmonica and the lead guitar, producing a metallic sound
that suggests a calliope. Associated with carnivals and outdoor fairs, the calliope is
unmistakably a fun instrument, and the opening of Please Please Me is light-
hearted and lively. Reverb in the electrically amplified guitar part contributes to this
effect.

Please Please Me also includes chromatic ornaments in the vocal line as well
as shouted interjections. Although less forceful than the coon shouting of the youthful
Elvis Presley, the Beatles repeated statements of oh yeah! alternate with repeated
statements of come on, creating a call-and-response effect associated with several
kinds of Black American music, including gospel. Furthermore, Please Please Me is
more harmonically adventurous than Love Me Do. The instrumental coda, or last
two measures of Please Please Me, features a striking pair of mediant harmonic
progressions, a sound that became popular in European art music during the 1830s and
1840s. In moving first from E Major to G Major (I-III), then to C Major (III-VI), and

10
finally back to E Major by way of B Major (V-I), the very end of this hit song seems
almost to have been copied from music written by the revolutionary French composer
Hector Berlioz (1803-1869). Berlioz often ended symphonic movements with
similarly striking progressions. The very existence of a coda in a 1960s pop song,
much less one as imaginative and striking as this one, itself makes Please Please Me
somewhat unusual as an early 1960s pop single. Most contemporary songs concluded
with fadeouts that allowed radio DJs to interrupt the songs long, drawn-out endings
with observations of their own or with advertisements for sponsors products. Please
Please Me, on the other hand, ends as it began: emphatically and distinctively.

Several later Beatles songs also resemble Love Me Do and Please Please
Me without imitating them. One of these songs is Yellow Submarine, which
combines a childlike tune that repeats the words We all live in a yellow submarine
over and over with witty examples of musique concrte: water sounds, the sounds of
ship machinery, and so on. Unlike the Beatles innocent early skiffle numbers,
however, Yellow Submarine is a self-conscious parody (or send-up) of childlike
Folk Revival songs, including Puff the Magic Dragon, recorded in 1963 by Peter,
Paul, and Mary. In its use of nautical terms and references to the sea, a centuries-long
British preoccupation, it also gently mocks English naval institutions. In other words,
the Beatles use in Yellow Submarine of pre-recorded sound effects, naval
terminology and enthusiasms, and a short passage scored for military band transform a
playful if repetitive childrens tune into a sophisticated stylistic pastiche. Other
pastiche songs from the Beatles later years include Back in the USSR, a hard-
hitting rock contribution to the so-called White Album (1968). In Back in the USSR,
pre-recorded airplane sounds are superimposed over musical and verbal references to
several American folk and pop songs, including California Girls by the Beach Boys,
Georgia On My Mind by Ray Charles, and Back in the USA by rhythm-and-blues
star Chuck Berry.

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3.2 Michelle and Yesterday (1965)

Although often identified as rock, even in the absence of a rhythmic groove,

Michelle is actually a foxtrot: a two-step dance popular in England and the United
States during the first half of the twentieth century. It is also a ballad: a sentimental
song with several verses, each of them followed by the same chorus. In its blend of
acoustic and electric guitar sounds, Michelle resembles Yesterday and other more
emphatically tuneful Beatles numbers.

Michelle consists of an introductory chord progression played by acoustic

guitar over a chromatically descending bass line: from an F minor triad to a F minor
chord with added major seventh, to a F minor chord with added minor seventh, to a
B minor chord with added second, and finally to a C Major (dominant) chord that
resolves with the first word of the vocal line in F Major. The introduction is followed
by a chorus that consists of four phrases (respectively 6, 6, 10, and 6-measures long)
followed by a refrain that begins with the words And I will say. An added delight is
the translation into French of the second 6-bar phrase, in which the final syllable is
not simply sustained (as in the English version) but emphasises the downbeat in bar 12:

I bars 1-2: Michelle, ma belle,

bars 3-5: These are works that go together well, my Michelle. ---
bar 6: [air]
II bars 7-8: Michelle, ma belle,
bars 9-11: Sont des mots qui vent trs bien ensemble, trs bien en-
bar 12: -semble.

Unlike most pop songs, in which the bridge (here bars 13-22) appears at most twice
and often only once, the bridge in Michellewhich begins I love you I love you I
love youis repeated three times.

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 Michelle features a harmonic device associated with Schuberts Lieder: that
of shifts between tonic-major and tonic-minor chords. This F Major song begins in F
minor (see above) and remains in F minor whenever the melody moves to A instead
of A. Throughout the first 6-bar phrase, for instance, the syllables belle, to- (in
together), and Mi- (in the last Mi-chelle) are sung as A s. At the very end of the
song, however, just as at the very beginning of the melody, the accompaniment plays
A (natural), giving the girls name an unexpected brightness. Although the melody is
sung throughout by McCartney, it is accompanied some of the time by the other three
Beatles in the form of sustained doo-wop chords on the syllable Woo. Finally,
Michelle resembles Love Me Do and other early Beatles numbers more closely
than many mid-1960s listeners realised. At the very beginning of the 10-bar bridge, for
example, the words love you I love you I are sung as quarter-note triplets, and other
triplets are found in the instrumental bridge and the coda. Furthermore, the bridges
second phrase begins with a C / D / C blue ornament on the words thats all I
In combination, these features are remarkably effective. At one and the same time,
Michelle seems to be a standard pop ballad with a foxtrot beat, an understated 1960s
sentimental hit supported by a rock groove, and a pastiche of skiffle and Schubertian
melodic and harmonic gestures.

Yesterday, another song by Lennon and McCartney, and one sung by

McCartney altogether as a solo, is widely considered even more beautiful than
Michelle. Released as a single in 1965, Yesterday is slower and more plodding
rhythmically; its melody has a wider range and is more repetitive overall. Yesterday
is accompanied by a classical string quartettwo violins, a viola, and a celloas well
as by acoustic guitar; unlike Michelle, it altogether lacks drums or other rhythm
instruments. Harmonically, Yesterday resembles Love Me Do in its plagal
cadences and more widespread use of vocal ornaments, including an accento that
begins the melody on G (in F Major) instead of F. Associated in seventeenth- and
eighteenth-century European vocal music with expressions of pain, the accento in

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Yesterday fulfils the same expressive function; it crushes downward, creating a
momentary dissonance and expressing regret at the loss of the girl who went away
for some unknown reason. Finally, the bridge in Yesterday features a characteristic
late-Beatles device: stepwise chord progressions. The words had to go in the phrase
Why she had to go I dont know, she wouldnt say are accompanied successively by
D minor, C Major, and B Major triads, although incomplete ones. A fondness for
parallel chord progressions was a characteristic gesture not only of later Beatles songs,
but also of Harrisons work as an independent composer-performer.

