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Special Relativity
Conceptual Problems
1 You are standing on a corner and a friend is driving past in an
automobile. Each of you is wearing a wristwatch. Both of you note the times
when the car passes two different intersections and determine from your watch
readings the time that elapses between the two events. Have either of you
determined the proper time interval? Explain your answer.
Determine the Concept The proper time interval between two events is the time
interval between them in the reference frame in which the two events occur at the
same location. The events in question are (1) the car passes through the first
intersection, and (2) the car passes through the second intersection. In the
reference frame of the car, the car is at rest and the intersections move past it. In
this frame both events occur at the same location (the location of the car). In the
frame of the car your friends watch is at rest, so it does not run slow. Thus, your
friends watch measures the proper time between the two events.
2 In Problem 1, suppose your friend in the car measures the width of the
car door to be 90 cm. You also measure the width as he goes by you.
(a) Does either of you measures the proper width of the door? Explain your
answer. (b) How will your value for the door width compare to his? (1) Yours will
be smaller, (2) yours will be larger, (3) yours will be the same, (4) you cant
compare the widths, as the answer depends on the cars speed.
Determine the Concept The proper length of an object is the length of the object
in the rest frame of the object. The proper length of a meter stick is one meter.
(a) Because the door is at rest in the reference frame of the car, its width in that
frame is its proper width. If your friend measures this width, say by placing a
meter stick against the door, then he will measure the proper width of the door.
(b) In the reference frame in which you are at rest, the door is moving, so its
width is less than its proper width. To measure this width would be challenging.
(You could measure the width by measuring the time for the door to go by. The
width of the door is the product of the speed of the car and the time.)
Determine the Concept Yes. Let the initial frame of reference be frame 1. In
frame 1 let L be the distance between the events, let T be the time between the
events, and let the +x direction be the direction of event B relative to event A.
Next, calculate the value of L/T. If L/T is less than c, then consider the two events
1041
1042 Chapter R
Determine the Concept Yes. Let L and T be the distance and time between the
two events in reference frame 1. If L cT, then something moving at a speed
less than or equal to c could travel from the location of event A to the location of
event B in a time less than T. Thus, it is possible that event A could cause event
B. For events like these, causality demands that event A must precede event B in
all reference frames. However, if L > cT then event A cannot be the cause of
event B. For events like these, event B does precede event A in certain reference
frames.
Determine the Concept Yes. If two events occur at the same time and place in
one reference frame they occur at the same time and place in all reference frames.
(Any pair of events that occur at the same time and at the same place in one
reference frame are called a spacetime coincidence.)
Determine the Concept We will refer to the two events as event A and event B.
Assume that in the reference frame of the first observer there is a stationary clock
at the location of each event, with clock A at the location of event A and clock B
at the location of event B, and that the two clocks are synchronized. Because the
two events are simultaneous in this frame, the readings of the two clocks at the
time the events occur are the same. Also, event A and the reading of clock A at
the time of event A are a spacetime coincidence, so all observers must agree with
that clock reading. In like manner, event B and the reading of clock B at the time
of event B are a spacetime coincidence. If observer B is moving parallel with the
line joining the two clocks then the clocks readings will differ by Lv/c2 in the
reference frame of B, where L is the distance between the clocks in the reference
frame of observer A. This means that observer B will agree that the two clock
readings at the times of the events are the same, but will not agree that the events
occurred at the same time unless L = 0.
Picture the Problem We can use the expression for the total relativistic energy
of the particle to express its energy in terms of its speed and expand the radical
factor binomially to find the correct approximate expression for the total energy
when v << c.
and (a ) is correct.
8 True or false:
(a) The speed of light is the same in all reference frames.
(b) The proper time interval is the shortest time interval between two events.
(c) Absolute motion can be determined by means of length contraction.
(d) The light-year is a unit of distance.
(e) For two events to form a space-time coincidence they must occur at the same
place.
