India-brief history of Indian constitution

The Constitution of India came into force on 26 January 1950. Since then, the day is celebrated
as Republic Day. However, before 1950, 26 January was called Independence Day. Since 26
January 1930, it was the day on which thousands of people, in villages, in mohallas, in towns, in
small and big groups would take the independence pledge, committing themselves to the
complete independence of India from British rule. It was only fitting that the new republic should
come into being on that day, marking from its very inception the continuity between the struggle
for independence and the adoption of the Constitution that made India a Republic.

The process of the evolution of the Constitution began many decades before 26 January 1950
and has continued unabated since. Its origins lie deeply embedded in the struggle for
independence from Britain and in the movements for responsible and constitutional government
in the princely states.

On 19 February 1946, the British government declared that they were sending a Cabinet Mission
to India to resolve the whole issue of freedom and constitution making. The Cabinet Mission,
which arrived in India on 24 March 1946, held prolonged discussions with Indian leaders. On 16
May 1946, having failed to secure an agreement, it announced a scheme of its own. It recognized
that the best way of setting up a constitution-making machinery would 'be by election based on
adult franchise; but any attempt to introduce such a step now would lead to a wholly
unacceptable delay in the formulation of the new constitution. Therefore, it was decided that the
newly-elected legislative assemblies of the provinces were to elect the members of the
Constituent Assembly on the basis of one representative for roughly one million of the
population. The Sikh and Muslim legislators were to elect their quota based on their population.

It was only after this process had been completed that the representatives of all the provinces and
those of the princely states were to meet again to settle the Constitution of the Union. The
Congress responded to the Cabinet Mission scheme by pointing out that in its view the
Constituent Assembly, once it came into being, would be sovereign. It would have the right to
accept or reject the Cabinet Mission's proposals on specifics.

The Constituent Assembly was to have 389 members. Of these, 296 were to be from British
India and 93 from the princely Indian states. Initially, however, the Constituent Assembly
comprised only of members from British India. Elections of these were held in July-August
1946. Of the 210 seats in the general category. Congress won 199. It also won 3 out of the 4 Sikh
seats from Punjab. The Congress also won 3 of the 78 Muslim seats and the 3 seats from Coorg,
Ajmer-Merwara, and Delhi. The total Congress tally was 208. The Muslim League won 73 out of
the 78 Muslim seats.

At 11 a.m., on 9 December 1946, the Constituent Assembly of India began its first session. For
all practical purposes, the chronicle of independent India began on that historic day.
Independence was now a matter of dates

Framing Features Fundamental Rights

1. Right to Equality
2. Right to Freedom
3. Right against Exploitation
4. Right to Freedom of Religion
5. Cultural and Educational Rights
6. Right to Constitutional Remedies

Duties:-
The Fundamental Duties of citizens were added to the Constitution by the 42nd
Amendment in 1976, upon the recommendations of the Swaran Singh Committee that was
constituted by the government earlier that year.[18][104] Originally ten in number, the
Fundamental Duties were increased to eleven by the 86th Amendment in 2002, which
added a duty on every parent or guardian to ensure that their child or ward was provided
opportunities for education between the ages of six and fourteen years.[57] The other
Fundamental Duties obligate all citizens to respect the national symbols of India, including
the Constitution, to cherish its heritage, preserve its composite culture and assist in its
defense. They also obligate all Indians to promote the spirit of common brotherhood,
protect the environment and public property, develop scientific temper, abjure violence,
and strive towards excellence in all spheres of life.

The Fundamental Duties noted in the constitution are as follows:

To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National
Flag and the National Anthem;

To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for
freedom;

To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;

To defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so;

To promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people
of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; to
renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women;
 To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture; to protect and
improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to
have compassion for living creatures;

To develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform;

To safeguard public property and to abjure violence;

To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so

that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement;

Who is a parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education to his child or

ward, as the case may be, between the age of six to fourteen years(this fundamental
duty has been added by 86th constitutional amendment in 2002)