3.3 Taxman and Eleanor Rigby (1966)

By the time they had reached Revolver in 1966, the Beatles were beginning to
think of albums as something more than mere collections of previously released
singles. Earlier pop LPs often had themes: some of Elvis Presleys LPs, for example,
were soundtrack albums, collections of songs recorded for or featured in particular
motion pictures. The placement of songs in Revolver and especially in Sgt. Peppers
Lonely Hearts Club Band, however, was more than random. Generally the Beatles
opened each of their later albums with hard-hitting, emphatic numbers; the second
numbers on these albums were usually gentler and less rhythmically intense.
Taxman and Eleanor Rigby together exemplify this strategy. They also exemplify
aspects of both the Beatles earlier and later styles, including modal inflections, blue
notes, pre-recorded sounds and electronic distortion, the use of non-pop instruments,
stepwise harmonic progressions, and topical lyrics: in these cases (respectively), the
oppressiveness of taxation and the loneliness of big-city life.

Taxman begins with a spliced-in or pre-recorded count-off that suggests

were listening to an informal jam session. Not only is this count-off fictional; it is
also distorted to make Harrisons voice sound odd. (The actual count-off, heard
quietly in the background, is by Lennon, recorded without distortion.) Melodically,
Taxman consists of a double-tracked vocal line in which Harrison sings with himself

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to an accompaniment provided by heavily amplified guitars, bass guitar, and drums.
Although ostensibly in D Major, the melody contains nothing by Cs (instead of C s)
and is heavily syncopated. The sudden shift from a dominant-seventh chord on D to a
C Major triad ( VII in D Major, and a substitute subdominant chord in that key) on
the syllable tax in the phrase cause Im the tax-man is strikingly effective, utterly
unexpected, and essentially plagal. The music then moves from that chord to G7 (IV7
in D Major) and then back to D7 (IV7-I from G to D), suspending the harmony
between D Major and the G Major tonic chord that never seems finally to arrive. A
heavily amplified guitar break after the second verse provides an opportunity for
McCartney to perform a chromatically inflected lead-guitar solo reminiscent of Jimi
Hendrix, an even more brilliant guitarist and experimental pop star of the middle and
late 1960s. As a protest song, Taxman is both intensely angry and hopeless; instead
of a coda, the music fades out at the end of a second guitar break.

Except for its message of heartfelt anger and hopelessness, Eleanor Rigby is
altogether different. Unlike Taxman, this song lacks a rock groove or any percussion
part; there is no percussion part, no guitars, and nothing like a skiffle, blues, or pop
lyric. Instead, Eleanor Rigby tells the story of two people: an aging woman without
a family who dies unmourned, and the priest who presides over her meaningless
funeral. The songs organisation is simplicity itself: an opening hook with words (Ah,
look at all the lonely people), the reappearance of that hook as the second part of a
chorus performed between each of three verses, and a short coda. The use of a string
octet (four violins, two violas, and two cellos) transforms what might otherwise have
sounded like a Folk Revival number into an art song. So does the skilful arrangement
that subtly shifts the number and complexity of contrapuntal accompanying figures
from verse to verse. The two-note figure C / B alone shifts the harmony back and forth
from C Major to E minor. Except for a few added sevenths and passing notes, the song
is based entirely on those two chords. With songs like Eleanor Rigby the Beatles
seemed to have left rock n roll behind. But not for long: Revolver not only began

15
with Taxman but included Got to Get You Into My Life, a much more
straightforward pop effort, as its next-to-last number.

3.4 When Im Sixty-Four (1967)

One of the more popular numbers on Sgt. Peppers, When Im Sixty-Four is

not rock at all. Instead, it suggests the world of vaudeville and the English music hall
of the 1920s and 1930s. The music is scored for clarinet and bass clarinet as well as
piano, guitar, electric bass, and percussion. Instead of a rock groove, the song moves
to a slow foxtrot beat. Its subject is as unusual (from the perspective of rock n roll) as
its music: love among older, working-class men and women!

Harmonically, When Im Sixty-Four is much less sophisticated than

Taxman. Except for a sung bridge that begins in A minor on the words Every
summer we can rent a cottage, and except for a few minor subdominant and
secondary dominant chords (F minor and D Major in C Major), When Im Sixty-
Four is a three-chord song. It begins with a short but formal introduction that ends
with a vamp: a simple rhythmic figure that can easily be repeated if the musicians
considered it necessary. Vamps were important to vaudeville and music-hall
performers, because applause or other audience noise often interrupted introductions,
requiring them to be extended until the musicians were ready to continue. It also ends
with a four-bar coda rather than a fade-out.

One interesting feature of When Im Sixty-Four is its melodic line, which

often rises above the chords that support it, adding sevenths, ninths, and even
thirteenths to the triads played by the accompanying instruments. Another feature is
the use of chromatic passing and ornamental notes. In phrases such as Will you still
be sending me a valentine, the music moves from B to C, C , and D, then at the end
of the phrase from B to B to A: all this over a G Major triad in the accompaniment.
Another unusual feature: although the entire song was recorded in the key of C, it

16
appears on the Sgt. Peppers album in the key of D . Electronic transposition of this
kind makes the music sound thinner and gives McCartneys vocal solo a slightly
tremulous, old-fashioned sound, one that suggests the acoustic 78rpm phonorecords of
the early twentieth century. The D that begins when Im Sixty-Four on the album
also links this song harmonically with the preceding, more experimental number
Within you without you. In spite of this link, however, the contrast between that
song and When Im Sixty-Four is even more violent musically than the contrast
between Taxman and Eleanor Rigby on Revolver.