(f) If two events are not simultaneous in one frame, they cannot be simultaneous
in any other frame.
(b) True. The time between events that happen at the same place in a reference
frame is called the proper time and the time interval t measured in any other
reference frame is always longer than the proper time.
(d) True. A light-year is the distance light travels (in a vacuum) in one year.
(e) True. For two events to form a space-time coincidence, they must not only
occur at the same place but must also occur at the same location.
(f) False. The fact that two events are not simultaneous in one frame tells us
nothing about their simultaneity in any other frame.
1044 Chapter R
mc 2
Determine the Concept Because mass is converted into the kinetic energy of the
fragments, the mass of the unstable nucleus is larger than the sum of the masses of
the decay products. (a ) is correct.
negligible kinetic energy) collides with an electron traveling at the same slow
speed in the opposite direction. They undergo annihilation and two quanta of light
(photons) are formed. You are in charge of designing detectors to receive these
photons and measure their energy. (a) Explain why you would expect these two
photons to come off in exactly opposite directions. (b) In terms of the electron
mass me , how much energy would each photon have? (1) less than mc2,
(2) greater mc2, (3) exactly mc2. Explain your choice.
(b) (3) is correct. Each photon has the rest mass energy, mec2, equivalent of an
electron. Because there are two photons and they have the same momentum, they
share equally, each getting half the available initial rest energy of 2mec2.
Picture the Problem We can use the time dilation equation to relate the elapsed
time in the frame of reference of the airborne clock to the elapsed time in the
frame of reference of the clock kept on the ground.
1 1 1+
approximation 1 + x to v
2 2c
1 x 2 1
obtain: c
1046 Chapter R
there is no time dilation effect during the two-year exploration period. Take the
distance to the nearest sun to be 4.0 cy.
equation by c yields: ct = 0 = 0
v vc
15 (a) Compare the kinetic energy of a moving car to its rest energy.
(b) Compare the total energy of a moving car to its rest energy. (c) Estimate the
error made in computing the kinetic energy of a moving car using non-relativistic
expressions compared to the relativistically correct expressions. Hint: Use of the
binomial expansion may help.
Picture the Problem We can compare these energies by expressing their ratios.
Assume that the speed of the car is 30 m/s ( 67 mi/h).
=
mc 2
2 2.998 10 m/s
8
5 10 13 %
12
v2
Expand 1 2 binomially to obtain:
c
12
v2 1 v2 3 v4 1 v2 3 v4
1 2 = 1+ + + ... 1 + +
c 2 c2 8 c4 2 c2 8 c4
1
3 v2
Expanding 1 + binomially yields:
2
4c
3 v 2 ( 1)( 2) 3 v 2
1 2
3 v2 3 v2
1 +
2
= 1 + ( 1)
4 c2 +
4 c2 + ... 1 2
4c 2 4c
1
3 v2 K 3 v 2 3 v2
Substitute for 1 + in the = 1 1 =
4c
2
K rel 4 c 2 4 c2
K
expression for to obtain:
K rel
Special Relativity 1049
evaluate
K
K rel
: (
K rel 4 2.998 10 8 m/s )
2
= 7.5 10 15
Picture the Problem The pion beam enters the laboratory at a point called the
entrance port (EP). A typical pion in the beam disintegrates at a second point
called the mean disintegration location (MDL). Event A occurs when a typical
pion enters the room at EP, and event B occurs when the pion disintegrates at
MDL. (a) In the reference frame of the beam these two events occur at the same
location, so the time t0 between these two events in this frame is the proper time
between the events. We can use the time dilation formula to calculate the time t
between these events in the reference frame of the laboratory, a reference frame
that moves with speed v = 0.85c relative to the reference frame of the beam.
(b) In the reference frame of the room a typical pion travels at speed v for time
t.
17 [SSM] In the reference frame of a pion in Problem 18, how far does
the laboratory travel in 2.6 108 s?