Directive Principles of State Policy

The Directive Principles of State Policy, embodied in Part IV of the Constitution, are
directions given to the state to guide the establishment of an economic and social
democracy, as proposed by the Preamble.[81] They set forth the humanitarian and socialist
instructions that were the aim of social revolution envisaged in India by the Constituent
Assembly.[82] The state is expected to keep these principles in mind while framing laws and
policies, even though they are non-justiciable in nature. The Directive Principles may be
classified under the following categories: ideals that the state ought to strive towards
achieving; directions for the exercise of legislative and executive power; and rights of the
citizens which the State must aim towards securingDespite being non-justiciable, the
Directive Principles act as a check on the state; theorised as a yardstick in the hands of the
electorate and the opposition to measure the performance of a government at the time of an
election.[83] Article 37, while stating that the Directive Principles are not enforceable in any
court of law, declares them to be "fundamental to the governance of the country" and
imposes an obligation on the State to apply them in matters of legislation.[84] Thus, they
serve to emphasise the welfare state model of the Constitution and emphasise the positive
duty of the state to promote the welfare of the people by affirming social, economic and
political justice, as well as to fight income inequality and ensure inArticle 39 lays down
certain principles of policy to be followed by the State, including providing an adequate
means of livelihood for all citizens, equal pay for equal work for men and women, proper
working conditions, reduction of the concentration of wealth and means of production
from the hands of a few, and distribution of community resources to "subserve the
common good"Articles 4143 mandate the State to endeavour to secure to all citizens the
right to work, a living wage, social security, maternity relief, and a decent standard of
living.[90] These provisions aim at establishing a socialist state as envisaged in the
Preamble.Article 44 encourages the State to secure a uniform civil code for all citizens, by
eliminating discrepancies between various personal laws currently in force in the country.
However, this has remained a "dead letter" despite numerous reminders from the
Supreme Court to implement the provision.[95] Article 45 originally mandated the State to
provide free and compulsory education to children between the ages of six and fourteen
years.

History of Indian national movement:-

The Nationalist Movements in India were organized as mass movements emphasizing and
raising questions concerning the interests of the people of India. In most of these
movements, people were themselves encouraged to take action. Due to several factors, these
movements failed to win independence for India. However, they did promote a sense of
nationalism among the people of the country. The failure of these movements affected
many people as they withdrew from Government offices, schools, factories and serviceshe
Swadeshi movement encouraged the Indian people to stop using British products and start
using their own handmade products. The original Swadeshi movement emanated from the
partition of Bengal in 1905 and continued up to 1908. The Swadeshi movement which was a
part of the Indian freedom struggle was a successful economic strategy to remove the
British empire and improve economic con Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin
Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai, V. O. Chidambaram Pillai, Sri Aurobindo, Surendarnath
Banerji, Rabindranath Tagore were some of the prominent leaders of this movement. The
trio also known as LAL BAL PAL.The Swadeshi movement was the most successful.The
name of Lokmanya began spreading around and people started following him in all parts
of the country

The Dandi March

, Civil disobedience movement & Salt satyagraha

The Salt Satyagraha was started by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi on 12 March 1930
from ([Sabarmati Ashram]) to 5 April till Dandi, Gujarat where he manufactured Salt,
broke the Salt Law and started a nationwide Civil disobedience. The Salt March, also
known as the Salt Satyagraha, began on 12 March 1930 and was an important part of the
Indian independence movement. It was a direct action campaign of tax resistance and non
violent protest against the British salt monopoly in colonial India, and triggered the wider
Civil Disobedience Movement. This was the most significant organised challenge to British
authority since the Non-cooperation movement of 192022, and directly followed the Purna
Swaraj declaration of independence by the Indian National Congress on 26 January 1930

The Quit India Movement

The Quit India movement was the final of the three major nationalist movements in India.
It was started in August, 1942 by MK Gandhi. Though the Quit India Movement collapsed
within a very short time it will be a mistake to suppose that the movement was a total
failure. Firstly, movement revealed the determination of the people to undergo any amount
of suffering for the cause of the country. Secondly, the popular character of the August
Rebellion was revealed through the participation of students, working class and peasants.
In the opinion of Sumit Sarkar, it was the participation of the peasant community that
turned the movement into a mass upsurge. Thirdly, the 1942 Movement marked the end of
Indias struggle for freedom and may be regarded as an apex of the freedom struggle

Socio economics development after independence:-

Till the 1960s, the term economic development and economic growthwere used
synonymously. However, the term economic development is nolonger considered as
economic growth.Economic development is taken to mean growth plus progressive
changesin certain crucial variables which determines the well being of the people.Economic
development is much more than growth. It typically refers toimprovements in literacy
rates, life expectancy, and poverty rates.Whereas, the term economic growth refers to the
increase /growth of aspecific measure such as real national income, gross domestic
product,or per capita income. There are various indicators of economic development which
are asfollows:

literacy rates,

Poverty,

Life expectancy,

Natural resources,
Infrastructure, etc.