Another interesting feature of When Im Sixty-Four is the presence of

clarinets. Employed in early jazz ensembles as well as the European symphony
orchestra, clarinets have a distinctive sound that later jazz artists considered too
sweet for their more dissonant music-making. The presence of clarinets in virtually
any pop number today guarantees that the number will today be received as old-
fashioned, out of date. Saxophones, on the other hand, have remained popular in pop
and jazz ensembles, although they were never accepted as standard instruments by
European and North American classical composers.

Until Sgt. Peppers was released as an album in 1967, no rock ensemble had
ever performed or recorded anything like When Im Sixty-Four. The Beatles,
however, later recorded several similar numbers, all of them composed by McCartney.
One of these songs, Honey Pie, was included in the White Album, the Beatles
longest and most stylistically varied collection of musical material. Honey Pie is
even more playfulsome people would call it campythan When Im Sixty-Four.
Its rich, historical chord progressions include sequential secondary dominants. One
example is all that can be cited here: From Em7 beginning in the chorus on the words
Im in love but Im the music moves to Am7 on the word lazy, then to D7 on the
words so wont you please come, and finally to G on the word home. In G Major
the sequence is: V7/VI V7/II V7 I.

17
 Retro songs we just beginning to be performed by some rock ensembles in the
late 1960s. Most of these songs were covers. At the Hop, a slightly modified 12-bar
blues rock-n-roll number originally recorded in 1957 by Danny and the Juniors, for
example, was performed at the Woodstock Festival in 1969 by Shanana, an ensemble
that spoofed or ridiculed earlier pop-music styles. The Beatles later retro numbers, on
the other hand, were original compositions. Furthermore, both When Im Sixty-Four
and Honey Pie dealt with more-or-less realistic scenes from everyday British life:
saving money toward retirement, for instance, or travelling to the United States to
make good as a movie star. American rock, on the other hand, has always been
almost entirely about two subjects: sex and drugs. At the Hop, is about little else
except teenage love. So has most British rock, although albums like Dark Side of the
Moon have dealt with other, quite different issues as well.

3.5 Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds (1967)

One of the Beatles best-known songs, Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds is an
excellent example of psychedelic or acid rock. The first letters of Lucy, Sky, and
Diamonds spell out LSD. For this reason the song has been understood as referring
to the sensory distortion associated with lysergic acid diethylamide, a powerful and
often dangerous hallucinogenic. This drug was often referred to as LSD or acid by
1960s hippies and other drug users. The lyrics to Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds
suggest an acid trip or distorted sensory experience; they refer to tangerine trees,
marmalade skies, rocking-horse people, plasticine porters with looking-glass
ties, and other bits of surreal fancy. Lennon claimed that his young son Julian had
painted a picture in school of a girl called Lucy in a sky full of diamonds, and that the
song was inspired by that picture. Perhaps. Or perhaps the picture was merely a way of
imbuing the songs lyrics with a double meaning: to take acid, according to some
people, is to become like a little child looking with wonder at the world for the very
first time. This interpretation has also been employed to link both LSD as a substance

18
and the Beatles song about that substance (if, indeed, it is about it), with Jesus call
to his disciples to become as little children before entering the Kingdom of Heaven.
Certain some 1960s music fans accepted Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds as a
spiritual statement.

In one respect, Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds is quite simple: the refrain on
the songs title repeats the words over and over, always accompanied by a simple G
Major / C Major / D Major (I-IV-V) progression in the key of G Major. This repetition
is almost hypnotic in its sameness. In other respects the song is quite sophisticated.
The use of studio recording techniques, especially the heavy reverb and double-
tracking applied to Lennons vocal solo, creates a wavy, heard-through-water vocal
effect that suggests the unreality of the various people and objects seen in the lyrics.
More interesting, perhaps, are shifts between meter, employed for the songs verses,
and meter, employed for its chorus or refrain. The heavy drum beats that establish
the rhythm of the songs refrain seem to move the music from a dreamier world into
a more emphatic but also hypnotically repetitive one. Most of these devices were used
by other acid rockers during the later 1960s and early 1970s.

In at least one way, however, Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds is more
sophisticated than other acid-rock numbers. The entire song is built upon a harmonic
pattern similar to patterns elaborated upon in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century
chaconnes by Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) and his contemporaries. This
pattern, which modulates from A Major to G Major and back, was identified by critic
Alan Pollack as

A F B C G D A
A: I VI III ------------------- IV I
B (V I)
G ( III IV I V)

19
(A similar diagram appears in Allen Moores book on Sgt. Peppers, one of a large
number of books devoted primarily or exclusively to this groundbreaking album.) In
this pattern, the refrain is identified as G D(I-V in G Major). Whatever the origins
of this pattern, it helps create a tape-loop effect as the song is repeated over and over
again. The pattern thus gives this famous Beatles number harmonic coherence as well
as sameness of a special kind.

One other aspect of Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds is characteristic of many
later Beatles numbers as well as of some other of their acid songs, including
Strawberry Fields Forever. This is the use of Indian instruments. In Lucy the
instrument of choice is the tambura; in Strawberry Fields it is either the sitar or the
swarmandel or both. (Harrison played all of these exotic instruments.) Still other,
mostly Western instruments employed in later Beatles songs include the piccolo
trumpet (together, in the coda of All You Need is Love from Magical Mystery Tour,
with a quotation from Bachs Brandenburg Concerto No. 2), the ondioline (an
electronic keyboard instrument that produced the unusual oboe-like sound in Baby
You're a Rich Man, also from Magical Mystery Tour), the Lowery electric organ
(played by McCartney in Lucy so as to sound like a celeste) and many other
numbers. The Indian instruments especially, when linked with sonic distortion, suggest
an exotic and timeless spirituality that calls to mind the Beatles search for truth with
the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi during a trip they made to Rishikesh, India, and elsewhere
in 1967.

20
4 The Beatles: Concluding Observations
Throughout their career, the Beatles were associated as composers and
performers with musical devices infrequently or never used by other rock musicians.
In their earliest recordings, for example, they employed modal harmonies and close
harmony featuring open fourths and fifths, and they frequently used the harmonica as a
descant or contrapuntal instrument. Until the mid-1960s, in fact, they covered songs
created by others, even as they increasingly performed songs of their own creation. By
1965 they had begun experimenting with shifting meters, descending bass lines,
stepwise harmonic progressions, and chords previous unheard in rock music (including
the VII). Later they introduced both classical and Indian instruments, experimented
with sound effects of various kinds, and employed nostalgic, political, and psychedelic
lyrics of innovative kinds. At the same time they continued to borrow sounds
originally associated with skiffle, doo-wop, and rock n roll as well as a host of other
pop styles.