Picture the Problem We can express the mean lifetimes of the muons in the
1 (v c ) . The
2
laboratory in terms of their proper lifetimes using t = t 0
average distance the muons will travel before they decay is related to their speed
and mean lifetime in the laboratory frame according to x = vt.
19 In the reference frame of the muon in Problem 20, how far does the
laboratory travel in 2.20 s?
Picture the Problem The measured length L of the spacecraft is related to its
( )
proper length L0 and its speed according to L = L0 1 v 2 c 2 . We can solve this
equation for v as a function of c, L, and L0.
evaluate v: (
v = 2.998 10 m/s 1
8
)
100 m
= 1.58 10 8 m/s
Picture the Problem We can use x = vt to find the time for the trip as
measured on earth and t 0 = t 1 (v c ) to find the time measured by a
2
= 88 y
Picture the Problem We can express the mean lifetime of the pion in the
1 (v c ) and solve for
2
laboratory in terms of its proper lifetime using t = t 0
v to find its speed.
2
2.6 10 8 s
( 8
)
v = 2.998 10 m/s 1 8
= 2.8 108 m/s
7.5 10 s
Picture the Problem We can find the measured length L of the meterstick using
( )
L = L0 1 v 2 c 2 and the time it takes to pass you using L = vt.
24 Recall that the half-life is the time it takes for any given amount of
unstable particles to decay to half that amount of particles. The proper half-life of
a species of charged subatomic particles called pions is 1.80 108 s (See
Problem 18 for details on pions.) . Suppose a group of these pions are produced
in an accelerator and emerge with a speed of 0.998c. How far do these particles
travel in the accelerators laboratory before half of them have decayed?
Picture the Problem We can express the distance the pions will travel in the
laboratory using x = vt and find their half-life in the accelerator laboratory
1 (v c ) .
2
using t = t 0
25 [SSM] Your friend, who is the same age as you, travels to the star
Alpha Centauri, which is 4.0 light-years away, and returns immediately. He
claims that the entire trip took just 6.0 y. What was his speed? Ignore any
accelerations of your friends spaceship and assume the spaceship traveled at the
same speed during the entire trip.
Special Relativity 1055
Picture the Problem To calculate the speed in the reference frame of the friend,
who is named Ed, we consider each leg of the trip separately. Consider an
imaginary stick extending from Earth to Alpha Centauri that is at rest relative to
Earth. In Eds frame the length of the stick, and thus the distance between Earth
and Alpha Centauri, is shortened in accord with the length contraction formula.
As three years pass on Eds watch Alpha Centauri travels at speed v from its
initial location to him.
Ed moving
Ed at rest
Picture the Problem We can use the relationship between the measured length L
of the spaceships and their proper lengths L0 to find the lengths of the two
spaceships as measured by a passenger in ship B.
1
c
1
c
Picture the Problem We can use the relationship between the measured length L
of the jet and its proper length to express the fractional change in the length of the
Special Relativity 1057
jet traveling at its maximum speed. In Part (b) we can express the elapsed time on
the pilots clock t0 in terms of the elapsed time t on your clock.
Relate L to L0: v L
2
v
2
L = L0 1 = 1
c L0 c
1
v2 v2 2 1 v2 3 v4
Expand 1 2 binomially to 1 2 = 1 + + ...
c c 2 c2 8 c4
obtain:
1 v2
1
2 c2
1
(b) Express the elapsed time on the v2 2 1 v2
pilots clock t0 in terms of the t 0 = 1 2 t t 1
2
c 2 c
elapsed time t on your clock: 2
1v
= t t
2 c2
where the second term represents the
time lost on the pilots clock.