Diagram:-shows the line representation of literacy rate

Society:-

A society is a group of people involved in persistent social interaction, or a large social grouping
sharing the same geographical or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority
and dominant cultural expectations. Societies are characterized by patterns of relationships
(social relations) between individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions; a given
society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among its constituent members.
In the social sciences, a larger society often evinces stratification or dominance patterns in
subgroups.

Insofar as it is collaborative, a society can enable its members to benefit in ways that would not
otherwise be possible on an individual basis; both individual and social (common) benefits can
thus be distinguished, or in many cases found to overlap. A society can also consist of like-
minded people governed by their own norms and values within a dominant, larger society. This
is sometimes referred to as a subculture, a term used extensively within criminology.

Social group:-

Concept:-
In the social sciences, a social group has been defined as two or more people who interact with
one another, share similar characteristics, and collectively have a sense of unity. Other theorists
disagree however, and are wary of definitions which stress the importance of interdependence or
objective similarity.[1][2] Instead, researchers within the social identity tradition generally define
it as "a group is defined in terms of those who identify themselves as members of the group".[3]
Regardless, social groups come in a myriad of sizes and varieties. For example, a society can be
viewed as a large social group

Types:-

Societies are social groups that differ according to subsistence strategies, the ways that humans
use technology to provide needs for themselves. Although humans have established many types
of societies throughout history, anthropologists tend to classify different societies according to
the degree to which different groups within a society have unequal access to advantages such as
resources, prestige, or power. Virtually all societies have developed some degree of inequality
among their people through the process of social stratification, the division of members of a
society into levels with unequal wealth, prestige, or power. Sociologists place societies in three
broad categories: pre-industrial, industrial, and postindustrial.

Pre-industrial

In a pre-industrial society, food production, which is carried out through the use of human and
animal labor, is the main economic activity. These societies can be subdivided according to their
level of technology and their method of producing food. These subdivisions are hunting and
gathering, pastoral, horticultural, agricultural, and feuda

Industrial

Between the 15th and 16th centuries, a new economic system emerged that began to replace
feudalism. Capitalism is marked by open competition in a free market, in which the means of
production are privately owned. Europe's exploration of the Americas served as one impetus for
the development of capitalism. The introduction of foreign metals, silks, and spices stimulated
great commercial activity in European societies.

Industrial societies rely heavily on machines powered by fuels for the production of goods. This
produced further dramatic increases in efficiency. The increased efficiency of production of the
industrial revolution produced an even greater surplus than before. Now the surplus was not just
agricultural goods, but also manufactured goods. This larger surplus caused all of the changes
discussed earlier in the domestication revolution to become even more pronounced.

Post-industrial
Post-industrial societies are societies dominated by information, services, and high technology
more than the production of goods. Advanced industrial societies are now seeing a shift toward
an increase in service sectors over manufacturing and production. The United States is the first
country to have over half of its work force employed in service industries. Service industries
include government, research, education, health, sales, law, and banking.

Socialization:-concept theory

"Socialization" is a term used by sociologists, social psychologists, anthropologists, political

scientists, and educationalists to refer to the lifelong process of inheriting and disseminating
norms, customs, and ideologies, providing an individual with the skills and habits necessary for
participating within his or her own society. Socialization is thus "the means by which social and
cultural continuity are attained."

Socialization is the means by which human infants begin to acquire the skills necessary to
perform as a functioning member of their society and is the most influential learning process one
can experience. Unlike other living species, whose behavior is biologically set, humans need
social experiences to learn their culture and to survive. Although cultural variability manifests in
the actions, customs, and behaviors of whole social groups, the most fundamental expression of
culture is found at the individual level. This expression can only occur after an individual has
been socialized by his or her parents, family, extended family, and extended social networks.

The looking-glass self is a social psychological concept, created by Charles Horton Cooley in
1902, stating that a person's self grows out of society's interpersonal interactions and the
perceptions of others. The term refers to people shaping themselves based on other people's
perception, which leads people to reinforce other people's perspectives on themselves. People
shape themselves based on what other people perceive and confirm other people's opinion on
themselves.

George Herbert Mead developed a theory of social behaviorism to explain how social experience
develops an individual's personality. Mead's central concept is the self: the part of an individual's
personality composed of self-awareness and self-image. Mead claimed that the self is not there at
birth, rather, it is developed with social experience.

Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist who founded the discipline of psychoanalysis, a
clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a
psychoanalyst. In his later work, Freud proposed that the human psyche could be divided into
three parts: Id, ego, and super-ego. The id is the completely unconscious, impulsive, child-like
portion of the psyche that operates on the "pleasure principle" and is the source of basic impulses
and drives; it seeks immediate pleasure and gratification. The ego acts according to the reality
principle (i.e., it seeks to please the id's drive in realistic ways that will benefit in the long term
rather than bringing grief). Finally, the super-ego aims for perfection. It comprises that organized
part of the personality structure, mainly but not entirely unconscious that includes the
individual's ego ideals, spiritual goals, and the psychic agency that criticizes and prohibits his or
her drives, fantasies, feelings, and actions.

Social control

Social control is a concept within the disciplines of the social sciences

Sociologists identify two basic forms of social control:

1. Informal means of control Internalization of norms and values by a process known as

socialization, which is defined as "the process by which an individual, born with
behavioral potentialities of enormously wide range, is led to develop actual behavior
which is confined to the narrower range of what is acceptable for him by the group
standards."[2]
2. Formal means of social control External sanctions enforced by government to prevent
the establishment of chaos or anomie in society. Some theorists, such as mile Durkheim,
refer to this form of control as regulation.

While the concept of social control has been around since the formation of organized sociology,
the meaning has been altered over time. Originally, the concept simply referred to society's
ability to regulate itself.[7] However, in the 1930s, the term took on its more modern meaning of
an individual's conversion to conformity.[7] Social control theory began to be studied as a
separate field in the early 20th century.

The concept of social control is related to another concept, which is the notion of social order.
Social control is a thing which is identified as existing in the following areas of society:[1]

The education system

Policing and the law
Psychiatry
Social work
The welfare state
The working environment

Social issues in India

Since India's Independence in 1947, the South Asian nation has faced multiple social and
economic issues.

Overpopulation
The population of India is an estimated 1.34 billionThough India ranks second in population, it
ranks 33 in population density. Indira Gandhi,then Prime Minister of India, had implemented a
forced sterilisation programme in the early 1970s but the programme failed.[citation needed]
Officially, men with two children or more were required to be sterilised, but many unmarried
young men, political opponents and ignorant, poor men were also believed to have been affected
by this programme.

Poverty

India suffers from substantial poverty. In 2012, the Indian government stated 21.9% of its
population is below its official poverty limit.[6] The World Bank, in 2011 based on 2005's PPPs
International Comparison Program,[7] estimated 23.6% of Indian population, or about 276 million
people, lived below $1.25 per day on purchasing power parity.[8][9] According to United Nation's
Millennium Development Goal (MDG) programme 270 millions or 21.9% people out of 1.2
billion of Indians lived below poverty line of $1.25 in 2011-2012 as compare to 41.6% in 2004-
05

Sanitation

Lack of proper sanitation is a major concern for the people of India. Statistics conducted by
UNICEF have shown that only 90% of Indias population is able to utilise proper sanitation
facilities as of 2008.[15] It is estimated that one in every ten deaths in India is linked to poor
sanitation and hygiene. Diarrhea is the single largest killer and accounts for one in every twenty
deaths.[15] Around 450,000 deaths were linked to diarrhea alone in 2006, of which 88% were
deaths of children below five.[15] Studies by UNICEF have also shown that diseases resulting
from poor sanitation affects children in their cognitive development.

Corruption

Corruption is widespread in India. India is ranked 76 out of a 179 countries in Transparency

International's Corruption. In India, corruption takes the form of bribes, tax evasion, exchange
controls, embezzlement, etc.

Debt bondage

Debt bondage in India was legally abolished in 1976 but it remains prevalent, with weak
enforcement of the law by governments.[29] Bonded labour involves the exploitive interlinking of
credit and labour agreements that devolve into slave-like exploitation due to severe power
imbalances between the lender and the borrower

Poor education

Since the Indian Constitution was completed in 1949, education has remained one of the
priorities of the Indian government. The first education minister Maulana Azad founded a system
of education which aimed to provide free education at the primary level. Primary education was
made free and compulsory for children from 6-14, and child labour was banned. The government
introduced incentives to education and disincentives for not receiving education for instance,
the provision of mid-day meals in schools were introduced.

Terrorism

The regions with long term terrorist activities today are Jammu and Kashmir, Central India
(Naxalism) and Seven Sister States (independence and autonomy movements). In the past, the
Punjab insurgency led to militant activities in the Indian state of Punjab as well as the national
capital Delhi (Delhi serial blasts, anti-Sikh riots). As of 2006, at least 232 of the countrys 608
districts were afflicted, at differing intensities, by various insurgent and terrorist movements.