As they developed, especially in the recording studio, the Beatles gradually

replaced playful pop with more serious, experimental rock. What they produced was
far more variegated than anything produced by other 1960s performers. Unlike Elvis
Presley, for example, who almost always sang about adult sexual excitement or
abandonment, the Beatlesespecially in their earlier yearssang about reciprocated
youthful love, often between men and women of the British working class. Later,
however, the Beatles increasingly addressed disaffected young people: those who
disagreed with the social, sexual, and political values of their parents. At the same time,
the Beatles drew directly on middle-class English values. Among their most successful
songs are Penny Lane, a fanciful description of live in a suburban Liverpool street,
and Strawberry Fields Forever, the title of which refers to a Salvation Army
Childrens Home located around the corner from Lennons boyhood home in
Liverpools Woolton suburb. The monument erected in Manhattans Central Park to

21
commemorate Lennons murder in December 1980 is known as the Strawberry Fields
Memorial. Even the Mixolydian figures in Love Me Do may derive from Celtic folk
music heard by Lennon and McCartney as children, rather than from other and more
classical sources.

Throughout his career Elvis sported more or less the same long hair and
sideburns, although the costumes he wore during the later 1960s and 1970s became
increasingly garish. The Beatles began as average Liverpudlian working-class teens
who appeared on stage during the early 1960s in sports jackets and ties, orin
imitation of Elvisin leather jackets and longer hair. By 1968, however, every Beatle
had been photographed in costumes ranging from military uniforms to tie-dyed
hippie shirts, love beads, and moustaches or beards. These last facts would be
unimportant without the music they produced, but the clothes and trinkets they wore
eventually contributed to that musics popularity and to its association with 1967s
Summer of Love (when Sgt. Peppers was released) and with psychedelic art.
Eventually, in fact, Yellow Submarine became the title of an animated motion
picture (1969) featuring the Beatles in their most colourful outfits. Yet the Beatles
never altogether gave in to faddishness. Abbey Road, their last original album,
included such traditional love songs as Here Comes the Sun, while traditional
hard-rocking, rhythm-and-blues sounds influenced songs such as Come Together. In
fact, the Beatles in certain respectsespecially musicallyappeared to become
somewhat more mainstream as their career neared its end. Songs like Ob-La-Di Ob-
La-Da from their later years is all about the joys of conventional married life. It is
possible to consider the song ironic rather than straightforward, but other of their
songs also extol everyday 1960s British life.

22
5 Listening materials
All of the recordings by the Beatles mentioned in this essay, with only one
important exception Honey Pie from The Beatles (also known as the White
Album)can be found on the anthologies identified below. Several other Beatles
songs mentioned in passing, including Till There Was You, also are not included in
these anthologies:

The Beatles / 1962-1966 (EMI 0777 7 97036-37 2).

The Beatles / 1967-1970 (EMI 0777 7 97039-40 2).

6 Musical Scores
Every song ever recorded by the Beatles, at least after Love Me Do, their first
hit, is available in print, transcribed by Tersuya Fujita and several other Japanese
musicians, as The Beatles Complete Scores (Hal Leonard Corporation 1989).

23
7 Reading List
Useful and easy to read books and websites devoted to the Beatles and
especially to their musical styles include the following:

McKeen, William. The Beatles: A Bio-Bibliography (Westport, CT 1989). Summarises

the Fab Fours career and identifies almost everything of importance written
about them prior to the late 1980s. Easy to read and use.

Mellers, Winfred. Twilight of the Gods: The Beatles in Retrospect (London 1973). A
useful summary of the Beatles musical career, complete with detailed
examples and explanations.

Lewisohn, Mark. The Complete Beatles Recording Sessions (London 1988). Identifies
not only every song the Beatles ever recorded, but provides dates and details
about alternate recordings, outtakes, and discarded recorded material.

Pollack, Alan W. Notes on Series. Identifies and describes in musical terms every
Beatles song, original or covered, and provides information about its key,
instrumentation, harmony, layout, recording history, etc., etc. Perhaps the best
place to go for information about individual Beatles numbers. Published in
conjunction with <www.soundscapes.info>, an ezine (or on-line magazine).
Available on-line at
http://www.icce.rug.nl/~soundscapes/DATABASES/AWP/awp-
notes_on.shtml>

24
8 References for Further Study
Hundreds of books and articles about Beatles as musicians have appeared in
print. These do not include biographies of the band as well as individual band
members, histories of their concert tours, accounts of their influences on popular
culture, and so on. Many of them are quite technical. The following volumes are
devoted to Beatles basics not discussed in the selections identified above:

Braun, Michael. Love Me Do: The Beatles Progress (Harmondsworth 1962; reprinted
1995). A readable and informative discussion of the Beatles early career and
recordings.

Coleman, Ray. John Winston Lennon, 19401966 and John Ono Lennon, 19671980
(both London 1984). A carefully researched and written biography of the
individual still considered by many critics to have been the most important
Beatle.

Davies, Hunter. The Beatles: The Authorised Biography (London 1968; 3rd edition
1992). The best general introduction to the Beatles career and evolution as
composer-performers.

Everett, Walter. The Beatles as Musicians: The Quarry Men through Rubber Soul
(Oxford University Press 2001). Possibly the best discussion of individual early
Beatles numbers in terms of their links with later recordings. Examines a host
of musical devices in detail; concludes with a useful bibliography.

Martin, George with William Pearson. Summer of Love: The Making of Sgt. Pepper
(London 1994). How it all began, with personal reminiscences and observations
about the Beatles impact on 1960s social and cultural attitudes.

25
Moore, Allan F. The Beatles: Sgt. Peppers Lonely Hearts Club Band (Cambridge
University Press 1997). A brief but sophisticated survey of opinions about this
album, together with careful musical discussions of each of its numbers.

Norman, Philip. Shout! The Beatles in their Generation (London 1982). Another
useful Beatles survey volume that includes information about the 1960s, acid
rock, and so on.