Substitute numerical values and evaluate the elapsed time on the pilots clock
in 1 y = 3.15 107 s:
1 v2 1 (3.00 10 6 c )2
t 0 = 1 t = 1 (3.15 10 7 s ) = 1.00 y
2 2
2c 2 c
1058 Chapter R
1 (3.00 10 6 c )
2
Substitute numerical values and
evaluate the time lost on the pilots
1 v2
2c 2
t =
2 c 2
(3.15 10 7 s )
clock in 1 y = 3.15 107 s:
= 142 s
Picture the Problem We can use the given probability function to find the
probability of the muons survival from both the point of view of an Earth
observer and the muon. To do so, well need to use the time-dilation relationship
in (a) and the length-contraction relationship in (b).
evaluate t: t = = 5.419 s
(
(0.980) 2.998 108 m/s )
Substituting numerical values in
5.419 s
2.20 s
equation (1) yields: P = 1 e = 91.5%
a result that agrees, to three significant
figures, with the result obtained in (a).
v = 0.800c v = 0.800c
Houston x 1 = 50.0 AU x2 = x1 + x
t1 t 2 = t1 + t spaceship
Spaceship position Spaceship position
message is sent when correction is sent
1
t between messages = (0.800 ) (15 min ) = 20 min
1 (0.800 )
2
Picture the Problem The proper distance L0 between the flashbulb and clock A is
50.0 cmin and is related to the distance L measured by Jamal according to
L = L0 1 (v c ) . Because clock A and the flashbulb are at rest relative to each
2
other, we can find the distance between them using the same relationship with
L0 = 50.0 cmin.
L = L0 1
c
31 According to Jamal, how long does it take the flash to travel to clock
A, and what does clock C read as the flash reaches clock A?
Picture the Problem As the light pulse from the flashbulb travels toward clock A
with speed c, clock A travels toward clock C with speed 0.600c. The sum of the
distances traveled by the flash and clock A must equal the distance separating
them as seen in Jamals frame of reference.
L = L0 1
c
t= 1
3.200c c
evaluate t: t= 1
3.200c c
= 12.5 min
1062 Chapter R
32 Show that clock C reads 100 min as the light flash reaches clock B,
which is traveling away from clock C with speed 0.600c.
Picture the Problem As the light flash from the flashbulb travels toward clock B
with speed c, clock B travels away from clock C with speed 0.600c. The
difference between these distances must equal the distance between clock B and
the flashbulb as seen in Jamals frame of reference.
t= 1
0.800c c
evaluate t: t= 1
0.800c c
= 100 min
Picture the Problem We can find the elapsed time on the clock at A (the proper
time) from the elapsed time on the clock at B using t 0 = t 1 (v c ) .
2
Special Relativity 1063
Picture the Problem We can compare the time calculated in Problem 35 with
L0v/c2 by evaluating their ratio.
t 1
c
L0 v
=
2
v
c t 1
2
c 2 (75 min ) 1
c
evaluate v: 1.50 km
(
= 1.20 10 8 m/s ) c
2.998 10 m/s
8
= 0.400c
evaluate v: 1.50 km
= 1.20 108 m/s = 0.400c
Picture the Problem Let both explosions occur at the front end of the train
where there is a clock fastened to the train. In the reference frame of the train,
both explosions occur at the same place. The clock is stationary in this frame, so
it does not run slow. Thus, in this frame the amount the clock reading advances is
also the time T0 between the two events. In the reference frame of the platform
the clock (and the train) moves with speed v = L/T, where L = x2 x1 and
T = 5.00 s. In this frame the clock is moving so it runs slow, advancing by
( )
only T 1 v 2 c 2 during time T. All observers must agree with both the clock
reading when the first explosion occurs (a spacetime coincidence), and with the
clock reading when the second firecracker goes off (also a spacetime
coincidence). Thus, all observers agree with the amount the clock reading
changes by in the interval between the two events.
