The Evolution of Modern Spaceflight

Angela Olinger

5/5/17

MEEN 381 Section 502

On my honor, as an Aggie, I have neither given nor received unauthorized aid on this academic

work

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 Rockets have been around in some form or fashion for many years. They were first used

on a large scale for military operations, before being turned towards space exploration during the

Space Race. All rockets work on the same guiding principle; combusting fuel and expelling the

hot gasses to provide thrust. However, the design of rockets for space exploration has changed

greatly over the years, and continues to evolve as the space industry pushes towards deep space

exploration.

All rockets utilize the combustion process to propel themselves forward by expelling the

products of combustion. Most large rockets use liquid fuel, typically kerosene or liquid hydrogen

combined with liquid oxygen, sometimes combined with solid rocket boosters. When the fuel

combusts, the hot gasses produced try to expand, increasing the pressure inside the combustion

chamber. This increased pressure forces the gasses out through a nozzle, which directs the flow

in the correct direction. This produces thrust, as shown in figure 1, which is caused by both the

change in momentum due to the mass flow rate, and the pressure difference on either side of the

nozzle.

Figure 1: Liquid Rocket Engine Design [1]

 The first known use of rocket propulsion occurred sometime between 428 and 347 BC

when the Greek astronomer and mathematician Archytas flew a bird shaped device propelled by

a jet of steam [2]. Since then small rockets were used throughout history to propel arrows and

other weaponry [2]. Rockets as we know them today took off in the early 20th century. In 1926

the first successful test of a liquid rocket engine was conducted by Robert Goddard, and by the

late 1930s, near the end of WWII, Werner von Braun and his German team had developed the

V2 with a range of 200 miles [2]. Post WWII, the US and the Soviet Union engaged in the space

race, with the USSR achieving manned orbit first, with Yuri Gragarin aboard the Vostok 1,

followed by John Glenn of the US in 1962 [2]. The Space Race finally came to a close following

the Apollo program, flown to space by the Saturn V, the largest and highest capacity rocket ever

built, ended as it became clear the Soviet Union could no longer keep up with US spending on

their space program. The Space Shuttle first flew in 1981, before the program ended in 2011,

providing a reusable method of sending astronauts and cargo to space and to the International

Space Station (ISS) [2].

While NASA does not have a rocket capable of sending crew to the ISS currently in

operation, international and commercial entities have stepped up to fill that void. The only rocket

currently capable of sending humans to space is Russias Soyuz. The Soyuz is capable of

carrying a payload of 7.2 metric tons (7200 kg) to low earth orbit (LEO) in its crew-carrying

configuration [3]. The Soyuz uses kerosene as fuel with liquid oxygen as its oxidizer [3].

The United Launch Alliance (ULA) also provides LEO launch services, both for

commercial satellites, and for cargo mission to the ISS. ULA uses the Atlas V, Delta II, and

Delta V series of rockets. Unlike the Soyuz, none of ULAs rockets are capable of manned flight;

however, both the Atlas and Delta IV rockets are capable of carrying more mass than the Soyuz.
The Atlas V has been in use since 2002, and is the primary ULA rocket used for commercial

resupply services to the ISS [4]. The Atlas uses liquid oxygen and kerosene for its first stage,

producing 860,000 pounds of thrust, and liquid oxygen with liquid oxygen for the second stage

[4]. The Atlas also utilizes solid rocket boosters depending on the configuration and can carry up

to 18.85 metric tons of cargo to LEO. The larger Delta IV is capable of carrying cargos of up to

28.37 metric tons and uses a configuration of 3, liquid hydrogen powered, main engines in its

largest configuration [5].

SpaceX also provides resupply missions to the ISS, and unlike ULAs Cygnus, SpaceXs

Dragon cargo craft can be safely used to return science samples and other cargo to ground from

the ISS. SpaceXs Falcon 9 has a first stage consisting of 9 engines capable of a combined

1,710,000 pounds of thrust using kerosene, and a second stage producing 210,000 pounds of

thrust [6]. This makes the Falcon 9 significantly more powerful than even the most powerful

configuration of the Delta IV, although its maximum payload to LEO is 22.8 metric tons [6]. The

Falcon 9 is especially unique in that its first stage can be landed and reused for future launches,

eventually making spaceflight cheaper.

While current technology is certainly enough for current space research needs, the space

industry is currently designing towards the goal of eventually sending humans to Mars. SpaceXs

answer to the challenge of sending humans and large payloads to Mars is the Falcon Heavy. It

has yet to launch, but is designed to be capable of sending 54.4 metric tons to LEO, or 13.6

metric tons to Mars [7]. It is essentially a Falcon 9 with two liquid kerosene boosters with their

own 9 engine configurations attached, combining to provide 5.1 million pounds of thrust for the

first stage [7]. All three of the first stage components are designed to be landed and reused,

making a potential future Mars mission that much more affordable.

 NASA has its own solution to a future Mars mission: the Space Launch System

(SLS). The SLS, when completed, will use a core stage consisting of two RS-25 engines, plus

two additional liquid or solid rocket boosters [8]. At its largest configuration, SLS will produce

9.2 million pounds of thrust and be capable of lifting an unprecedented 130 metric tons [8]. SLS

was designed to be capable of sending both crew and cargo to Mars, and on other future deep

space missions. As shown in figure 2, the SLS block 2 will overtake the Saturn V as the largest

and most powerful rocket ever built.

Figure 2: Size Comparison of Historical and Planned Launch Vehicles [9]

Rockets have evolved significantly since their inception, but they all still work on the

same guiding principle. As the goals of space exploration have changed, so too have the vehicles

for that exploration. As the space industry pushes towards more and more challenging missions,

the rockets that allow them to put humans and payloads into space must also evolve.
References

[1] NASA Glenn Research Center, "Liquid Rocket Engine," 5 May 2015. [Online]. Available:
https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/lrockth.html. [Accessed 4 April 2017].

[2] NASA, "A Pictoral History of Rockets," [Online]. Available:

https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/153410main_Rockets_History.pdf. [Accessed 4 April 2017].

[3] Space Launch Report, "R-7/Soyuz Data Sheet," 22 February 2017. [Online]. Available:
http://www.spacelaunchreport.com/soyuz.html. [Accessed 4 April 2017].

[4] ULA, "Atlas V," 2016. [Online]. Available: http://www.ulalaunch.com/Products_AtlasV.aspx.

[Accessed 4 April 2017].

[5] ULA, "Delta IV," 2016. [Online]. Available: http://www.ulalaunch.com/Products_DeltaIV.aspx.

[Accessed 4 April 2017].

[6] SpaceX, "Falcon 9," 2017. [Online]. Available: http://www.spacex.com/falcon9. [Accessed 4 April
2017].

[7] SpaceX, "Falcon Heavy," 2017. [Online]. Available: http://www.spacex.com/falcon-heavy. [Accessed

4 April 2017].

[8] NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, "Space Launch System," 2016. [Online]. Available:
https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/sls_october_2015_fact_sheet.pdf. [Accessed
4 April 2017].

[9] [Online]. Available: http://i.imgur.com/PpSHtdY.png. [Accessed 4 April 2017].