Salewicz, Chris. McCartney (New York 1986). A biography up to the later 1980s of
Lennons songwriting partner and possibly the most innovative Beatle in terms
of musical style.

26
 Appendix
Glossary

Each of the terms defined below appears in either or both of the chapters on Elvis and
the Beatles.

VII: in any major or minor key, a major triad built upon the lowered seventh degree
(i.e., leading tone) in that key. Virtually unknown in pop music prior to the
Beatles.
12-bar blues: the standard blues chorus. Harmonically it consists of: I-I7 / IV7-I / V7-
(IV7)-I. Verbally, it usually consists of three lines of text, the first two similar or
identical to each other. Hound Dog is a good example of a 12-bar blues.
16-bar chorus: a musical period consisting of four 4-bar phrases in an AABA (in the
case of Its Now or Never, AA1BA2). A common layout for pop songs,
especially when preceded or followed by a verse.
32-bar chorus: a musical period consisting of four 8-bar phrases in an AABA
configuration. The most common layout for pop songs prior to rock n roll.
45rpm (also 45s): 45 revolutions per minute. The speed of most pop singles (7-inch
phonorecords) manufactured during the 1950s and 1960s.
78rpm (also 78s): 78 revolutions per minute. The speed of most albums (12-inch
phonorecords) manufactured between the late 1910s and the late 1940s. See
also LP.

accento: a Baroque vocal ornament in which a melodic line begins on a higher tone
before dropping to the adjacent lower tone. Yesterday by the Beatles begins
with an accento on the first syllable of the title word.
acid trip: the experience a man or woman undergoes after taking LSD.
acid rock (also acid rocker): a style of late 1960s music that artistically simulates or at
least refers to LSD and acid trips. Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds is an
example of acid rock; as its composers and performers, the Beatles could be
said to have been acid rockersbut only in relation to songs of precisely that
kind.

27
acoustic: without electrical amplification. Originally, all guitars were acoustic
instruments.
added ninth: a note nine steps above the root of a given triad and added to that triad. A
C-Major chord with an added ninth would consist of the notes C, E, G, and D a
fifth above the preceding G.
added second: a note one step above the root of a given triad and added to that triad. A
C-Major chord with an added second would consist of the notes C, D, E, and G.
added seventh: a note seven steps above the root of a given triad and added to that
triad. A C-Major chord with an added major seventh would consist of the notes
C, E, G, and B. A similar chord with an added minor seventh would consist of
C, E, G, and B .
added thirteenth: a note thirteen steps above the root of a given triad and added to that
triad. A C-Major chord with an added thirteenth would consist of the notes C, E,
G, and F a seventh above the preceding A.
air: vocal silences in pop songs. Elvis left little air in most of his recordings, while the
Beatles left more in many of their skiffle numbers.
album: a synonym for LP. See also CD.
amplification: electronic enhancement or magnification of sound. See also acoustic.
arrangement: a version of a musical composition to be performed for a certain
collection of instrumental and vocal forces. A song with guitar accompaniment,
for example, might be arranged for brass band.
art song: a song composed by a classical or romantic European or European-American
master. Also, a song that aspires to similar refinement of musical style. Some
Beatles songs have been called art songs.
asymmetric melodic structure: any melodic structure composed of phrases of
dissimilar lengths. Instead, of a 32-bar chorus, for example, a melodic period
consisting of two 7-bar and two 9-bar phrases.

backup: in popular music, a collective term for instrumental and/or vocal

accompaniment. One vocalist, for example, sings the lead and the others
back her up with non-melodic material.

28
ballad: in popular music, a slower, more sentimental, and more tuneful song. Love
Me Tender and Yesterday are ballads, whereas Hound Dog and Taxman
are not.
baritone: in vocal music, the male voice with a range lying somewhat below that of a
tenor and somewhat above that of a bass. Also, the range of such a voice. Elvis
Presley sang baritone.
bars: measures of music. Every melodic phrase or compositional passage is composed
of one or more bars.
bass: in some pop ensembles as in classical European orchestral music, a low-pitched,
four-string member of the viol family. Bill Black played the bass in some of
Elvis Presleys early recordings. See also bass guitar below.
bass guitar: an electric instrument employed by rock musicians especially to support
individual notes in harmonic progressions and to add counterpoint to otherwise
chordal musical structures. In both respects, the bass guitar functions in ways
similar to the solo continuo instrument (cello or viola da gamba) employed in
Baroque music.
battery: another name for percussion instruments as a group. In popular music, a
battery consisting of one or more snare drums, one or more cymbals, and a bass
drum is more often referred to as a set or kit.
Beatlemania: the enthusiasm expressed by admirers of the Beatles especially during
the early and mid-1960s. Often reserved for describing the behaviour of
groupies at concerts and other personal encounters.
bel canto: Italian for beautiful voice or beautiful singing. Mostly used in
conjunction with Italian opera, although some pop singers (Elvis Presley, Mario
Lanza, etc.) also sang bel canto effectively.
Black: African American. Used to describe certain musical styles as well as the people
who invented them.
blue notes: flatted or lowered notes employed in blues, jazz, and other pop forms.
Usually refers to the third, fifth, and seventh degrees of the musical scale.
blues: a Black musical form of expression with limited vocal and harmonic range but
considerable expressive power. See 12-bar blues, rhythm and blues, and
rock n roll.

29
break: see instrumental break.
bridge: in a standard 32-bar or AABA tune, the third or B 8-bar phrase. Also the
instrumental solo that separates one verse, stanza, or chorus from another.
British Invasion: during the early 1960s, the introduction of pop music and musicians
from England, either in person or by way of recordings, into the United States.
The success of the Beatles during their 1964 American tour contributed
enormously to the overall impact of the British Invasion.
Broadway show tune: any song written for one or more musical comedies performed
in theatres located on or close to Broadway in midtown Manhattan. Also: songs
similar in style to such tunes.

call and response: musical or other situations in which one voice or voices are
answered by a different voice or voices. Associated originally with gospel.
calliope: a kind of organ, formerly steam-powered but now usually electric. Associated
with circuses, carnivals, and other outdoor European and American
entertainments. Calliopes produce harsh, metallic musical sounds.
campy (also camp): playful in a sarcastic, exaggerated manner.
CD: a common abbreviation for compact disk, a form of commercial digitalised
musical recording. See also album and LP.
celeste (also celesta): a small keyboard instrument outfitted with metal bars that
produce bell-like sounds when struck. Unknown in Western music until the
1890s, when Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky employed it in his Nutcracker ballet.
chaconne: a variation form in which a single chord progression defines each in a series
of subsequent statements or variations.
chest voice: singing with the support of the diaphragm. Chest voice employed in bel
canto and other forms of classical vocal music as well as in Broadway musical
comedy.
chorus: in popular music, the material that follows one or more verses. See also 32-
bar chorus and refrain.
chromatic (also chromatic inflection): moving melodically by half instead of whole
steps. Also, chords containing one or more notes bearing sharps or flats.
Sometimes considered the opposite of diatonic.