Special Relativity 1065
2
1200 m 480 m
T0 = (5.00 s ) 1 = 4.39 s
(2.998 10 m/s )(5.00 10 s )
8 6
37 Herb and Randy are twin jazz musicians who perform as a trombone
saxophone duo. At the age of twenty, however, Randy got an irresistible offer to
perform on a star 15 light-years away. To celebrate his good fortune, he bought a
new vehicle for the tripa deluxe space-coupe that travels at 0.99c. Each of the
twins promises to practice diligently, so they can reunite afterward. However,
Randys gig goes so well that he stays for a full 10 years before returning to
Herb. After their reunion, (a) how many years of practice will Randy have had;
(b) how many years of practice will Herb have had?
Picture the Problem Randys clocks, including his biological clocks, are always
at rest in Randys reference frame, so they advance at the same rate that time
advances in Randys frame. The same is true for Herb and the clocks in his
reference frame. Think of a long imaginary stick, at rest relative to the Earth,
with one end at the Earth and the other at the Star. The rest length of this stick is
15 cy. The time Randy has to practice is the time for the trip in Randys
reference frame, and the time Herb has to practice is the time for Randys trip in
Herbs reference frame.
Randy moving
1066 Chapter R
While Randy is at the Star the two (a) The time for the trip in Randys
reference frames are at rest relative frame is 10 y + 2(0.671 y ) = 11 y .
to each other. Thus, the time that
Randy is at the star is the same in
both frames. The calculations for the (b) The time for the trip in Herbs
return trip give the same result as for frame is 10 y + 2(15.015 y ) = 40 y .
the outgoing trip.
Picture the Problem (a) In Berts reference frame each successive signal from Al
travels an additional distance equal to vT, where v is Als speed and T is the
interval between successive signals in Als reference frame. We also need to take
into account the dilation of the time intervals measured on Earth due to Als
motion. In Parts (b) and (c) we can use N = f 0 tAl and t Al = t Bert 1 v 2 c 2 to
find the number of signals received by Bert. In Parts (d) and (e) we can proceed
similarly to find the number of signals received by Al and the total number he
receives before he returns to Bert. Finally, we can use the number of signals each
received to find the difference in their ages resulting from Als trip.
2 2
v v
Because t Al = t Bert 1 , TAl = 2t Al = 2t Bert 1
c c
the time in Als frame for the
round trip TAl is given by:
evaluate N: ( ) 0.600c
N = 2 100 y 1 (6.667 y ) 1
c
= 1.07 10 3
Special Relativity 1069
evaluate N: (
N = 50.0 y 1
)
(6.667 y ) 1 0.600c
c
= 267
Picture the Problem We can use Equation R-15 to find the ratio of the total
energy to the rest energy for the given particle.
c2
c2
40 A proton (rest energy 938 MeV) has a total energy of 1400 MeV.
(a) What is its speed? (b) What is its momentum?
Picture the Problem The rest energy E0 is equal to mc2. We are given E0 and E,
where E0 = 938 MeV and the total energy E = 1400 MeV. (The total energy is the
rest energy plus the kinetic energy). We can find the momentum p of the proton
using E2 = p 2 c 2 + m2 c 4 (Equation R-17), and once we have p we can solve for the
speed v using v/c = pc/E (Equation R-16).
Picture the Problem We can use Equation R-14 to find the energy required to
accelerate this particle from rest to the given speeds.
1
= 1mc 2
1 (v c )
2
1072 Chapter R
Picture the Problem We can use Equations R-10 and R-14 to express the error
made in using p = mv for the momentum of the particle when K = E0.
1
= 1mc 2
1 (v c )
2
For K = E0: 1
K= 1 K
1 (v c )
2
or
1
=2
1 (v c )
2
Special Relativity 1073
Picture the Problem We can use Equation R-17 to find the total energy of any
proton whose momentum is given. See Problem 42 for the rest energy of a proton.
E 2 = p 2c 2 + (mc 2 )
2
The total energy, momentum, and
rest energy of the proton are related
by Equation R-17:
proton:
= 9m 2c 4 + m 2c 4 = 10m 2 c 4
Picture the Problem We can create a spreadsheet program to plot both the
classical and relativistic kinetic energy of the particle.