Fundamental of Economy:-

What does 'Fundamentals' mean

The fundamentals include the qualitative and quantitative information that contributes to the
economic well-being and the subsequent financial valuation of a company, security or currency.
Analysts and investors analyze these fundamentals to develop an estimate as to whether the
underlying asset is considered a worthwhile investment. For businesses, information such as
revenue, earnings, assets, liabilities and growth are considered some of the fundamentals.

BREAKING DOWN 'Fundamentals'

In business and economics, the fundamentals represent the basic qualities and reported
information needed to analyze the health and stability of business or asset in question. This can
include topics within both the macroeconomic and microeconomic disciplines that are
considered standards for determining the financial values attributed to the assets.

Macroeconomics and Microeconomics

Macroeconomic fundamentals include topics that affect an economy at large. This can include
statistics regarding unemployment, supply and demand, growth, and inflation, as well as
considerations for monetary or fiscal policy and international trade. These categories can be
applied to analysis of a large-scale economy as a whole or can be related to individual business
activity to make changes based on macroeconomic influences.

Microeconomic fundamentals focus on the activities within smaller segments of the economy,
such as a particular market or sector. This can include issues of supply and demand within the
specified segment, as well as the theory of firms, theory of consumers and labor issues as related
to a particular industry.

Fundamentals in Business
By looking at the economics of a business, such as the balance sheet, the income statement,
overall management and cash flow, investors are looking at a company's fundamentals, which
help determine the company's health as well as its growth prospects. A company with little debt
and a lot of cash is considered to have strong fundamentals.

IMPORTANCE OF ECONOMY:-

1. Dealing with a shortage of raw materials. Economics provides a mechanism for looking at
possible consequences as we run short of raw materials such as gas and oil. Further reading:
Effects of a world without oil

2. How to distribute resources in society. To what extent should we redistribute income in

society? Is inequality necessary to create economic incentives or does inequality create more
economic problems?

3.To what extent should the government intervene in the economy? Should the government
provide health care free at the point of use or is it more efficient to encourage private health
care? See also: To what extent should government intervene in the economy.

4. The principle of opportunity cost. Politicians win elections by promising more spending
and cutting taxes. This is because lower taxes and more spending is what voters want to hear.
However, an economist will be aware that everything has an opportunity cost. Spend more on
subsidising free university education, and it means higher taxes and lower spending elsewhere.
Giving students 4,000 a year to spend at university may be a noble ideal. But, is it the best use
of public money? Are there not better uses of money?

5. Social efficiency. The free market leads to countless examples of market failure. I feel one
of the best uses of economics is to provide solutions to overcoming market failure. For example,
driving into the centre of town creates negative externalities such as pollution and congestion.
There is overconsumption. An economist can suggest a tax on driving into towns to internalise
the externality. Of course new taxes are not popular, but, it would provide a better solution for
society. You may not want to pay 10 a week to drive into a city centre. But, if it saved you 2
hours of sitting in a jam, then maybe you would be quite happy to pay it.

6.Knowledge and understanding. One of the principle jobs for economists is to understand
what is happening in the economy and investigate reasons for poverty, unemployment and low
economic growth. For example, in a political debate such as Should UK leave the EU? There
are many emotional arguments made about immigration. Economic studies can try and
evaluation the costs and benefits of free movement of labour. Economic studies can try provide
the economic effects of immigration. This can help people make a decision about political issues.
 7. Forecasts. Economic forecasts are more difficult than understanding the current situation.
However, although forecasts are not always reliable, they can help give decision makers an idea
of possible outcomes. For example, in 2003, the UK took a decision about whether to join the
Euro. Many economists suggested the UK could struggle with a common monetary policy. The
Euro was not an optimal currency area with the UK in. This analysis was a factor in UK
government deciding not to join. In retrospect, the analysis under-estimated the costs of the Euro.
But, if it had been taken on purely political grounds, the UK may have joined.

8.Evaluation. Economics is not a definitive science like Maths. Because of many unknown
variables, it is impossible to be definitive about outcomes, but a good economist will be aware
the result depends on different variables and there are different potential outcomes. This should
help avoid an overly ideological approach. For example, a government may have the philosophy
free markets are always best, but an economist would be aware of a more nuanced view that in
some markets, like health care, transport, government intervention can overcome market failure
and improve welfare. But, at the same time, it doesnt mean state intervention is always best.

9.Behavioural theory. Why do people behave like they do? Can governments subtly nudge
people into better behaviour, e.g. banning cigarette advertising.