30
close harmony: ensemble singing based on triads, parallel thirds and sixths, and other
closer intervals and chords. Originally a doo-wop and gospel term.
club: in popular music, a place of entertainment where pop music can be heard, often
live. The Beatles performed in Hamburg and Liverpool clubs during the very
early 1960s.
clustered upbeat: one or more notes or syllables that function together in anticipation
of a downbeat that begins a subsequent measure or section of music.
coda: Italian for tail. Any passage of music appended to the end of a longer
composition.
concept album: an LP or CD devoted to a single idea, story, or theme. Unlike most
albums, concept albums are created as compositional wholes. Sgt. Peppers
Lonely Hearts Club Band remains the most famous concept album in history.
coon shouter: a singer, Black or White, who vigorously sings or even shouts out the
lyrics to certain kinds of African American music.
count-off (also count down): The numbers spoken to establish the tempo of a pop song
immediately before that song begins.
counter-culture: collectively, people with eccentric attitudes or habits. Also, the values
of such people. In 1960s America, this term was applied mostly to anti-Vietnam
War protestors and other individuals who disagreed with certain commonly
held American political, social, and cultural values.
country (also country-western): hillbilly music. Country musical ensembles often
include banjos and mandolins as well as guitars.
cover: to perform or record a song composed by someone else.

Deep South (sometimes South): in the United States, the geo-political and cultural area
south of the so-called Mason-Dixon Line and east of Texas. This area includes
the states of Florida, Kentucky, North and South Carolina, Tennessee, and
Virginia, but the term Deep South is sometimes reserved especially for
Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas.
distortion: any form of alteration to a pre-existing or pure musical sound. Reverb,
wobble, and amplification are all forms of electronic distortion. Forms of

31
 acoustic distortion are produced by mutes (for brass instruments) and pieces of
metal (for prepared pianos).
dominant: the fifth degree of a scale, or a chord built on such a note. In C Major, G is
the dominant note, a G-Major triad the dominant chord.
doo-wop: a kind of Black vocal music, often sung without musical accompaniment
and in close harmony.
double: to perform on more than one instrument or sing more than one part. A guitarist,
for example, may also be able to double as a percussionist.
double-track: to record the same piece of music twice, then play back both recordings
at more or less the same time. After being double-tracked, singers such as Elvis
Presley or Paul McCartney can sing with themselves.
downbeat: the first beat of a given melodic phrase, musical passage, or composition.

Elvis impersonator: a singer or actor who dresses up and pretends to be Elvis Presley.

fadeout: to gradually reduce the volume of a musical passage, either by playing or

singing it more and more softly, or by decreasing its volume electronically.
Also: the conclusions of many pop songs in which the music gradually fades
out, becomes too soft to be heard.
falsetto: a synonym for head voice. To sing without the support of the diaphragm and
especially to sign very high notes without such support.
folk music (also folk song): any musical statement that sounds as if it were
traditional or ethnic in origin. Sometimes used in opposition to classical or
popular as a form of musical expression or culture.
Folk Revival: a movement throughout Europe and North America, began as early as
the 1890s but especially widespread during the 1940s and 1950s, when both
authentic and simulated folk songs were performed as entertainments. Bob
Dylan began his career in the early 1960s as one of the last but most influential
Folk-Revival singer-songwriters.
fusion (also fusion music): in popular music, rock combined with jazz, or sometimes
with folk. Many fusion bands include trumpets, trombones, saxophones, and
other jazz instruments as well as electric guitars and other rock instruments.

32
glam rock: from glamour. In popular music, a form of rock largely defined by the
elaborate costumes and makeup worn by its performers. Elvis came close near
the end of his career to appearing in public as a glam rocker.
gospel: in music, certain performing traditions and tunes associated with American
religious music and especially with African American Protestantism. Gospel
singers often improvise on familiar melodies, ornamenting them elaborately.
They also sometimes sing in close harmony; in this respect, gospel resembles
doo-wop.
goth (or Goth style): in popular music, rockers who dress in black costumes made of
leather and wear heavy chains as ornaments or belts, outrageous makeup, facial
piercings, etc.
Grand Ole Opry: an American radio programme broadcast every week from Nashville,
Tennessee, since 1925. As an institution, the Opry has more or less defined
hillbilly, rockabilly, and country-western musical styles for post-World War II
audiences.
groove: see rock groove.
groupies: musical camp followers. Often used to refer to young women who follow
rock musicians, attend their concerts, and otherwise consort with them.
Occasionally used to refer to young men who do similar things.

harmonica: a small, hand-held mouth organ. In popular music, harmonicas are

associated especially with folk, hillbilly, and skiffle.
head voice: see falsetto.
hillbilly: residents, Black or White, of Americas eastern mountains. Also the music
made by those residents, either in reality or as simulated in performances and
recordings. Hillbilly music is generally considered low-class entertainment,
often home-made. In fact, much of it derives from Scots-Irish immigrants to
Appalachia as well as from Black musical sources. Characteristic hillbilly
instruments include the jug, the banjo, and the washboard bass.
hippies: young people in 1960s America who used LSD, wore psychedelic clothing,
lived together in experimental communities, etc. Often used as an insult.