1074 Chapter R
C7 $B$3*(1/((1A7^2)^0.5)1)
1
mc 2 1
1 (v c )2
A B C
1
2
3 mc2= 100 MeV
4
5
1 mc 2
2
mv 2 1 (v c )
1
v/c 2
6 Kclassical Krelativistic
7 0.00 0.00 0.00
8 0.05 0.13 0.13
9 0.10 0.50 0.50
10 0.15 1.13 1.14
The solid curve is the graph of the relativistic kinetic energy. The relativistic
formula, represented by the continuous curve, begins to deviate from the classical
curve around v/c 0.4.
Special Relativity 1075
250
200
Kclassical
Krelativistic
150
E (MeV)
100
50
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
v /c
45 [SSM] (a) Show that the speed v of a particle of mass m and total
v (mc 2 )
2 12
2 v
mc , this can be approximated by 1
mc 2 ( ) 2
Picture the Problem We can solve the equation for the relativistic energy of a
particle to obtain the first result and then use the binomial expansion subject to
E >> mc2 to obtain the second result. In parts (b) and (c) we can use the first
expression obtained in (a), with E = E0 + K, to find the speeds of electrons with
the given kinetic energies. See Table 39-1 for the rest energy of an electron.
v
= 1
(mc 2 ) = 1 1 (mc 2 ) + higher - order terms
2 2
c E2 2 E2
1076 Chapter R
E2
Because E = E0 + K: E02 1
v = c 1 = c 1
(E0 + K )2
K
2
1 +
E0
1 +
0.511MeV
= 0.866c
1 +
0.511MeV
= 0.999c
46 Use the binomial expansion and Equation R-17 to show that when
pc << mc , the total energy is given approximately by E mc2 + p2/(2m).
2
Picture the Problem We can solve Equation R-17 for E and factor mc 2 from ( ) 2
under the resulting radical to obtain an expression to which we can apply the
binomial expansion to write the radical expression as a power series. Finally, we
can invoke the condition that pc << mc2 to complete the argument that the total
energy is given approximately by E mc 2 + p 2 (2m ) .
( ) 2
Factor mc 2 under the radical and simplify to obtain:
p 2c 2
E= (mc )2 2
+ 1 = mc
2 p 2c 2
+ 1 = mc 2
1+
p2
( )
mc
2 2
(mc )
2 2
mc 2
Special Relativity 1077
12
p2 1 p2
1 + 2 2 = 1+ + higher - order terms
m c 2 m 2c 2
12
p2 1 p2 p2
Substituting for 1 + 2 2 and E = mc 1 +
2
= mc +
2 2
2
m c 2m c 2m
simplifying yields:
Picture the Problem We can solve Equation R-16 for v and substitute in
Equation R-10 to eliminate v. Simplification of the resulting expression leads
to E 2 = p 2 c 2 + (mc 2 ) .
2
1
( pc 2
E ) 2
c2
or
mc 2
1=
p 2c 2
E 1 2
E
48 The rest energy of a proton is about 938 MeV. If its kinetic energy is
also 938 MeV, find (a) its momentum and (b) its speed.
Picture the Problem (a) We can solve the relation for total energy, momentum,
and rest energy of the proton for its momentum and evaluate this expression for
K = E0. In Part (b) we can start with the expression for the relativistic energy of
the proton, solve for u, and evaluate the resulting expression for K = E0.
E 2 = p 2c 2 + (mc 2 )
2
(a) Relate the total energy,
momentum, and rest energy of a
proton:
Because E = E0 + K: E02
v = c 1
(E0 + K )2
Special Relativity 1079
Picture the Problem We can use the expressions for the classical and relativistic
kinetic energies of a particle to obtain a general expression for the fractional error
made in using 12 mv 2 for the kinetic energy of a particle as a function of its speed.