33
honky-tonk (also honky-tonk piano): a tinny piano sound associated with bars and
other low institutions of American cities and towns, as opposed to rural
hillbilly music. Honky-tonk piano refers not merely to poorly tuned upright
pianos played in such places, but to the kind of music often played on them.
hook: a musical phrase or sound placed near the beginning of a song to attract
attention.

instrumental break: see break.

ironic commentary (also ironic or irony): to comment on or present anything in a self-
conscious and often critical manner.

jam session: an informal and private rehearsal or performance, as opposed to a public

concert.
jobber: see club.

label: the name a recording company uses to market music: Sun, Parlophone, Motown,
etc.
leading tone: the tone lying immediately below the tonic of any scale. In C Major, B is
the leading tone.
Lieder: German for songs (the singular is Lied). The art songs composed in
Germany especially during the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
Schubert and Mahler were among the most famous Lieder composers.
LP: an abbreviation for long-playing. 12-inch, 33rpm phonorecords are LPs. Today
sometimes also used for CDs.
LSD: an abbreviation for lysergic acid diethylamide, also known as acid, a powerful
and dangerous hallucinogenic
lyrics: the words of a song, as opposed to its music.

Mandolin: a small, guitar-like instrument featured in many country-western ensembles.

34
mediant progression: an harmonic progression by thirds. In C Major, a mediant
progression might be from I-III (C Major to E Major), or from I-iii (C Major to
E minor).
melody (also melodic structure): a tune, usually consisting of several phrases
organised into one or more periods. The melody of Michelle is the part sung
by McCartney on Rubber Soul.
Mersey sound: refers not only to songs written or performed in Liverpool (located on
the Mersey River), but to songs by Liverpool artists that combined elements of
folk, jazz, and rock n roll. Early Beatles numbers, including Love Me Do,
are examples of the Mersey sound.
Mixolydian: in music, one of the eight Medieval church modes or scale patterns. The
ascending Mixolydian scale ends with a whole step instead of a half step (G
A B C D E F G), whereas the standard major scale ends with a half
step (G A B C D E F G).
modal harmony: harmony based on scales other than those identical in structure to
standard major and minor scales. In a Mixolydian harmonic passage, for
example, the minor triad D/F/A would precede the major G/B/D to form a
modal dominant-tonic cadence (v-I).
Motown (also Motown sound): the label distributed by the Motown Recording
Corporation, as well as the music produced and marketed as Motown. Many
Motown artists performed together in small groups, singing and playing rock or
doo-wop numbers characterised by lively rhythmic figures and distinctive
structural patterns.
music-hall songs: in popular music, topical and occasionally risqu songs associated
with lower-class theatrical entertainment in England between the later
nineteenth century and the 1950s.
musical device: any definable way of momentarily manipulating musical material.
Counterpoint is a musical device; so is reverb; so is chromatic harmony.
Sometimes referred to disparagingly as gimmicks.
musique concrte: French for hard (i.e., non-musical) music. Any natural sound
recorded and introduced into an artificial musical composition. The airplane
noises at the beginning of the Beatles Back in the USSR are examples of
musique concrte.

35
ninth: see added ninth.
North: in the United States, the geo-political and cultural area north of the so-called
Mason-Dixon Line. Also, any place outside the South, especially the Deep
South. Often used in reference to such urban areas as Manhattan, Boston,
Chicago, etc.

oblique counterpoint: a kind of contrapuntal motion in which one voice or part

remains fixed on a given note while another moves away from that note.
Oblique counterpoint was originally employed in Medieval music, especially in
organum; for this reason it often sounds antique or exotic, especially when
used in popular music.
ondioline: a monophonic vacuum tube instrument composed of a single oscillator and
a small eight-octave touch sensitive keyboard. Uncommon.
open fourths, fifths (also parallel fourths, fifths): notes sung or played a fourth or fifth
apart, without the addition of thirds or other musical intervals. In C Major, the
notes D/A moving directly to the notes E/B would be considered parallel fifths.
ornament, ornamented: in music, additional or extraneous notes added to a familiar
tune or pre-existing composition. An accento is an ornament; so are passing
notes used to link portions of existing melodies.

parallel harmony: chords moving in parallel motion. In C Major, the triad C/E/G
moving directly to the triad D/F/A would be considered parallel harmonies.
parallel thirds: voices or parts moving together at the interval of a third. In C Major,
the pair C/E moving directly to the pair D/F would be considered parallel thirds.
parody: a word with several somewhat different meanings. To parody something
often means simply to ridicule it. At the same time, many musical parodies
consist of pre-existing material reworked into new forms. First used as a
musical term to define the parody masses and motets of Renaissance Europe, in
which pre-existing compositions were recomposed to serve new musical and
cultural purposes. Back in the USSR utilises both kinds of parody: it pokes

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 fun at California Girls, a Beach Boys song, even as it incorporates part of the
song within its own melodic structure.
pastiche: any cultural artifact composed of fragments or sections in different, often
extremely different styles.
period (also musical period): a group of phrases forming a complete melodic statement.
One form of musical period is the 32-bar chorus. Another is the 12-bar blues.
persona: from the Latin for mask. A persona is the individual one shows the outside
world, as opposed to ones inner self. Elvis Presleys stage persona was that of
a vibrant, playful, occasionally cruel singer. In his private life, by contrast,
Elvis was often sorrowful, angry, or generous as a son, friend, or business
associate.
phonorecord: a disk on which music or other sounds are recorded acoustically rather
than digitally. LPs, 45s, and 78s are all phonorecords, whereas CDs are digital
recordings.
piccolo trumpet: a small trumpet used today mostly in performing Baroque music.
plagal cadence: a IV-I rather than V-I chord progression. Often associated with
religious music, especially hymns.
popping: repeating one note over and over, often quickly. A term used in conjunction
with Irish and Irish-American folk music as well as pop songs of certain kinds.
pre-recorded sound: see musique concrte.
psychedelic: see LSD, acid, acid trip, etc.
psychedelic art: paintings or other visual forms of expression associated with LSD.
Yellow Submarine (1969), an animated movie based on Beatles songs, features
illustrations made by Peter Max, a 1960s painter and illustrator.
punk rock (also punk rocker): a form of music characterised by extreme harmonic and
melodic simplicity, high electrically amplified volume, and social protest or
anger. Punk began in the early 1970s; the term is often used to refer to such
British bands as the Sex Pistols.

radio DJ: an abbreviation for disk jockey. A man or woman who plays recordings (or
disks) during radio broadcasts. A term associated mostly with popular music in
1950s and 1960s America.