1
= 1mc 2
1 (v c )
2
K
Substitute for Krel in the expression for and simplify to obtain:
K rel
2
K 1
2 mv v2
= 1 = 1
K rel 1 1
1mc 2 2 1 c 2
1 (v c ) 1 (v c )
2 2
f (0.10c ) = 1
(0.10c )2
1
2 1 c 2
1 (0.10 )2
= 0.75%
1080 Chapter R
f (0.90c ) = 1
(0.90c )2
1
2 1 c 2
1 (0.90 )2
= 0.69%
General Problems
50 A spaceship departs from Earth for the star Alpha Centauri, which is
4.0 cy away in the reference frame of Earth. The spaceship travels at 0.75c. How
long does it take to get there (a) as measured on Earth and (b) as measured by a
passenger on the spaceship?
Picture the Problem We can find the duration of the trip, as measured on earth,
using the definition of average speed; that is, t = L/v. The elapsed time measured
by the passenger is the proper time and is related to t through the time dilation
equation (Equation R-3).
51 The total energy of a particle is three times its rest energy. (a) Find v/c
for the particle. (b) Show that its momentum is given by p = 8mc .
Picture the Problem (a) We can solve the expression for the relativistic energy
of the particle for v/c and evaluate this expression for E = 3E0. In Part (b) we can
solve the expression relating the total energy, momentum, and rest energy of the
particle for p and evaluate it for E = 3E0 to show that its momentum is given by
Special Relativity 1081
p= 3 mc.
For E = 3E0: v E2
= 1 0 2 = 0.889 = 0.943
c 9 E0
x0 = 0 x1 x2 = x
t0 = 0 t1 = t delay t2 = t
Houston Spaceship position Spaceship position
when signal is sent when signal is received
t delay
v(t delay + t ) = ct t =
Equate these expressions to
obtain: c
1
v
Substitute numerical values and 5.0 min
t = = 11.667 min
evaluate t: c
1
0.70c
= 12 min
(b) Express the total time from the t tot = t to ship + t return 5.0 min (2)
sending of the original message
(5.0 min after the closest passage) to
the receipt of the return message:
(
)
x to ship = vt to ship = 0.70ct to ship = (0.70 ) 2.998 108 m/s 18.668 min
60 s
min
= 2.3511011 m
Picture the Problem Your fellow student is thinking that the time dilation factor
might allow muons to travel the 150,000,000,000 m from the Sun to the Earth.
You can discredit your classmates assertion by considering the mean lifetime of
the muon from the Earths reference frame. Doing so will demonstrate that the
distance traveled during as many as 5 proper mean lifetimes is consistent with the
origination of muons within the Earths atmosphere.
The distance, in the earth frame of reference, a muon can travel in n mean
lifetimes is given by:
d0 nv n(v c )c
d =n = =
1 (v c ) 1 (v c ) 1 (v c )
2 2 2
d =n
(0.99995)(2.998 108 m/s)(2.20 s ) = (66.0 km )n
1 (0.99995)
2
In 100 lifetimes, d 6600 km, or approximately one Earth radius. This relatively
short distance should convince your classmate that the origin of the muons that
are observed on Earth is within our atmosphere and that they certainly are not
from the Sun.
Picture the Problem Apply the length contraction equation to find the height of
Mount Everest in the frame of reference traveling with the muon and use the
relationship between the distance an object travels, its speed, and the elapsed time
to solve Parts (b) and (c).
evaluate h:
= 1.2 km
55 A gold nucleus has a radius of 3.00 1014 m, and a mass of 197 amu.
(1 amu has a rest energy of 932 MeV.) During experiments at Brookhaven
National Laboratory, these nuclei are routinely accelerated to a kinetic energy of
3.35 104 GeV. (a) How much less than the speed of light are they traveling?
(b) At these energies, how long does it take them to travel 100 m in the laboratory
frame?
Picture the Problem We can apply Equation R-15, the expression for the total
relativistic energy of a particle, to find how much less than the speed of light the
gold nuclei are traveling. The time it takes the nuclei to travel 100 m in the
laboratory frame can be found using the distance, rate, and time equation. Finally,
we can use the length-contraction equation to find the diameter of a gold nucleus,
in the direction of travel, in the laboratory frame of reference.
1 (v c ) = K 2
2
(2)
mc
1+
K
mc 2 2 2 1 mc 2
2
1 1
K 2 K
and
1 mc 2 2
v = c 1
2 K
2
1 197 amu 932 MeV/amu
v =
2 3.35 10 GeV
4
(
2.998 10 m/s = 4.50 km/s
8
)
for the total relativistic energy of a particle, to find the speed of 1.00 MeV
neutrons. We can use the equation relating distance, rate, and time to estimate
their maximum beam length. Finally, we can use the non-relativistic expression
for their kinetic energy to find the range of thermally moderated neutrons.
v 1
= 1
c 1+ K
mc 2
evaluate v/c: v 1
= 1 = 4.61%
c 1 + 1.00 MeV
939 MeV
(
)
x = (5)(0.0461) 2.998 108 m/s 15.0 min
60 s
min
= 6.22 10 m
10
2(0.025 eV )
x thermally moderated =5
939 MeV
( )
2.998 10 8 m/s (15.0 min ) = 9.84 10 6 m
57 You and Ernie are trying to fit a 15-ft-long ladder into a 10-ft-long
shed with doors at each end. You suggest to Ernie that you open the front door to
the shed and have him run toward it with the ladder at a speed such that the
length contraction of the ladder shortens it enough so that it fits in the shed. As
soon as the back end of the ladder passes through the door, you will slam it shut.
(a) What is the minimum speed at which Ernie must run to fit the ladder into the
shed? Express it as a fraction of the speed of light. (b) As Ernie runs toward the
shed at a speed of 0.866c, he realizes that in the reference frame of the ladder, it
is the shed which is shorter, not the ladder. How long is the shed in the rest frame
of the ladder? (c) In the reference frame of the ladder is there any instant that
both ends of the ladder are simultaneously inside the shed? Examine this from
the point of view of relativistic simultaneity.
Picture the Problem Let the letter L denote the ladder and the letter S the
shed. We can apply the length contraction equation to the determination of the
minimum speed at which Ernie must run to fit the ladder into the shed as well as
the length of the shed in rest frame of the ladder.
(c) No. In your rest frame, the back end of the ladder will clear the door before the
front end hits the wall of the shed, while in Ernies rest frame, the front end will
Special Relativity 1089
hit the wall of the shed while the back end has yet to clear the door.
Let the ladder be traveling from left to right. To explain the simultaneity issue
we first describe the situation in the reference frame of the shed. In this frame the
ladder has length LL = 7.5 m and the shed has length LS,0 = 10 m. We (mentally)
put a clock at each end of the shed. Let both clocks read zero at the instant the
left end of the ladder enters the shed. At this instant the right end of the ladder is
a distance LS, 0 LL = 2.5 m from the right end of the shed. At the instant the
right end of the ladder exits the shed both clocks read t, where
t = (LS,0 LL ) v = 9.63 ns . There are two space-time coincidences to consider:
the left end of the ladder enters the shed and the clock at the left end of the shed
reads zero, and the right end of the ladder exits the shed and the clock on the right
end of the shed reads (LS,0 LL ) v = 9.63 ns . In the reference frame of the ladder
the two clocks are moving to the left at speed v = 0.866c. In this frame the clock
on the right (the trailing clock) is ahead of the clock on the left by
vLS,0 c 2 = 28.9 ns, so when the clock on the right reads 9.63 ns the one on the left
reads 19.3 ns. This means the left end of the ladder is yet to enter the shed when
the right end of the ladder is exiting the shed. This is consistent with the assertion
that in the rest frame of the ladder, the ladder is longer than the shed, so the entire
ladder is never entirely inside the shed.
1090 Chapter R