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raga: in North Indian music, any exotic scale as well as the music constructed using
such a scale. Ragas are modes, each with its own tuning system and cultural
associations.
race music: in America and especially in the Deep South, anything composed or
performed by African Americans or suggestive of them. Rhythm and blues was
race music until Elvis and other White (and Black) performers transformed it
into rock n roll.
receive (also reception): in aesthetics, the opinions expressed about a given individual,
art work, or artistic style. Elvis was initially received as a sexual icon; later, the
reception granted him by music-lovers also embraced his religious faith and
family values.
refrain: a melodic statement that reappears anywhere in a song, often between or after
the chorus. Also used by some people as a synonym for chorus.
retro: not merely old-fashioned, but backward-looking. Retro art and music are
deliberately and often playfully antique. Honey Pie is a retro song rather than
an actual example of 1920s popular music.
reverb: an abbreviation of reverberation. In popular music, the result of electronic
manipulation that makes music sound larger or more distant, and to create
echo-like effects.
rhythm and blues: a Black term for rock n roll. Also rock n roll as performed by
Black artists.
rock (also rock music): a difficult term to define. Today, virtually a synonym for
popular music. In the 1960s, the term rock was often used to distinguish the
more complex blend of musical styles and sound effects created by artists such
as the Beatles from that of the less complex blend of styles and effects
employed by artists such as Elvis Presley.
rock groove: any continuous syncopated rhythmic accompaniment in rock n roll or
related musical idioms. Without a groove or backbeat, at least until the Beatles
transformed popular music, any given song cannot possibly be rock.
rockabilly: a blend of rock n roll and hillbilly musical styles and devices. Many
rockabilly bands, for example, employ banjos or pianos as well as guitars and
drums.

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rock n roll: a White term for rhythm and blues. Also, rhythm and blues as performed
mostly by White artists. This term is sometimes also used to distinguish the
more authentic and vital recordings of Elvis and Chuck Berry from the rock
and roll of later, more commercialised and less exciting artists and ensembles,
including Elvis impersonator Ricky Nelson.

second: see added second.

secondary dominant: harmonically, the dominant of a dominant (or other chord) in any
key. In C Major, a D-Major triad would be considered the dominant of G Major,
itself the dominant of the home key.
set: see battery.
seventh: see added seventh.
single: a 45rmp recording. Sales information for many of the songs recorded by Elvis
Presley and by the Beatles before 1965 appeared on singles charts; to have a
hit, Elvis or the Beatles would need to rank near the top of such charts.
sitar: a large Indian lute-like instrument outfitted with sympathetic strings and
movable frets.
skiffle: a musical style that originated in both Black and White circles and employed
folk sounds as well as instruments such as the harmonica. The Beatles began as
skiffle artists.
song cycle: a carefully arranged and integrated collection of songs, often one that tells
a story or makes a particularly consistent musical statement. A term used
mostly in connection with certain collections of Lieder by classical composers
such as Schubert. Sgt. Peppers has often been considered a song cycle rather
than a mere collection of songs.
soundtrack album: any LP or CD that contains the music from a particular musical
comedy or motion picture.
South: see Deep South.
spliced-in: an antique term for cutting and pasting one piece of recorded magnetic tape
into another piece. Anything added electronically or digitally to a pre-existing
musical recording. Some of the ship and water sounds used in Yellow
Submarine were spliced into the music the Beatles themselves sang and played.

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steel guitar: an amplified guitar often played lying on a table instead of held in the
hands. Its sound is often associated with hillbilly or rockabilly music.
stepwise chord progression: a progression, say, from I-II or from II-III in a given key.
stylistic gestures: any device employed in part (as opposed to all) of a musical
composition.
subdominant: the fourth degree of a major or minor scale. Also, any triad built on that
scale degree. With regard to some Beatles songs, see also substitute chord
below.
substitute chord: a chord used to function as another. Often the minor submediant triad
is used as a substitute for the dominant triad in pop music.
subtext: something suggested but not explicitly explained. One possible subtext for the
lyrics to Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds is an acid trip.
Summer of Love: a term invented by Time magazine to define the summer of 1967 in
terms of LSD, and San Franciscos Haight-Ashbury residential district, where
many hippies lived that year in counter-cultural communities. The most famous
musical product of or associated with the Summer of Love was Sgt. Peppers.
surreal: fantastic, dreamlike.
swarmandel: a kind of Indian harp. Uncommon in Western music.

tambura (or tamboura): a small lute-like instrument from India. Similar instruments,
including the tamburitza from the Balkans, can be found in countries around the
world.
tape loop: originally a piece of magnetic recording tape spliced to itself so that it could
play endlessly without having to be rewound. Anything musical fragment or
sound played over and over in a mechanical manner.
three-chord songs (also: three-chord players): songs employing only tonic,
subdominant, and dominant (I / IV / V) chords. Often used to refer to rock n
roll music and the individuals who perform it.
thirteenth: see added thirteenth.
tipping: moving between two adjacent notes, often rapidly. See also popping.
tonic: the first degree of a major or minor scale.

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topical song: a song with lyrics that discuss or refer to a current event or situation.
Taxman is a topical song insofar as it refers to the British system of taxation,
actual politicians involved with that system (including former Prime Minister
Wilson), etc.
transposition: to move a musical statement from one key to another.

vamp: in popular music, a short, repeatable musical figure usually placed at the end of
a songs introduction.
vaudeville: a form of entertainment, usually a variety show, popular throughout late
nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Europe. Vaudeville songs were pop
songs associated with such shows.
verse: in popular music, either: a) the lyrics of a song; or b) the melodic period that
precedes or follows the chorus or refrain.
vocal break: the point in any singers range above which he or she cannot sing using
chest voice. Shifting quickly between chest and head voice (or falsetto)
produces an effect known as yodelling.
vocal range: the range, from lowest to highest, that a given singer can sing. Sometimes

restricted to chest voice.

washboard bass: a primitive instrument that lends rhythmic support in skiffle and
hillbilly ensembles. Occasionally actually fashioned from a washboard, a
device used for scrubbing clothes to get them clean.
White: Caucasian American. See also Black.

yodel: see vocal break.

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